r a r *
A*:. V/
^ m " 6- f H0
/ .!•
<vON V >
'r <-
't-,
Airttfc'
£fl.n
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.
CncpclopatiHa Britanntca:
OR, A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE;
ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.
THE SIXTH EDITION.
jillustrntrt tottfi ntarlp Gir Ium5 rra (Engrabtnas,
VOL. X.
INDOCTI DISCANT; ANIENT MEMINISSE PERITI.
EDINBURGH:
PRINTED FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY;
AND HURST, ROBINSON, AND COMPANY, 90, CHEAPSIDE,
LONDON.
1823.
y
15 APS
1966^
-
4
Encyclopedia Britannica.
GOT
Gothofred, OTHOFRED, or Godfrey, Denis or Diony-
GoUen- SIUS> an emJnent civil lawyer, born of an illustrious
bouse at Paris in 1549. Finding bis country invol¬
ved in the confusion of the leaguers, he accepted of a
professor’s chair at Geneva, until he was patronized
and employed by Henry IV.; but being afterwards
stripped of his employments as a Huguenot, he at
length retired to Heidelburg, from whence no offers
were able to detach him. He was, however, disap¬
pointed of his intention to end his days there ; for the
disturbances that broke out in the Palatinate obliged
him, in 1621, to take refuge in Strasburg, where he
died the following year. He wrote a great number of
books; but his principal work is the Corpus Juris Ci-
vilis, cum notis.
Gothofred, Theodore, son of the former, was
born at Geneva in 1580. As soon as he had .finished
his studies, he went to Paris ; where he conformed to
the Romish religion, and applied with indefatigable in¬
dustry to the study of history, that of France particu¬
larly, wherein he became very eminent, as appears by
his works. In 1632, the king made him one of his
historiographers, with a stipend of 3000 livres ; and, in
1636, he was sent to Cologne, to assist at the treaty of
peace negociating there on the part of France, by the
cardinal of Lyons. This treaty being removed to
Munster, Gothofred was sent thither, where he drew
up Memoirs on the subject; and continued in that city,
in the king’s service, to his death in 1649. Princi“
pal work is his “ Account of the Ceremonial of the
kings of France.”
GOTTENBURG, or Gotheburg, a rich and strong
town of West Gothland, in Sweden, with a good har¬
bour, at the mouth of the river Gothelba ; which is the
best situated for foreign trade of any in Sweden, as it
lies without the Sound. It occupies the site of an an¬
cient town, named Lodese, which was built by Gustavus
Vasa ; and being endowed with considerable privileges,
soon became the great emporium for the trade of the
western provinces. Charles IX. when duke of Goth¬
land, having in 1604 laid the foundations of a new town
in the island of Hisingen, at no great distance from Lo-
dese, called Gotheborg (since corrupted into Gotten-
burg'), in honour of his duchy ; upon his accession to the
throne, he erected in his new town a trading company ;
drew thither many foreigners, particularly the Dutch, to
whom he allowed an exemption from all duties of export
and import during 20 years; a corps of English and
Vol. X. Part I. f
GOT
Scots troops under the command of William Stewart; Cotten-
and granted to the Calvinists established therein the free Q0^tUjng’en<
exercise of their religion, the first place in Sweden where
this toleration was permitted. Ihe town being in 1611
reduced to ashes by the Danes, was rebuilt in the reign
of Gustavus Adolphus in its present situation, and ob¬
tained a confirmation of its ancient rights, with the
grant of several additional privileges.—It is built in a
very sigular situation. At a small distance from the
sea is a marshy plain, scarcely more than half a mile
in breadth, watered by the rivers Gotha and Moldal,
and almost entirely enclosed with high ridges of rocks,
so bare and rugged, that they scarcely produce a single
blade of grass, and exhibit as barren an appearance as
the summits of the loftiest Alps. Gottenburg stands
partly upon the ridges, and partly in the plain ; and
is divided from these different situations into the Up¬
per and Lower Town. The latter is entirely level, in- ,
tersected by several canals in the manner of the Dutch
towns; and its houses are all constructed upon piles ;
the upper part hangs on the declivities ; and rows of
buildings rise one above the other like the seats of an am¬
phitheatre. The whole is regularly fortified ; and its cir¬
cumference is near three miles, exclusive of the suburbs,
called Haga, which lie toward the harbour. The
streets are all uniformly straight: a few of the houses
are of brick ; but the generality are constructed with
wood painted red. The harbour is formed by two
chains of rocks, and is about a quarter of a mile in
breadth. Its entrance is defended by the fort of Newr
Elfsborg, which stands upon a small rocky island, and
contains a garrison of 250 men. There is at Gotten¬
burg a Royal Society of Sciences and Literature, upon
the plan of that of Upsala.—Mr Coxe was informed by
a merchant who had resided 22 years at Gottenburg,
that, during that period, its population had increased
considerably, and that it now contained about 30,000
inhabitants. This flourishing state is attributed to the
extension of its commerce, particularly its East India
Company, and the success of the herring-fishery. An
English consul and several merchants of our nation
reside at Gottenburg: and a chapel, with a regular
chaplain, is appropriated to their use. E. Long. II.
44. N. Lat. 57. 40.
GOTTINGEN, a considerable town of Lower
Saxony in Germany, and in the duchy of Brunswick ;
formerly free and imperial, but afterwards subject to the
elector of Hanover. Here his late majesty George II,
A founded
/
G O IT [2
founded an university. It is seated on the river Leine,
in E. Long. g. 55. N. Lat. 51. 32.
GOTTORP, a town of the duchy of Sleswick, in
Denmark, and capital of the duchy of Holstein Got-
torp, where the duke has a very fine palace.
GOUANIA, in Botany, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the polygamia class. See Botany Index.
GOUDA, or TurgoW, a considerable town of
South Holland, in the United Provinces, remarkable
for its stately church. It is seated on the river Issel,
in E. Long. 4. 36. N. Lat. 52. I.
CQUDT, Henry, usually called Count Goudt, was
born of a noble family at Utrecht, in ijyo ; and was
a knight of the Palatinate. Being passionately fond of
the arts, particularly painting and engraving, and de¬
sirous of engaging in them, he applied himsell diligent¬
ly to drawing, and made a great proficiency therein.
He went tdf Rome to examine the works of the great
masters in that city. Here he contracted an intimacy
with that excellent artist Adam Elsheimer $ studied
his manner of penciling, designing, and colouring ;
and made his. works models for his own imitation.
He pre-engaged all the pictures that his friend and
favourite could finish, and even paid liberally for
them before-hand ; by which means he found himself
in possession of a most desirable treasure. Those pic¬
tures which Goudt himself painted were neatly and de¬
licately touched, in colour and pencil resembling El¬
sheimer, though they were in no degree equal to the
paintings of that admirable master. On bis return to
his native country, a young woman, who was in love
with him, and desirous of fixing bis affections upon
her, gave him in his drink a love philtre : which, how¬
ever, terminated in a very melancholy manner, by de¬
priving him totally of his senses; and in the dreadful
state of idiotism he dragged on a miserable life to the
age of 66, his death happening in 1636. It is re¬
markable, that though lost to every other subject, when
painting was spoken of he would discourse upon it in a
very rational manner.
Goudt practised engraving as Well as painting, and
made seven beautiful prints after the pictures of Elshei¬
mer, which are well known to the curious, and are to
be met. with in most choice collections. He worked
with the graver only, in a very neat style ; and produ¬
ced a most powerful effect, not by strengthening the
strokes, according to the usual method, hut by crossing
them with additional strokes, equally neat, and that
five or six times, one over another, in the deep shadows.
Considering the precision with which he executed his
engravings, the freedom of handling the graver which
may he discovered in them is very astonishing. The
weeds and other parts of the fore-ground in that ad¬
mirable print of the Ceres, are very finely expressed.
The heads of the figures are correctly drawn, and the
other extremities are managed in a judicious manner.
The seven prints done by him from Elsheimer, men¬
tioned above, are, 1. Ceres drinking from a pitcher.
An old woman appears holding a candle at the door of
the cottage, and a boy naked standing by her is laugh¬
ing and pointing at the goddess ; for which contempt
he was metamorphosed by her into a frog. The power¬
ful and striking effect of this engraving cannot he pro¬
perly described. This print is distinguished also by the
same of the sorcery. 2. The flight into Egypt : A
1 . .
night-scene, in which the moon and stars are introdu- Condt
ced with great success. 3. The angel with Tobit, who Q
is drawing a fish by his side. The back-ground is a Gourgue?
landscape ; the weeds in the fore-ground, and the '
branches of the trees in front, as well as the foliage
and weeds hanging from them, are beautifully expres¬
sed. 4. The angel with Tobit, crossing a stream of
water; The hack-ground, a landscape. 5. Baucis and
Philemon entertaining Jupiter and Mercury. 6. A
landscape, called the Aurora, representing the dawn of
day. The effect is very beautiful. 7. The beheading
of St John in prison, a very small upright oval print,
which is by far the scarcest.
GOVERNMENT, in general, is the polity of a
state, or an orderly power constituted for the public
good.
Civil govermhent was instituted for the preservation
and advancement of men’s civil interests, and for the
better security of their lives, liberties, and properties.
The use and necessity of government is such, that there
never was an age or country without some sort of civil
authority : but as men are seldom unanimous in the
means of attaining their ends, so their differences in
opinion in relation to government have produced a va¬
riety of forms of it. To enumerate them would he to
recapitulate the history of the whole earth. But, ac¬
cording to Montesquieu, and most other writers, they
may, in general, be reduced to one of these three kinds.
1. The republican. 2. The monarchial. 3. The des¬
potic.—The first is that, where the people in a body,
or only a part of the people, have the sovereign power ;
the second, where one alone governs, but by fixed and
established laws; hut in the despotic government, one
person alone, without law and without rule, directs
every thing by his own will and caprice. See the arti¬
cle Law, N° i. 3 —10. On the subject of govern¬
ment at large, see Montesquieu’s L'Espj'it des Loixi
1. 2. e. I.; Locke, ii. 129, &c. quarto edition, 1768 ;
Sidney on government ; Sir Thomas Smith de Ttepuh.
Angl. and Acherly’s Britannic Constitution.— As to
Gothic government, its original and faults, &c. see
Montesquieu’s DEsprit des Loix, 1. 11. c. 8. See
Feodal System in this work, and Government in
the Supplement.
Government is also a post or office, which gives a
person the power or right to rule over a place, a city,
or a province, either supremely or by deputation.
GOVERNMENT is likewise used for the city, coun¬
try, or place to which the power of governing is ex¬
tended.
GOUGE, an instrument used by divers artificers,
being a sort of round hollow chisel ; serving to cut
holes, channels, grooves, &c. in wood, stone, &c.
GOULART, Simon, a famous minister of Geneva,
was born at Senlis in 1543 ; and was one of the most
indefatigable writers of his time. He made consider¬
able additions to the Catalogue of witnesses of the truth,
composed by Ulyricus ; and acquired a great reputation
by his works ; the principal of which are, 1. A trans¬
lation of Seneca. 2. A collection of memorable histo¬
ries. 3. A translation of St Cyprian He /apsis. 4. Se¬
veral devotional and moral treatises. He died at Ge¬
neva in 1628.
GOURD. See Cucurbita, Botany Index.
GOURGUES, Dominique, an illustrious French,
patriot,
Gourguf*
u
Gown.
G O W [3
patriot, a private gentleman of Gascony. Ihe Spa¬
niards having inhumanly massacred a colony of French¬
men who had settled in Florida, Gourgues took a se¬
vere revenge on them, an account of which is given
under the article FLORIDA. On his return he was re¬
ceived with acclamations by his countrymen, but was
forbidden to appear at court. Queen Elizabeth invited
him to command an English fleet against the Spaniards
in 1593; but he died at Tours in his way to Eng¬
land.
GOURNAY, a town of France, in the department
of Lower Seine, celebrated for its butter-market. Po¬
pulation 2550. It is situated on the river Ept, in E.
Long. 1. 47. N. Lat. 49. 29.
Gournay, Mary de Jars de, a lady celebrated for
her learning, was the daughter of William de Jars, lord
of Neufvi and Gournay. After the death of her father,
she was patronised by Montaigne and Cardinal Riche¬
lieu. To the daughter of the former she dedicated her
Nosegay of Pindus ; and composed several other works,
the most considerable of which is Les Avis. She died
at Paris in 1685, aged 80. The critics are divided
concerning the reputation of this lady : by some she is
styled the Syren of France ; others say her works should
have been buried with her.
GOUT. See Medicine Index.
GOWER, John, one of our most ancient English
poets, was contemporary with Chaucer, and his inti¬
mate friend. Of what family, or in what country lie
was born, is uncertain. He studied the law, and was
some time a member of the society of Lincoln’s-inn,
where his acquaintance with Chaucer began. Some
have asserted that he was a judge $ but this is by no
means certain. In the first year of Henry IV. he be¬
came blind ; a misfortune which he laments in one of
his Latin poems. He died in the year 1402 ; and was
buried in St Mary Overie, which church he had re¬
built chiefly at his own expence, so that he must have
lived in affluent circumstances. His tomb was magni¬
ficently and curiously ornamented. It still remains, but
hath been repaired in later times. From the collar of
SS round the neck of his effigies, which lies upon the
tomb, it is conjectured that he had been knighted.
As to his character as a man, it is impossible, at this
distance of time, to say any thing with certainty.
With regard to his poetical talents, he was undoubt¬
edly admired at the time when he wrote, though a
modern reader may find it difficult to discover much
harmony or genius in any of his compositions. He
wrote, 1. Speculum meditantis, in French, in ten books.
There are two copies of this in the Bodleian library.
2. Vox clainantis, in Latin verse, in seven books. Pre¬
served also in the Bodleian library, and in that of All-
Souls. It is a chronicle of the insurrection of the
commons in the reign of Richard II. 3. Confessio
amantis; printed at Westminster by Caxon in 1493.
Lond. 1532, 1554. It is a sort of poetical system
of morality, interspersed with a variety of moral tales.
4. Fe rege Henrico IV. Printed in Chaucer’s works.
There are likewise several historical tracts, in manu¬
script, written by our author, which are to be found
in different libraries ; also some short poems printed in
Chaucer’s works.
GOWN, Robe, a long upper garment, worn by
] G O W
lawyers, divines, and other graduates j who are hence GoWn
called 0/ the gown, ox gownmen. Gowran.
The gown is an ample sort of garment, worn over '1 '"v1 '
the ordinary clothes, hanging down to the feet.—It is
fashioned differently for ecclesiastics and for laymen.
At Rome they gave the name “ virile gown,” toga
virilis, to a plain kind of gown which their youth as¬
sumed when arrived at puberty. This they particu¬
larly denominated prectexta. See Toga, Pr^etexta,
&c.
“The remarkable dress of our British ancestors jf/sfon/
(Mr Wh itaker observes), which continued very nearly
the same to the commencement of the last century
among the natives of Ireland, and has actually descend-1'
ed to the present among the mountaineers of Scotland,
and is therefore rendered very familiar to our ideas,
carried in it an astonishing appearance to the Romans.
And it seems to have been equally the dress of the men
and women among the nobles of Britain. But in a
few years after the erection of the Roman British towns
in the north, and in the progress of refinement among
them/this andient habit began to be disesteemed by the
chiefs of the cities, and looked upon as the badge of an¬
cient barbarism. And the growing prejudices were
soon so greatly improved, that within 20 years only af¬
ter the construction of the towns, the British sagum
was actually resigned, and the Roman toga or gown
assumed by many of them.
“ The gown, however, never became universal in
Britain : and it seems to have been adopted only by
the barons of the cities and the officers of the crown ;
and has therefore been transmitted to us as the robe of
reverence, the ensign of literature, and the mantle of
magistracy. The wmollen and plaided garments of the
chiefs having naturally superseded the leathern vestures
of their clients, the former were still wore by the ge¬
nerality of the Britons $ and they were retained by
the gentlemen of the country, and by the commonalty
both in country and city. That this was the case,
appears evident from the correspondent conduct of the
Gauls and Britons; who kept their Virgata Sagula
to the last, and communicated them to the Franks and
Saxons. The plaided drapery of the Britons still ap¬
peared general in the streets of Manchester ; and must
have formed a striking contrast to the gown of the
chief, the dark mantle of Italy : and it Rnd the orna¬
mented buttons on the shoulder are preserved among
us even to the present moment, in the parti-coloured
clothing and the tasseled shoulder knots of our foot¬
men.”
In some universities physicians wear a scarlet gown.
In the Sorbonne, the doctors were always in gowns and
caps. Beadles, &c. wear gowns of two or more co¬
lours.
Among the French officers, &c. they distinguish those
of the short gown or robe ; which are such as have not
been regularly examined. They have also barbers of
the short gown, who are such as are obliged to practise
in an inferior way to those of the long robe.
Gown is also taken in the general for civil magistra-
ture, or the profession opposite to that of arms. In this
sense it was that Cicero said cedant arma togee,
GOWRAN, a borough town, in the county of
Kilkenny and province of Leinster, Ireland. N. Lat,
A 2 52.
G E A [4
Gowraa S2- 34- W. Long. 7. o. It is governed by a portrieve,
|| recorder, and town clerk. Here are the ruins of an
Graaf. 0|{] church, also the handsome seat of the late Lord
” v Clifden ; and three miles beyond Gowran the ruins of
Ballinabola castle.
GOYEN, John Van, painter of landscapes, cattle,
and sea pieces, was horn at Leyden in 159^ ’ atl(^ 'vas
for some time instructed by Isaac Nicholai, who was
reputed a good painter j but afterwards he became the
disciple of Esaias Vandervelde, the most celebrated
landscape painter of his time. Van Goyen very soon
rose into general esteem ; and his works are more uni¬
versally spread through all Europe than the works of
any other master, for he possessed an uncommon readi¬
ness of hand and freedom of pencil. It was his con¬
stant pleasure and practice to sketch the views of vil¬
lages and towns situated on the banks of rivers or
canals j of the sea-ports in the Low Countries 5 and
sometimes of inland villages, where the scenes around
them appeared to him pleasing or picturesque. I hose
he afterwards used as subjects for his future landscapes 5
enriching them with cattle, boats, and figures in cha¬
racter, just as the liveliness of his imagination directed.
He understood perspective extremely well, and also
the principles of the chiaro-scuro 5 which branches of
knowledge enabled him to give bis pictures a strong
and agreeable effect. He died in 1656, aged 60.—
His usual subjects were sea-pieces, or landscapes with
views of rivers, enlivened with figures of peasants either
ferrying over cattle, drawing their nets in still water, or
going to or returning from market. Sometimes he re¬
presented huts of boors on the banks of rivers, with
overhanging trees, and a beautiful reflection of their
branches from the transparent surface of the waters.
These were the subjects of his best time, which he
generally marked with his name and the year j and the
high finished pictures of Van Goyen will he for ever
estimable. But as he painted abundance of pictures,
some are slight, some too yellow, and some negligently
finished ; though all of them have merit, being marked
with a free, expeditious, and easy pencil, and a light
touch. His pictures frequently have a grayish cast $
which did not arise from any mismanagement of the
tints, or any want of skill in laying on the colours $
hut was occasioned by his using a colour called Haerlem
blue, much approved of at that time, though now en¬
tirely disused, because the artists found it apt to fade
into that grayish tint $ and it hath also rendered the
pictures of this master exceedingly difficult to be clean¬
ed without injuring the finer touches of the finishing.
His best works are valued so highly in most parts of
Europe, and especially in the Low Countries, that they
deservedly afford large prices, being ranked in Hol¬
land with the pictures of Teniers ; and at this time are
not easily procured, particularly if they are undamaged,
though his slighter performances are sufficiently com¬
mon.
GRAAF, Regnier de, a celebrated physician, born
at Schoonhaven, in Holland, in 1641. He studied
physic in Prussia. He was educated in Leyden, where
he acquired great honour by publishing a treatise De
Succo Pancreatico. He also published three pieces
upon the organs of generation, both male and female j
upon which subject he had a controversy with Swam-
sperdam. He died young, in 1673*, and his works,
2
] ; G R A
with his life prefixed, were published at Leyden in Graaf
16^, in 8vo. 4 11
GRABE, John Ernest, a very learned writer in , Grace
the beginning of the 18th century, a native of Konigs-
berg, in Prussia. He was educated in the Lutheran
religion ; but the reading of the fathers led him into
doubts. He presented to the electoral consistory at
Sambia in Prussia a memorial containing his doubts.
The elector gave orders to three eminent divines to an¬
swer them. Their answers shook him a little in his re¬
solution of embracing the Roman Catholic religion j
and one of them, Spener, advised him to go to Eng¬
land. He went; and King William gave him a pen¬
sion, which was continued by Queen Anne. He was
ordained a priest of the church of England, and ho¬
noured with the degree of doctor of divinity by the uni¬
versity of Oxford ; upon which occasion Dr George
Smalridge pronounced two Latin orations, which were
afterwards printed. He wrote, 1. Spicelegwm S, S.
Pair uni, ut et Hereticorum scecuh post Christum na-
tum, 8vo. 2. An edition of the Septuagiut, from the
Alexandrian manuscript in St James’s library. 3. Notes
on Justin, &c. *, and other works, which are esteemed
by the learned.
GRACCHUS, Tiberius, elected tribune of the
Roman people, demanded in the senate, in their name,
the execution of the Agrarian law 5 by which all per¬
sons possessing above 2CO acres of land were to be de¬
prived of the surplus, for the benefit of the poor citi¬
zens, amongst whom an equal distribution of them was
to be made. Having carried his plan into execution
by violent measures, he fell a victim to his zeal, being
assassinated by his own party, 133 B. C. Caius his
brother, pursuing the same steps, was killed by the
consul Opimius, 121 B. C. See (history of) Rome.
GRACE, among divines, is taken, I. For the free
love and favour of God, which is. the spring and source
of all the benefits we receive from him. 2. For the
work of the Spirit renewing the soul after the image of
God ; and continually guiding and strengthening the
believer to obey his will, to resist and mortify sin, and
overcome it.
Grace is also used, in a peculiar sense, for a short
prayer said before and after meat.
The proofs of the moral obligation of this ceremony,
drawn from different passages of the New Testament,
are so well known, that it is needless to insist on them
here. Some others, drawn from the practice of differ¬
ent nations, and of very remote antiquity, may not be
disagreeable to our readers.
1. Atbenaeus tells us, in his Deipnosoph. lib. il. that
in the famous regulation made by Amphictyon king
of Athens with respect to the use of wine, both in sa¬
crifices and at home, he required that the name of
Jupiter the Sustainer should be decently and reverently
pronouficed. The same writer, in lib. iv. p. 149.
quotes Hermeias, an author extant in his time, who
informs us of a people in Egypt, inhabitants of the
city of Naucratis, whose custom it was on certain oc¬
casions, after they had placed themselves in the usual
posture of eatiug at the table, to rise again and kneel;
when the priest or precentor of the solemnity began
to chant a grace, according to a stated form amongst
them •, and when that was over, they joined in the
meal in a solemn sacrificial manner. Heliodorus has a
passage
Grace.
G R A [5
passage in liis JEthicpics to the same purpose, that it -was
the custom of the Egyptian philosophers to pour out
libations and put up ejaculations before they sat down
to meals. Porphyry, in his treatise De abstin. lib. iv.
p. 408. gives a great character of the Samnean gymno-
sophists in Egypt for the strictness of their life : as one
article in their favour, he observes, that at the sounding
of a bell before their meals, which consisted only ot
rice, bread, fruits, and herbs, they went to prayers j
which being ended, and not before, the bell sounded
again, and they sat down to eating. In general this
was a religious usage or rite among the ancient Greeks;
and derived from yet older ages, it Clement of Alex¬
andria rightly informs us. He mentions, that these
people when they met together to refresh themselves
with the juice of the grape, sung a piece of music, in
imitation of the Hebrew psalms, which they called a
scho/ion. Livy, lib. xxxix. speaks of it as a settled
custom among the old Romans, that they offered sacrifice
and prayer to the gods at their meals and compotations.
But one of the fullest testimonies to our purpose is given
hy Quintilian, Declam. 301. Adisti mensam, says he,
ad quam cum venire cotpimus, Deos invocamus; “ We
approached the table (at supper together), and then
invoked the gods.”
The Jesuit Trigautius, in his very elegant and in¬
structive narrative of the Christian expedition of their
missionaries into China, book i. p. 69. gives this ac¬
count of the people there in the particular now under
consideration. “ Before they place themselves for
partaking of an entertainment, the person who makes
it sets a vessel, either of gold, or silver, or marble, or
some such valuable material, in a charger full of wine,
which he holds with both his hands, and then makes a
low bow to the person of chief quality or character at
the table. Then from the hall or dining-room, he
goes into the porch or entry, where he again makes
a very low bow, and turning his face to the south,
pours out this wine upon the ground as a thankful
oblation to the Lord of heaven. After this, repeat¬
ing his reverential obeisance, he returns into the
hall,” &c.
The Turks pray for a blessing on their meat; and
many more instances might be produced of infidels who
have constantly observed the like custom in some way
or other.
2. The fact, therefore, with respect to the heathen
world, being thus evident, we proceed to the senti¬
ments and behaviour of the Jews in this particular.
Their celebrated historian Josephus, giving a detail of
the rites and customs of the Essenes, who were con¬
fessedly the strictest and most pious professors of the
Jewish religion, has this remarkable passage to the pre¬
sent purpose: “ The priest,” says he, “ begs a blessing
before they presume to take any nourishment; and it is
looked upon as a great sin to take or taste before.”
Then follows the thanksgiving before meat: and “ when
the meal,” proceeds he, “ is over, the priest prays again;
and the company with him bless and praise God as
their preserver, and the donor of their life and nourish¬
ment.”
Philo, in his book De vita cantemplativa, gives an
account of a body of men and women stricter than
even the Essencs themselves. He distinguishes them by
] G R A
no particular name, though his relation is very accurate Grace,
and circumstantial ; namely, that on certain special v—
occasions, before “ they took their meals, they placed
themselves in a proper decent order; when, lilting up
their hands and eyes to heaven, they prayed to God
that he would be pleased to be propitious to them in the
use of those his good creatures.”
From the Hebrew ritual it appears, that the Jews
had their hymns and psalms of thanksgiving, not only
after eating their passover, but on a variety of other
occasions, at and alter meals, and even between their
several courses and dishes; as when the best of their
wine was brought upon the table, or their aromatic
confections, or the fruit of the garden, &c. On the
day of the passover was sung Psalm cxiv. “ When
Israel came out of Egypt,” &c.
Aristseus has a passage full on the present subject.
“ Moses,” says he, “ commands that when the Jews
are going to eat or drink, the company should immedi¬
ately join in sacrifice or prayer.” Where Rabbi Elea-
zar (upon that author) met with this sentence, has
been controverted. But supposing it not be found
in scriptis, it is sufficient for us to know that the Jews
did constantly practise this custom, upon the foundation
of an ancient and general tradition and usage. That
the prophet Daniel gave thanks before meat, is evident
from the Apocryphal book concerning Bel and the
Dragon, where, ver. 381 39> we that “ Daniel said,
Thou hast remembered me, O God ! neither hast thou
forsaken them who seek thee and love thee. So Daniel
arose, and did eat.” 01 this text Prudentia takes
notice in Cathemirin, hymn iv.
His sumptis Danielis excitavit
In ccdum faciem, cibeqite Jbrtis,
Amen reddidit, allelujah dixit.
The much-belov’d took the repast,
And up to heaven his eyes he cast;
By which refresh’d he sung aloud,
Amen, and allelujah to his God.
Where, by the way, it may be observed, that:the poet
is a little mistaken in making the prophet give thanks
after meat; whereas, according to the text, he did it
before.
Grace, or Gracefulness, in the human character ; an
agreeable attribute, inseparable from motion as opposed
to rest, and as comprehending speech, looks, gesture,
and loco-motion.
As some motions are homely, the opposite to grace¬
ful ; it is to be inquired', With what motions is this
attribute connected P No man appears graceful in a
mask ; and therefore, laying ?side the expressions of the
countenance, the other motions may be genteel, may
be elegant, but of themselves never are graceful. A
motion adjusted in the most perfect manner to answer
its end, is elegant; but still somewhat more is required
to complete our idea of grace or gracefulness.
What this unknown more may be; is the nice point.
One thing is clear from what is said, that this more must
arise from the expressions of the countenance : and
from what expressions so naturally as from those which
indicate mental qualities,such as sweetness, benevolence,
elevation, dignity ? This promises to be a fair analysis :
because of all objects mental qualities affect us the most;
G R A [6
Grace, and the impression made by graceful appearance upon
ft races, every spectator of taste, is too deep for any cause purely
'“■"V'"""'' corporeal.
The next step is, to examine what are the mental
qualities, that in conjunction with elegance of motion,
produce a graceful appearance. Sweetness, cheerful¬
ness, allability, are not separately sufficient, nor even
in conjunction. Dignity alone, ‘with elegant motion,
produces a graceful appearance j but still more graceful
with the aid of other qualities, those especially that are
the most exalted. See Dignity.
But this is not all. The most exalted virtues may
be the lot of a person whose countenance has little ex¬
pression : such a person cannot be graceful. Therefore
to produce this appearance, we must add another cir¬
cumstance, viz. an expressive countenance, displaying
to every spectator of taste, with life and energy, every
thing that passes in the mind.
Collecting these circumstances together, grace may
be defined, “ that agreeable appearance which arises
from elegance of motion and from a countenance ex¬
pressive of dignity.” Expressions of other mental
qualities are not essential to that appearance, but they
heighten it greatly.
Of all external objects, a graceful person is the most
agreeable.
Dancing affords great opportunity for displaying
grace, and haranguing still more. * See Dancing,
Declamation, and Oratory.
But in vain will a person attempt to be graceful who
is deficient in amiable qualities. A man, it is true,
may form an idea of qualities he is destitute of; and,
by means of that idea, may endeavour to express these
qualities by looks and gestures : but such studied ex¬
pression will be too faint and obscure to be graceful.
Act of Grace, the appellation given to the act of
parliament 1696, c. 32. which allows prisoners for
civil debts to be set at liberty, upon making oath that
they have not wherewithal to support themselves in
prison, unless they are alimented by the creditors on
whose diligences they were imprisoned, within ten days
after intimation made for that purpose.
Days oj Grace, three days immediately following
the term of payment of a bill, within which the creditor
must protest it if payment is not obtained, in order to
intitle him to recourse against the drawer.
Grace is also a title of dignity given to dukes
archbishops, and in Germany to barons and other in¬
ferior princes.
GRACES, Gratis, Charities, in the heathen
theology, were fabulous deities, three in number, who
attended, on Venus. Tb,ir names are, Aglaia, Thalia,
and Euphrosyne j i. e. shining, flourishing, and gay; or'
according to some authors, Pasithea, Euphrosyne, and
TEgiale. They were supposed by some to be the daugh¬
ters of Jupiter and Eurynome the daughter of'Oceanus-
and by others, to be the daughters of Bacchus and
Venus.
Some will have the Graces to have been four ; and
make them the same with the Horee “ hours”, or rather
with the four seasons of the year. A marble in the
king of Prussia’s cabinet represents the three Graces
in the usual manner, with a fourth seated and covered
with a large veil, with the words underneath, AdSorores
JIH' But this groupe we may understand to be the
] G II A
three Graces, and Venus, who was their sister, as being Gra-t
daughter of Jupiter and Dione. jj
The Graces are always supposed to have hold of Graftir
each other’s hands, and never parted. They w*ere — ^
painted naked, to show that the Graces borrow nothing
from art, and that they have no other beauties than
what are natural.
Yet in the first ages they were not represented naked,
as appears from Pausanias, lib. vi. and lib. ix. who
describes their temple and statues. They were of
wood, all but their head, feet, and hands, which were
white marble. Their robe or gown was gilt: one of
them held in her hand a rose, another a dye, and the
third a sprig of myrtle.
GRACILIS, a muscle of the leg, thus called
from its slender shape. See Anatomy, Table of the
Muscles.
GRACULA, the Grakle, a genus of birds be¬
longing to the order of piece. See Ornithology
Index.
GRACULUS. See Corvus, Ornithology Index.
GRADATION, in general, the ascending step by
step, or in a regular and uniform manner.
Gradation, in Logic, a form of reasoning, other¬
wise called Sorites.
Gradation, in Tainting, a gradual and insensible
change of colour, by the diminution of the tints and
shades.
Gradation, in Rhetoric, the same with Climax.
GRADISKA, a strong town of Hungary in Scla-
yonia, on the frontiers of Croatia, taken by the Turks
in 1691. It is seated on the river Save, in E. Long.
11- 55- N- Lat. 45. 38.
Gradiska, a strong town of Italy, in a small island
of the same name on the frontiers of Friuli, in E.
Long. 13. 37. N. Eat. 46. 6. It is subject to the house
of Austria.
GRADO, a strong town of Italy, in a small island
of the same name, on the coast of Friuli, and in
the Austrian territory. E. Long. 13. 27. N. Lat.
45. 46.
GRADUATE, a person who has taken a degree in
the university. See Degree.
GRAEVIUS, John George, one of the most learn¬
ed writers in the 27th century. In the 24th year of his
age, the elector of Brandenburg made him professor at
Doisbourg. In 1658, he was invited to Deventer to
succeed his former master Gronovius. In 1661, he
was appointed professor of eloquence at Utrecht; and
12 years after he had the professorship of politics and
history conferred on him. He fixed his thoughts here,
and refused several advantageous offers. He had
however, the satisfaction to be sought after by divers
princes, and to see several of them come from Germany
to study under him. He died in 1703, aged 71. PIJs
Thesaurus antiquitatum et historiarum Italice, &c. and
other works, are well known.
GRAFTING, or Engrafting, in Gardening, is
the taking a shoot from one tree, and inserting it into
another, in such a manner that both may unite closely
and become one tree. By the ancient writers on
husbandry and gardening, this operation is called in-
cision, to distinguish it from inoculation or budding,
which they call inserere oculos.
Grafting has been practised from the most remote
antiquity;
rafting,
fra ham.
G II A t 7 ] G R A
antiquity j but its origin and invention is differently
related by naturalists. Theophrastus tells us, that a bird
having swallowed a fruit whole, cast it forth into a cleft
or cavity of a rotten tree 5 where mixing with some of
the putrified parts of the wood, and being washed
with the rains, it budded, and produced within this
tree another tree of a different kind. This led the
husbandman to certain reflections, from which soon
afterwards arose the art of engrafting. For the dif¬
ferent methods of performing this operation, see Gar¬
dening Index.
GRAHAM, James, Marquis of Montrose, was
comparable to the greatest heroes of antiquity. He
undertook, against almost every obstacle that could ter¬
rify a less enterprising genius, to reduce the kingdom
of Scotland to the obedience of the king; and his
success corresponded to the greatness of the under¬
taking. By valour, he in a few months, almost efiec-
tuated his design ; but, for want of supplies, was for¬
ced to abandon his conquests. After the death of
(Charles I. he made a second attempt, with a few men,
but was immediately defeated by a numerous army.
As he was leaving the kingdom in disguise, he was
betrayed into the hands of his enemy, by the lord
Aston, his intimate friend. He was carried to his ex¬
ecution with every circumstance of indignity that wan¬
ton cruelty could invent; and hanged upon a gibbet
30 feet high, with the book of his exploits appended
to his neck. He bore this reverse of fortune with his
usual greatness of mind, and expressed a just scorn at
the rage and the insult of his enemies. We meet with
many instances of valour in this active reign ; but
Montrose is the only instance of heroism. He was ex¬
ecuted May 21. 1650. See Britain, N° 137, 138,
*43> i65-
Graham, Sir Lord Viscount Preston, eldest
son of Sir George Graham of Netherby, in Cumber¬
land, Bart, was born in 1648. He was Sent ambassa¬
dor by Charles II. to Louis XIV. and was master of
the wardrobe and secretary of state under James II.
But when the revolution took place, he was tried and
condemned, on an accusation of attempting the resto¬
ration of that prince ; though he obtained a pardon by
the queen’s intercession. He spent the remainder of
his days in retirement, and published an elegant trans¬
lation of “ Boethius on the consolation of philosophy.”
He died in 1695.
Graham, George, clock and watch-maker, the
most ingenious and accurate artist in his time, was
born in 1675. After his apprenticeship, Mr Tom-
pion received him into his family, purely on account
of his merit ; and treated him with a kind of parental
affection as long as he lived. Besides his universally ac¬
knowledged .skill in his profession, he was a complete
mechanic and astronomer ; the great mural arch in the
observatory at Greenwich was made for Hr Halley,
under his immediate inspection, and divided by his own
hand : and from this incomparable original, the best
foreign instruments of the kind are copies made by
Lnglish artists. The sector by which Dr Bradley first
discovered two new motions in the fixed stars, was of
his invention and fabric : and when the French acade¬
micians were sent to the north to ascertain the figure
of the earth, Mr Graham was thought the fittest per¬
son in Europe to supply them with instruments; those
who went to the south were not so well furnished. He Graham
was for many years a member of the Royal Society, |j
to which he communicated several ingenious and im- Graham,
portant discoveries ; and regarded the advancement of
science more than the accumulation of wealth. He
died in 1 751.
Graham's Dyke. See Antoninus's Wall.
GRAIN, corn of all sorts, as barley, oats, rye, &c.
See Corn, Wheat, &c.
Grain is also the name of a small weight, the twen¬
tieth part of a scruple in apothecaries weight, and the
twenty-fourth of a pennyweight troy.
A grain-weight of gold-bullion is worth two-pence,
and that of silver hut half a farthing.
Grain also denotes the component particles of stones
and metals, the veins of wood, &c. Hence cross-grain¬
ed, or against the grain, means contrary to the fibres of
wood, &c.
GRALLiE, in Ornithology, is an order of birds
analogous to the bruta in the class of mammalia in the
Linnaean system. See ORNITHOLOGY.
GRAM IN A, Grasses; one of the seven tribes or
natural families, into which all vegetables are distri¬
buted by Linnaeus in his Philosophia Botanica. They
are defined to be plants which have very simple leaves,
a jointed stem, a husky calyx termed gluma, and a
single seed. This description includes the several sorts
of corn as well as grasses.. In Tournefort they con¬
stitute a part of the fifteenth class, termed apetali; and
in Linnaeus’s sexual method, they are mostly contained
in the second order of the third class, called triandria
digynia.
This numerous and natural family of the grasses has
engaged the attention and researches of several emi¬
nent botanists. The principal of these are, Ray, Monti,
Micheli, and Linnaeus.
M. Monti, in his Catalogue slirpium ttgri Bononicn-
sis gramma ac hi/jus modi ajfinia complectens, printed
at Bononia in 17 divides the grasses from the dis¬
position of their flowers, as Theophrastus and Ray have
divided them before him, into three sections or orders.
— These are, I. Grasses having flowers collected in a
spike. 2. Grasses having their flowers collected in a
panicle or loose spike. 3. Plants that in their habit
and external appearance are allied to the grasses.
This class would have been natural if the author had
not improperly introduced sweet-rush, juncus, and ar- ,
.row-headed grass, into the third section. Monti enu¬
merates about 306 species of the grasses, which he re¬
duces under Tournefort’s genera ; to these he has ad¬
ded three new genera.-
Scheuchzer in his Aristogrctphia, published likewise
in 1719, divides the grasses, as Monti, from the dis¬
position of their flowers, into the five following sec¬
tions : 1. Grasses with flowers in a spike, as phalaris,
anthoxanthum, and frumentum. 2. Irregular grasses,
as schcenanthus, and cornucopise. 3. Grasses with
flowers growing in a simple panicle or loose spike, as
reed and millet. 4. Grasses with flowers growing in
a compound panicle, or diffused spike, as oats and
poa. 5. Plants by their habit nearly allied to the
grasses, as cypress-grass, scirpus, linagrostis, rush, and
scbeucbzeria.
Scheuchzer has enumerated about four hundred spe¬
cies, which he describes with amazing exactness.
Micheli
Gramina,
Grain mar.
I
Definition.
2
G rammar
particular,
4
The de¬
sign of
speech.
5
^Language
consists of
words sig¬
nificant of
ideas.
i*
G It A [8
Micheli lias divided the grasses into six sections,
which contain in all 44 genera, and are arranged from
tire situation and number of the flowers.
Gramina, the name of the fourth order in Linnaeus’s
Fragments of a Natural Method, consisting of the nu¬
merous and natural family of the grasses, viz. agrostis,
aira, alopecurus or fox-tail grass, anthoxanthum or ver¬
nal grass, aristida, arundo or reed, avena or oats, bo-
hartia, briza, bromus, cinna, cornucopise or horn of
plenty grass, cynosurus, dactylis, elymus, festuca or
fescue-grass, hordeum or barley, lagurus or hare’s-tail
] G R A
grass, lolium or darnel, lygeum or hooded matweed, Gramina,
melica, milium or millet, nardus, oryza or rice, panicum Grammar,
or panic-grass, paspalum, phalaris or canary-grass, phle- '—nr—'
urn, poa, saccharum or sugar-cane, secale or rye, stipa
or winged spike-grass, triticum or wheat, uniola or sea¬
side oats of Carolina, coix or Job’s tears, olyra, pharus,
tripsacum, zea, Indian Turkey wheat or Indian corn,
zizania, aegilops or wild fescue-grass, andropogon, ap-
luda, cenchrus, holcus or Indian millet, ischaemum.
See Botany.
GRAMMAR.
I. r~si RAMMAR is the art of speaking or of writing
any language with propriety; and the purpose
of language is to communicate our thoughts.
2. Grammar, considered as an art, necessarily sup¬
poses the previous existence of language ; and as its
design is to teach any language to those who are igno¬
rant of it, it must be adapted to the genius of that par¬
ticular language of which it treats. A just method of
grammar, therefore, without attempting any altera¬
tions in a language already introduced, furnishes cer¬
tain observations called rules, to which the methods of
speaking used in that language may be reduced ; and
this collection of rules is called the grammar of that
particular language. For the greater distinctness with
regard to these rules, grammarians have usually divided
this subject into four distinct heads, viz. Orthogra-
FHY, or the art of combining letters into syllables, and
syllables into words; Etymology, or the art of dedu¬
cing one word from another, and the various modifica¬
tions by which the sense of any one word can be diversi¬
fied consistently with its original meaning or its relation
to the theme whence it is derived; Syntax, or what re¬
lates to the construction or due disposition of the words
of a language into sentences or phrases; and Prosody,
or that which treats of the quantities and accents of
syllables, and the art of making verses. 3
3. But grammar, considered as a science, views lan-or nniver*
guage only as it is significant of thought. Neglecting s*1*
particular and arbitrary modifications introduced for
the sake of beauty or elegance, it examines the analogy
and relation between words and ideas; distinguishes be¬
tween those particulars which are essential to language
and those which are only accidental', and thus furnishes
a certain standard, by which diflerent languages may
be compared, and their several excellencies or defects
pointed out. This is what is called Philosophic or
UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR.
4. THE origin of language is a subject which has
employed much learned investigation, and about which
there is still a diversity of opinion. The design of
speech is to communicate to others the thoughts and
perceptions of the mind of the speaker: but it is ob¬
vious, that between an internal idea and any external
sound there is no natural relation ; that the word fire,
for instance, might have denominated the substance
which we call ice, and that the word ice might have
signified Some of the most acute feelings of man,
as well as of every other animal, are indeed expressed
by simple inarticulate sounds, which as they tend to
the preservation of the individual or the continuance of
the species, and invariably indicate either pain or plea¬
sure, are universally understood: but these inarticulate
and significant sounds are very few in number; and if
they can with any propriety be said to constitute a na¬
tural and universal language, it is a language of which
man as a mere sensitive being partakes in common with
the other animals.
5. Man is endowed not only with sensation, but also
with the faculty of reasoning; and simple inarticulate
sounds are insufficient for expressing all the various
modifications of thought, for communicating to others
a chain of argumentation, or even for distinguishing be¬
tween the different sensations either of pain or of plea¬
sure: a man scorched with fire or unexpectedly plunged
among ice, might utter the cry naturally indicative of
sudden and violent pain ; the cry would be the same,
or nearly the same, but the sensations of cold and heat
are widely difl’erent. Articulation, by which those sim¬
ple sounds are modified, and a particular meaning fixed
to each modification, is therefore absolutely necessary
to such a being as man, and forms the language which
distinguishes him from all other animals, and enables
him to communicate with facility all that diversity of
ideas with which his mind is stored, to make known
his particular wants, and to distinguish with accuracy
all his various sensations. Those sounds thus modified
are called words j and as words have confessedly no
natural relation to the ideas and perceptions of which
they are significant, the use of them must either have
been the result of human sagacity, or have been suggest¬
ed to the first man by the Author of nature.
6. Whether language he of divine or human origin,
is a question upon which, though it might perhaps be
soon resolved, it is not necessary here to enter. Upon
either supposition, the first language, compared with
those which succeeded it, or even with itself as after¬
wards enlarged, must have been extremely rude and
narrow.
t
SSES, WITH THEIR SUBDIVISIONS.
s a certain aflection of nouns denoting the sex of those substances of which they are the names. For as in nature ever b‘
male, or neither the one nor the other, grammarians, following this idea, have divided the names of beings into three classes
are said to be of the masculine vender; those that denote females, of the feminine gender i and those which denote neitl ■ uT
A GRAMMATICAL TABLE,
EXHIBITING A SYSTEMATIC VIEW OF WORDS AS THEY ARE COMMONLY ARRANGED INTO DISTINCT CLASSES, WITH THEIR SUBDIVISIONS.
SUBSTANTIVES;
which are all those words
that are expressive of
THINGS WHICH EXIST
OR ARE CONCEIVED TO
EXIST OF THEMSELVES,
AND NOT AS THE ENER¬
GIES OR QUALITIES OF
any thing else. These
may be divided into two
orders, vi%.
All Language is compos¬
ed of WORDS j each of
which may be defined,
A SOUND SIGNIFICANT {
OF SOME IDEA OR RELA¬
TION. These words may
be arranged into four ge¬
neral divisions, called
NOUNS, properly so called, be¬
ing the names of all those
things which exist, or are
conceived to exist. These
may be divided into three
kinds, each of which admits
of the subdivisions after men¬
tioned, vi%.
And
PRONOUNS, which are a spe¬
cies of word invented to sup¬
ply the place OF NOUNS IN
certain circumstances.
They are of two kinds, tws.
' NATURAL, or those which are used as
the NAMES OF NATURAL SUBSTANCES
such are
81 I axttmat l lman» ALEXANDER, CYRUS, <Sr.
J y j ajnimal,, I |D0G> ^ CERBERUS, ARGUS, Sfc.
J ^ c/5 K
ARTIFICIAL, or the several names of 1 g Fmi7T H C HOUSE, g The VATICAN, &<?,
artificial objects 5 such as, , j g t CHURCH,St PAUL’S, Sfc.
ABSTRACT,or those which are the names j
of qualities considered as ABSTRACT'
ED FROM THEIR SUBSTANCES J Such as
of qualities considered as abstract 5- I MOTION I '^'HE
or qualities considered as abstract- ^ J MUliUJN, | |C0URSE. ^ The GRE-HOUND’s COURSE, 4r;
Nouns of all
kinds admit
of the fol- i
lowing Ac¬
cidents,
vi%»
'GENDER, which jk a certain affection of nouns denoting the sex of those substances of which they are the names. For as in nature every object
is either male orfemale^ or neither the one nor the other, grammarians, following this idea, have divided the names of beings into three classes. Those
that denote males, are said to be of the masculine gender; those that denotefemales, of the feminine gender i and those which denote neither the
one nor the other, jof the neuter gender. The English is the only language of which the nouns are, with respect to sex, an exact copy of nature.
NUMBER. As there is no object in nature single and alone, and as by far the greater part of nouns are the names of whole of objects, it
is evident that every suchwown ought to have some variation, to denote whether it is one individual of the class which is meant, ox more than one.
Accordingly we find, that in every language nouns have some method of expressing this; If one be mentioned, the noun is used in that form
which is called the singular number; if more than one, it is used in a different form, which is called the plural number.
CASES. All nouns (exceptproper names are general terms ; but it is often necessary to use those general terms for the purpose of express!ngparfoe#-
lar ideas. This cjan be done only by connecting the general term with some word significant of a quality or circumstance peculiar to the indivi¬
dual intended. When that quality or circumstance is not expressed by an adjective, it is in English and most modern languages eo/n/fto/z/y con¬
nected with the noun by the intervention of o.preposition; but in the Greek and Latin languages the noun has cases to answer the same, and
even in English the noun has, besides the nominative, one case to denote possession.
' PREPOSITIVE j so called because they
are capable of leading a sentence.
These are divided into three orders, call¬
ed the pronouns of the
<| And
FIRST PERSON $ in English, J. This pronoun denotes the SPEAKER as characterized by the present act of speaking, in contradistinction to every other character which he may bear. It is said to be of the first person,
because there must necessarily be a speaker before there can be a hearer; and the speaker and hearer are the only persons employed in discourse.
SECOND PERSON, —thou. This pronoun denotes, the person addressed as characterized by the present circumstance of being addressed, in contradistinction, fyc. It is said to be of the second person, because in
discourse there cannot be a hearer till there be o. speaker. The pronouns of the first and second persons havje number and cases, for the same reason that nouns have these accidents ; but in no language have they any variation denoting
^ gender: the reason is, that sex, and all other properties and attributes whatever, except those just mentioned as descriptive of the nature of these pronouns, are foreign from the mind of the speaker when he utters 1 or thou in discourse.
THIRD PERSON, —HE, she, it j which words are employed to denote any object which may be the subject of discourse different from the speaker and the hearer. They are improperly said to be of any person; for there can be but two
persons employed in discourse, the speaker and the party addressed. They are, however, pronouns j since they stand by themselves, and are the substitutes of NOUNS. He is the substitute of a noun denoting a male animal; SHE of a noun
denoting a female animal; and it, of a noun denoting an object which has no sex.. All these, like the pronouns personal, admit of number and cases ; but there is this peculiarity attending them, that though in every case of the singular
number the distinction of gender is carefully preserved, in the plural it is totally lost j they, theirs, and them, being the nominative, possessive, and accusative, cases of he, of she, and of it.
SUBJUNCTIVE s called becaus it f WHICH and WHO. This subjunctive pronoun may be substituted in the place of amj noun whatever, whether it be expressive of a genus, a species, or an individual; as the animal WHICH, the man WHO, Alexander WHO, &fc. Nay, it may
tl dasentenc butonl serves’ even become the substitute of the personal pronouns themselves; as when we say, 1 WHO now write, you who now read, thouviHO readest, he who wrote, she who spoke; where it is observable, that the subjunctive who adopts the person
canno ea a sen ence, u on y serves . prepositive pronoun which it represents, and affects the verb accordingly. Who and which therefore are real pronouns, from substitution ; and they have this peculiarity besides, that they have not only the power of a pronoun,
ous Of this kind are ^ a^S0 0^' a connec^ve t^ie same import with that which in English is expressed by the preposition of. The word that is now used indifferently for WHO or which, as a subjunctive pronoun; but it was originally used only as a
And
ATTRIBUTIVES-,
which are those words
that are expressive of all
SUCH THINGS AS ARE
CONCEIVED TO EXIST <
NOT OF THEMSELVES '
BUT AS THE ATTRIBUTES
of other things. These
are divided into
VERBS, or those words which
are expressive of an attri¬
bute and an assertion ; as,I
WRITE. They all admit of the
variations after mentioned.
The attributes expressed by verbs
have their essence in motion or
its privation; and as motion
is always accompanied by time, <
therefore verbs are liable to
certain variations called ten¬
ses, vi%.
definitive, and as such it ought still to be considered in philosophical grammar.
f THE PRESENT, which represents the action of the verb agoing on, and as contemporary with
something else; as, I write, or I am writing, either/as* now, or when you are reading, &c.
THE PRiETER-IMPERFECT, which represents the action of the verb as having been go¬
ing on but not finished in some portion of past time; as, I WAS WRITING, no matter when,
yesterday, last week, or last year.
THE AORIST OF THE PAST, which represents the action of the verb sis finished in some
indefinite portion of past time ; as I WROTE, or DID WRITE, yesterday, last week, &c.
THE PRiETER-PERFECT, which represents the action of the verb as just now finished,
or as finished in some portion of time, within which the present insta,nt is comprehended; as,
I HAVE WRITTEN this day or this week
THE PLUSQUAM-PERFECT, which represents the action of the verb as having been
finished in some portion of time, within which a determinate past instant was comprehend¬
ed; as, I HAD written last week before 1 saw you.
THE FIRST FUTURE, which represents the action of the verb as to be going on at some
indefinite future time ; as I shall write or be writing to-morrow, next week, &c.
THE SECOND FUTURE, which represents the action of the verb as to be completed at some
definite future time ; as, I SHALL HAVE WRITTEN when you come to-morrow, next week, &c
AFFIRMATION is the es¬
sence of every verb j inso¬
much that all verbs may be
resolved into the substantive
verb is, and another attri¬
butive. But a man may af¬
firm something of the AC¬
TION of the verb directly;
something of his liberty or<
capacity to perform that
action j or something of his
wish that«?zofAershould per¬
form it. To denote these
several kinds of affirmation,
all verbs have what gram¬
marians call modes, viz.
THE INDICATIVE, to denote the first kind o.
affirmation ; as, I WRITE.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE, to denote the second; as,
I may or CAN write.
THE IMPERATIVE, to denote the third; as write
THOU, or DO thou write.
Besides these, grammarians have given to every verb
a MODE, called
THE INFINITIVE ; as, to write. But this
seems, on every account, to be improperly styled a
MODE. Nay, if affirmation be the essence of verb,
the infinitive cannot be considered 0.9 any part of
the verb at all; for it expresses no affirmation. It
, is indeed nothing more than an abstract noun de¬
noting the simple energy of the verb, in conjunction
with time.
VERBS have likewise been distinguished into the following
kinds, according to the nature of the attribute of which they
are expressive.
1st, ACTIVE-TRANSITIVE, or those which denote an ac¬
tion that passes from the agent to some external object; as,
Ceesar conquered Pompey.
id, ACTIVE-INTRANSITIVE, or those which express
that kind of action which has no effect upon any thing be-
yond the agent himself; as, Ccesar WALKED.
3c?, PASSIVE, or those which express not action bntpassion,
whether pleasing or painful $ as, Portia was loved, Pom¬
pey WAS CONQUERED.
ffh, NEUTER, or those which express an attribute that con¬
sists neither in action nor in passion ; as, Ccesar STOOD.
PARTICIPLES, or those words which are expressive of an ATTRIBUTE combined with TIME. In English there are only two participles: the present, as WRITING, which expresses the action of the verb to write, as going on ; and the past, as WRITTEN, which expresses the action of the same verb as finished,
and therefore past in time. In Greek and Latin there is & future participle, by which the attribute is represented as to be in a state of exertion at some future time $ as, ygxfyav, scripturus, “ about to write.”
ADJECTIVES, or those words which express as inhering in their substances the several qualities of things, of which the essence consists not in motion or its privation; as, good, bad, black, white, large, small, &yc. As attributes are the same whether they belong to males orfemales, to one object or to many,
adjectives ought in strictness to admit of no variation respecting sex or number ; and in English they actually admit of none; Some qualities, however, are of such a nature, that one substance may have them in & greater degree than another j and therefore the adjectives denoting these qualities admit in most languages
of a variation, which grammarians call the degrees of comparison. Thus Plato was wise, Socrates was wiser than he, hut Solomon was the wisest (f men. There is a species of adjectives derived from nouns, and even ixom pronouns: for we say, the Pompeian party, a brazen trumpet, and my book ;
which are phrases equivalent to the party of Pompey, a trumpet of brass, and the book of me.
'I. Those that are common to all attributives of 'Of INTENSION and REMISSION, or of QUANTITY CONTINUOUS j as moderately, vastly, exceedingly, fyc. These, like adjectives of a similar nature, admit of
And I THE FIRST ORDER j i.e. which coalesce equally with J the different degrees of comparison.
verbs, with participles, and with ADJECTIVES. J Of QUANTITY DISCRETE, as, once, twice, thrice, &$c. These are not, in strictness of speech, adverbs, being in reality the possessive cases of ONE, two, three, Sfc.
ADVERBS, or those words which, as they denote the attributes of at¬
tributes, have been called attributives of the second order j to di- •
stinguish them from verbs, participles, and adjectives, which denote
the attributes OF substances, and are therefore called attributives
of THE firsj* order. Adverbs are divided into two kinds, vi*.
These may be divided into adverbs
II. Those that are confined to verbs properly so call¬
ed, and which are of the following kinds:
_0f RELATION $ as more, most, less, least, equally, proportionally, Spc.
f Of TIME; as, then, when, afterward, now,
| Of PLACE ; as, here, there, where, hence, whence, <iPc. As also adverbs derived from prepositions ; as, upward, downward, fac.
Of INTENSIONS and REMISSIONS PECULIAR TO MOTION j as, speedily, hastily, slowly, hfc.—We have given adverbs a place among the parts of speech
j necessary for the communication of thought j but it may be doubted whether they be entitled to this distinction. English adverbs at least seem to be nothing more than corrup-
tions of nouns, adjectives, and verbs. See Chap, V. sect. 3.
DEFINITIVES ; which
are all those words that
serveTO define and as¬
certain any particu¬
lar object or OBJECTS y
As separated from
OTHERS OF THE SAME
class. These are com¬
monly called
And
CONNECTIVES, or
those words which are
employed to connect
OTHER WORDS, AND OF
SEVERAL DISTINCT
PARTS TO MAKE ONE
COMPLETE WHOLE.
These may be divided
into two kinds, vius.
fINDEFINITEjas
ARTICLES j which are divided ^ And
{
A or AN, which is prefixed to a noun ox general term, to denote that but ONE individual is meant of that genus or species of which the noun is the common name.
the general name of the whole human race j A man is one individual, but that individual is unknown.
This article, however, leaves the individual itself quite indeterminate. Thus man is
ANY j which is prefixed to a noun either in the singular or plural number, when it is indifferent as to the truth of the proposition what individual or individuals be supposed : Thus, “ any man will be virtuous when temptation is away.”
SOME j which is prefixed to nouns in the plural.number, to denote that only part of the species ox genus is meant, leaving that part undetermined : Thus, “ some men are great cowards.”
into two kinds, uzlz.
I DEFINITE j as,
f”THE j which is prefixed to a noun, to denote one individual of the species of which something is predicated that distinguishes it from every other individual: Thus, <£ the man that hath not music in himself is fit for treason.” It is used before nouns in
J both numbers and for the same purpose J for we may say, “ THE MEN who have not music in themselves are fit for treasons.”
) THIS j which prefixed to ^noun in*the singular number, denotes an individual as PRESENT and NEAR at hand ; as, “ this man beside me.” 1 T. . articles have vlurals* thfse is the nlnral nf this and those the nlnral nf that
(.THAT j which is prefixed to a noun in the singular number^ denotes an individual as present but at a little distance j as, “ that man in the corner.”^ P • P > P
There are many other articles both definite and indefinite ; for which see Chap. II.
CONJUNCTIONS-, by which
name are distinguished all those
CONNECTIVES WHICH ARE COM¬
MONLY EMPLOYED TO CONJOIN
SENTENCES. These have been
divided into two kinds, called
And
‘CONJUNCTIVES, or those words which conjoin sentences and their meanings also 5 and
DISJUNCTIVES, or those words which, at the same time that they conjoin sentences, disjoin their meanings. Each of these
general divisions has-been again subdivided. The former into copulatives and continuatives, the latter into simple dis¬
junctives and adversative disjunctives. But the general division is absurd, and the subdivisions are useless. Conjunc-
<[ tions never disjoin the meanings of sentences, nor have any other effect than to combine two or more simple sentences into one
compound sentence. If those simple sentences be oi opposite meanings, before their combination, they will continue so after it,
whatever conjunction be employed to unite them. In nature, DIFFERENT TRUTHS are connected, if they be connected at all,
by different relations j and therefore when the sentences expressive of those truths are connected jti language, it must
be by words significant of those NATURAL relations. Thus,
'Accidental addition is expressed by the conjunction and 5 as when we say, Lysippus was a statuary and Priscian was a grammarian.”
" The unexpected junction of contrary truths is expressed by but j as, “ Brutus was a patriot but Caesar was not.”
The relation of an effect to its cause is expressed by because j as, “ Rome was enslaved because Caesar was ambitious.”
The relation of an effect to a cause of which the existence is doubtful, by if j as, “ you will live happily if you live honestly.”
The relation of a cause to its effect, by therefore j as, “ Caesar was ambitious therefore Rome was enslaved.”
The idea of simple diversity is expressed by either and or ; as, “ either it is day or it is night.”
Contrariety between two affirmations, which though each may be true by itself, cannot both be true at once, is expressed by unless j
as, Troy will be taken unless the Palladium be preserved.”
Coincidence of two affirmations apparently contrary to each other is expressed by although j as, “ Troy will be taken although
Hector defend it.”
PREPOSITIONS, or those connectives of which the common office is to
conjoin words which refuse to coalesce j and this they can do only by
signifying those relations BY WHICH THE things expressed by the
united words are connected in nature. The words of men, like
their first ideas, had an immediate reference to sensible objects j and therefore <!
there can be no doubt but the original use of prepositions was to denote the
various relations of body. Afterwards when men began to dicern with their
intellect, they took those words which they found already made, prepositions
as well as others, and transferred them by metaphor to intellectual concep-
tions. Prepositions therefore are either
PROPER, or those which lite¬
rally denote the relations sub¬
sisting among the objects of
sense. Such as
Or
The accidental junction of two things between which there is no necessary connection ; as, “ a house with a party wall.”
The separation of two things which we should expect to find united ; as, “ a house without a roof, a man without hands.”
The relation subsisting between any thing and that which supports it j as, “ the statue stands upon a pedestal.”
The relations of higher and lower j as, “ the sun is risen above the hills To support uneasy steps over the burning marie :—The sun is set BELOW the hori¬
zon :—The shepherd reclines under the shade of a beech-tree.”
The relation between any thing in motion and that in which it moves j as, “ the rays of light pass through the air.”
The relation between any thing continued, whether motion or rest, and the point of its beginning 5 as, “ the rays of light proceed from the sun:—
These figs came from Turkey -That lamp hangs FROM the ceiling.”
The relation between any thing continued and the point to which it tends ; as, “ he is going to Italy :—He slept till morning.”
The relation between an effect and its cause j as, “ I am sick of my husband and for my gallant.”
Conjunctions and preposi¬
tions are indeed employed
only to connect sentences
and words ; but it may be
doubted whether they be
parts ofspeech distinct from
nouns, verbs, and adjec¬
tives. -See Chap. VI.
METAPHORICAL. For as those who are above others in place have generally the advantage over them, the prepositions which denote the one kind of superiority ox inferiority, are likewise employed to denote the other,
we say of a king, “ he ruled OVER his people $” and of a soldier, “ he served UNDER such a general.”
Thus
INTERJECTIONS are a species of words which are found perhaps in all languages on earth, but which cannot be included in any of the classes above mentioned j for they are not subject to the rules or principles of grammar, as they contribute nothing to the communication of thought. They may be
called a part of that natural language with which man is endowed in common with other animals, to express or allay some very strong sensation ; such as, AH ! when he feels pain. In this view the interjection does not owe its characteristical expression to the arbitrary form of articulation, but to the tone
of voice, and the modifications of countenance and of gesture with which it is uttered it is therefore universally understood by all mankind. In discourse interjections are employed only when the suddenness or vehemence of some affection returns men to their natural state, and makes them for a mo¬
ment forget the use oi speech* In books they are thrown into sentences without altering their form either in syntax or in signification ; and in English this is generally done with a very bad effect, though the writer no doubt employs them with a view to pathos or embellishment.
felt m. tm-- r >:■
- w*m . mv bit
■mm®.' mem
i " . .. V:>. < :!i ^ ./ . .■ •.. . Jf
to i> " : : ■■■ ■■ / ■ . VS ■-•
: v f ,)} \ ; bis ■ !.■ :.■ ' : «jnhil
’ ' ' '
® /s 'qjfidw /tikuio'iq hf.niMc^wi ;h:i
! ;.: .; ■•. ■ ’ •- ■ 'to '
t3i3fQJIW' ,l to, .'V
il i m& p| 1
; ••..-• I ■.. |, ! : - I■ • ■ • ‘V ' !
:* Jj ?¥$ ■ W00$m$
|35j , -E ;# 3':* p® i
‘
'
’
1
t
'
^ \ * ,
: ‘ " .1 rI ’ ‘ ^ .. :t f'r c v;
... i ... ■
'
*,■ f
*■ rf»l \ 1
I
Division
f Words.
6
right of
eas.
7
if nouns.
S
!f attri-
iitive.'.
G R A
narrow. If it was of human contrivance, this will be
readily granted ; for what art was ever invented and
' brought to a state of perfection by illiterate savages ?
If it was taught by God, which is at least the more
probable supposition, we cannot imagine that it would
be more comprehensive than the ideas of those for
whose immediate use it was intended j that the first
men should have been taught to express pains or plea¬
sures which they never felt, or to utter sounds that
should he afterwards significant of ideas which at the
time of utterance had not occurred to the mind of the
speaker : man, taught the elements of language, would
be able himself to improve and enlarge it as his future
occasions should require.
7. As all language is composed of significant words
variously combined, a knowledge of them is necessary
previous to our acquiring an adequate idea of language
as constructed into sentences and phrases. But as it
is by words that we express the various ideas which
occur to the mind, it is necessary to examine how ideas
themselves are suggested, before we can ascertain the
various classes into which words may he distributed.
It is the province of logic to trace our ideas from their
origin, as well as to teach the art of reasoning : but it
is necessary at present to observe, that our earliest ideas
are all ideas of sensation, excited by the impressions
that are made upon our organs of sense by the various
objects with which we are surrounded. Let us there¬
fore suppose a reasonable being, devoid of every possible
prepossession, placed upon this globe j and it is ob¬
vious, that his attention would in the first place be
tlirected to the various objects which he saw existing
around him. These he would naturally endeavour to
distinguish from one another', and if he were either
learning or inventing a language, his first effort would
he to give them names, by means of which the ideas of
them might he recalled when the objects themselves
should he absent. This is one copious source of words 5
and forms a natural class which must be common to
every language, and which is distinguished by the name
of nouns ; and as these nouns are the names of the se¬
veral substances which exist, they have likewise been
called SUBSTANTIVES.
8. It would likewise be early discovered, that every
one of these substances was endowed with certain qua¬
lities or attributes ; to express which another class of
words would be requisite, since it is only by their qua¬
lities that substances themselves can attract our at¬
tention. Thus, to be weighty, is a quality of matter; to
think, is an attribute of man. Therefore in every lan¬
guage words have been invented to express the known
qualities or attributes of the several objects which exist.
M M A It. 9
These may all he comprehended under the general de- Division
nomination of ATTRIBUTIVES. of Words.
9. Nouns and attributives must comprehend all "" * r
that is essential to language (a) : for every thing which
exists, or of which we can form an idea, must be either
a substance or the attribute of some substance ; and
therefore those two classes which denominate substances
and attributes, must comprehend all the words that
are necessary to communicate to the hearer the ideas
which are present to the mind of the speaker. If any
other words occur, they can only have been invented
for the sake of dispatch, or introduced for the purposes
of ease and ornament, to avoid tedious circumlocutions
or disagreeable tautologies. There are indeed gramma¬
rians of great name, who have considered as essential to
language an order of words, of which the use is to
connect the nouns and attributes, and which are said
to have no signification of themselves, but to become
significant by relation. Hence all words which can
possibly be invented are by these men divided into two
general classes : those which are SIGNIFICANT OF
THEMSELVES, and those which are not. Words sig¬
nificant of themselves are either expressive of the names
of substances, and therefore called substantives \ or
of attributes, and therefore called ATTRIBUTIVES. 9
Words which are not significant of themselves, must *
• , 1 e • ' • lives and
acquire a meaning either as denning or connectingconncc_
others j and are therefore arranged under the two lives.
classes of definitives and connectives.
10. That in any language there can he words which
of themselves have no signification, is a supposition
which a man free from prejudice will not readily ad¬
mit ; for to what purpose should they have been in¬
vented ? as they are significant of no ideas, they can¬
not facilitate the communication of thought, and must
therefore be only an incumbrance to the language in
which they are found. But in answer to this it has
been said, that these words, though devoid of significa¬
tion themselves, acquire a sort of meaning when joined
with others, and that they are as necessary to the struc¬
ture of a sentence as cement is. to the structure of an
edifice : for as stones cannot be arranged into a regular
building without n. cement to bind and connect them, so
the original words significant of swfotawces and
butes, cannot he made to express all the variety of our
ideas without being and corattecfer/by those words
which of themselves signify nothing.—It is wonderful,
that he who first suggested this simile did not perceive
that it tends to overthrow the doctrine which it rs
meant to illustrate : for surely the cement is as much
the matter of the building as the stones themselves ; it
is equally solid and equally extended. By being united
with
(a) This is the doctrine of many writers on the theory of language, for whose judgment we have the highest
respect: yet it is not easy to conceive mankind so far advanced in the art of abstraction as to view attributes
by themselves independent of particular substances, and to give one general name to each attribute wheresoever
it may be found, without having at the same time words expressive of affirmation. We never talk of any attri¬
bute, a colour for instance, without affirming something concerning it j as, either that it is bright or faint, or
that it is the colour of some substance. It will be seen afterwards, that to denote affirmation is the proper of¬
fice of what is called the substantive verb : as, “ Milk is white.” That Verb therefore appears to be as neces¬
sary to the communication of thought as any species of words whatever ; and if we must range words under a
Few general classes, vve should he inclined to say, that nouns, attributes, and affirmatives, comprehend all that is
essential to language.
Vol. X. Part 1. -f- B
GRAMMA R. Chap. I,
Division with the stones, It neither acquires nor loses any one of
of Woids, the qualities essential to mutter; it neither communicates
' its own softness, nor acquires their hardness. By this
mode of reasoning therefore it would appear, that the
words called definitives and connectives^ so fai from ha*
ving of themselves no signification, are equally essen¬
tial to language, and equally significant with tnose
which are denominated substdntwes&nilcittribiitives; and
upon investigation it will be found that this is the ti utln
For whatever is meant by the definition ox connection of
the words which all men confess to he significant, that
meaning must he the sense of the words of which the
purpose is to define and connect j and as there can be
no meaning where there are no ideas, every one of these
definitives and connectives must be significant ol some
idea, although it may not be always easy or even possible
to express that idea by another word.
li. These different modes of dividing the parts of
speech we have just mentioned, because they have been
largely treated of by grammarians of high fame.. But
it does not appear to us, that any man can feel him¬
self much the wiser for having learned that all words
are either substantives or attributives, defini¬
tives or connectives. The division of words into
those which are significant of THEMSELVES, and
those which are SIGNIFICANT BY RELATION, is abso¬
lute nonsense, and has been productive of much error
and much mystery in some of the most celebrated trea¬
tises on grammar. It is indeed probable, that any at¬
tempt to establish a different classification of the parts
of speech from that which is commonly received, will
he found of little utility either in practice or in specula¬
tion. As far as the former is concerned, the vulgar
division seems sufficiently commodious j for every man
who knows any thine:, knows when he uses a noun
and when a verb. With respect to the latter, not to
mention that all the grammarians from Aristotle to
Horne Tooke, have differed on the subject, it should
seem to be of more importance, after having ascertain¬
ed with precision the nature of each species of words,
to determine in what circumstances they differ than in
ip what they agree.
The com- 12. In most languages, probably in all cultivated
mon dm- lanmiages, grammarians distinguish the following parts
sion of the r ° ‘^1 ’ tw- 1 • 1 nr*'
parts of °‘ sPeech '• ry°unt pronoun, verb,participle, adverb, pre-
speccli the position, conjunction. The Latin and English gramma-
most pro- rians admit the interjection among the parts of speech,
Pen although it is confessedly not necessary to the construc¬
tion of the sentence, being only thrown in to express
the affection of the speaker : and in the Greek and
English tongues there is the article prefixed to nouns,
when they signify the common names of things, to
point them out, and to show how far their signification
extends. In the method of arrangement commonly
followed in grammars, adjectives are classed with sub¬
stantives, and both are denominated nouns; but it is cer¬
tain that, when examined philosophically, an essential
difference is discovered between the substantive and the
adjective; and therefore some writers of eminence, when
treating of this subject, have lately given the following
classification of words which we shall adopt: The
ARTICLE, NOUN, PRONOUN, VERB, PARTICIPLE, ADJEC¬
TIVE, ADVERB, PREPOSITION, CONJUNCTION, INTER¬
JECTION. All these words are to be found in the En¬
glish language j and therefore we shall examine each
3
class, endeavour to ascertain its precise import, and show Noiln
in what respects it differs from every other class. It is < ^
impossible to investigate the principles of grammar
without confining the investigation in a great measure
to some particular language from which the illustrations
must be produced j and that we should prefer the E-ng-
lish language for this purpose can excite no wonder, as
it is a preference which to every tongue is due from
those by whom it is spoken. We trust, however, that
the principles which we shall establish will be found to
apply universally ; and that our inquiry, though princi¬
pally illustrated from the English language, will be an
inquiry into philosophical or universal grammar.
Chap. I. 0/ the Noun or Substantive.
11
13. Nouns are all those words by which objects or The notm
substances are denominated, and which distinguish them deiinul.
from one another, without marking either quantity, qua¬
lity, action, or relation. The substantive or noun is the
name of the thing spoken of, and in Greek and Latin
is called name; for it is wcpa in the one, and nomen in
the other-, and if in English we had called it the
name rather than the noun, the appellation would per¬
haps have been more proper, as this last word, being
used only in grammar, is more liable to be misunder¬
stood than the other, which is in constant and familiar
use. That nouns or the names of things must make a
part of every language, and that they must have been
the words first suggested to the human mind, will not
be disputed. Men could not speak of themselves or
of any thing else, without having names for themselves
and tlie various objects with which they are surrounded.
Now, as all the objects which exist must he either in •
the same state in which they were produced by nature,
or changed from their original state by art, or abstract- j2
ed from substances by the powers of imagination, and Difl’ereii
conceived by the mind as having at least the capacitykinds ot
of being characterized by qualities ; this naturally sug¬
gests a division of nouns into natural, as man, vege¬
table, tree, &c. artificial, as house, ship, watch, &c.
and abstract, as whiteness, motion, temperance, &c.
14. But the diversity of objects is so great, that had
each individual a distinct and proper name, it would be
impossible for the most tenacious memory, during the
course of the longest life, to retain even the nouns of
the narrowest language. It has therefore been found
expedient, when a number of things resemble eachu
other in some important particulars, to arrange them
all under one species; to which is given a name that
belongs equally to the whole species, and to each in¬
dividual comprehended under it. Thus the word man
denotes a species of animals, and is equally applicable to
every human being : The word horse denotes another
species of animals, and is equally applicable to every in¬
dividual of that species of quadrupeds ; but it cannot
be applied to the species oi men, or to any individual
comprehended under that species. We find, however,
that there are some qualities in which several spe¬
cies resemble each other *, and therefore we refer
them to a higher order called a genus, to which we give
a name that is equally applicable to every species and
every individual comprehended under it. Thus, men
and horses and all living things on earth resemble each
other in this respect, that they have life. We refer
them
V
’T
<
At
J'1
k
I lap. I.
Tonn.
r4. .
te ongin
the sin-
lar and
G R A
them therefore to the genus called animal; and this
word belongs to every species of animals, and to each
individual animal. The same classification is made both
of artificial and abstract substances ; of each of which
there are genera, species, and individuals. Thus in na¬
tural substances, animal, vegetable, and fossil, denote
GENERA 5 man, horse, tree, metal, a SPECIES j and Alex¬
ander,Bucephalus,oak, gold, are individuals. In arti-
ficialsubstances,edifice is a GENUS; house, church, tower,
are species ; and the Vatican, St Paul's, and the Tower
of London, are individuals. In abstract substances,
motion and virtue are GENERA flight and temperance
are species ; the flight of Mahomet and temperance in
wine are individuals. By arranging substances in
this manner, and giving a name to each genus and
species, the nouns necessary to any language are com¬
paratively few and easily acquired : and when we meet
with an object unknown to us, we have only to examine
it with attention ; and comparing it with other objects,
to refer it to the genus or species which it most nearly
resembles. By this contrivance we supply the want of
a proper name for the individual; and so far as the
resemblance is complete between it and the species to
which it is referred, and of which we have given it the
name, we may converse and reason about it without
danger of error: Whereas had each individual in na¬
ture a distinct and proper name, words would be innu¬
merable and incomprehensible j and to employ our la¬
bours in language, would be as idle as that study of
numberless written symbols which has been attributed
to the Chinese.
Although nouns are thus adapted to express not
I I
Noun.
the individuals but the genera or species into which sub¬
stances are classed j yet, in speaking of these substances,
iral num- whether natural, artificial, or abstract, all men must
rs’ have occasion to mention sometimes one of a kind, and
sometimes more than one. In every.language, there¬
fore, nouns must admit of some variation in their form,
to denote unity plurality; and this variation is cal¬
led number. Thus in the English language, when we
speak of a single place of habitation, we call it a house ;
but if of more, we call them houses. In the first of
these cases the noun is said to be in the singular, in
the last case it is in the plural, number. Greek nouns
have also a dual number to express two individuals, as
have likewise some Hebrew nouns ; but this variation
is evidently not essential to language j and it is perhaps
doubtful whether it ought to be considered as an ele¬
gance or a deformity.
16. But although number be a natural accident of
nouns, it can only be considered as essential to those
which denote genera or species. Thus we may have
occasion to speak of one animal or of many animals, of
one man or of many men ; and therefore the nouns ani¬
mal and man must be capable of expressingas
well as unity. But this is not the case with respect to
the proper names of individuals: for we can only say
Xenophon, Aristotle, Plato, &c. in the singular; as,
were any one of these names to assume a plural form,
it would cease to-be proper name of an individual,
and become the common name of a species. Of this,
indeed, we have some examples in every language.
When a proper name is considered as a general appel¬
lative under which many others are arranged, it is then
no longer the name of an individual but of a species, and
*5
M M A R.
as such admits of a plural; as the Cwsars,the Howards,
the Pelhams, the Montagues, &c.: but Socrates can ne¬
ver become plural; so long as we know of no more than
one man of that name. The reason of all this will be
obvious, if we consider that every genus may be found
whole and entire in each of its species ; for man, horse,
and dog, are each of them an entire and complete ani¬
mal: and every species may be found whole and entire
in each of its individuals: for Socrates, Plato, and Xe¬
nophon, are each of them completely and entirely a
man. Hence it is, that every genus, though ONE, is
multiplied into many j and every species, though ONE,
is also multiplied into MANY ; by reference to those be¬
ings which are their subordinates : But as no individual
has any such subordinates, it can never in strictness be
considered as MANY j and so, as well in nature as in
name, is truly an individual which cannot admit of
number.
17. Besides number, another characteristic, visible in of gender
substances, is that of SEX. Every substance is either
male ax female; or both male and female; or neither one
nor the other. So that with respect to sexes and their
negation, all substances conceivable are comprehended
under this fourfold consideration, which language would
be very imperfect if it could not express. Now the
existence of hermaphrodites being rare, if not doubtful,
and language being framed to answer the ordinary oc¬
casions of life, no provision is made, in any of the
tongues with which we are acquainted, for expressing,
otherwise than by a name made on purpose, or by a peri¬
phrasis, of sex. Withregardto this great natural
characteristic, grammarians have made only a threefold
distinction of nouns: those which denote males are
said to be of the masculine gender; those which denote
females, of the feminine; and those which denote sub¬
stances that admit not of sex, are said to be neuter or of
neither gender. All animals have sex j and therefore
the names of all animals should have gender. But the
sex of all is not equally obvious, nor equally worthy of
attention. In those species that are most common, or of
which the male and the female are, by their sixe, form,
colour, or other outward circumstances, eminently distin¬
guished, the male is sometimes called by one name, which
is masculine; and the female by a. difiei'ent name, which is
feminine. Thus in English we say, husband, wife ; king,
queen; father, mother ; son, daughter, &c. In others
of similar distinction, the name of the male is applied to
the female only by prefixing a syllable or by altering
the termination; as man, woman; lion,lioness; emperor,
empress, anciently emperess; master, mistress, anciently
masteress, &c. When the sex of any animal is not ob¬
vious, or not material to be known, the same name,
in some languages, is applied, without variation, to all
the species, and that name is said to be of the common
gender. Thus in Latin bos albus is a white ox, and bos
alba a white cow. Diminutive insects, though they
are doubtless male and female, seem to be considered
in the English language as if they were really creep¬
ing things. No man, speaking of a worm, would
say he creeps, hut it creeps upon the ground. But
although tire origin of genders is thus clear and obvi¬
ous ; yet the English is the only language, with which
we are acquainted, that deviates not, except in a very
few instances, from the order of nature. Greek and
Latin, and many of the modern tongues, have nouns,
B 2 some
GRAMMAR. Chap. I
Noun, some masculine, some feminine, which denote sub*
v~*—y—stances where sex never had existence. Nay, some
languages are so particularly detective in this respect,
as to class every object, inanimate as well as animate,
under either t\w, masculine or thefeminine gender, as they
have no neuter gender for those which are of neither sex.
This is the case with the Hebrew, French, Italian, and
Spanish. But the English, strictly following the order ■
of nature, puts every noun which denotes a male ani¬
mal, and no other, in the masculine gender; every
name of a female animal, in the feminine; and every
animal whose sex is not obvious, or known, as well as
every inanimate object whatever, in the neuter gender.
And this gives our language an advantage above most
others in the poetical and rhetorical style : for when
nouns naturally neuter are converted into masculine
and feminine, the personification is more distinctly and
more forcibly marked. (See Personification). Some
very learned and ingenious men have endeavoured, by
what they call a more subtle kind of reasoning, to dis¬
cern even in things without sex a distant analogy to that
natural distinction, and to account for the names
of inanimate substances being, in Greek and Latin,
masculine and feminine. But such speculations are
wholly fanciful; and the principles upon which they pro¬
ceed are overturned by an appeal to facts. Many of the
substances that, in one language, have masculine names,
have in others names that -avgfeminine; which could
not be the case were this matter regulated by reason or
nature. Indeed for this, as well as many other ano¬
malies in language, no other reason can be assigned
than that custom 
^ Quern penes arbitrium est, et jus, et norma, loquendi.
Origin of tS. It has been already observed that most nouns
caies* are the names, not of individuals, but of whole classes of
objects termed genera and species (b). In classing a m/w-
ber of individuals under one species, we contemplate only
those qualities which appear to be important, and in
which the several individuals are found to agree, ab¬
stracting the mind from the consideration of all those
which appear to be less essential, and which in one in¬
dividual may be such as have nothing exactly similar
in any other individual upon earth. Thus, in classing
the individuals which are comprehended under the spe¬
cies denominated horse, we pay no regard to their co¬
lour or the size ; because experience teaches us, that no
particular colour or size is essential to that individual
living creature, and that there are not perhaps upon
earth two horses whose colour and size are exactly alike.
But the qualities which in this process we take into
view, are dae. general shape, the symmetry, and proportion
of the parts ; and in short every thing which appears
evidently essential to the life of the individual and the
propagation of the race. AH these qualities are strikingly
similar in all the individuals which we call horses, and as
strikingly dissimilar from the corresponding qualities of
every ofAcr individual animal. The colour of a//e/w is of¬
ten the same with that of an ox ; but the shape of the one Noun,
animal, the symmetry and proportion of his parts, are —
totally difierent from those of the other ; nor could any
man be led to class the two individuals under the same
species. It is by a similar process that we ascend from
one species to another, and through all the species to the
highest genus. In each species or genus in the ascending
series fewer particular qualities are attended to than
were considered -as essential to the genus or species imme¬
diately below it; and onv conceptions become more and
more general as the particular qualities, which are the
objects of them, become fewer \n number. The use of a
general term, therefore, can recal to the mind only the
common qualities of the class, the genus or species which
it represents. But we have frequent occasion to speak
of individual objects. In doing this, we annex to the
general term certain words significant of particular qua¬
lities, which discriminate the object of which we speak,
from every other individual of the class to which it be¬
longs, and of which the general term is the common name.
For instance, in advertising a thief, we are obliged to
mention his height, complexion, gait, and whatever may
serve to distinguish him from all other men.
The process of the mind in rendering her concep¬
tions particular, is indeed exactly the reverse of that
by which she generalizes them. For as in the pro¬
cess qigeneralization, she abstracts from her ideas of
any number of species certain qualities in which they
differ from each other, and of the remaining qualities
in which they agree, constitutes the first genus in the
ascending series j so when she wishes to make her con¬
ceptions move particular, she annexes to her idea of any
genus those qualities or circumstances which were be¬
fore abstracted from itj and the genus, with this annexa¬
tion, constitutes the first species in the descending series.
In like manner, when she wishes to descend from any
species to an individual, she has only to annex to the
idea of the species those particular qualities which dis¬
criminate the individual intended hom the other indivi¬
duals of the same kind.
This particularizing operation of the mind points out
the manner of applying the general terms of language
for the purpose of expressing particular ideas. For as
the mind, to limit a general idea, connects that idea with
the idea of some particular circumstance ; so language,
as we have already observed, in order to limit a general
term, connects that term with the word denoting the
particular circumstance. Thus, in order, to particula¬
rize the idea of horse, the mind connects that general idea
with the circumstance, suppose, of whiteness; and in
order to particularize the word horse, language connects
that word with the term white: and so in other instan¬
ces.—Annexation, therefore, or the connecting of ge¬
neral words or terms in language, fits it for expressing
particular conceptions •, and this must hold alike good
in all languages. But the methods of denoting this an¬
nexation are various in various tongues. In English and
most modern languages we commonly use for this pur¬
pose
(b It is almost needless to observe, that the words gYTiws and species, and the phrases higher genus and lower
species, are taken here in the logical sense ; and not as the words genus, species, order, class, are often employed
by naturalists. For a farther account of the mental process of generalization, see Logic and Metaphysics,
N xrm
17
ses, the
irks of
se.
hap. I* GRAM
pose little words, which we have chosen to style par¬
ticles; and in the Greek and Latin languages, the cases
cf nouns answer the same end.
19. Cases, therefore, though they are accidents of
nouns not absolutely necessary, have been often consider¬
ed as such j and they are certainly worthy of our ex¬
amination, since there is perhaps no language in which
some cases are not to be found, as indeed without them
or their various powers no language could readily an¬
swer the purposes of life.
All the oblique cases of nouns (if we except the vo¬
cative) are merely marks of annexation; but as the
connections or relations subsisting among objects are
very various, some cases denote one kind of relation, and
some another. We shall endeavour to investigate the
connection which each case denotes, beginning with the
genitive.—This is the most general of all the cases,
and gives notice that some connection indeed subsists be¬
tween two objects, but does not point out the particular
kind of connection. That we must infer, not from our
nature or termination of the genitive itself, hut from our
?S previous knowledge of the objects connected. That the
it of the genitive denotes merely relation in general, might be pro-
nitive ved by adducing innumerable examples, in which the
relations expressed by this case are different; but we
shall content ourselves with one observation, from which
the truth of our opinion will appear beyond dispute.
If an expression be used in which are, connected by
the genitive case, two words significant of objects be¬
tween which a twofold relation may subsist, it will be
found impossible,/row the expression, to determine which
of these two relations is the true one, which must be
gathered wholly from the context. Thus, for example,
from the phrase injuria rcgis, no man can know whe¬
ther the injury mentioned be an injury suffered or an in¬
jury inflicted by the king : but if the genitive case no¬
tified any particular relation, no such ambiguity could
exist. This case therefore gives notice, that two ob¬
jects are, somehow or other (c), connected, but it marks
not the particular sort of connection. Hence it may
he translated by our particle of, which will be seen af¬
terwards to be ol a signification equally general.
The dative and accusative cases appear to have nearly
the same meaning : each ol them denoting apposition, or
cusative tire junction of one object with another. Thus when any
se'* one says, Compare VirgiUum Hornero, Homer and Virgil
are conceived to be placed beside one another, in order
to their being compared ; and this sort of connection
is denoted by the dative case. In like manner, when it
is said latus humeros, breadth is conceived as joined to
or connected in apposition with shoulders $ and the ex¬
pression may be translated “ broad at the shoulders.”
This apposition of two objects may happen either
without previous motion, or in consequence of it. In the
foregoing instances no motion is presupposed; but if
one say, Misit aliquos subsidio eorum, the apposition is
there in consequence of motion. In like manner, when
19
f the da-
?e and
M A R.
it is said, Profectus est Pornam, his apposition with
Pome is conceived as the effect of his motion thither.
From this idea of the accusative, the reason is obvious
why the object after the active verb is often put in that
case j it is because the action is supposed to proceed
from the agent to the patient. But the same thing
happens with respect to the dative case, and for the
same reason. Thus, Antonius lev sit Ciceronem, and Anto¬
nias nocuit Ciceroni, are expressions of the same import,
and in each the action of hurting is conceived as pro¬
ceeding /row Antony to Cicero j which is finely illu¬
strated by the passive form of such expressions, where
the procedure above mentioned is expressly marked by’
the preposition ah': Cicero nocetur, Cicero Iceditur ab An¬
tonio. It is therefore not true, that “ the accusative is
that case, at least the otily case, which to an efficient
nominative and a verb of action subjoins either the ef¬
fect or the passive subject j nor is the dative the. only
case which is formed to express relatiorts tending to
itself.” The only thing essential to these two cases is to
denote the apposition ox junction of one object with an¬
other ; and this they do nearly, if not altogether, in the
same manner, although from the custom of language they
may not be indifferently subjoined to the same verb. ^
The Greek language has no ablative case : but in of the ab-
the Latin, where it is used, it denotes concomitancy, orlative case,
that one thing accompanies another. From this concomi¬
tancy we sometimes draw an inference, and sometimes
not. For example, when it is said, Templum clamors
petebant, clamour isrepresented concomitant with their
going to the temple j and here no inference is drawn: but
from the phrase palleo metu, although nothing more is
expressed than that paleness is a concomitant of the fear,
yet we instantly infer that it is also the effect of it. In
most instances where the ablative is used, an inference
is drawn, of which the foundation is some natural con¬
nection observed to subsist between the objects thus con¬
nected in language. When this inference is not meant
to be drawn, the preposition is commonly added j as, in-
Urfectus est cun gladio, “he was slain with a sword
about him j” interfectus est gladio, “ he was slain with
a sword as the instrument of his death.” 21
The remaining cases, which have not been noticed, Of the no-
are the nominative and the vocative. These are in mostniinative
instances alike in termination, which makes it probablea.nd v°ca-
that they were originally one and the same case. Thetive case?3
foundation of this conjecture will appear from consi¬
dering the use to which each of these cases is applied.
The nominative is employed to call up the idea of any
object in the mind of the hearer. But when a man
hears his own name mentioned, his attention is instant¬
ly roused, and he is naturally led to listen to what is to
be said. Hence, when a man meant particularly to
solicit one’s attention, he would naturally pronounce
that person’s name ; and thus the nominative case would
pass into a vocative, of which the use is always to solicit
attention (l)).
20. The
(c) The Greek grammarians seem to have been aware of the nature of this case when they called it vrltxris ‘ytrntu,
or the general case: of which name the Latin grammarians evidently mistook the meaning when they translated
it casus genitiyus, or the generative case; a name totally foreign from its nature.
(d) The chief objection to this conjecture, that the nominative and vocative were originally the same case, is
taken from the Latin tongue, in which the nouns of the second declension ending in us terminate their voca¬
tive-
GRAMMAR.
Chap. I]
*3
One case
in English
to denote
possession.
20. The Greek and Latin among the ancient, and
the German among the modern languages, express dif¬
ferent connections or relations of one thing with another
by cases. In English this is done for the most part hy
prepositions j hut the English, being derived from the
same origin as the German, that is, from the leutomc,
lias at least one variation of the substantive to answer
the same purpose. For instance, the relation of pos¬
session, or belonging, is often expressed hy a different
ending of the substantive, which may be well called a
case. This case answers nearly to the genitive case in
Latin ; but as that is not a denomination significant of
the nature of the case in any language, it may perhaps
in English be more properly called t\\e possessive case.
Th us, God’s gi'ace, anciently Godis grace, is the grace
belonging to or in the possession of God : and may be
likewise expressed by means of the preposition thus,—-
the grace of God.
Although the word Godis is as evidently an inflexion
of the noun God as the word Dei is an inflexion of
Dens, there are grammarians who have denied that in
English there is any true inflexion of the original noun,
and who have said that the noun with the addition of
that syllable, which wre consider as the sign of a case,
ceases to be a noun, and becomes a definitive; a word
which with them is devoid of signification. Thus, in
the expression Alexander’s house, the word Alexander’s
stands not as a noun, but as an article or definitive, ser¬
ving to ascertain and point out the individuality of the
house. But this is a palpable mistake : the word
Alexander’s serves not to point out the individuality of
the house, but to show to whom the house belongs; and
is therefore beyond dispute, not an article, but a noun,
in the possessive case. Again, when we say St Peter’s
at Rome and St Paul’s at London, the words St Peter’s
and St Paul’s are neither articles, nor, as has been ab¬
surdly imagined, the proper names of edifices, like the
liotundo or the Circus ; but they are in the possessive
case, the names of the two apostles to whom the
churches were dedicated, and to whom they are sup¬
posed to belong.
But that this, which we have called the possessive
case, is really not so, must be evident, it is said, be¬
cause there are certain circumstances in which it can¬
not be substituted for the noun rvith the preposition pre¬
fixed. Thus, though a man may say, I speak of Alex¬
ander, I write of Ceesar, I think of Pompey; he can¬
not say, I speak Alexander’s, I write Ccesar’s, or I
think Pompey’s. This is indeed true, but it is nothing
to the purpose: for though I may say, Loquor be Alex¬
andra, Scribo be Ceesare, Cogito be Pompeio ; I can¬
not say, Loquor Alexandri, Scribo Ccesaris, or Cogito
Pompeii: and therefore all that can be inferred from
this argument is, that as the Latin genitive is not al¬
ways of the same import with the preposition de, so the
English possessive is not always of the same import with
the preposition of Upon the whole, then, We mav con¬
clude, that English nouns admit of one inflexion ; and
that though cases are not so essential to nouns as gen- Article,
der and number, no language can be wholly without
them or their various powers.
Chap. II. Of Articles or Definitives.
21. The intention of language is to communicate
thought, or to express those ideas which are suggested
to us by our senses external and internal. The ideas
first suggested to us are those of pain and pleasure, and
of the objects with which we are surrounded $ and
therefore the words fii'st learned must be nouns, or the
names of objects natural, artificial, and abstract. Every
object about which the human mind can be conversant
is strictly and properly speaking particular; for all
things in nature differ from one another in numberless
respects, which, not to mention the idea of separate
existence, so circumstance and individuate them, that
no one thing can be said to be another. Now the use
of language being to express our ideas or conceptions
of these objects, it might naturally be expected that
every object should be distinguished by a proper name.
This would indeed be agreeable to the truth of things,
but we have already seen that it is altogether impractica¬
ble. Objects have therefore been classed into genera and
species; and names given, not to each individual, but to
each genus and species. By this contrivance of language,
we are enabled to ascertain in some measure any indi¬
vidual that may occur, and of which we know not the
proper name, only by referring it to the genus or species
to which it belongs, and calling it by the general or
specific name ; but as there is frequent occasion to di¬
stinguish individuals of the same species from one ano¬
ther, it became necessary to fail upon some expedient
to mark this distinction. In many languages general
and specific terms are modified and restricted by three
orders of words j the article, the adjective, and
the oblique cases of nouns. The cases of nouns we
have already considered : the adjective will employ ours;tyan(j
attention afterwards: at present our observations are of the a
confined to the article ; a word so very necessary, tide*
that without it or some equivalent invention men could
not employ nouns to any of the purposes of life, or in¬
deed communicate their thoughts at all. As the busi¬
ness of articles is to enable us, upon occasion, to employ
general terms to denote particular objects, they must
be considered in combination with the general terms, as
merely substitutes for proper names. They have, how-
been commonly called definitives; because they
24
The net
serve to define and ascertain any particular object, so as
to distinguish it from the other objects of the general
class to which it belongs, and, of course, to denote its
individuality. Of words framed for this purpose, whe¬
ther they have by grammarians been termed articles or
not, we know of no language that is wholly destitute.
The nature of them may be explained as follows.
22. An object occurs with which, as an individual,
we are totally unacquainted ; it has a head and limbs,
and
tive in e. But this is easily accounted for. The s in such words was often dropt, as appears from the scan¬
ning of old Latin poetry and when this was done, the u being short, would naturally in pronunciation pass into
e, a like short vowel 5 and thus, in the vocative case, e would in time be written instead of u.
hap.
Article.
*5
Ivo ar-
Ikb
H, GRAM
and appears to possess the powers oi self-motion and
j sensation : we thereiore refer it to its proper species, and
call it a dog, a horse, a lion, or the like. If it belongs
to none of the species with which we are acquainted, it
cannot be called by any of their names •, we then refer
it to the genus, and call it an animal.
But this is not enough. The object at which we
are looking, and which we want to distinguish, is not
a species ov* genus, but an individual. 01 what kind ?
Known or unknown ? Seen now for the first time, or
seen before and now remembered ? This is one of the
instances in which we shall discover the use ol the two
articles A and THE: for, in the case supposed, the ar¬
ticle A respects our primary perception, and denotes an
individual as unknown ; whereas THE respects our secon¬
dary perception, and denotes individuals as known. To
explain this by an example : I see an object pass by
which I never saw till now. W hat do I say ? There
goes A beggar with A long beard. The man departs,
and returns a week after: What do I then say ? There
goes THE beggar with the long beard. Here the article
onlv is changed, the rest remains unaltered. It et mark
the. force of this apparently minute change. The indi¬
vidual once vague is now recognised as somethingknown;
and that merely by the efficacy ot this latter article,
which tacitly insinuates a kind of previous acquaintance,
by referring a present perception to a like perception
already past.
This is the explanation of the articles A and THE as
given by the learned Mr Harris, and thus far what he
says on the subject is certainly just; hut it is not true
that the article THE always insinuates a pw/oMf ac¬
quaintance, or refers a present perception to a like
perception already past.—I am in a room crowded with
company, of which the greater part is to me totally
unknown. I feel it difficult to breathe from the gross¬
ness of the inclosed atmosphere ; and looking towards
the window, I see in it a person whom I never saw be¬
fore. I instantly send my compliments to the gentle*
man in the window, and request, that, if it be not incon¬
venient, he will have the goodness to let into the room
a little fresh air. Of this gentleman I have no previous
acquaintance; my present perception of him is my pri¬
mary perception, and yet it would have been extremely
improper to send my compliments, &c. to A gentleman
in the window Again, there would he no impropriety
in saying—“ A man whom I saw yesterday exhibiting
a show to the rabble, was this morning committed to
jail charged with the crime of housebreaking.” Not¬
withstanding the authority, therefore, of Mr Hands
and his master Apollonius, we may venture to affirm,
that it is not essential to the article A to respect a pri¬
mary perception, or to.the article THE to indicate a pre-
established acquaintance. Such may indeed be the man¬
ner in which these words are most frequently used j hut
we see that there are instances in which they may be
used dillerently. What then, it may he asked, is the
import of each article, and in what respects do they
differ.
23. We answer, that the articles A and THE are
both of them definitives, as by being prefixed tr: he
names of genera species they so circumscribe the la¬
titude of those names as to make them for the most
part denote individuals. A noun or substantive, without
M A R.
any article to limit it, is taken in its widest sense. Thus
the word man means all mankind 5
“ The proper study of mankind is man
where mankind and man may change places without
making any alteration in the sense. But let either of
the articles of which we are treating be prefixed to the
word man, and that word is immediately reduced from
the name of a whole genus to denote only a single indi¬
vidual; and instead of the noble truth which this line
asserts, the poet will be made to say, that the proper
study of mankind is not the common nature which is
diffused through the whole human race, but the man¬
ners and caprices of one individual. Thus far thereiore
the two articles agree ; but they differ in this, that
though they both limit the specific name to some indi¬
vidual, the article A leaves the individual itself unascer¬
tained ; whereas the article THE ascertains the indivi- 26
dual also, and can he prefixed to the specific name only The iadc-
when an individual is intended, of which something mayfiniU* an<1
he predicated that distinguishes it from the other ilu|i_t,Jc d.-tniiu.
viduals of the species. Thus, if I say—A man is jit for
treasons, my assertion may appear stiange and vague j
hut the sentence is complete, and wants nothing to
make it intelligible : but if I say—the man is fit for
treasons, I speak nonsense ; for as the article THE shows
that I mean some particular man, it will be impossible
to discover my meaning till I complete the sentence,
and predicate something of the individual intended to
distinguish him from other individuals.
“ The man that hath not music in himself, &c.
“ Is fit for treasons.” 
A man, therefore, means some one or other of the hu¬
man race indefinitely; the man means, definitely, that
particular man who is spoken of: the former is called
the indefinite, the latter the definite, article.
The two articles differ likewise in this respect, that The dif-
as the article A serves only to separate one individualo\i- t’erence Re¬
ject from the general class to which it belongs, it cannot|^ee11
be applied ioplurals. It has indeed the same significa¬
tion nearly with the numerical word one ; and in French
and Italian, the same word that denotes unity is also
the article of which we now treat. But the essence of
the article THE being to define objects, by pointing
them out as those of which something is affirmed or
denied which is not affirmed or denied of the other
objects of the same class, it is equally applicable to both
numbers : for things may he predicated of one set of
men, as well as of a single man, which cannot be predi¬
cated of other men. The use and import of each article
will appear from the following example : “ Man was
made for Society, and ought to extend his good-will
to all men; but a man will naturally entertain a more
particular regard for the men with whom he has the
most frequent intercourse, and enter into a still closer
union with the man whose temper and disposition suit
best with his own.”
We have said, that the article A cannot be applied
to plurals, because it denotes unity : but to this rule
there is apparently a remarkable exception in the use
of the adjectives Jew and many (the latter chiefly with
the word great before it), which, though joined with
plural substantives, yet admit of the singular article A :
two.
16 GRAM
Article.' as, a few men, a great many men. The reason of this
"V" is manifest from the effect which the article has in these
phrases : it means a small or a great number collec¬
tively taken, to which it gives the idea of a whole,
that is, of unity. Thus likewise a hundred, a thousand,
is one whole nwiiber, an aggregate of many collectively
taken, and therefore still retains the article A though
joined as an adjective to a plural substantive $ as, a
hundred years. The exception therefore is only appa¬
rent ; and we may affirm, that the article A universally
denotes unity.
£4. The indefinite article is much less useful than the
other ; and therefore the Greek and Hebrew languages
have it not, though they both have a definite article.
In languages of which the nouns, adjectives, verbs,
have inflexion, no mistake can arise from the want ofthe
indefinite article $ because it can always be known by
the terminations of the noun and the verb, and by the
circumstances predicated of the noun, whether a whole
species or one individual be intended. But this is not
the case in English. In that language, the adjectives
having no variation with respect to gender or number,
and the tenses of the verbs being for the most part the
same in both numbers, it might be often doubtful, had
we not the indefinite article, whether the specific name
was intended to express the whole species or only one in¬
dividual. Thus, if we say in English, Man was born
sent from God,” we must be understood to mean that
the birth of every man is from God, because to the
specific term the indefinite article is not prefixed. Yet
the words Eyenlo uvO^uTrti; uTrirccXpivog ©sov convey
no such meaning to any person acquainted with the
Greek language ; as the word without any
article, is restricted to an individual by its concord
with the verb and the participle 5 and the sense of the
passage is, A man was born {or existed') sent from God.
But though the Greeks have no article correspondent
to the article A, yet nothing can be more nearly rela¬
ted than their 'O to our THE, *0 gsta-^ivt—the king ;
—THE gift. In one respect, indeed, the Greek
and English articles differ. The former is varied ac¬
cording to the gender and number of the noun with
which it is associated, being «—masculine, ij—feminine,
to—neuter; and oi, ut,Tx, in the plural number: where¬
as the English article sulFers no change, being invariably
THE before nouns ol every gender and in both numbers.
There are, however, some modern languages which, in
imitation of the Greek, admit of a variation of their
article which relates to gender 5 but this cannot be
considered as essential to this species of words, and it
may be questioned whether it be an improvement to the
language.. In tongues of which the nouns have no
inflexion, it can only serve to perplex and confuse, as it
always presents a particular idea of sex where in many
cases it is not necessary.
A greater 25. The articles already mentioned are allowed to
number of be strictly and properly such by every grammarian ;
the English ^ut t!’ere are some wortls> sucl1 as this, that, any, some,
language other, &c. which are generally said to be some-
thau is times articles and sometimes pronouns, according to the
commonly different modes of using them. That words should
supposed, change their nature in this manner, so as to belong
sometimes to one part of speech, and sometimes to ano¬
ther, must to every unprejudiced person appear very
extraordinary j and if it were a fact, language would
5
MAR. Chap.:
be a thing so equivocal, that all inquiries into its na- Anid
ture upon principles of science and reason would be *■■■■ y-
vain. But we cannot perceive any such fluctuation in
any word whatever ; though we know it to be a gene*
ral charge brought against words of almost every de*
nomination, of which wTe have already seen one instance
in the possessive case of nouns, and shall now see another
in those words which are commonly called pronominal
articles.
If it be true, as we acknowledge it to he, that the
genuine pronoun always stands by itself, assuming the
power of a noun, and supplying its place, then is it cer*
tain that the words this, that, any, some, &c. can never
be pronouns. We are indeed told, that when we say
this is virtue, give me that, the words this and that
are pronouns; but that when we say, this habit is vir¬
tue, that man defrauded me, then are they articles or
definitives. This, however, is evidently a mistake oc¬
casioned by overlooking those abbreviations in con¬
struction which are frequent in every language, and
which, on account of that very frequency, have per¬
haps escaped the attention of grammarians whose sa¬
gacity has been successfully employed on matters
less obvious.—When we say this is virtue, it is evi¬
dent that we communicate no intelligence till we add
a substantive to the word this, and declare what is vir¬
tue. The word this can therefore in no instance as¬
sume the power of a noun, since the noun to which it
relates, though for the sake of dispatch it maybe omit¬
ted in writing or conversation, must always he supplied
by the mind of the reader or hearer, to make the sen¬
tence intelligible, or this itself of any importance.—>•
“ When we have viewed speech analysed, we may then
consider it as compounded. And here, in the first place,
we may contemplate that synthesis, which by combining
simple terms produces a truth ; then by combining two
truths produce a third ; and thus others and others in
continued demonstration, till we are led, as by a road,
to the regions of science. Now this is that superior
and most excellent synthesis which alone applies itself to
our intellect or reason, and which to conduct according
to rule constitutes the art of logic. After THIS we may
turn to those inferior compositions which are productive
of the pathetic,” &c.—Here, if any where, the word
THIS may be thought to stand by itself, and to assume
the power of a noun; but let any man complete the
construction of each sentence, and he will perceive that
this is no more than a definite article. Thus,—“ we
may contemplate that synthesis which by combining
simple terms produces a truth j then by combining two
truths produces a third truth ; and thus other truths and
othex truths in continued demonstration, till we are led,
as by a road, into the regions of science. Now this
combination of truths is that superior and most excellent
synthesis which alone applies itself to our intellect or
reason, and which to conduct according to rule consti¬
tutes the art ojlogic. Alter we have contemplated THIS
art, we may turn,” &c.
The word THAT is generally considered as still more
equivocal than this; for it is said to be sometimes an or-
ticle, sometimes * pronoun, and sometimes a conjunction.
In the following extract it appears in all these capaci¬
ties j and yet, upon resolving the passage into parts and
completing the construction, it will be found to he in¬
variably a definite article.—“ It is necessary to that per¬
fection,
'hap. II.
GRAM
Articles. Action, of which our present state is capable, that the
—y——/ mind and body should both be kept in action j that nei¬
ther the faculties of the one nor of the other be suffer¬
ed to grow lax or torpid for want of use: but neither
should health be purchesed by voluntary submission to
ignorance, nor should knowledge be cultivated at the
expence of health 5 for that must enable it either to give
pleasure to its possessor, or assistance to others.” If this
long sentence be resolved into its constituent parts, and
the words be supplied which complete the construction,
we shall see the import of the word that to be precise¬
ly the same in each clause. “ The mind and body
should both be kept in action $ that action is necessary
to THAT perfection of which our present state is capa¬
ble : neither the faculties of the one nor of the other
should be sufl'ered to grow lax or torpid for want of use ;
the degree of action proper to prevent that laxness is
necessary : but neither should health be purchased by
voluntary submission to ignorance, nor should know¬
ledge be cultivated at the expence of health ; for THAT
health must enable it either to give pleasure to its pos¬
sessor, or assistance to others.” Again :
“ He that’s unskilful will not toss a ball:”
“ A man unskilful (he is that) will not toss a ball.”
Here the word THAT, though substituted for what is
called the relative pronoun (e), still preserves unchan¬
ged its definitive import j and in every instance, except
where it may be used very improperly, it will be found
to be neither more nor less than a definite article.
26. It appears then, that if the essence of an article
be to define and ascertain, the words this and that, as
well as any, some, all, &c. which are commonly called
pronominal articles, are much more properly articles than
any thii\g else, and as such should be considered in uni¬
versal grammar. Thus, when we say, this picture I
approve, but THAT I dislike; what do we perform by
the help of the words this and that, but bring down
the common appellative to denote two individuals ; the
one as the more near, the other as the more distant? So
when we say, some men are virtuous, but all men are
mortal; what is the natural effect of this all and some,
but to define that universality and particularity which
would remain indefinite were we to take them away ?
The same is evident in such sentences as, some sub¬
stances have sensation, others want it ; Choose any
way of acting, and some men rvill find fault, &c.: for
here some, other, and any, serve all of them to define
different parts of a given whole j some, to denote any
indeterminate part; ANY, to denote an indefinite mode
of action, no matter what ; and OTHER, to denote the
remaining part, when a part has been assumed already.
27. We have said that the article is a part of speech
so very necessary, that without it, or some equivalent
invention (f), mankind could not communicate their
thoughts ; and that of words falling under this descrip-
iS tion, we know of no language which is wholly destitute,
irticles in w e are aware that these positions may be controvert-
ie Latin e(] . an(j tjlat tj)e may be instanced as a language
inguage. J 00
MAR. 17
which, without articles, is not only capable of commu- Article.',
nicating the ordinary thoughts of the speaker to the "v—
mind of the hearer, hut which, in the hands of Cicero,
Virgil, and Lucretius, was made to serve all the pur¬
poses of the most profound philosopher, the most im¬
passioned orator, and the sublimest poet. That the
Latin has been made to serve all these purposes cannot
be denied, although Lucretius and Cicero both com¬
plain, that on the subject of philosophy, where the use
of articles is most conspicuous, it is a deficient lan¬
guage. But should we grant what cannot be demand¬
ed, that those two great men were unacquainted with
the powers of their native tongue, our positions would
still remain unshaken j for we deny that the Latin is
wholly without articles. It has indeed no word of pre¬
cisely the same import with our THE or the Greek « j
but the place of the indefinite article A might be al¬
ways supplied, if necessary, with the numerical word
unus. It may be so even in English ; for we believe
there is not a single instance where the words one man,
one horse, one virtue, might not be substituted for the
words a man, a horse, a virtue, &c. without in the
slightest degree altering the sense of the passage where
such words occur. This substitution, however, can be
but very seldom if ever necessary in the Latin tongue,
of which the precision is much greater than that of
the English would be without articles j because the
oblique cases of the Latin nouns, and the inflexion of
its verbs, will almost always enable the reader to deter¬
mine whether an appellative represents a whole species
or a single individual.—The want of the definite article
THE seems to be a greater defect ; yet there are few
instances in which its place might not be supplied by
this or by that without obscuring the sense; and the
Latin tongue is by no means deficient of articles cor¬
responding to these two. Let us substitute the words
ONE and that for A and THE in some of the foregoing
examples, and we shall find, though the sound may be
uncouth, the sense will remain. Thus,
“ That man who hath not music in himself, &c.
“ Is fit for treasons,”. —
conveys to the mind of the reader the very same senti¬
ment which the poet expresses by the words “ the
man that hath not music,” &c. Again, “ Man was
made for society, and ought to extend his good-will to
all men ; but one man will naturally entertain a more
particular regard for those men with whom he has the
most frequent intercourse, and enter into a still closer
union with that man whose temper and disposition suit
best with his own.” Now the words Hie and ille be¬
ing exactly of the same import with the words this and
that ; it follows, that wherever the place of the article
THE may in English be supplied by THIS or by THAT,
it may in Latin be supplied by Hie or by ILLE. This
is the case with respect to Nathan’s reproof of Da¬
vid, where the definite article is indeed most empha-
tical. The original words might have been translated
into English, “ thou art that man,” as well as “ thou
art
(e) See more of this afterwards.
(f) As in the Persian and other eastern languages, in which the place of our indefinite article is supplied by
a termination to those nouns which are meant to be particularized.
Vol. X. Part I. f
C
i8
Articles. art ^>e man j” ant^ ‘n Latin they may with the utmost
v ^r—■' propriety be renilered, “ Tu es Me homo.” Indeed
the words Hie and 1LLE, and we might instance many
more, though they are commonly called pronouns, are
in truth nothing but deji?iite articles: Hie is evidently
exg ; and ILLE is most probably derived from the He¬
brew word al, in the plural ale; which may be trans¬
lated indifferently, either THE or that. But what
proves beyond dispute that these two words are not
pronouns but articles, is, that in no single instance will
they be found to stand by themselves and assume the
power of nouns. For the sake of dispatch, or to avoid
disagreeable repetitions, the noun may indeed be often
omitted $ but it is always supplied by the reader or
hearer, when HIC and ille appear in their proper glace,
and are seen to be invariably definite articles. We
shall give an example of the use of each word, and dis¬
miss the subject.
In the first oration against Catiline, Cicero begins
with addressing himself in a very impassioned style to
the traitor, who was present in the senate-house. He
then exclaims pathetically against the manners of the
u- age, and proceeds in these words: Senatus hwc intelh-
fillC <111(1 o’ * • t TT-• *£ Q *
Ille arti- gd, consul videt: HIC tamen vivit. vivits immoyero
cles. ctiam in senatum venit: fit pub/ici consilii particeps.
In this passage Hie cannot be a pronoun j for from
the beginning of the oration there occurs not a single
noun of which it can possibly supply the place. When
the orator uttered it, he was probably pointing with
his finger at Catiline, and every one of his audience
would supply the noun in his own mind, as we do when
we translate it, “ Yet this traitor lives.'1'' When Vir¬
gil says,
Ille ego, qui quondam gracili modulatus avena
Carmen,
it is obvious that he means, I am THAT MAN, or THAT
POET, who sung, &.c. ; and though we may translate
the words “ I am he who tuned his song,” &c. yet when
we construe the passage, we are under the necessity of
supplying either vates or vir, which shows that ille is
nothing more than a definite article signifying that or
THE. It appears then, that the Latin tongue is not
wholly destitute of articles, as few cases can occur where
the Greek « and our THE may not be supplied by the
words Hie and ille j which have in our opinion been
very improperly termed pronouns. If there be any
such cases, we can only confess that the Latin language
is defective y whereas, had it no articles, it is not easy
to conceive, how it could answer, to a cultivated people,
the ordinary purposes of speech.
28. The articles THIS and THAT, unlike A and THE,
are varied according as the noun, with which they are
associated, is in the singular or in the plural number.
Thus we say—this and that man in the singular, and
these and those men in the plural. The Latin articles
hie and ille, for such we will call them, are varied like
the Greek », not only with the number, but also with
the gender of their nouns. In languages, where the
structure of a sentence may be so changed from the or¬
der of nature, as it commonly is in Greek and Latin,
and where the reader is guided, not by the position but
by the terminations of the words, to those which are in
concord and those which are not, these variations of the
articles have their use $ but in English they are of no
Chap. II
importance.— Were it not that the custom of the lan- Articles,
guage—the forma loquendi, as Horace calls it—has de- *
termined otherwise, there would be no more impropriety
in saying this, or that men, than in saying some men, or
the men. 29
29. As articles are by their nature definitives, it fol- With w]la
lows of course, that they cannot be united with such'Y0,ds ar-
words as are in their own nature as definite as they may |11(^C|)Seca"'
be; nor with such words as, being ^indefinable, cannotm
properly be made otherwise; hut only with those words
which, though indefinite, are yet capable through the
article of becoming definite. Hence the reason why it is
absurd to say, the I, or THE Thou •, because nothing,
as will be seen afterwards, can make these pronouns
more definite than they are of themselves j and the same
may he said of proper names. Neither can we say, the
Both, because the word Both is in its own nature per¬
fectly defined. Thus if it be said—“ I have read both
poets,”—this plainly indicates a definite pair, of whom
some mention has been made already. On the con¬
trary, if it be said, “ I have read two poets,” this may
mean any pair out of all that ever existed. And hence
this numeral being in this sense indefinite (as indeed
are all others as well as itself), is forced to assume the
article whenever it would become definite. Hence also
it is, that as TWO, when taken alone, has reference to
same primary and indefinite perception, while the article
THE has reference to some perception secondary and
definite, it is bad language to say, two THE men, as this
would be blending of incompatibles, that is, it would be
representing two men as defined and undefined at the
same time. On the contrary, to say BOTH THE MEN, is
good language j because the substantive cannot possibly
be less apt, by being defined, to coalesce with a nume¬
ral adjective which is defined as well as itself. So like¬
wise it is correct to say, THE TWO MEN, THESE TWO
MEN, or THOSE TWO MEN j because here the article,
being placed at the beginning, extends its power, as
well through the numeral adjective as the substantive,
and tends equally to define them both.
30. As some of the above words admit of no article,
because they are by nature as definite as may be; so
there are others which admit it not, because they are not
to be defined at all. Of this sort are all interroga-
TIVES. If we question about substances, we cannot say,
THE WHO is THIS, hut who is this P And the same as
to qualities and both quantities: for we say, without an
article, WHAT SORT OF, HOW MANY, HOW GREAT ?
The reason is, the article THE respects beings of which
we can predicate something : hut interrogatives respect
beings about which we are ignorant, and of which we
can therefore predicate nothing; for as to what we know,
interrogation is superfluous. In a word, the natural as- With whf
sociators with articles are all THOSE common afpel-words th<
LATIVES WHICH DENOTE THE SEVERAL GENERA ANDnatnrally
SPECIES OF beings: and it may be questioned whe-associate‘
ther, in strictness of speech, they are ever associated
with any other words.
31. We have said that proper names admit not of
the article, being, in their own nature, definite. This
is true, whilst each name is confined to one individual;
but as different persons often go by the same name, it
is necessary to distinguish these from one another, to
prevent the ambiguity which this identity of name
would otherwise occasion. For this purpose we are
obliged
GRAMMAR.
Ihap/II. GRAM
.nicies, obliged to have recourse to adjectives or epithets. For
—v '* example, there were two Grecian chiefs who bore the
name of Ajax; and it was not without reason that
Mnestheus used epithets when his intention was to dis¬
tinguish the one from the other : “If both Ajaxes
cannot be spared (said he), at least let mighty Telamo-
nian Ajax come.” But as epithets are diffused through
various subjects, in as much as the same adjective may
be referred to many substantives, it has been said to be
necessary, in order to render both parts of speech
equally definite, that the adjective itself assume an ar¬
ticle before it, which may indicate a reference to some
single person onhj. It is thus we say—Trypho the
Grammarian; Apollodorus THE Cyrenian, &c. This
•is the doctrine of Mr Harris ; from which, though we
have the highest respect for the learning of the author,
we feel ourselves obliged to dissent. In the examples
given, the article the is certainly not associated with
the words Grammarian and Cyrenian, in the same man¬
ner in which it is associated with the word man in the
sentence—“ The man that hath not music in himself,”
&c. When we say Apollodorus the Cyrenian, we may,
without folly or impertinence, be asked—the Cyreman
what (g) ? And the moment this question is answer¬
ed, it will be seen that the article defines, not an adjec¬
tive, but a substantive. If the answer be, the Cyrenian
philosopher, the article THE is associated with the word
philosopher, and the phrase Apollodorus the Cyrenian, is
an abbreviation of Apollodorus THE philosopher of Cyrene.
In like manner, Trypho the grammarian, is Trypho the
grammarian writer, or Trypho the writer of grammar.
Such abbreviations are very common. We familiarly
say THE SPEAKER, and are understood to mean a high
officer in the British parliament j yet, as speaker is a
name common to many men, we may, without impro¬
priety, be asked, speaker we mean? and if so, we
must reply, the speaker of the house of commons. But
that which is eminent is supposed to be generally known •,
and therefore, in common language, THE SPEAKER is
deemed a sufficient designation of him who presides over
the lower house of parliament. Hence, by an easy tran¬
sition, the definite article, from denoting reference,comes
to denote eminence also : that is to say, from implying
an ordinary pre-acquaintance, to presume a kind ofge-
«era/and universal notoriety. Thus A king is any king;
hut THE KING is that person whom we acknowledge
for our sovereign, the king of Great Britain. In Greek
too, as in English, the article is often a mark of emi¬
nence ; for the poet meant Homer, and THE stagy-
rite meant Aristotle ; not but that there w re many
poets besides Homer, and many Stagyrites besides Aris¬
totle, but none equally illustrious.
’he^great 32, Before we dismiss the ARTICLE, we shall pro-
tiiity of duce one example to show the utility of this species of
his species words *, which, although they may seem to be of small
f words, importance, yet, when properly applied, serve to make
a few general terms sufficient for expressing, with ac¬
curacy, all the various objects about which mankind can
have occasion to converse. Let MAN be the general
term, which I have occasion to employ for the purpose
of denoting some particular. Let it be required to
(g) Man or child, philosopher.
/
M A R. 19
express this particular as unknown; I say A man:— Pronouns.
Known ; I say the man :—Difnite; a ceutain man: ‘
—Indefinite; any man:—Present, and near; THIS
man :—Present, and at some distance ; that man
Like to some other ; SUCH a man :—Different from some
other; another man :—An indefinite multitude ; many
men :—A definite multitude ; A thousand men:—The
ones of a multitude,‘taken throughout ; every man:—
The same ones taken with distinction ; each man
Taken in order ; first man, second man, &c. ;—The
whole multitude of particulars taken collectively ; all
men :—The negation oj that multitude ; no man
A number of particulars present and near ; these men;
—At some distance, or opposed to others ; those men ;
—A number of individuals separated from another num¬
ber ; other men:—A small indefinite number; few
men :—A proportionally greater number ; more men :
—A smaller number; fewer men :—And so on we
might go almost to infinitude. But not to dwell longer
upon this subject, we shall only remark, “ that minute
changes in principles lead to mighty changes in ef¬
fects; so that principles are well entitled to regard,
however trivial they may appear.”
Chap. III. Of Pronouns, or Substantives of the se¬
cond order.
33. To men who are neither intoxicated with their
own abilities, nor ambitious of the honour of building
new systems, little pleasure can accrue from differing
upon points of science from writers of great and de¬
served reputation. In such circumstances a man of
modesty, although he will not upon the authority of a
celebrated name adopt an opinion of which be per¬
ceives not the truth, must always advance his own no¬
tions with some degree ot diffidence, as being conscious
that the truth which he cannot perceive, may be visible
to a keener and more perspicacious eye. In these cir¬
cumstances we feel ourselves with regard to some of the
most celebrated writers on grammar, from whom, con¬
cerning one or two points, comparatively indeed of but
little importance, we have already been compelled reluc¬
tantly to differ. In treating of pronouns we are likely
to deviate still farther from the beaten track *, but that
we may not be accused of acting the part of dogmatists
in literature, and of claiming from others that implicit
confidence which we refuse to give, we shall state with
fairness the commonly received opinions, point out in
what respects we think them erroneous, assign our rea¬
sons for calling them in question, and leave our readers
to judge for themselves. The most celebrated writer in
English who has treated of pronouns, and whom, since
the publication of his Hermes, most other writers have
implicitly followed, is Mr HARRIS, who, after a short
introduction, proceeds thus : -2
34. “ AH conversation passes between individuals T\\e com-
who will often happen to be till that instant «/war<y7/a/w/<?c?ni0,dy snp-
with each other. What then is to be done? How shall
the speaker address the other, when he knows not ffisper8onal
name? or how explain himself by his own name, otpronouns.
which the other is wholly ignorant ? Nouns, as they
C 2 have
orator, poet, or soldier, &c. ?
20
■Pronouns, have been described, cannot answer this purpose. The
—v——^ first expedient upon this occasion seems to have been
pointings or indicating by the finger or hand; some
traces of which are still to be observed, as a part of
that action which naturally attends our speaking. But
the authors of language were not content with this;
they invented a race of words to supply this pointing;
which words, as they always stood for substantives or
nouns, were characterised by the name of PRONOUNS.
These also they distinguished into three several sorts,
calling them pronouns of the first, the second, and the
third person, with a view to certain distinctions, which
may be explained as follows.
“ Suppose the parties conversing to be wholly unac¬
quainted, neither name nor countenance on either side
known, and the subject of the conversation to be the
speaker himself. Here to supply the place of pointing,
by a word of equal power, the inventors of language
furnished the speaker with the pronoun I; I write, I say,
I desire, &c. : and as the speaker is always principal
with respect to his own discourse, this they called, for
that reason, i\\e pronoun of the first person.
“ Again, suppose the subject of the conversation to
be the party addressed. Here, for similar reasons, they
invented the pronoun thouj THOU writes*, THOU
walkest, &c.: and as the party addressed is next in
dignity to the speaker, or at least comes next with re¬
ference to the discourse, this pronoun they therefore
called the pronoun of the second person.
“ Lastly, suppose the subject of conversation neither
the speaker nor the party addressed, but some third ob¬
ject different from both. Here they provided another
pronoun, HE, she, or IT ; which, in distinction to the
two former, was the pronoun of the third person:
And thus it was ih^t pronouns came to be distinguished
by their respective PERSONS.”
36. The description of the different persons here
given is taken, we are told, from Priscian, who took
it from Apollonius. But whatever be the deference
due to these ancient masters, their learned pupil, though
guided by them, seems not to have hit upon the true and
distinguishing characteristic of the personal pronouns.
He supposes, that when the names of two persons
conversing together are known to each other, they
may, by the use of these names, express all that the
personal pronouns express: but this is certainly not
true. To us, ^t least, there appears to be a very ma¬
terial diflerence between saying, “ George did this,”
and “ I did this;” nor do we think that the power of
the pronoun would be completely supplied by the name,
even with the additional aid of indication by the hand.
So when one man says to another, with whom he is
conversing, “ James did so and so j” it is surely not
equivalent to his saying, “ you did so and so.” If
such were the case, one might pertinently ask, when
both persons are known to each other, Why do they
use the personal pronouns ? Mr Harris tells us, that
“ when the subject of conversation is the speaker him¬
self he uses I and when it is the party addressed, he
uses THOU.” But in fact the nature of the personal pro¬
nouns has no sort of connection with the subject of con¬
versation,whether that conversation relate to the speaker,
the party addressed, or a Greek book. In this sentence,
** \isay that the three angles of every triangle are equal
to two right angles,” the speaker is surely not the sub-
Chap. II
ject of the discourse ; nor is the party addressed, but the Pronons
truth of his assertion, the subject of discourse in the' -- /—
following sentence ;—“ Ton say, that Horne Tooke's Di¬
versions of Parley is the most masterly treatise on gram¬
mar, so far as it goes, that you have ever seen.” Mr
Harris uses the phrase, becoming the subject of conversa¬
tion, in no other sense than that when the speaker has
occasion to mention himself, he uses I; when the party
addressed, THOU ; and when some other person or thing,
HE, she, or it : but we know that we may use other
words, by no means equivalent to the two first of these
pronouns, which will sufficiently mark himself, and the
party addressed; and that he may use indifferently, and
without the smallest injury to the sense, either the third
pronoun, or the word for which it is merely a substitute.
A man who bears various characters, may design him¬
self by any one of them. Thus Mr Pitt may speak
of himself as first lord of the treasury, chancellor of the
exchequer, or member for the university of Cambridge;
and in each case he would be what Mr Harris calls
the subject of conversation: yet everyone feels that
none of these designations is equivalent to /. What
then is the force of the personal pronouns ? ^
37. It appears to be simply this: lihefirst denotes the The re#
speaker, AS CHARACTERISED BY THE PRESENT ACT OF import 0
speaking in contradistinction to every other character^™'
which he may bear. The second denotes the party ad¬
dressed, as CHARACTERISED BY THE PRESENT CIRCUM¬
STANCE OF BEING ADDRESSED, in contradistinction to
every other character, &c.: And what is called the pro¬
noun of the third person is merely a NEGATION OF THE
OTHER TWO, as the neuter gender is a negation of the
masculine and feminine. If this account of the personal
pronouns be true, and we flatter ourselves that its truth
will be obvious to every body, there is but one way of ex¬
pressing by other words the force of the pronouns of the
first and second person. Thus, “ The person who now
speaks to you did so and so,” is equivalent to “ I did so
and so j” and “The person to whom I now address myself
did so and so,” is equivalent to “ You did so and so.”
Hence we see why it is improper to say the I or the
thou j for each of these pronouns has of itself the force
of a noun with the definite article prefixed, and denotes a
person of whom something is predicted, which distinguish¬
es him from all other persons. I is the person who now
speaks, thou is the person who is now addressed by the
speaker. Hence too we see the reason why the pronoun
1 is said to be of the first, and the pronoun THOU of the
second person. T hese pronouns can have place only
in conversation, or when a man, in the character of a
public speaker, addresses himself to an audience ; but it
is obvious, that there must be a speaker before there can
be a hearer; and therefore, that the pronouns may fol¬
low the order of nature, 1, which denotes the person of
the speaker, must take place of THOU, which denotes^
the person of the hearer. Now the speaker and the
hearer being the only persons engaged in conversation
or declamation, I is with great propriety called the
pronoun of the first, and thou the pronoun of the se¬
cond person. 'VVe have said, that, with respect to pro¬
nouns, the third person, as it is called, is merely a nega¬
tive of the other two. This is evident from the slightest
attention to the import of those words which are called
pronouns of the third person. He, she, or it, denotes
not the person either of the speaker or of the hearer;
and,
GRAMMAR.
21
4 mp. nr.
onoum. and, as we have just observed, no other person can have
' —v~~~*~ a share in conversation or declamation. An absent per¬
son or an absent thing may be the subject of conversation,
but cannot be Xhespeaker or the person addressed. He,
SHE, and it, however, as they stand by themselves, and
assume theof nouns, are very properly denominated
pronouns; but they are not joer.90»n/pronouns in any other
sense than as the negation of sex is the neuter gender.
38. We have already seen that nouns admit of num¬
ber; pronouns, which are their substitutes, likewise ad¬
mit of number. There may be MANY speakers at once
of the same sentiment, as well as 072?, who, including
himself, speaks the sentiment of MANY ; speech may
likewise be addressed to MANY at a time, as well as to
ONE ; and the subject of the discourse may likewise be
MANY. The pronoun, therefore, of every one of the
persons must admit of number to express this singula¬
rity or plurality. Hence the pronoun of the first per¬
son I, has the plural WE ; that of the second person
THOU, has the plural YE or YOU ; and that of the third
person HE, SHE, or IT, has the plural THEY, which is
equally applied to all the three genders.
The Greeks and Romans, when addressing one per¬
son, used the pronoun in the singular number thou ;
whereas, in the polite and even in the familiar style, we,
and many other modern nations, use the plural YOU.
lie second Although in this case we apply YOU to a single person,
:rsonal yet the verb must agree with it in the plural number ;
ronoun it must necessarily be, you have, not you hast. You
^ral'nun*6 WAS—the second person plural of the pronoun placed
in agreement with the first or third person singular of
the verb, is an enormous, though common, solecism,
which ought to be carefully avoided. In very solemn
style, as when we address the Supreme Being, we use
THOU—perhaps to indicate that he is God alone, and
that there is none like unto him ; and we sometimes use
the same form of the pronoun in contemptuous or very
familiar language, to intimate that the person to whom
we speak is the meanest of human beings, or the dear¬
est A. most familiar of our friends. A king, exerting
his authority on a solemn occasion, adopts \\\& plut'al of
the first person, “ we strictly command and charge
meaning, that he acts by the advice of counsellors, or
rather as the representative of a whole people. But in
all cases in which the use of the pronoun deviates from
the nature of things, the verb in concord deviates with
it; for, as will be seen afterwards, these two words
universally agree in number and person.
39. But though all these pronouns have number,
neither in Greek, Latin, or any modern language, do
ie first and 0f t|ie frst an j second person carry the distinctions
InT'have1* Sex* ^ie reason *s °bvious (h), namely, that sex and
o varia-
on s to de-
GRAMMAR.
:r when
ily one
x-son is
[dressed.
he pro-
onus of
all other properties and attributes whatever, except Pronoun?,
those mentioned above as descriptive of the nature of 1 v
these pronouns, are foreign from the intention of the
speaker, who, when he uses the pronoun 1, means THE
PERSON WHO NOW speaks—no matter whether man
or woman : and when the pronoun thou—the per¬
son—no matter whether man or woman—to WHOM
HE NOW addresses HIMSELF—and nothing more.
But the pronoun of the third person denoting neither In this re-
the speaker nor the hearer, but the subject of the dis-spect the
course, and being merely the substitute of a noun which
may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter, must of peispn
necessity agree with the noun which it represents, and differs from
admit of a triple distinction significant of gender. In the first
English, which allows its adjectives no genders, thisHn^secon(*-
pronoun is HE in the masculine, SHE in the feminine,
and IT in the neuter; the utility of which distinction
may he better found in supposing it away. Suppose tor
example, that we should in history read these words :
He caused him to destroy him—and were informed that
the pronoun, which is here thrice repeated, stood each
time for something different; that is to say, for a man,
for a woman, and for a city, whose names were Alex¬
ander, Thais, and Persepolis. Taking the pronoun
in this manner—divested of its gender—how would it
appear which was destroyed, which the destroyer, and
which the cause that moved to the destruction ? But
there is no ambiguity when we hear the genders distin¬
guished : when we are told with the proper distinc¬
tions, that SHE caused HIM to destroy IT, we know
with certainty, that the prompter was the woman ; that
her instrument was the hero; and that the subject of
their cruelty was the unfortunate city.—From this exr
ample we would be surprised how the Italians, French,
and Spaniat'ds, could express themselves with precision
or elegance with no more than two variations of this
pronoun.
40. Although in every language with which we are
acquainted, there is hut one pronoun for each of the 0f pro-
first and second persons; and although it is obvious noun?,
from the nature and import of those words, that no
more can be necessary ; yet the mere English reader
may perhaps be puzzled with finding three distinct
words applied to each ; I, MINE, and ME, for \\w first
person ; thou, THINE, and thee, for the second. The
learned reader will see at once that the words MINE and
ME, THINE arid THEE, are equivalent to the genitive
nnA accusative cases of the Latin pronouns of fhe first
and second persons. That mine is a pronoun in
the possessive case is obvious ; for if I were asked
“ whose book is that before me ?” I should reply—
“It is mine (1);” meaning that it belongs to me.
That
ote sex,
ud why.
(h) The reason assigned by Mr Harris and his followers is, that “ the speaker and hearer being generally
present to each other, it would have been superfluous to have marked a. distinction by art, which from nature
and even dress was commonly apparent on both sides. This is perhaps the best reason which their description
ot the personal pronouns admits, but it is not satisfactory; for the speaker and hearer may meet in the dark,
when different dresses cannot be distinguished.
(1) It we mistake not, Dr Johnson has somewhere affected to. ridicule Bishop Lowth for considering the
word MINE as the possessive case of the pronoun of the first person. According to the doctor, MINE is the same
word with the pronominal adjective MY ; and was anciently used before a vowel, as MY was before a consonant.
Ibis is not said with the great Lexicographer’s usual precision. That MINE was anciently used before a vowel
is certain ; but it does not therefore follow, that it is the same word with m y. If it were, we might on every
occasion
22
G R
Pronouns. That the word ME is the same pronoun -in the case
v—. i > which the Latin grammarians call the accusative,
is evident from the import of that word in the sen¬
tence HE ADMIRES ME, where the admiration is sup¬
posed to proceed //ww (k) the person spoken of to the
person who speaks. It appears therefore, that though
English nouns \\&\q only two cases, the nominative and
possessive, the pronouns of that language have three, as
], MINE, ME ; THOU, THINE, THEE j HE, HIS, HIM, &C.
That these are cases, can be questioned by no man who
admits that mei, mihi, me, are cases ot the Latin pronoun
EGO. Both pronouns, the Latin and the English, are ir¬
regularly inflected : and perhaps those words which are
called the oblique cases of each may have originally
been derived from nominatives difierent from EGO and
I; but these nominatives are now lost, and met and
mine have, beyond all dispute, the efltct of the geni¬
tives of the Latin and English pronouns of the first per¬
son. These variations, however, cannot be looked
upon as an essential part of language, but only as a par¬
ticular refinement invented to prevent the disagreeable
repetition of the pronoun, which must frequently have
happened without such a contrivance. This seems
to have been the only reason why pronouns have been
endowed with a greater variety of cases than nouns.
Nouns are in themselves greatly diversified. Every
genus and every species of objects has a distinct name,
and therefore the sameness of sound does not so often
occur among them as it would among the pronouns,
without cases, where the same I, thou, he, she, or
it, answers for every object which occurs in nature :
but by this diversity in the form of the words, the cacor
phonia, which would be otherwise disgusting, is in a great
measure avoided. It is, probably, for the same reason,
that the plural of each of these pronouns is so very dif¬
ferent from the singular. Thus from I, MINE, ME, in
the singular, is formed, in the plural, WE, OURS, usj
from THOU, THINE, and THEE, YE or YOU, YOURS,
you ; and from he, she, it, his, hers, its, him, her,
it, in the singular, THEY, theirs, them, in the plural.
In all of which there is not the least resemblance be-
tw’een the singular and plural of any one word : and ex¬
cept in he, his, him; it, its; they, theirs, them;
there is not any* similarity between the diflerent cases
of the same word in the same number.
The first 41' ■^'roni ^ie account here given of the personal
and second pronouns, it appears that the first or second will, either
personal of them, coalesce with the third, but not with each
pronouns other. For example, it is good sense, as well as good
grammar, to say in any language, I AM HE—THOU ART
he—WE WERE THEY YOU WERE THEY; but we can¬
not say 1 AM THOU nor THOU ART I—nor WE ARE
YOU, &c. The reason is, there is no absurdity for the
speaker to be the subject also of the discourse, as when
it is said—1 am he j or for the person addressed, as when
we say, thou art he. But for the same person, in the
same circumstances, to be at once the speaker and the
party addressed, is impossible ; for which reason the
A M M A R. ' Chap. Ill,
coalescence of the pronouns of the first and second per- proilomi!
sons is likewise impossible.
42. I, THOU, HE, SHE, and IT, are all that are usually 39
called personal pronouns. There is another class ofPl0nomi-
words, which arecalled sometimes pronominal adjectives
sometimes adjective pronouns, sometimes possessive pro¬
nouns ; and by one writer of grammar they have been
most absurdly termed pronominal articles. It is not
worth while to dispute about a name ; but the words in
question are MY, THY, HER, OUR, YOUR, THEIR. These
words are evidently in the form of adjectives : for, like
other English adjectives, they have no variation to in¬
dicate either gender, number, ox case ; and yet they are
put in concord with nouns of every gender and both num¬
bers, as MY WIFE, MY SON, MY BOOK HER HUSBAND,
HER SONS,HER DAUGHTERS,&c. But,though in iheform
of adjectives,they have the power at the personalpronouns
in the possessive case: MY BOOK is the book oj ME, or the
book of mu who now speaks ; our house is the house
of us, or the house occupied by the PERSONS WHO NOW
speak; her husband, is the husband oi a woman who
can be known only from something preceding in the dis¬
course ; and THEIR PROPERTY is the property of them—
of any persons, whether men or ivomen, or both, who
have been previously mentioned. Words which have the
form of adjectives, with the power of pronouns, may,
coalesce
wiili the
third.
without impropriety, be called pronominal adjectives
and such is the name by which we shall henceforth dis¬
tinguish them. To these pronominal adjectives as well
as to the personal pronouns, are subjoined the words
own and self-—in the plural selves: in which case they
are emphatical, and imply a silent contrariety or oppo¬
sition. Thus, I live in my own house ; that is, not in a
hired house. This 1 did with my own hand; that is,
not by proxy. This was done by myself; that is, not
by another. The word self subjoined to a personal Pro" xhe teci-
noun forms also the reciprocal pronoun ; as we hurt our-
selves by vain rage ; he blamed himself for his misfor- noun.
tune. Himself, itself, themselves are supposed by Wallis
to he put, by corruption, for his self, its self, their
selves; so that self is always a substantive or noun, and
not a pronoun. This seems to be a just observation ;
for we say, the man came himself; they went them¬
selves ; where the words himself and themselves can¬
not he accusatives but nominatives, and were anciently
written his self, their selves.
There are other words which are usually ranked
under the class of pronouns: as who, which, what.
These, when employed in asking questions, are called
interrogative pronouns; though a name more characte¬
ristic might surely be found for them. Their import,
however, will be more easily ascertained after we have
considered another species of pronouns, which have
been denominated relatives, and with which they are
intimately connected.
43. The pronouns already mentioned maybe called xhe tela
prepositive, as may indeed all substantives, becausetive pro-
they are capable of introducing or leading a sentence : noun.
but
occasion substitute either of these for the other, without offending grammar, however we might injure the
sound ; but we apprehend that this is not the case. “ That book is MINE,” is good English ; but “ that book is
my'"' would be a gross solecism: the reason is, that mine a. genuine pronoun, and stands by iV.se/fwith the
power of a noun ; but MY, being an adjective, cannot stand by itself.
(k) See Chap. I. 18, 19. on the Cases of Nouns. 5
I m H MR
si ie pio-
u n:
C iap. III. GRAM
i .nouns but there is another pronoun which has a character
w -y—'!> peculiar to itself j and which, as it is never employed
but to connect sentences, and must therefore have al¬
ways a reference to something preceding, is called the
subjunctive or velcitive pronoun# This pronoun is in
Greek, aj, i, l ', in Latin, QUI, QUK, quod j and in
English, WHO, WHICH, WHAT.
44. In order to determine with precision the nature
and import of the relative pronoun, it will be necessary
to ascertain the powers which it contains, or the parts
of speech into which it is capable of being resolved.
R iresents Now, it is obvious, that there is not a single noun, or
a noun, prepositive pronoun, which the relative is not capable of
o irepo- representing : for we say, I, WHO saw him yesterday,
cannot be mistaken'. You, WHO did not see him, may have
been misinformed; THEY, WHO neither saw nor heard,
can know nothing oj the matter ; THE things, which
he exhibited, were wonderful. From these examples it
is apparent, in the first place, that the relative contains
in itself the force of any other pronoun j but it contains
something more.
45. If from any sentence in which there is a re¬
lative, that relative be taken away, and the prepositive
pronoun, which it represents, be substituted in its
stead, the sentence will lose its bond of union, and stand
quite loose and unconnected. Thus, if instead of say¬
ing the man is wise who speaks little, we should say
the man is wise HE speaks little, the sentence would be
resolved into two ; and what is affirmed of the man’s
wisdom, would have no connection with the circum¬
stance of his speaking little. Hence it is evident, in the
second place, -that the relative contains the force of a
connective as well as of the prepositive pronoun. What
mective. of connection it denotes, is next to be ascer¬
tained.
46. It may be laid down as a general principle,
“ that, by means of the relative pronoun, a clause of a
sentence, in which there is a verb, is converted into the
nature of an adjective, and made to denote some attribute
oi-Asubstance, or some property or circumstance\w\aY\j\ng
to the antecedent noun?' Thus, when it is said, homo
quiprudentiaprceditus est, the relative clause—quipru-
dentia preedit us est, expresses nothing more than \\w qua¬
lity ef prudence in concrete with the subject homo, which
might have been equally well expressed by the adjective
prudens. In like manner, when we say, vir sapit qui
pauca loquitur, the relative clause expresses the property
of speaking little as belonging to the man, and as being
that quality which constitutes, or from which we in-
43
1 con¬
us be¬
es the
ee of a
MAR. 23
fer, his wisdom ; but if there were such a word as pan- Pronouns.
ciloquens, that quality might very properly be ex- —v—'
pressed by it, and the phrase vir sapit pauciloquens
would express the same assertion with vir sapit qui
pauca loquitur.
Now if a relative clause expresses that which might
be expressed by an adjective, the presumption is, that
it may be resolved into the same constituent parts. But
every adjective contains the powers of an abstract sub¬
stantive, together with an expression of connection j
and may be resolved into the genitive case of that sub- ^
stantive, or into the nominative with the particle o/’pre-Of the
fixed, which, in English, corresponds to the termination same ,?1*
of the genitive in the ancient languages. That the *
member of a sentence, in which there is a relative, may, prcp0_
in every instance, he analysed in the same manner, will sition of.
he apparent from the following examples. Vir qui sapit,
vir sapiens, and vir sapientice; “ a man who is wise, a
wise man, and a man of wisdom j” are certainly phrases
of the same import. Again, homo, cui ingratus est
animus, tmilus fit amicus, may he translated into Greek,
uvQ^uTroi k>cx(>irlicts Koocof ; and into English,
“ the man of ingratitude is a bad triend.”
47. Thus then it appears, that the relative pronoun
contains in itself the force of the prepositive pronoun,
together with \\\*K. connection implied in English by the
preposition of, and in the ancient languages by the ge¬
nitive case. When one says vir sapit qui pauca loquitur,
the relative clause qui pauca loquitur expresses that at¬
tribute of the man from which his wisdom is inferred :
it is conceived by the mind, as stript of its propositional
form, and standing in the place of a substantive noun
governed in the genitive case by vir. The whole sen¬
tence might be thus translated, “ the man of little
speaking is wise j” or, did the use of the English lan-
guaiie admit of it, “ the man of he speaks little is wise.”
In like manner, when it is said, “ Man who is horn of
a woman is of few days and full of trouble j”—the re¬
lative clause is equivalent to an abstract noun in the ge¬
nitive case, and the whole might be expressed in the
following manner, “ man of he is born of a woman is of
few days and full of trouble.”
We are sensible, that these expressions into which,
in the instances adduced, we have resolved the relative
clauses, will appear extremely uncouth and offensive j
hut we mean not to recommend them as common modes
of phraseology. Against their being employed as such,
present use loudly remonstrates (l). They are intro¬
duced onlv with a view to show the true import of the
relative
41.
iei<:
ef'
ut.
(l) It is worthy of observation, however, that, repugnant as such expressions are to the present idiom of the
English language, there is nothing in the nature of the thing that could render the use of them improper. All
prepositions, as will he seen afterwards, are expressive of relations subsisting between these objects of which they
connect the signs in discourse. Those objects may he denoted, either by single words, and then the preposition
will govern a noun; or by assertions, and then it will govern a nominative and a verb. Thus, when it is said,
“ I came after his departure j” the preposition after expresses the relation between two events—my coming and
his departure, and governs a substantive noun : hut if it is said, “ I came after he departed,” the preposition in
this case (for, as shall he shown afterwards, it is absurd to call it, in the one instance, a preposition, and in the
other a conjunction) expresses the same relation as before, but governs a nominative and a verb.
This last expression is exactly similar to those employed above. When one says, for example, “ the man of
he speaks little is wise —however uncouth the expression may appear from its not being supported by the au¬
thority ol custom, the preposition of is used precisely in the same manner, and serves the very same purpose,
as when it is said, “ the man of little speaking is wise.” In both cases it denotes the relation between the two
objects—*-
24
Pronouns, relativepromvn ; and for that purpose they are well
v—•' adapted. That pronoun seems to be of use only when
there is a deficiency of adjectives or substantives to de¬
note some complex attribute by which we want to limit a
general term or expression. Where such adjectives or
substantives exist in language, we may indeed use the
relative or not at pleasure. Thus we may say, homo
qui grandia loquitur, or homo grandiloquus; because
the adjective and the relative clause are precisely of the
same meaning. But if the Latins were called upon to
translate <ev0g«3r«f cevlodidxxl*!, we believe they must
have made use of the relative pronoun, as we know not
any correspondent adjective in their language.
48. The learned and ingenious Mr Harris has, in
his Treatise on Universal Grammar,given an analysis of
45 the relative pronoun very different from that which has
Mr Har- i,een g;ven by us. The result of his inquiry is, that
take on this ^ie re^a^ve equivalent to another pronoun, together
subject. with an expression of connection of that kind which is
denoted by the particle and. This analysis he exem¬
plifies, and endeavours to confirm by the following sen¬
tence : “ Light is a body which moves with great ce¬
lerity.” Now, says he, instead of which substitute
the words and it, and in their united powers you see
the force and character of the pronoun here treated.
But let any one attentively consider these two expres¬
sions,—“ Light is a body which moves with great ce¬
lerity,”—and “ Light is a body and it moves with
great celerity j” and he will find that they are not pre¬
cisely equivalent. For to speak in the language of lo¬
gic, there is in the^irstf but one proposition, of which
the subject is light, and ihepredicate a complex term ex¬
pressed by the words—body which moves with great cele-
nty. In the second there are two propositions, or two
prcf/sra^OHsconcerninglight:—hrs\.,thatitisabody; and
secondly, that it moves with great celerity. The relative
clause, in the first case, expresses a.property of the ante¬
cedent body, which with that property is predicated of
the subject light ; in the second case, this property is
removed from the predicate of which it was an essential
part, and is improperly converted into a new predication
GRAMMAR. Chap. Ill
of the subject. The sentence may be resolved upon our Pronouns
principles, and its precise import preserved; as—“ Light
is a body of it moves with great celerity ; the clause—
“ it moves with great celerity,” is conceived by the
mind as having the force of an abstract substantive,
and is connected with the antecedent body by the pre¬
position of, answering to the termination of the genitive
case. This abstract substantive thus connected expres¬
ses a quality of the body light. But by this example
Mr Harris’s doctrine is not exhibited in all its absur¬
dity : let us try it by another.
Suppose the following assertion to be. true j
“ Charles XII. was the only monarch who conquer¬
ed kingdoms to bestow them on his friends.” Here it
is evident there is but one proposition, of which the
predicate is expressed by the words—“ only monarch
who conquered kingdoms to bestow them on his
friends $” so that the relative clause is a necessary part
of the predicate, and has, like an absti'act noun in the
genitive case, the effect of modifying the general term
monarch. Resolve this sentence on Mr Harris’s prin¬
ciples, and you have two propositions of which the
first is a notorious falsehood :—“ Charles XII. was
the only monarch ; and he conquered kingdoms to be¬
stow them on his friends.” But instead of and substi¬
tute of—saying, “ Charles XII. was the only mo¬
narch of he conquered kingdoms to bestow them on his
friendsf and you preserve the true import of the ex¬
pression (m).
49. Are there no cases, then, in which the relative
may be resolved into the connective and with a prepo¬
sitive pronoun ? Undoubtedly there are, and we shall
now endeavour to ascertain them.
Adjectives in language have two different effects up-In some
on the substantives to which they belong, according cases Mr
to the nature of the attribute which they express. Harris’s
the attribute expressed by the adjective be competent to^1^1|*_|
all the species of which the substantive is the specific tive maj
name, it is plain that the adjective does not modify or admitted
limit the substantive, for this obvious reason, that no¬
thing can modify which is not discriminative. Thus,
when
45
objects—man and little speaking ; only in the one it is prefixed to a noun, in the other to an assertory clause of
a sentence, the import ot which is to be taken as a noun. Custom hath indeed determined that prepositions shall
more frequently govern a noun than a nominative and a verb ‘t but they are, in their own nature, equally well
adapted to answer both purposes.
But, as the pronoun of the third person is merely the substitute of some noun, an objector may ask, What noun
is here represented by he? “ The moo of he speaks little is wise !” Who is meant by the pronoun he? W7e an-
svyer, the man who is declared to be wise. The objection proceeds from inattention to the radical signification
of the word of, which a late ingenious writer has shown to be the fragment of a Gothic or Anglo-Saxon word,
signifying consequence or offspring. If this be admitted, and, after the proofs which he has given, we think it
cannot be denied, the uncouth phrase, “ The man of he speaks little is wise,” may be thus resolved, “ The
man, a consequence^ (of his mind is) he speaks little, is wiseor, in other words, “ The man, in consequence of
his speaking little, is wise.” 1.116 same acute writer, hlr Horne Tooke, has shown that of and for, though of
different radical meanings, may often be substituted the one for the other without injury to the sense. Let this
substitution be made in the present instance, and the propriety of the phrase will be apparent: “ The man is
wise /or he speaks little.” It must be remembered, however, that such a substitution cannot be made in every
instance, because /or signifies cause, and of signifies consequence.
(m) Mr Harris was probably led into his opinion, from considering the Latin qui or quis as compounded of
que and is (see Hermes, page 81, 82. edit. 3 \). But the notion of Perizonius is perhaps better founded, who
in his notes ad Sanct. Minerv. considers it as immediately taken from the Greek tk, which in the Doric is made
*.ii, and in the Latin For it seems highly probable, as some ingenious writers have endeavoured to show,
that the Latin is a dialect of the Greek. Of this at least we are certain, that many words in the former are im¬
mediately adopted from the latter.
III.
GRAMMAR.
25
ronouns. When Horace says, Prata cauls alblcant pruinis,”
■■■.» the adjective canis denotes a quality common to all
hoarfrost; and therefore cannot modify the substantive^
because it adds nothing to the conception of which that
substantive is the name. But when the attribute ex¬
pressed by the adjective is competent to some individuals
only of the species of which the substantive is the name,
the adjective has then the effect of modifying ov limiting
the substantive. Thus, when one says vir bonus, he
makes use of an adjective which modifies the substantive
vir, because it expresses a quality or attribute which
-does not belong to all men.
The clause of a sentence, in which there is a rela¬
tive, as it is in every other respect, so is it in this,
equivalent to an adjective; it either modifes, or does not
viodij'y, the antecedent, according as the attribute which
it expresses is or is not characteristic of the species to
which the antecedent belongs. Thus, when it is said,
4< Man, who is born of a woman, is of few days and
full of trouble,” the relative clause—who is born of a
woman, expresses an attribute common to all men, and
•therefore cannot modify. In like mariner when we say
*»-“ SOCRATES, who taught moral philosophy, was
virtuous,”—the clause, who taught moral philosophy,
does not modify. In both these instances the relative
clause might be omitted; and it might be said with
equal truth, “ Man is of few days and full of trouble,
—and “ Socrates was virtuous.”
But if it be said, vir sapit quipauca loquitur, the re¬
lative clause—quipauca loquitur, modifes K.\\e antecedent
vir ; for it is not affirmed of every man, that he is wise,
but only oisuch men as speak little. So—“CharlesXIl.
was the only monarch who conquered kingdoms to be¬
stow them on his friends;” and, “ the man that endu-
reth to the end shall be saved ;” with many more eS-
47 ampies that will occur to every reader,
hat these Nmv it will be found, that it is only when the rela¬
tive clause expresses such a property or circumstance of
the antecedent as does not limit its signification, that
therelatwe pronouncnnbereso\\ei[ into a. prepositive pro¬
noun with the conjunction and, and that in these cases
the relative clause itself as of very little importance.
Thus in the assertion,—“ Charles XH. was the only
monarch who conquered kingdoms to bestow them on
his friends,”—-where the relative clause is restrictive,
the who cannot be resolved into and he consistently
with truth or common sense. But in the expression,
” Man, who is born of a woman, is of few days and full
of trouble,” the relative may be so resolved, at least
without violating truth “ Man is of few days and
full of trouble, and he is born of a woman.” The only
difference between the sentence with the relative who,
and the same sentence thus resolved,—is—that, in the
former case, itcontains butane predication ; in the latter
two, anti these but loosely connected.
50. Thus then it appears that the general analysis of
the relative pronoun is into the particle of, and a preposi¬
tive pronoun ; but that there are also occasions on which
it may be resolved into a prepositive pronoun and the
particle and, without materially altering the sense. Now
what is the reason of this distinction ?
If the relative clause be equivalent to an adjective, or
to an abstract substantive in the genitive case, it is easy
to see that the relative itself may, in every instance, be
resolved into another pronoun and the particle of; but
Vol. X. Part I. V J v
it will not perhaps be quite so evident how it should in Pronoun*.
any instance be resolved by and. This last analysis has ' 
its foundation in the nature of the particles of and and;
or, to speak more properly, in the nature of the attri¬
bute which the relative clause expresses. Both the par¬
ticles of and and are used to link or join conceptions
together; but with this difference, that o/has the ef¬
fect of making the conceptions it connects figure in
the mind a.* one object; whereas the conceptions connec¬
ted by and are still conceived separately as before. To
explain ourselves by an example : suppose we take two
words, man and Virtue, which denote two'distinct ideas
or conceptions, and join them together by the particle
tf, saying man of virtue; the mind no longer views
them separately as significant of two conceptions, hut of
one. Take the same words, and join them together by
the particle and, saying man and virtue : the concep¬
tions denoted by man and virtue are still viewed sepa¬
rately as two; notice is only given that they are colla¬
terally connected.
This being the case, it follows, that when the rela¬
tive modifies the antecedent, or, in other words, when
the relative clause and the antecedent denote but one
conception, the relative must then be resolved by of, in
order to preserve this unity of conception. But when
the relative does not modify the antecedent; that is,
when its clause does not express any wecewary part of a
complex conception, then the conceptions or ideas de¬
noted by the relative clause and the antecedent may be
viewed separately as two; and therefore the relative may
be resolved into the corresponding prepositive pronoun
and the particle and.
lo state this reasoning in a light somewhat different.
As every relative clause, which expresses an attribute
that is not applicable to a whole genus or species, must
necessarily modify some general term, that is, restrict its
signification ; and as that general term must belong ei¬
ther to the subject or to the predicate of a proposition; it
is evident, that every such relative clause is a necessary
part of that subject or predicate in which its antecedent
stands. If therefore a relative clause, which modifies,
be taken avOay either from the subject ov the predicate of
a proposition ; or if that connection, in consequence of
which it modifies, be dissolved (which is always done
when the relative is resolved by and) ; the proposition
itself will not hold true. The reason is, that the subject
or the predicate becomes then too general : for, in the
one case, something is predicated of a whole genus or
species, which can be predicated only of some individuals
of that genus or species; and in the other, a general pre¬
dication is made where only a particular one can be ap¬
plied. Thus, if it be said, “ All men who transgress the
laws are deserving of punishment;” the subject of the
proposition is expressed by the words, u all men who
transgress the laws.” Take the clause of the relative
“ who transgress the laws”—away, and say, u all men
aredeserving of punishment;” and yon have a proposition
which is not true, because thatisaffirmed of the whole spe¬
cies which can be affirmed only of some individuals. Re¬
taining now the clause of the relative, but resolving it by
and, you have the same proposition as before ; and toge¬
ther with it, in this instance, another which is equally
false :—“ All men, and they transgress the laws, are
deserving of punishment;” that is, “ all men are de¬
serving of punishment, and a// men transgress the laws.”
D But
26
GRAM
Pronouns.
But when the attribute expressed by the clause of
the relative is characteristic of the genus or species of the
antecedent, and consequently applicable to every indivi¬
dual which that genus or species comprehends, the re¬
lative clause may be entirely omitted without affecting
the truth of the proposition, which is already as gene¬
ral as it can be. As in this case the import of the re¬
lative clause is not restrictive of the signification of the
antecedent, it is of little consequence whether the at¬
tribute be represented by the connective part of the re¬
lative, as of the antecedent, or be affirmed to belong to
the antecedent in a separate assertion. Thus it matters
not much, whether we say, “ Man, who is subject to
death, ought not to be too much elated that is, ac¬
cording to our analysis, “ Man of he is subject to death,
ought not to be too much elated or, forming the
relative clause into a separate assertion, and connecting
the two by the particle and, tve say, “ Man, and he
is subject to death, ought not to be too much elated.”
In the one sentence, indeed, the reason is implied rvhy
man should not be too much elated, viz. his being subject
to death: in the other, no reason is assigned for this j we
only affirm that man is subject to death, and likewise
that he should not be too much elated : but as both af¬
firmations are equally true and evident, it is of little con¬
sequence in such a case as this, whether the reason upon
which either is founded be implied or not.
51. From the whole of this tedious investigation, we
respecting flatter ourselves that the following conclusions are dedu-
die relative ce{| an(j sufficiently established : 1st, That the relative
pronoun contains in itself the united powers of a connec¬
tive and another pronoun. 2dly, That q/'is the connec¬
tive of which, together with another pronoun, \t contains
the powers, as in every possible instance it may be re¬
solved into these constituent parts, and the import of the
sentence in which it has place remain unaltered. 3dly,
That the relative clause of a sentence has the import of
an abstract substantive, in the ancient languages, in the
genitive case ; in English, with the particle of prefixed.
4thly, That the relative pronoun is of necessary use only
where there is a deficiency oiadjectives or substantives to
denote some complex attribute, by which we want to limit a
gcneraltermor expression; but thatwhere such adjectives
or substantives exist in language, we may use the I'cla-
tive or not at pleasure. And, 5thly, That though, in
4S
Conclusion
pronoun.
cases where the relative clause does not limit a steneral
O
M A R. 4 Chap. Ill
another clause, in which there is a verb, an attribute of pronom
the object denoted by that substantive, we then employ 1 ^
the relative pronoun. Now it seldom happens that the
two clauses admit of the. same regimen ; and hence the
case of the relative is often necessarily different from that
of the antecedent, as the case of each must be accom¬
modated to the clause in which it is found. Thus we
cannot sav, “ Deus yz/f colimus bonus est}” but, “ Deus
colimus bonus est because the regimen of the
verb colo is always the accusative. ^
Th is shows the necessity of introducing a relative in-Why ifce
to those languages which give inflexions to their nouns, relativek
Were all the nouns of a language indeclinable, there usel1
would be little occasion for a relative 5 and accordingly jearnf(nai
in English it is often omitted. Examples are frequent RUagestk
in our best authors. Suffice it to quote the following, in the Ed;
lish.
“ For I have business would employ an age.”
Jane Shore.
“ I had several men died in my ship of calentures.”
Swift.
“ They who afi’ect to guess at the object cannot see.”
Bolingbroke.
term, the relativemay, without violating truth,
be. analysed by and ; yet such analysis is never proper,
as it gives two predicates to the same subject, which, in
the original proposition, had but one predicate.
52. If the clause of the relative be equivalent to an
adjective, as in every instance it seems to be, it will
naturally occur, that in the ancient languages, the re¬
lative should agree with its antecedent in gender, num¬
ber, and case. They do agree for the most part in
gender and number ; in case they cannot often, because
the very intention of introducing a relative into lan¬
guage is to represent the antecedent in a different case.
Whenever we have occasion to use a substantive ov noun
in a clause of a sentence, and afterwards to express by
We are not ignorant that our most eminent gramma¬
rians consider such expressions as chargeable with im¬
propriety j and we are far from recommending them
in any dignified or solemn composition. But in the
instances adduced there is not the smallest degree of
obscurity ; at least there is none occasioned by the omis¬
sion oj'the relative. The reason seems to be, that the
mind can easily, by an effort of its own, make the an¬
tecedent unite, first with the one clause, and then with the
other. Thus when it is said—“ I have business would
employ an age :” the mind can, without any difficulty,
as the word business has no inflexions, consider it first
as the objective case after have, and then as the nomi¬
native to ew/?/oy ; but this cannot be so easily
done in the ancient languages, where the termination of
the noun is changed by the variation of its cases.
53. Both in the learned and in the living languages
the relative has different forms, corresponding to the
different 0/'nouns ; and by these it gives notice
whether it is applied to persons, or to things without life.
Thus in the English language we sayr, The man or the
woman who went to Rome ; The tree which stands
on yonder plain. It admits likewise, when applied to
males or females, a variation of cases similar to that of
the personal pronouns. Thus we say, The man whose
book is now before me ; The man or woman whom I saw
yesterday: but the neuter admits of no such distinction
(n) ; as we say the tree which I saw, as well as the
tree which stands on yonder plain. In modern lan¬
guages the relative admits not of any distinction to de¬
note number ; for we say, The man or the men who
came yesterday ; The man or the men of whom I speak. -c
54. In English, the word THAT, which by some has The woi
been called a demonstrative pronoun, by others a prono- ttiat olu
minal article, and by us a definite article, is often used
instead of the relative, as in the following examples: ^
“ He is the same man that I saw yesterday:—He wasncdn.
the
1
(n) “ Whose is by some authors made the possessive case of which, and applied to things as well as persons j I
think, improperly.” Lowth,
xlldiap. III.
si
l d why
i Iocs so.
S*
teiroga-
ire pro-
)uns
the ablest prince that ever filled atlirone.” With regard
1 to the principle upon which this acceptation of the word
that depends, we offer the following conjecture.
In English, from the cool and phlegmatic arrange¬
ment of the language, occasioned by the want of in¬
flexions and conjugations, the place of every part of a
sentence is almost uniformly determined, and very little
variety is allowed in the collocation of the words. The
adjective is almost always placed in apposition with its
substantive, and the nominative with its verb. In con¬
sequence of this uniformity in the collocation of the
words, the mind acquires a habit of connecting in idea
any kind of word with the place in which it is used to
stand; and is naturally led to consider every wor'd that
stands in such a place as belonging tosuch aclass. Hence
it is, we imagine, that the definitive that passes into
the nature of the relative pronoun ; as in those instances
in which it occupies the place of the relative, it was
natural to consider it as having the same import. Yet
the word that has undoubtedly in itself no more the
force of the relative pronoun than the or this, or any
other definitive whatever. In such expressions as the
foregoing, it is not improbable that originally the
clause of the definitive that, which we now call the
relative clause, was thrown in as a kind of modifying
circumstance in the following manner : “ The book
(I read that) is elegant j” where the speaker, finding
the word book too general for his purpose, throws in a
clause to qualify and restrict it, or to confine his affir¬
mation to that particular book which he is then read¬
ing. We can easily suppose, that through time the
definitive that in such an expression might be transpo¬
sed or removed from its own place to that of the rela¬
tive: so that the expression would run thus, “ The book
that I read is elegant which would be considered as
precisely equivalent to “ The book which I read is ele¬
gant.” This opinion is not a little confirmed by a
similar use of the article in Greek, which though un¬
doubtedly a definitive like the English the, is often used
instead of the relative pronoun. Numberless examples
may be found in Homer and Herodotus, especially in the
latter, who seldom uses what is properly called the rela¬
tive. We shall produce one instance from each.
Hinxi Ar^iicinv AyctpipvMX, TON Trsg* 7irxi]a>v
Zet/j innKe ttovokti Iliad x. 88
Ogxioi<ri yxQ piyxXetTi tcxlufttila (Adtivxtoi sell.') cikx
ihx K(pa-i<r&xi vopotri TOTS xv crcptiri ’ZoXuv QrUxi,
Herod. Clio.
55. We have said that the interrogative pronouns, as
they are called, xvho, which, what, are intimately con¬
nected with relatives ; we now affirm, that the two jirst
of these words are nothing but relatives, and that the
last contains in itself the united powers of a relative and
definitive. With respect to cases, number, and gender,
the words who and which, when employed as interroga-
tives, differ not from the same words when employed
as relatives; and we hold it as a maxim, without which
science could not be applied to the subject of language,
that the same word has always the same radical import
in whatever different situations it may be placed. To
understand this, it is necessary to observe, that all men
have a natural propensity to communicate their thoughts
in the fewest words possible: hence it follows, that words
are often omitted which are necessary to complete the
GRAMMAR. 27
construction of the sentence ; and this nowhere happens Pronouns,
more frequently than in the use of who and which. In —v—
sentences where these words are confessedly relatives,
we often find them without an antecedent; as,
“ Who steals my purse steals trash.” Shakespeare.
“ Which who would learn, as soon may tell the sands.”
Hrydek.
“ QuiBavium nonodit, amet tuacarmina, Mcevi. Virg.
“ That is, “ He who steals my purse, &c. •,” “ Which
he who would learn, as soon, &c.}” and “ Ille qui
Bavium non odit, &c. Such abbreviations occasion no
obscurity, because from previous circumstances the
hearer knows the mind of the speaker and the persons
to whom he refers. But it is not with respect to the
relative and antecedent only that such abbreviations have
place : in sentences of a different form, whole clauses
are sometimes omitted, while the meaning of the speaker
is made sufficiently plain. Thus when King Richard
III. having lost his horse in battle, exclaims,
“ A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse !”
there is no complete thought expressed ; but the circum¬
stances in which the king then was, enabled those about
him to understand that hz wanted ahorse. Accordingly
Catesby answers him,
“ Withdraw, my lord, I’ll help you to a horse.”
In like manner, when a person asks a question, his
expression is frequently incompletej but the tone of his
voice, or some other circumstance, enables us to ascer¬
tain his meaning, and to supply, if we please, the words
that are omitted. Thus when it is said, Anfecistif
nothing more is expressed than If you did it (the Latin
an being nothing else but the Greek xi, 5/) ; but some
circumstance enables the person who hears it to know
that the meaning is, “ Say if you did it.” Let us
apply these observations to the words who and which.
If these w’ords be relatives, and if our analysis of the
relative be just, it is obvious, that no complete meaning
can be contained in the clause, “ Who is your principal
friend ?” for that clause contains nothing more than the
circumstance o{ being your principal friend predicated
of some unknown person ; “ of he is your principal
friend.” That this is indeed the case, every man may
be convinced, by asking himself what he means by the are merely
interrogative xvho in such a sentence j for he will find l'e^atiTe ?
it impossible to affix to it any meaning without supply-a!ul
ing an antecedent clause, by which that which is called
an interrogative will be immediately converted into the
relative pronoun. The custom, however, of language,
and the tone of voice with which the relative clause is
uttered, intimates, without the help of the antecedent,
the wish of the speaker to be informed by the person
addressed of the name and designation of his principal
friend •, and we know that the sentence when completed
is, “ Tell me the name and designation of the person
who is your principal friend.” Again, when the pro¬
phet says, “ who is this that cometh from Edom, with
dyed garments from Bo/.rah ?” he utters but part
of a sentence, which when completed will run thus :
“ describe the person who cometh from Edom (this
is that person), with dyed garments from Bozrah.”
He sees a person coming from Edom, of whose name
D 2 and
2 8
GRAMMAR.
Verbs.
54
interroga¬
tive sen¬
tences re-
anti designation lie is ignorant $ he calls upon some one
for information concerning these particulars $ and that
there may be no mistake, he describes the unknown
person as having dyed garments from Bovirah ; hut lest
even that description should not be sufficiently accurate,
he throws in the definitive clause, this is that person,
pointing at him, we may suppose, with his finger.—
Which, used as an interrogative, indicates a wish of
knowing a particular person or thing out of more than
one mentioned as, “ Which of the two did it ?” that
is, “ J'ell me the one of the two which did it ?” for in
old English which as a relative is often used, where in
modern English we should say who; and that mode of
speech is still retained when the antecedent is omitted,
and the relative clause employed to indicate such a wish
as that before us. IFhat includes in itself the significa¬
tion of a definitive and a relative pronoun ; as, “ from
what lias gone before, what follows may easily be
guessed j” where the word what is equivalent to that
which. When therefore we say, “ What rude fellow
is that ?” our meaning is, “ Describe person who
is that rude fellow.” Upon the whole, then, it is evi¬
dent, that the words called interrogatives are merely
relative pronouns; and that interrogative sentences are
latlvlTclau-relative clauses uttered in such circumstances as to en-
ses. able the hearer to supply the antecedents necessary to
complete the meaning.
56. To conclude : We have seen that SUBSTANTIVES
are either primary or secondary; or, in other words,
NOUNS or PRONOUNS. Nouns denote substances, and
those either natural, artificial, or abstract. They more¬
over denote things either gevzm?/, or special, or particu¬
lar ; and a general or specific name is made to denote
an individual by means of words called articles or defi¬
nitives. Pronouns are the substitutes of NOUNS, and
are either prepositive or subjunctive. The Preposi¬
tive is distinguished into three orders, called the first,
the second, and the third person. The subjunctive,
otherwise called the RELATIVE, includes the powers of
all those three, having superadded as of its own the pe¬
culiar force of a connective.
Chap, IV. Of Verbs.
57. The words which we have hitherto considered
are commonly called substantives primary or secondary,
and definitives ; because nouns are significant of sub¬
stances ; pronouns are the substitutes of nouns; and the
article serves to ascertain the extent of the noun, and to
determine whether on any occasion it be significant of a
55 whole class of substances, or only of one individual. But
Substances substances are of importance to mankind only on ac-
ot import- count of their various qualities or ath'ibutes ; for their
foTtheh'* !nternal texture is a thing of which we are profoundly
qualities or *Snoran^> an<^ vv*^1 'vfiich we have no manner of con-
aitributes. cern. Thus, experience teaches us, that certain vege¬
tables are pleasant to the taste, and wholesome food j
whilst others are unpleasant and poisonous. The for¬
mer kinds are valuable only for their qualities or attri¬
butes ; and they are the qualities or attributes of the
latter that make them worthless or hurtful. A horse
is strong, and swift, and docile ; and may be trained
to carry a man on a journey, or to drag a plough. It
is for his strength, swiftness, and docility, that he is the
most valuable of all quadrupeds. One man is brave,
Chap.. IV
another learned, and another eloquent ; and by posses- Verb-
sing these different qualities, or attributes, each is fitted y—1
for a different station in society. It is plain, therefore, 56
that in contemplating substances, our attention must be ^ 'le,e 15
principally bestowed upon their qualities, and that the
words which serve to denote these qualities must be an ei] aUrj.
essential part of language. Such words are in general.Imtives:
called attributives ; and are of three sorts, Verbs,.Far- ^e*e an
ticiples, and Adjectives. verb*, jxr,
58. Of all the constituent parts of speech none
has given the grammarians greater trouble than the^v^.
VERB. The vast variety of circumstances which it
blends together in one word, throws very considerable
difficulties in the way of him who attempts to analyse
it and ascertain its nature ; at the same time, that hy_., 5]-~
its eminent use in language, it is intitled to all the at-cultyofa
tention which can he bestowed upon it. To the dis-certainin
cussion of the verb, Mr Harris, whose notions of thisibe natm
as of the other parts of speech have been generally01 tlie
adopted by the subsequent writers on grammar, has
dedicated a large proportion of his hook, in which he
has thrown out many excellent observations, mixed, as
it appear to us, with several errors. We have already
observed, that no man is ignorant when he uses what
is called a verb and when a noun. Every schoolboy
knows, that the words IS, loveth, walketh, stand-
Eth, in English ; and est, amat, amatur, ambulat,
stat, in Latin, are verbs : he knows likewise that they
are of different kinds; that some of them are said to be
active, some passive, and some neuter. But it should
seem that the first object of our investigation ought to
be the characteristic of the verb, or that which all these
words have in common, and which constitutes them
verbs, distinguishing them from every other species of
words. Now it is obvious to the slightest attention,Tjie?cS1)a.
that every verb, whether active, passive, or neuter, may racteriiti
he resolved into the substantive verb is, and another of the tci
attributive : for loveth is of the same import with is
loving ; WALKETH, with is walking; and AMAT, with
AMANS est. But loving, walking, and AMANS, are not
verbs : whence it follows, that the characteristic of the
verb, that which constitutes it what it is, and cannot
be expressed by other words, must he that which is sig¬
nified by the word is j and to us that appears to be nei¬
ther more nor less than assertion.
Assertion, therefore, or predication, is certainly
the very essence of the verb, as being that part of its
office, and that part only, which cannot be discharged by
other kinds of words. Every other circumstance which
the verb includes, such as attribute, mode, time, &c. it
may be possible to express by adjectives, participles, and
adverbs ; but without a verb it is impossible to prcdicatey
to affirm or deny, any one thing of any other thing.
I he office of the VERB, then, when stript of all acciden¬
tal circumstances, seems to be merely this, “ To join
together the subject and predicate of a proposition
its powers are analogous to those of the sign -f- in
Algebra, which does not affect the separate value of
the quantities between which it is placed, hut only in¬
dicates their union or coalescence. To explain by an ex¬
ample: When we say,Cicero eloquens, Cicero wise; these
are imperfect sentences, though they denote a substance
and an attribute. The reason is, that they want an
assertion, to show that such an attribute appertains ta
such a substance. But when we insert the word was
IV. • G R
we join the substance and attribute together*, we give
notice that the wisdom and eloquence are applied to
Cicero, and we do nothing more : we neither increase
the wisdom nor diminish it, we neither make it real
nor imaginary ; for it was supposed in all its ex¬
tent when the words Cicero and wise stood inde¬
pendent of each other. We may indeed use the verb
in a form which implies not an assertion only, but like¬
wise an attribute ; as when we say George writeth, or
George walketh: But as whiteness or any other parti¬
cular colour is not of the essence of a horse, an animal
which is found of all colours; so in the phrases quoted,
the attribute, though implied, is not of the essenceo\ the
verb; for it may be equally well expressed by other
words: George is writing, and George IS walking, are
phrases of the very same import with George writeth
and Geprge walketh.
59. In resolving every verb, whether active, passive,
or neuter, into the substantive verb is and another at¬
tributive, we have the honour to agree with all the
grammarians; but to the word is itself the learned au-.
thor of Hermes has given a meaning which, as a verb,
it does not admit. He observes, that before any thing
can be the subject of a proposition, it must exist : that
all existence is either absolute or qualified, mutable or im¬
mutable: that the verb IS can by itself express absolute
existence, but xmxer \\w qualified, without subjoining the
particular form ; and that it signifies both mutable and
immutable ewsience, having in these cases different mean¬
ings ; although the sentences which he gives as exam¬
ples are evidently constructed in the same manner and
consist of the same parts of speech. His examples are:
aiabsolute existence, B IS ; o\'qualified, B IS an animal;
of mutable. This orange is ripe ; of immutable. The dia¬
gonal of the square is incommensurable with its sides.
But if predication be the essence of verb, all this is no¬
thing to the purpose, and part of it is not true. It is not
true that the verb IS ever varies its signification ; for
it hath as verb no connection with existence of any
kind. All such circumstances are superadded to its
verbal nature ; or, to speak more accurately, we infer
such circumstances from our previous knowledge of
the objects concerning which the predication is made.
When we say, “ this orange IS ripe,” we do indeed
mean, as Mr Harris observes, that it is so now at this
present in opposition to past and future time: hut it is
not the verb IS, but the definitive THIS, which fixes
the time of maturity, as well as the place of the orange;
for had we said oranges are ripe, we might have been
properly asked, When and where are they ripe P although
the same verb is used in both sentences. Even in the
sentence “ B is,” absolute existence (the most simple of
all) is inferred, and not expressed, by the verb; and the
inference is made from this obvious principle, “ That
when one utters a mark of predication, we naturally
conclude that he means to predicate something of the
subject.” If he adds no specific predication, as B is
29
Verb*.
M M A R.
round, we apply to B the most general that we can j
and what other species is so general as existence?
That the idea of existence, considered as mutable or
immutable, is not contained in the verb is itself, but is
derived from our knowledge of the objects concerning
which the predication is made, appears manifestly from
this : That if a person be supposed ignorant of the mean¬
ing of the words God and MAN, whilst he knows that of
IS; the uttering of the two propositions God is happy,
and this man is happy, will give him no notice of exist¬
ence considered as mutable or immutable, temporary or
eternal (o). His conclusion with respect to these modes
of existence, if any such conclusion be drawn at all,
must be derived entirely from his previous knowledge
of the nature of God and the nature of man.
Some of our readers may possibly tbink this notion
of verb too abstract and metaphysical ; yet what other
circumstance than mere predication is essential to that
species of words ? We say essential; for we are here in¬
quiring, not what is expressed by each individual verb,
but what it is which is equally expressed by all verbs,
and which distinguishes them from the other parts oj
speech. And if it be true, that every thing which the
verb im plies,/ira//ca//0« alone excepted, may be ex pressed
by other parts of speech, and that no other parts of speech
CAnpredicate; then we think ourselves warranted to af¬
firm, that simple predication is the essential characte¬
ristic of VERB, that every word which predicates is a
VERB, and that nothing is so which does not predicate.
It must not, however, be concealed, that a doctrine An objee-
very dilFerent from this has been lately maintained by l‘on t0 ouf
a writer of distinguished abilities. “ We have energy
expressed,” says Dr Gregory (p), “ and ot course a
verb constituted without affirmation, when we wish or
command; without command, when we affirm or wish ;
without wish, when we command or affirm : yet in all
these cases we have equally and indisputably a verb.”
That in all these cases ive have a verb, is indeed in¬
disputable ; but we hold it to he equally indisputable,
that in all these cases we have affirmation. The inge¬
nious author has given no direct example of a wish or
command uttered without affirmation; and a feeling or
sentiment which is not uttered has nothing to do with
language : but he has given a sentence in which there
are three verbs, that in his opinion denote no affirma¬
tion, hut a very plain supposition. If a supposition can
be expressed without affirmation, we shall very readily
allow that a wish or command may be so expressed
likewise. The Doctor’s supposition is thus expressed :
‘* Had any punishment ever overtaken you for your,
broken vows ; were but one of your teeth growing
black, or even rvere but one of your nails growing less
beautiful, I should believe you.” It is almost super¬
fluous to observe, that to every verb not in the infini¬
tive mode there must be a nominative, and to every
active verb an object, whatever be the arrangement of
the sentence in which such verbs are found. These
59
(o) The truth of this observation may be proved by experiment, by uttering to a man of good common sense
these two propositions, taking care to express the words God and man in a language which he does not under¬
stand. 'I bus, Deus is happy, and hie homo is happy, uttered to a man totally unacquainted with the Latin
tongue, will convey no notice of existence considered as mutable or immutable, &c.
(p) Theory of the Moors of Verbs, published in Yol. It. of the Transactions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh.
S
30
Verbs. »re truths known to every schoolboy j the reasons of
'■——v—' them shall he given afterwards. It is likewise unde¬
niable, that in the sentence before us, the nominative
to had is any punishment; to the first, were one of your
teeth ; and to the second, one of your nails. But the
sentence arranged in grammatical order, with the se¬
veral nominatives before their respective verbs, is evi¬
dently elliptical; and the conjunction if must he sup¬
plied as well to complete the construction as to make
sense of the passage. I/’ any punishment had ever
answered, overtaken you •, if but one of your teeth were grow¬
ing black, or even if but one of your nails were grow¬
ing less beautiful, I should believe you.” Now it has
lately been proved, by such evidence as leaves no room
for doubt, that/£ though called a conjunction, is in fact
a verb in the imperative mode, of the same import with
give; so that we may substitute the one for the other
without in the smallest degree altering the sense. The
sentence will then run thus : “ Give any punishment
had ever overtaken you •, give but one of your teeth
were growing black, &c. I should believe you.” It
is therefore so far from being true, that had and were,
when the sentence is completed, express no affirma¬
tion j that it is only upon granting the truth of the
ajf rmation which they denote, that the speaker says, “ I
should believe you.” “ Any punishment had ever over¬
taken you,” is plainly an affirmation ; if, give that
affirmation, admit its truth, “ I should believe you.”
But it cannot be supposed that had and were change
their significations by a mere change of place, or that
by being removed from the middle to the beginning of
a clause, they lose their original import, and come to
denote something entirely different. Were this the case,
every attempt to ascertain and fix the general princi¬
ples of grammar would be as ridiculous as an attempt
to arrest the course of time. For what purpose then,
it may be asked, if the verb always denotes affirmation,
is it removed from the middle to the beginning of the
clause, when supposition is implied as in the present in¬
stance ? We answer, that supposition is neither more
nor less than conditional affirmation; that when such
affirmation is coOTjo/ete/y expressed, the verb is remo¬
ved to the beginning of the clause j and that such remo¬
val takes place only when the clause is elliptical, being
merely an artificial contrivance in language, to show
the reader or hearer that some such word, as if, de¬
manding the truth of the affirmation, is omitted for the
sake of dispatch. This is evident $ for when the
word requiring the affirmation to be granted is supplied,
the verb must be restored to its place in the middle of
the clause. Such abbreviations, and such contrivances
to mark them, are frequent in all languages, as will be
seen more clearly when we come to treat of modes.
Chap. IV
Upon the whole, notwithstanding the deference which Verb*.
we willingly pay to this very masterly writer, we are 1 v—-
compelled reluctantly to differ from him, and still to
think that simple predication is the essence of the verb. 6[
Should we be required to exemplify our theory byThetheor
language, and to produce instances of this simplified itself ese#
verb in practice, we might answer, that the not beingP'1^-
able to produce such instances would be no good argu¬
ment against the truth of our principles. It is the
nature of language to express many circumstances by
the same word, all of which however are not essential to
distinguish the species to which that word belongs from
the other species of words ; and it is the nature of man
to infer from discourse many things which are not
actually expressed. Perhaps, however, something nearly
approaching to an exemplification of our idea of a
simple verb will be found in the following proposition :
“ The three angles of every plane triangle are equal to
two right angles.” What other office the verb are
here performs than simply to join the subject and pre¬
dicate, it is difficult-to perceive. It does not give notice
of time; or such notice, if given, is an imperfection*,
for the truth of the proposition is independent on time.
Neither ought it to imply existence; for the proposition
would be true, were there neither a triangle nor a
right angle in nature.
This idea of verb, when it is well considered, we
hope will be found just; but should any of our readers
suspect it of novelty, and on that account be disposed
to condemn it, we have only to request that he will re¬
strain his censure till he has examined the writings of
others, and nicely observed the several postures of his
own mind in discourse $ for meditation may perhaps
show him that our theory is not false, and inquiry will
satisfy him that it is not novel (q_). ()l
60. But although it is certain that assertion, and as-Thegiee
sertion only, is essential to the verb, yet the greater part pan of
of that species of words which grammarians call A?verbs 1,6
are used to denote an attribute as well as an assertion
or, in the language of logic, they express both the copu- combinej
la and the predicate of a proposition : thus, he liveth, he with an
writeth, he walketh,oxo phrases equivalent in all respects sclt*on
to—he is living, he is writing, he is walking. Now, of
attributes some have their essence in motion, as walking ;
some in the privation of motion, as resting; and others
have nothing to do with either motion or its privation, as
white and black. But all motion and all privation of
motion imply time as their concomitant; and a substance
may have an attribute to day which it bad not yesterday,
and will not have to-morrow. This is self-evident ; for
a man may he at rest to-day \\\\o yesterday was walking,
and to-morrow will he on horseback; and a sheet of pa¬
per may have been white yesterday, which to-dav is
black.
GRAMMAR.
((-0 “ Besides words, which are names of ideas in the mind, there are a great mariy others that are made use of
to signify the connection that the mind gives to ideas or propositions one with another. The mind in communicating
its thoughts to others, does not only need signs of the ideas it has then before it, but others also to show or intimate
some particular action of its own at that time relating to those ideas. This it does several ways; as is and is
NOT are the general marks of the mind affirming.or denying.” Locke on Human Understanding.
“ Verbum est pars orationis variabilis, aliquid de re aliqua dici seu affirmari significans. Vulgaris verbi de-
fimtio est, quod, sit pars orationis, quaj agere, pati, aut esse significet. Sed nostra accuratior, magisque ex ip° t
verbi cujnsvis natura petita videtur. Caeterum rs affirmari laxiore hie sensu accipimus, pro eo quod praedicaii
Dialectic! appellent, quo non modo affirmationes strictius sic dictae, sed negationes etiam interrogationesque in-
eluduntur.” liuddimanni Grammatical Imtilutiones. nUo Dr BeattiSs Theory of Lana-naas. ^
ii- 6 3
/i verbs
■Jote
ti e: hence
t origin
o ;nkes
64
time
pre-
verbs
three-
f h
IV. GRAM
black, and at some future time will be of a different co¬
lour. As, therefore, z\\motions z.\v\ their privation imply
time: and as -aproposition may be true,at one time,\vhich
Is not true at another ; all vbirbs, as well those which
denote both an attribute and an assertion, as those which
denote an assertion only, come to denote TIME also :
Hence the origin and use of tenses, which are so many
different forms assigned to each verb, to show, without
altering its principal signification, the various times in
which the assertion expressed by it may be true. Whe¬
ther these various forms of the verb be essential to lan¬
guage, it is vain to dispute. They have place in every
language with which we are acquainted j and as the
u-e of the vei l) is to affirm one thing of another, it is
absolutely necessary that the time, when such or such
an affirmation is true, be marked by tenses, ov some other
contrivance. Concerning tenses, therefore, we shall throw
together some observations equally applicable -to every
language, after premising a general remark or two which
seem necessary in order to proceed with precision.
61. Time, although its essence consists in succession
continued and unbroken, may yet be considered by the
mind as divided into an infinite number of parts. There
is, however, one grand division which necessarily oc¬
curs, and to which the different tenses of verbs are in all
languages adapted.—Computing from some portion
conceived to be present, all time is either/ws/ or to come.
hence ^ence the tenses oi verbs are threefold ; some denoting
tenses time present, some time past, and others time future.
Again, from the very nature of time, it must be ob¬
vious, that all its parts are relative ; i. e. that no por¬
tion of it can be ascertained by any thing inherent in
itself, but only by referring it to some other portion,
with respect to which it xspast, present, or to come. In
this respect time is perfectly analogous to space : for as
the space in which any object exists, cannot be described
but by stating its relation to some other space; so neither
can the time of any attribute or action be determined,
but by stating its relation to some other time. When,
therefore, we would mark the time of any action or
event, we must previously fix upon some point to which
we may refer it. If this point be known, the time
referred to it will be known also •, but if the former be
not known, neither will the latter.
Lastly, in contemplating an action, we may have
occasion to consider it as going on, or as finished. This
distinction is likewise denoted by the difi’erent tenses of
verbs. In treating, therefore, of the tenses, there are
two things to which attention ought principally to be
turned }—the relation which the several tenses have to
one another in respect of time ; and the notice which they
give of an action’s being completed or not completed.
62. Having premised these remarks, we proceed
now to the tenses themselves ; of which Mr Harris has
enumerated no fewer than twelve. Of this enumera¬
tion we can by no means approve 5 for, without enter¬
ing into a minute examination of it, nothing can be
move obvious, than that his inceptive present—I
am going to write—is a future tense ; and his com¬
pletive present—Ihavewritten—a past tense. But,
as was before observed of the classification of words, we
cannot help being of opinion, that, to take the te?ises
as they are commonly received, and endeavour to as¬
certain their nature and their differences, is a much more
useful exercise, as well as more proper for a work of
3
M A R.
I «s
fterent
: tninm-
1 ns have
< umera-
f l difl’er-
4: nuui-
I ’8 Of
I i*es.
this kind, than to raise, as might easily be done, new Verb?,
and hypothetical theories on the subject. „>
It has been already observed, that all the tenses must
necessarily mark relative time. In one sense, this is ex¬
tremely obvious. The present tense is used in contra¬
distinction to both the past and future, and marks an
attribute 01* action as existing in neither. The past and
the future are in like manner used in contradistinction
to the present ; and mark an attribute or action which
exists not now, but which in the one case has existed
formerly, in the other will exist at some time coming.
But besides this relation of contradistinctum subsisting
among the tenses, there is another of co-existence, as we
may call it, to which it is of great consequence to attend
-—especially in examining the nature of \\w present. 66
63. The PRESENT TENSE refers not only to something Of the pre-
vvbich is past or future, but also to something with seat lensc*
which the attribute or action of the verb is contempo¬
rary. This reference is necessarily implied in its very
name ; for we cannot say of any thing that it is present,
without implying at the same time that there is some¬
thing else with which it is present. Hence it appears
with how little reason Mr Harris and others have given
us an aorist of the present, as marking present time in¬
definitely in contradistinction to OTHER presents, which
have been called inceptive, extended, and completive pre¬
sents. For from what has been said it follows, that the
present tense is necessarily and from its very nature per¬
fectly indefinite, and can of itself give notice of no pre¬
cise or determinate portion or point of time whatever. A
thing may have been present fifty years ago, may be pre¬
sent now, or at A\\y future period. This tense implies
th e relation of co existence between two or more things j
but, without some auxiliary circumstance, it cannot in
any language mark the particular portion of time n\ which
those things orA/. The indefinite nature of this tense is
indeed most clearly seen in that use of It in which Mr
Harris has styled it the aorist of the present; that is, in
cases where it is employed to denote the repetition of an
action whichthe agent is accustomedfrequent/ytoperform,
or to express propositions of which the truth is evinced by
general experience ; as in the following examples :
“ Hypocrisy———the only evil that walks
“ Invisible, except to God alone.”
“ Ad pocnitendam properat qui cito judicatf &c.
In these instances it is plain there is r\oparticular time
pointed out: the propositions are true, or apprehended <
as true, at all times. Although the actions, therefore,
of walking and hastening are expressed as present, it is
impossible from the expressions to determine any pre¬
cise point of time when they are present.
But if the present tense be thus indefinite, how, it
may be asked, are we to ascertain the particular time
which is intended ? We answer, it is to be ascertained,
either by stating the action of the verb as existing in some
time already known, or by inference. If, for example, we
say,—“ Millions of spiritual creatures walk the eartli
unseen,”—the proposition is general, and the time of
walking undetermined. But if we add—“ both when
we wake Anil when we sleepfi—the time is by this addi¬
tion ascertained and specified ; for if the time when men
wake and sleep be known, the time when these spirits
walk the earth is known also.—When no specifying
clanse is given by which to determine the time of the
present tense, it is very commonly determined by in¬
ference.
Verb', fertnce. Tlitis, if one Use such an expression as-
——v——' sleeps while I am speaking to him,'''1—the time of his
sleeping is ascertained by the subsequent clause of the
sentence ; but if it be said simply^*1 he sleeps”—with¬
out assigning any data from which it may be concluded
when bis sleeping is present, we Very naturally infer
that it is at the instant we receive the information of his
sleepingi Such inferences as this are common in lan-
guagej The mind is desirous to obtain complete in¬
formation on every subject ; and therefore frequently
supplies to itself what is not expressed in the speech of
others.
Both these ways of ascertaining the precise time of
the present tense, are excellently illustrated by the use
of the word present as applied to space. Take a familiar
example:—*” His brother and he were present when I
read the letter*” It is at fifst sight evident that this
expression is perfectly indefinite. But if it be said—
” His brother and he were present at your house when I
read the letter,”—the place of action is then determined
by being referred to a paction of space which is known.
If no such reference be made, the person who hears
the speech uttered must either remain ignorant of the
js/are intended, or he must ascertain it to himself by/«-
ference; and he will probably infer it to be that in which
the speaker is at the time of his uttering the indefinite
sentence. Th is leads us to observe, that such infer¬
ences are not often made without sufficient foundation.
Various circumstances may assist the reader or hearer
in making them, and prevent all danger of mistake.
He may have the evidence of sense, or of something
preceding in the discourse, and a number of other par¬
ticulars, to justify and warrant his conclusion* Thus,
if when sitting by a large fire, one pronounce the words
—“ I am too warm j” those to whom he addresses his
speech are authorized to conclude, that he is too warm
at the time oi speaking, unless he expressly prevent the
drawing of that conclusion by adding some such clause
as—“ When I wear a great coat.”
It is strictly demonstrable, and hath by Mr Harris
been in fact demonstrated, that there is no such thing
as present time. Yet do we not only conceive time as
present artd existing, but frequently as extended to a very
great degree. We speak not only of the present instant,
or the present day, but also of the present year, and even
of the present century. This manner of conceiving time
is indeed loose and unphilosophical ; but it is sufficient
for the ordinary purposes of language. To express
time as it really is, we ought to say, \\\e passing day,
\.\\z passing year, and the passing century ^ but in com¬
mon discourse we denominate any portion of Ume pre¬
sent, in which the present now or instant is included,
although it is obvious that part of that portion is past,
and the remainder of it future. From the very nature
of time thus conceived to be present, the tense now un¬
der consideration must represent the action of the verb
as commenced, and not finished: for as time is in con¬
tinued succession, and accompanies every action 5 when
any action is not commenced, it exists not in any time,
though it may exist hereafter in time which is now fu¬
ture; and when it is finished, it exists no longer in time
present, but in time past. Hence the absurdity of intro¬
ducing into a theory of the tenses an inceptive present
and a completive present; for these terms imply each a
direct contradiction*
Chap. I\
64. After having said so much of the present tense. Verbs
we shall have but little to sfty of the PRJETER-IMPER-
frECT. It states an action in respect oi time as past}
and in respect of progress, as unfinished. Legebam—I
was reading at some past time, but my reading was then The pisn.
incompletei I had not finished the book or the letter. We ter-impei
must here observe, however, as we did with respect tortc1,
\\\epresent tense, that although the prreter-imperfect re¬
presents the action as past, it does not inform us in what
precise portion oipast time the unfinished action wasgo-
ing on this circumstance must either be given in .se^o-
rate words, or be inferred by the hearer* If one say
simply—Legebam, the person to whom he addresses his
speech will conclude, that the time of his reading \spast
with respect to the present time of his speaking. But if
he say,—Legebam antequam venisti, he expressly states
the action of reading as past with respect to the time in
which his hearer came to the place where they both are
at the time of speaking. The time of the preeter-imptr-
fiect is always past with respect to t\\e present instant
when the imperfect is used, and of this the tense itself
gives notice j but it may also be past with respect to
some other tithe, and of this it conveys no information.
If we join two prcctcr-imperjects together, the expres¬
sion will state the co-existence of two progressive ac¬
tions, both of which were going on at a. time past in re¬
spect of some determinate time given or supposed. “ Cum
tu scribebas ego legebam 5” ” when you were writing
I was reading.” Hence the prteter-imperfect has by
some grammarians been called the relative present ; a
name which, however, is by no means exclusively appli¬
cable to this tense. WThen theprceter-imperfect is by the
conjunction and joined in the same sentence with a
plusquam perfect, the two tenses express two actions,
both prior to the time of speaking y but the one as having
continued after the other was finished. Thus, Eneas
speaking of the destruction of Troy, says, that after ha¬
ving escaped with his father and followers, he returned
to the city in quest of his wife, and went directly to his
own house; but there, continues he, “ irruerant Danai,
et tectum omne tenebant the Greeks had rushed
inf that action was over and completed before his ar-
rivalj but the act of ” possessing the whole house,” te-
nebant, was not over, but still continuing. <55
65. But it is necessary that the verb denote actions The aoi
which were complete ox perfect in past time, as well as an^ P1*1
those which were incomplete or imperfect. For this pur- ter"Per
pose, Greek and English verbs have an aorist, a prater-
perfect, and a plusquam perfect. Of these the Latin has
only the two last. The prceter-pcrfect in that language
sustains a twofold character : it performs the office of
the Greek and English aorist, as well as of the preeter-
perfect properly so called ; that is, it denotes a finished
action at some indefinite past time, as well as at some
time which is both past and definite.
In attempting to analyze the signification o( complea
terms, by which we here mean words that include in
their signification a variety of particulars, it is of great
advantage to have these particulars separately expressed
by different words in another language. Now the Eng¬
lish has resolved the tenses, which in the Greek and
Latin languages are denominated the aorist and the
preeter-perfect, by means of what are commonly called
auxiliary verbs, expressing the former by the verb did,
and the latter by the verb have. In examining there¬
fore
GRAMMAR.
He
!iap.
1 erbs.
IV. GRAM
fore tlie aorist and prteter-perfect, it will be of use to
J inquire into the import of these verbs.
Did is evidently the aorist of the verb to do; a verb
of the most general signification, as it denotes action of
every kind. It ex presses thefinishedperformance of some
action, the completion of which must of course have ta¬
ken place in some portion of past time. “ I DID write,
or I ivrote (these expressions being equivalent) yester¬
day, a month, a year ago,” &c. But the import of
did being so very general, it can convey no determinate
meaning without being limited by the addition ot some
particular action ; and this addition, however expressed,
is to be considered in the same light as an accusative
case, governed by the active verb did; for it produces
exactly the same effect. ’EygcrJ/x, scripsi, I did WRITE j
that is, “ at some past time I performed the action ol
writing, and finished it.'1'1
The verb have, which is included in the prceter-per-
fect, is plainly a verb of the present tense denoting/ws-
session. But a man may possess one thing as well as
another ; and therefore have requires limitation, for the
very same reason that did requires it, namely, because
its signification \s perfectly general. Now this limita¬
tion, whatever it is, must be conceived as the thing
possessed; and in instances where have is limited by a
noun, this is obvious, and universally acknowledged:
“ I have a gold watch,” is, “ I possess a gold watch.”
But to annex the same meaning to the word have,
when used as an auxiliary verb, is an idea we believe
not common, and which may perhaps be thought
whimsical; yet what other meaning can be affixed to
it ? To suppose that words have not each a radical and
determinate signification, is to suppose language a sub¬
ject incapable of philosophical investigation j and to
suppose, with Mr Harris, that there are words entirely
devoid of signification, is at once to render all inquiries
after the principles of grammar nugatory and ridiculous.
We conceive, then, that each of the phrases, ysygasp*
STnraA'/jv, scripsi epistolam, I have written a letter, is
equivalent to the phrase, “ I possess at present the
finished action of writing a letter.” Such an expression
may sound harsh to the ear, because it is not in use :
but we often employ expressions, to the precise and pro¬
pel' meaning of which we do not attend ; and it the
above be attentively considered, however awkward it
may at first appear, nothing will be found in it either
improper or absurd.
The aorist, then, we conceive to state an action as per¬
formed and finished in some past portion of time ; whilst
the preeter-perfect represents the past perfoi'mance and
completion of that action as now possessed. And here
we may hazard a conjecture why have, when used as an
auxiliary verb, is always joined with a past participle ;
whereas did is joined to a word expressing the simple
action of the verb, or, as it is called, present infini¬
tive. Of the expression, “ I have written a letter,”
as one part, viz. the verb have, denotes time ; the
other part, viz. WRITTEN, must denote past time, to give
notice that the action is performed and finished. Did,
on the other hand, implyingtime, has no occasion
for the past part of another verb to give notice of this
circumstance *, for “ I did write a letter,” is equiva¬
lent to, M at some past time I performed and finished
the simple action of writing a letter.”
Vol. X. Part I. f
MAR.
The principal distinction in practice between the
aorist and prceter-perfect (for the difierence seems little
in their real import) consists in the time by which the 69
performance of the action admits of being particulai'ly
specified. The preeter-perfect is always joined with
portion of time which includes the present now oc in-^^zew
slant; for otherwise it could not signify, as it always these ten-
does, the present possession of the finishing of an action, ses.
But the aorist, which signifies no such possession, is as
constantly joined with a portion of past time which ex¬
cludes the present now or instant. Thus we say, “ I
have written a letter this day, this week,” &c. $ but,
“ I wrote a letter yesterday, last week,” &c.; and to
interchange these expressions of time in Greek and Eng¬
lish, where the aorist and preeter-perfect have different
forms, would be improper. In Latin, indeed, where they
have but one form, the impropriety does not appear.
66. Besides the tenses already examined, which are xhe^us-
expressive oipast time, in most languages the verb has quam-per-
another tense called \\wplusquam-perfect, in which, how-feet,
ever, no difficulty occurs to detain our attention. What
t\\e preeter-imperfect is to the present tense, that the plus-
quam-perfect is to the pi'ceter-perfect. The verb had,
by which it is resolved in English, being evidently the
past time of have, sufficiently explains its meaning and
relation to the other tenses : “ I had written a letter,”
is equivalent to the phrase, “ I possessed at some past
time, the finished action of writing a letter.”
It is justly observed by Dr Beattie, that the imper¬
fect and plusquam-perfect are very useful, and may be
the sources of much elegant expression $ and that if one
were not taught to distinguish, in respect of meaning
as well as of form, these tenses from each other, and
the prseterite from both, one could not pretend to under¬
stand, far less to translate, any good classic author.
67. Having considered the tenses which imply pre- leu
sent and past time, it now remains that we examine ges
the import of those which are expressive of time future.
In Latin and English there are two tenses for this pur¬
pose *, of which the first represents an action in point of
time as not yet existing, but as about to exist at some pe¬
riod to come; but it does not bring the completion of the
action into view. The other asserts the futurity of an
action together with its completion. Scribam, “ I shall
be writing,” denotes future time and complete action;
for it does not say whether I am to write for a long or
for a short time, or whether I shall finish what I pro¬
mised to begin. This part of the verb, therefore, to which
the Greek corresponds, is an imperfect future,
and likewise an aorist. The futurity of any action, it
should seem, may always be computed from the time of
speaking; for every action must be future with respect
to the time at which its futurity is declared; but the
time of its futurity may be more precisely specified by
fixing on some other future time to which to refer it:
“ I shall be writing after he shall have departed.”
Shall or will refers to future time indefinitely; and
write or writing refers to an action which is indeed to
begin and so far to proceed, but of which nothing is
said concerning the completion.
On the other hand, scripsero, “ I shall have written,”
is a perfect future denoting complete action; for shall de¬
notesfuture time; written,finishedaction; and have,pre¬
sent possession. So that the meaning of the whole assertion
E
is*
Lo
4
Veibs.
Of the
tenses of
the sti!>-
junclive
mode.
The pt e-
sent.
GRAMMA E.
is, lltat “ nt. some future pc riot! of time I shall possess
the finished action of writing.” The completion of the ac¬
tion, together with the possession of it, is always future
with respect to the time of assertion ; but, with respect
to some othei'Ume expressed or understood, \\\e.completion
of the action is to be past: Promitlis te scripturum si ro-
gavero, “you promise to write if I shall have asked you.”
In this sentence theaction of asking vs future withrelation
to the time of promising, but it \$ past with relation to
that of writing. This tense the Latin grammarians call
the future of the subjunctive modei but very improperly.
The notice which it communicates, respects not the
power or liberty of acting, which, as will be seen by and
bye, is the characteristic of that mode; but the action it¬
self. It ought therefore to be ranked among the tenses
of the indicative mode; for scripsero is, in every sense,
as really indicative as scribum or scripturus ero.
68. These are all the tenses, essentially different from
each other, which have place in the indicative mode of
any language with which we are acquainted (r) 5 but
as there are tenses in the mode called Subjunctive, which
bear the same names with those already examined, and
which have vet a different import, it will he necessary to
consider them before we dismiss the subject of tenses.
Of modes in general something must be said here¬
after ) at present we shall only observe, that the mode
wi h which we are now concerned, is not very properly
distinguished by the name assigned to it by the Latin
grammarians. They call it the subjunctive, because it
is often subjoined to another verb, and forms the se¬
condary clause of a sentence : hut the mode called in-
dicative frequently appears in the same circumstances.
The difft rence between these two modes appears to us to
"consist in this,, that the indicative asserts something di¬
rectly concerning the action ; the subjunctive, $ome:\.\\\vp
concerning ihe power or liberty of the agent to perform
it : for that the latter asserts as well as the former, ad¬
mits not of dispute.
69. The present tense of the subjunctive mode, in the
learned languages, answers to the English auxiliaries
may and can. .Let us consider these a little.-—-T/uy is
evidently a verb of the present tense denoting liberty.
\v hen I assert that I MAY ivrite, I give notice that “ I
am under no compulsion to abstain from writing 5” that
there is no impediment /ro/M without by which I am
restrained from writing. Can is also a verb of the present
Chap. IV
tense,expressivcof internal power or skill, “lean write” yci,^
is {equivalent to—“ There is nothing in myself which
incapacitates me for performing the operation of wri¬
ting.” This verb seems originally to have denoted
knowledge or skill, and to have been afterwards extended
to signify/looker or ability of any kind. There is little
doubt of its being the same with the old English verb to
con, which signifies to know.—The difference between,
the import of these two verbs may and can will be best
perceived in a familiar example. Suppose we say to one
of our transcribers, “ You may write a treatise on gram¬
mar, to which he returns for answer “ I cannotour
assertion evidently supposes him at liberty to write the
treatise; his answer implies, that he is unable or unskilled
to do it. We may conclude, then, that the/mesraf tense
of this mode contains a declaration of present libertyr
ability, or skill; and its other tenses will be found t<a
have reference to the same capacities.
The observation is here to he repeated whiclr was en¬
larged upon under the present of the indicative. The
liberty or ability signified by this tense is always repre¬
sented as present; but the time of this presence is inde¬
finite. If no particular time be specified, wre generally
refer it to the time of speaking ; but another point may
be given from which we are to compute. “ When he
shall have finished, you may then proceed as you pro¬
pose.” Here the liberty of proceeding is stated as pre¬
sent, not at the time of speaking, but at the time of his
finishing, which is future to the time of speaking. But
though the liberty, ability, ox skill, denoted by this tense,,
he represented as present, the action itself \s stated as con¬
tingent; for it is not necessary that a man should perform
an action because he has the capacity to perform it.
From this idea of the present of the subjunctive some
of its most peculiar uses seem capable of being explained.
—And, in the first place, it appears to have a near af¬
finity with the future of the indicative; insomuch that
in many instances they may be used promiscuously.
Without materially altering the effect of the expression,,
we may say, “ Dico me facturum esse quae imperetf or
“ quee imperabitP The reason of this, perhaps, may be,
that with respect to os, futurity and contingency are in
most cases nearly the same, both being involved in equal
obscurity ; and therefore it is often of little consequence
which mode of expression we employ.
Secondly, The present of the subjunctive is used to de¬
note
(r) On this point we subscribe to the opinion of the elegant and ingenious Dr Beattie.—“It will perhaps
occur (says he), that there are two Greek tenses, of which I have given no account; namely, the second aorist, and
the second future. The truth is, that I consider them as unnecessary. Their place, for any thing 1 know to the
contrary, might at all times he supplied by the first aorist axu] the first future. Some grammarians are of opinion,
thatthe first aorist signifies time past in general, and ihe second, indefinite time/m*,* and that the first future Aexiotes
a nearer, and the second, a more remote futurity. But this, I apprehend, is mere conjecture, unsupported by proof:
and therefore I incline rather to the sentiments of those who teach, that the second future and the second aorist
have no meaning different from the first future and the first aorist; and that they are the present and. imperfect of
some obsolete theme of the verb ; and when the other theme came into use, happened to be retained for the sake of
variety perhaps, or by accident, with a preterite and future signification. Be this as it will, as these tenses are
peculiar to the Greek, and have nothing corresponding to them in other tongues, we need not scruple to overlook
them as superfluous.”—The Theory of Language, Part II. Chap. ii.
To these judicious observations we have nothing to add, but that they acquire no small degree of confirma¬
tion from this circumstance, that there are many Greek verbs which have no second future, and which are yet
employed to denote every possible modification of future time. Of thepaulo-postfuturum of the Greeks wehavu
take a
GRAMMAR. 35
tiie subjunctive of the verb do ; for it is nonsense to talk Ytibs.
of liberty, with respect to {he performance of an action, v~~'
which, at the time of speaking, is supposed to he past
and completed. What then is the import of the phrase ?
We are persuaded that it is elliptical, and that the
word say or aj/irm is understood : “ I may (say that
I) have done such or such a thing in my time j” fos
liberty or contingency can relate to actions only as they
are conceived to be present ov future. ^5
72. Of all the tenses, the most complex is the /?/?/.?-The plus.
quam perfect of this mode. It combines a past and a T18111 Per-
of the tense under consideration seems to have arisen time with aaction. It may be considered ltct-
from a desire to soften the harshness of a command, by as the past time both of the perfect future and ot the prev-
avoiding the appearance of claiming superiority. When ter-perfect of the subjunctive: for it represents an action,
a man utters the above sentence, he certainly utters f uture iwid contingent at some past time, ns finished be-
no command, hut only asserts that the person to whom fore another period specified; which period therefore,
be sneaks has liberty or power to do him a favour. This though past at the time of speaking, vyas itself future
with respect to the time when the futurity or contingen¬
cy of the action existed. “ Promisisti te scripturum
tiap. IV.
Verbs, note the right of which a person is possessed. u I may,
v-——*"1 or I can, sell this book.” ibis application, whicn Dr
Priestley considers as the primary signification ol the
tense, is easily deduced, or rather follows immediately,
from the foregoing account of its import. For if one be
under no restraint, either external or internal, to pre¬
vent him from performing an action, he has surely a
right to perform it.
Thirdly, The present of the subjunctive is often used
to signify command or request; as when one says, “ "V ou
tnay give my compliments to such a person.” '1 his use
he speaks has liberty or power
assertion, however, may contain no new information ;
and therefore the person addressed, reflecting upon the
intention of the speaker in making it, infers that it in¬
dicates a wish or desire that “ his compliments should
7 . be made to such a person.’'’
ue pise- 70. Of the subjunctive as well as of the indicative, the
r-imper- prceter-imperfect is evidently the past time of the present.
ct- As the latter asserts liberty, or ability, to perform some
action, as existing at present, the former asserts the same
liberty or ability to have existed in time past; but the
precise portion of time past, in which these capacities
existed, must be specified by other words, or it will
remain unknown. Thus in the following sentence,
“ Dixi me facturum esse qua; imperaretf the time of
imperaret is referred to that of dixi: the person having
the right to command, is supposed to have had it at
the time when the other said that he would obey. 1 his
tense, as well as the present, states the action as going
on and incomplete ; and also as future with respect to
the liberty or ability to perform it. It is rendered into
English by the verbs could or might; of which the first
is the past time of can, the second ot may.
From the near affinity which the present of the sub¬
junctive has to the future of the indicative, the tense
now under consideration appears, in many instances, as
the past time of the latter as well as the former. Thus
Dixi me facturum quae imperaret, may he rendered “ I
said that I would do whatever he might, or whatever
he s/wrv/r/, command.”
heVne- 71. Of the preeter perfect, it is sufficient to observe,
i-perkct. that as the present states the agent as at liberty to be
performing an unfinished action ; so this tense states him
as at liberty to perform the action considered as finish¬
ed. “ 1 may be writing a letter when you come, i. e.
I am at liberty to be writing a letter when you come.”
I may have written a letter when you come,” i. e. I
am at liberty to be in possession of the finished action of
writing a letter when you come.”
It is a common mode of expression to say, “ I may
have done such or such a thing in my time,” when
he who speaks can have little doubt whether he has
done the thing or not. In that case, the words may
have done, cannot be considered as the preeter-perfeet of
ei
fuisse si rogassem “ You promised that you would
write, if I should have asked you.” Here the futurity
of the action of asking, which is represented as complete
and finished, is stated as co existing with the past pro¬
mise ; but the action itself must be posterior to that pro¬
mise: it is however supposed to be past with respect to
theactiopoftor/ViM#, which isalsoposterior tothe promise. 77
73. Before we dismiss the subject of tenses, it may Of number
not be improper just to mention number ani[ person; forand Peri>0B‘
these have place in every tense of the verb in the learn¬
ed languages, and in many tenses even of the English
verb. They cannot, however, be deemed essential to the
verb ; for affirmation is the same, whether it be made
by you, by me, or by a third person, or whether it be
made by one man or by a thousand. The most that
can be said is, that verbs in the more elegant languages
are provided with a variety of terminations which re¬
spect the number and person of every substantive, that
we may know with more precision, in a complex sen¬
tence, each particular substance with its attendant verbal
attributes. The same may be said of sex with respect
to adjectives. They have terminations which vary as
they respect beings male or female, though it is past
dispute that substances alone are susceptible of sex. We
therefore pass over these matters, and all of like kind,
as being rather among the elegancies of particular lan¬
guages, and therefore to be learned from the particular
grammar of each ton«ue, than among the essentials of
language ; which essentials alone are the subject of in¬
quiry iu a treatise on grammar. 7s
74. Besides tenses, number, andperson,\\\ every tongue Of mode*,
with which we are acquainted, verbs are subject to ano¬
ther variation, which grammarians have agreed to call
Modes. Of modes, as of tenses, it has been warmly
disputed whether or not they he. essential to language.
The truth seems to be, that the only part of the verb
absolutely necessary for the purpose of communicating
thought is the indicative mode; for all the others, as
has been well observed by Dr Gregory, are resolvable,
by means of additional verbs and a word denoting the
action of the primary verb, into circuitous expressions
E 2 which
taken no notice, because it is found only in the passive voice $ to which, if it were necessary, it is obvious that it
would be necessary in all voices, as a man may be about to act as well as to suffer immediately.
36
Veisbs. wlucli fully convey their meaning (s). But such ex-
u——w pyessions continually repeated would make language very
prolix and wholly inanimated j for which reason, the
import of each of the commonly received modes is a sub¬
ject worthy of the philologist’s investigation. About
the number of modes, whether necessary or only expedi-
7g ent, as well as about the import of each, the writers on
Different grammar have differed in opinion. Mr Harris, one of
opinions a- jjie celebrated of those writers, has enumerated
" four modes of the verb, besides the infinitive; viz. The
modes. INDICATIVE or DECLARATIVE, to assert what we think
certain; the potential or subjunctive,^/' the pur¬
poses of whatever we think contingent; the INTERROGA¬
TIVE, when we are doubtful, to procure us information ;
and the REQUISITIVE, to assist us in the gratification
of our volitions. The requisitive too, according to him,
appears under two distinct species j either as it is IMPE¬
RATIVE to inferiors, or PRECATIVE to superiors.
For establishing such a variety of modes as this, no
sort of foundation whatever appears. The same rea¬
soning which induced the author to give us an interro¬
gative and requisitive mode, might have made him give
us a hortative, a dissuasive, a volitive, and innumerable
other modes, wiih which no language is acquainted.
But besides perplexing his reader with useless distinc¬
tions, we cannot help thinking that Mr Harris has
fallen into some mistakes with regard to the import of
those modes which are universally acknowledged. Ac¬
cording to Wim,assertion is the characteristic of the indi¬
cative, and that which distinguishes it from subjunc¬
tive or potential: but this is certainly n ^ , *ui with¬
out an assertion, the verb cannot be used in any mode.
Of this the learned author, indeed, seems to have been
aware, when he observed of the subjunctive mode, that it
is employed “ when we do not strictly assert,” and that
“it implies but a dubious and assertion.” The
Chap, IV,
truth is, that the assertion implied in this mode, though Vnbs.
it is not concerning the same thing, is equally positive 'V—J
and absolute with that conveyed by the indicative. An
example quoted by himself should have set him right
as to this matter :
Sed tacitus pasci si posset corvus, HAEERET
Plus dapis, fyc.
Who does not feel that the assertion contained in ha-
beret, is as absolute and positive as any assertion what¬
ever ?
75. Perhaps we may be asked to define what we
mean by a mode. We know not that we can define
it to universal satisfaction. Thus much, however,
seems to be obvious, that those variations which are
called modes do not imply DIFFERENT MODIFICATIONS
of the action of the verb. Amo, AmEM, AmA, do
not signify modes of LOVING j for modes of loving are,
loving much, loving little, loving long, &c.— Shall
we then get over the difficulty by saying, with Mr
Harris, that “ modes exhibit some way or other the
soul and its affectionsP” This is certainly true : but it
is nothing to the purpose j for it does not distinguish
the meaning of mode from the object of language in ge¬
neral, all languages being intended to exhibit the soul
and its affections. So
Grammatical modes of verbs have been defined by Mode de-
Dr Gregory to be “ concise modes of expressing someffllie‘b
of those combinations of thoughts which occur most
frequently, and are most important and striking.” This
is a just observation 5 but perhaps he would have given
•a more complete definition had he said, that grammatical
modes of verbs are concise modes of expressing some of
thosecombinationsof thoughts which occur most frequent¬
ly, and of which assertion is an essential part (t).
This indeed seems to be the real account of the matter,
especially if our notion of the nature of verb be well
founded,
GRAMMAR.
(s) The imperative, for instance, may be resolved into a verb of commanding in the first person of the present
of the indicative, and a word denoting the action of the primary verb, commonly called the infinitive mode of
that verb. Thus, I nunc et versus tecum meditare canoros, and “ Jubeo te nunc ire et tecum meditari,” &c. are
sentences of the very same import. The subjunctive may be resolved in the same manner by means of a verb de¬
noting power Or capacity; for credam, and possum credere, may be often used indifferently. The indicative mode,
however, is not f////.? convertible with another verb of affirming in the first person of the present of the indicative,
and a word denoting the action of the primary verb : for Titius scribit, “ Titius writes,” is not of the same
import with dico Titium scribere, quod Titius scribat, “ I say that Titius writes.” The first of these sentences,
as has been already shown, contains but one assertion ; the second obviously contains two. Titius writes, is equi¬
valent to Titms is writing ; 1 say that Titius writes, is equivalent to 1 AM saying that Titius is writing. The
reason why the imperative and subjunctive are resolvable into expressions into which the indicative cannot be re¬
solved, will be seen when the import of each of those modes is ascertained.
, (T) EveiT verb» except the simple verb am, art, is, &c. expresses without modes a combination of thoughts,
viz. affirmation and an attribute. . The affirmation, however, alone is essential to the verb, for the attribute may
be expressed by other words. It is indeed extremely probable, that, in the earliest ages of the world, the affir¬
mation and attribute were always expressed by different words ; and that afterwards, for the sake of conciseness,
one word, compounded perhaps of these two, was made ta express both the affirmation and the attribute : hence
arose the various classes of verbs, active, passive, and neuter. Of a process of this kind there are evident signs in
the Greek and some other tongues. But the improvers of language stopped not here. The same love of con¬
ciseness induced them to modify the compound verb itself, that it might express various combinations of thought
still more complex : but in all these combinations assertion was of necessity included j for if the word had ceased
to assert, it would have ceased to be a verb of any kind.
Soon after this short note was written, and the whole article finished for the press, we accidentally met with
Pickbourn's Dissertation on the English Verb. Of that work it belongs not to us to give a character. Such of
our readers as shall peruse it, will see that on many points we differ widely in opinion from the author • but we
have no painful apprehension of any comparison which may be made. It gives us pleasure, however,’ to find,
that
W-M fc
l
u ?
de (:•’
GRAMMAR.
ap. IV.
' ru«. founded, that its. essence consists in affirmation. And in
■ this opinion we are the more confirmed, from a convic¬
tion that no man ever employs language on any occasion
hut for the purpose of affirming something. The speaker
may affirm something directly of the action itself; some¬
thin o of the agent’s power or capacity to perform it ; or
something of his own desh'e that it should be performed,
r &c.—but still he must affirm.
lodes If this be so, then are all the modes equally indica-
Jlly in- five. Some may he indicative of perceptions, and others
ive- of volitions ; but still they all contain indications. Ou
this idea the three foregoing modes oi amo will be thus
distinguished. When a man indicates his present feel¬
ing of the passion of love, he uses the hrst; when he
indicates his present capacity of feeling it, he uses the
second; and when he indicates his present desire that
the person to whom he is speaking would entertain that
passion, he uses the thu d.
76. As to what Mr Harris calls the interrogative
mode, he himself observes that it has a near affinity to
the indicative. It has in fact not only a near affinity
to it, but, as far as language is concerned, there is not
between the one and the other the slightest difference.
For, in written language, take away the mark of in¬
terrogation, and, in spoken language, the peculiar tone of
voice, and the interrogative and indicative modes appear
■precisely the same. That such should be tire case is ex¬
tremely natural.
To illustrate this, let us for once speak in the singu¬
lar numbeiv and conceive one of our readers to ha pre¬
sent. \ assert a thing, taking the truth of it for grant¬
ed; but if you know me to he wrong, 1 presume that
you will set me right : in this case, assertion produces
the same effect as interrogation. Instances perpetually
occur in common conversation. An acquaintance says
to me—“ You took a ride this morning.” I answer
yss or no according to the case ", and the same ellect is
produced as if lie bad said—“ Did you take a ride this
morning?” In this way, at first, would simple asser¬
tions be employed to procure information wanted. Fc-
-you did such a thing ; fecisti ne—you did it not ;
—either would produce the proper reply, and the infor¬
mation wanted would be gained (u). 'I bis being ob¬
served as language improved, men would accompany
such a sentence with a peculiar tone of voice, or other
marks, to signify more unequivocally that they wanted
information, or that such information was the only object
of their speech. Farther progress in refinement would
lead them to alter \\w, position of the words of a sentence
when they meant to ask a question, as we do in Eng¬
lish, saying (when we assert), “ You have read. Euripi¬
des j” (when we interrogate)^ “ Have you read Euri¬
pides ?”
In Greek and Latin questions are asked commonly
enough by the particles u and an. These particles w?e
know' to he exactly equivalent to the English particle
if, at least to the sense in which that particle is com¬
monly taken. An fecisti is “ If you did itand the sen¬
tence
37
Vert)!!.
that his notions respecting the origin of such verbs as express at once assertion, and an attribute, are the same
with those which had occurred to ourselves.
“ The copula is appears (says Mr Pickbourn) to have been coeval with language itself. But we have not the
same evidence to convince us, that that must necessarily have been the case of any other finite verb ; for the co¬
pula is, containing only an affirmation, is much more simple than a verb which unites in one word both an attri¬
bute and an affirmation. Since therefore people, in their first attempts to express their ideas by words, would
scarcely think of any thing more than what was absolutely necessary, it is probable they would be some time be¬
fore they invented any other word containing in itself an assertion or affirmation ; for they would not very early
think of contriving words so complex in their nature as to include in them both the name of an action and an asser¬
tion.
“ I conjecture, that the first mode of expressing actions ov passions would be by participles or vei'bul nouns,
i. e. words signifying the names of the actions or passions they wanted to describe j and these words connected
with their subject by the copula is, might in those rude beginnings of language tolerably well supply the place of
verbs : e. g. from observing the operations of nature, such words as rain or raining, thunder or thundering, woulff
soon be invented ; and by adding the copula is, they would say, thundering or thunder is or is not, raining ox rain
is ; which, by the rapidity of pronunciation, might in time form the verbs rains, thunders, &c. The observa¬
tion of their own actions, or the actions of the animals around them, would soon increase their stock of ideas, and
put them upon contriving suitable expressions for them. Hence might arise such words as these ; sleep or sleeping,
stand or standing, run or running, bite or biting, hurt or hurting ; and by joining these to substantives by means
of the copula is, they might form such sentences as these—Lion is sleeping, or perhaps lion sleep is, stand is, &c.
which would soon he contracted into lion sleeps, stands, runs, bites, hurts, &c. Thus, our little insulated family
might become possessed of verbs including an attribute and an affirmation in one word.”
This account of the origin of active, passive, and neuter verbs, is certainly ingenious ; and, in our opinion, it is
not more ingenious than just when applied to the Greek and other ancient languages, though it is not applicable
to the English : but it seems to be quite irreconcileable with the definition of verb, which the author has adopted
from Bishop Lowth ; and indeed with every other definition except that which makes the essence of verb to con¬
sist in simple affirmation.
(u) Of a question put in the form of an assertion we have a remarkable instance in the Gospel of St Matthew.
When Christ stood before Pilate, the governor asked him, saying, 2a et » (ixritev; ru'> Iboboauv. That this sentence
was pronounced with a view to obtain some answer, is evident from the context; yet it is as plainly an affirmation,
though uttered probably in a scoffing tone, as the serious confession of Nathaniel, 2v ei: « /ixtritovs rev IrgxnX. Had
not the question been put in this form, which asserts Christ to be the king of the Jews, the reply could not have
been 2o Xoytn; for without an assertion the governor would have said nothing. See Dr Campbell's Translation
of the Gospels, where the form used in the original is with great propriety retained in the version.
33
Verhc tence may either he an abbreviation for die an fecisti,
1 v—— “ t^'ll me if you did it or an may perhaps be, as if
certainly is, the imperative mode of some obsolete verb
equivalent to give ; and in that case, an fecisti will be a
complete interrogative sentence, signifying, “ you did
it, give that.'1'1—But of the interrogative mode of Mr
Harris we have said enough j perhaps our readers will
think, too much, since it is a useless distinction not found
in any language. It will, however, be proper to say some¬
thing of his precative mode, as tar as it is the same with
s the optative mode of the Greek grammarians. And,
Of the op-* 77- Nothing, we think, can be clearer, than that
t uive the Greek optative constitutes no distinct mode of the
node. verb, whatever meaning be annexed to the word mode.
The different tenses of the optative are evidently nothing
but the past tenses of the corresponding tenses of the sub¬
junctive. Pi ses, sub. Tvsnw, I may strike. Pres. opt.
TVTfloipt, I might strike, &c. This is proved to be in¬
dubitably the case by the uniform practice of the
Greek writers. Examples might be found without
number were one to read in search of them. The fol¬
lowing sentence will illustrate our meaning : sE^«>r<i£<
’A^»«i«( t*x rei? Agysiaij, “ the Athenians cotJie
that they may assist the Argives.” Here the leading
verb etyovlxt being of the present tense, the dependent
verb is the present subjunctive. But change the
former to the past time, and the latter must also be
changed. ’Hgxovlo ’AQyvxioi hut /Zoyi6o7m rots A^ysiaij, li the
Athenians came that they might assist the Argives.”
Here it is plain that gorficTuv, the present of the optative,
is the past time of fiorfuri, the present of the subjunc¬
tive ; and the same in other instances.
It is almost unnecessary to add, that when this inode
is employed to denote a wish, the wish is not expressed
by the verb, but is understood. Such abbreviated ex¬
pressions to denote a wish are common in all languages.
Thus, in Greek,
'Y^iv piv hoi ^onv, iXvp,7rix Sopur iftoing
’Ex7ri£<rcti H^totpoio ttoXiv, &c.
signifies, “ The gods might give you (or, as we say in
English, changing the position of the verb, might the
gods give you) to destroy,” &c. So in Latin, Ut te
omnes dii deceque perdant, “ That all the gods and god¬
desses may curse you !” Again, in English, “ O that
my head were waters !” &c. In all these, and such
like sentences, the words equivalent to I wish, 1 pray,
are understood. In Greek a wish is sometimes intro¬
duced by the particle it or ifh, if; as in Homer.
’Eit? ips\f; rtiyofo? t eusvxt, xyspo; r xTroterOxi.
“ If it bad been your fate not to be born, or to die
unmarried !” The supplement is, “ It would have been
happy for your country,” or some such thing. In
like manner, a poor person not uncommonly intreat's
a favour by saying, “ Sir, if you would be so good 1”
Here be stops ; but the completion of his sentence is,
“ It would make me happy.” In all these cases a wish
Chap. \]
is not formally expressed by the speaker, but inferred Vert,
by the" hearer. They are therefore instances of that '“"“V'
tendency which mankind universally discover to abbre¬
viate their language, especially in cases where the pas¬
sions or feelings are interested. Sj
78. The interrogative and optative wor/es being set0r’b th'
aside as superfluous, it would appear from our investiga-™0^®^
tion, that the real distinct modes of the verb, which are jn(];calj,
found in the most copious and varied language, are on-subjuneti
ly three ; the indicative, the subjunctive, and the impe- and impt
native; and that these are all that can be considered asUve‘
necessary ; the first to indicate the speaker’s feeling or
acting, the second to indicate his capacity of feeling ©r
acting, and the third to indicate his desire that the per¬
son to whom he speaks should feel or act.
Here again we have the misfortune to find ourselves
differ in opinion with Dr Gregory 5 who seems to
think, that a greater number of modes, if not abso-
lutely^necessary, would, however, be highly useful.
His words are : “ All languages, I believe, are defec¬
tive in respect of that variety and accuracy of combi¬
nation and of distinction, which we know with infalli¬
ble certainty take place in thought. Nor do I know
of any particular in which language is more deficient
than in the expressing of those energies or modifications
of thought $ some of which always are, and all of which
might be, expressed by the grammatical moods of verbs.
Of this there cannot be a clearer proof than the well-
known fact, that we are obliged to express by the
same mood very different modifications or energies gf
thought. As, for instance, in the case of the gram¬
matical mood called the imperative, by which we ex¬
press occasionally prayer to God, command to a slave,
request to a superior, advice to an equal or to any one,
order as from an officer to his subaltern, supplication
to one whom we cannot resist.”—If these be, as the
author calls them, specific differences of thought, he
will not surely object to their being all ranked under
one genus, which may he called desire (x). That the
internal feelings, which prompt us to pray to God, to
command a slave, to request a superior, to advise an
equal, to give an order to an inferior, and to suppli¬
cate one whom we cannot resist, are all different in de¬
gree, cannot he denied. Each of them, however, is
desire; and the predication, by which the desire is made
known to the person whom we address, is the same in
all, when we utter a prayer as when we utter a com¬
mand, when we request as when we supplicate. But
predication alone is that which constitutes the verb: for
desire by itself, however modified, can be expressed only
by an abstract noun; and the mere energy of desire, when
not applied to a particular energiser, can be expressed
only by a participle, or by what is commonly, though
improperly, called the infinitive mode. Now it is cer¬
tainly conceivable, that a few shades of meaning, or a
few (y) degrees of one general energy, might be marked
by
GRAMMAR.
(x) “ Desire-,—wish ; with eagerness to obtain or enjoy.” Johnson.
“ The uneasiness a man finds in himself upon the absence of any thing, whose present enjoyment carries the
idea of delight with it, is that we call desire. Good and evil, present and absent, work upon the mind but
that which immediately determines the will, from time to time, to every voluntary action, is the uneasiness of DE¬
SIRE, fixed upon some absent good.” Locke.
This, whether it be sound philosophy or not, is surely sufficient authority for using the word desire to denote
the genus ; of which prayer, command, advice, supplication, &c. may he considered as so many distinct species.
(y) Dr Gregory seems to think, that not barely a few, but a vast number, of these energies might be so marked.
5 “ Affirming
IV.
GRAM M A R.
!,y corresponding variations of such verbs as combine
energy with predication; and there could be no great
impropriety in calling those variations modes, or rather
modes of modes: but that such a multiplication of modes
would be an improvement in language, is by no means
evident. The verb, with the modes and tenses which
it has in all languages, is already a very complex part
of speech 5 which few are able, and still fewer inclined,
to analyze : and it would surely be of no advantage to
make it more complex by the introduction of new
modes, especially when those degrees of energy which
could be marked by them are with equal and perhaps
greater precision marked, in the living speech, by the
different tones of voice adapted to them by nature 5
and, in written language, by the reader’s general know¬
ledge of the subject and of the persons who may be
occasionally introduced. If there be any particular
delicacy of sentiment, or energy, which cannot thus
be made known, it is better to express it by a name
appropriated to itself, together with the simple and ori¬
ginal veib of affirmation, than to clog the compound
verb with such a multiplicity of variations as would
render the acquisition of every language as difficult as
is said to be that of the Chinese written characters.
The indicative, subjunctive, and imperative, are there¬
fore all the modes of the verb which to us appear to be
in any degree necessary or expedient ; and they are in
fact all the modes that are really found in any language
with which we are acquainted. 34
For the INFINITIVE, as has been already observed, The inimi-
seems on every account to he improperly styled a mode.tive no^
To that name it has no title which we can perceive,
except that its termination sorfietimes (for even this is but an a[,_
not true universally) differs in the learned languagesS(ract ncun.
from the terminations of the other parts of the verb.
Nay, if affirmation be, as it has been proved to be, the
very essence of verb, it will follow, that the tnfnit/ve
is no part of the verb at all j for it expresses no affir¬
mation. It forms no complete sentence by itself, nor
even when joined to a noun, unless it be aided by some
real part of a verb either expressed or understood. Scn-
bo, scribebam, scripsi, scripseram, scribam, scripsero;
“ I am writing, I was writing, I have written, I had
written, I shall write, I shall have written,” do each
of them contain an affirmation, and constitute a com¬
plete sentence : but scrihere “ to write,” scripsisse “ to
have written,” affirm nothing, and are not more appli¬
cable to any one person than to another. In a word, the
infinitive is nothing more than an abstract noun (z), de¬
noting the simple energy of the verb, in conjunction
with
1 ii . C . . . .
“ Affirming (says he), denying, testifying, foretelling, asking, answering, wishing, hoping, expecting, believing,
1 3
knowing, doubting, supposing, stipulating, being able, commanding, praying, requesting, supplicating, loving,
4 a
hating, fearing, despairing, being accustomed, wondering, admiring, wavering, swearing, advising, refusing,
5 4 J
exhorting, dissuading, encouraging, promising, threatening, &c. all admit very readily of being combined with
the fieneral import of a verb.” He adds, that “ if every one of them had been expressed in all languages
by variations as striking as those ol rvjfla, Tvifloiy.i, and rvirk, they must have been acknowledged as distinct moods
of the verb.”
If all these words denote different energies of thought, which, however, may he doubted, and il all those
different energies, with many others for which, as the author justly observes, it is not easy to find names,
could, like capacity and desire, he combined with the general action or energy of one verb; and it those combinations
could be marked by corresponding variations of that verb j we should indeed acknowledge such variations to he
distinct modes, or modes of modes, of the verb. But we doubt much if all this be possible. We are certain that
it would be no improvement : for it seems to be. evident, either that, in some of the modes, the radical letters
of the original verb must he changed, and then it would cease to be the same verb ; or that many of the modes
must be expressed by words of very unmanageable length j not to mention that the additional complication in¬
troduced by so many minute distinctions into a part of speech already exceedingly complex, would render the
import of the verb absolutely unintelligible to nine-tenths even of those who are justly styled the learned.
(z) In our idea of the infinitive, we have the honour to agree with the learned and excellent Ruddiman;
whose words are, “ Non inepte hie modus a veterihus quibusdam VERBi NOMEN est appellatum. Est enitn (si
non verd ac semper, quod nonnulli volunt, nomen suhstantivum) signiheatione cert£ ei maxiinc affinis j ejusque
vices sustinet per omnes casus. Et quidem substantivum videtur, cum adjectivum ei additur newtri
generis : ut, Cic. Att. xiii. 28. Cum vivere ipsum turpe sit nobis.—Peis. v. 53. Velle suum cuique est.—Cie.
Fin. i. 1. Totum hoc displicet philosophari.—-Petron c. 52. Meum intelligere nulla pecunia vendo. Item, absque
adjectivo: ut, Ovid Met. ii. 483. Posse loqui eripitur, i. e. potestas loquendi.—Plant. Bacch. i. 2. 50. Hie
vereriperdidit, i. e. verecundiam.—Cic. Tusc. v. 38. Loquor de docto homine et erudiio, cui vivere est cogitare,
i. e. cujus vita est cogitatio [Grammaticje Latinje Institutiones: Pars secunda, lib. i. cap. 2. where the
reader will find examples of the infinitive used by the best Homan writers us a substantive noun in every case.]
This opinion of Ruddiman and his ancient grammarians has been lately controverted with much ingenuity
by Hr Gregory ; who seems to think, that in the infinitive alone we should look for the essence of the verb di¬
vested of every accidental circumstance, time only excepted. If this be indeed the case, almost every thing
which we have said of the verb, its tenses, and its modes, is erroneous; and he who takes his principles of gram¬
mar from the Encyclopcedia, will fill his head with a farrago of absurdities. The writer of the article, however,
has been at much pains to acquire correct notions of the subject; he has studied the writings of others; he
40
GRAM
Verb?, frOTtf; and is not a mode, as far as we can con-
v-.--■; ccire, of any tiring. Thus, Scire tuvm nihil est, is the
same with Scientia tua nihil est.; and, “ Death is cer-
^ tain,” with “ To die is certain.”
Ot espies- yp. Before we dismiss the subject of modes, it may
sin^ com- be improper to take notice of the connection which
the^anre Harris, after Apollonius, has found between com-
tenss ' manding and futurity. Intreating and commanding
(be says) have a necessary respect to the future only.
For what have they to do with the jn'esent and the past,
the natures of which are immutable and necessary.”
This is surely confounding commands with the execution
of commands. But the learned writer proceeds to in¬
form ns, that “ it is from the connection offuturity with
commands, that the future of the indicative is sometimes
used for the imperative mode?' The connection, of which
he speaks, appears to us entirely imaginary ; for futu¬
rity has nothing to do with commands, though it may
M A E. Chap. F
with the execution of them. The present time is the time yttlli
of commanding, the future of obeying. But supposing ^
the connection real, it would not account for the fu¬
ture tenses being used imperatively. For although it
were true, as it is evidently false, that commands are
future, it would not follow that the relation is con¬
vertible, or that employing the future should imply a
command. The principle upon which such expressions
as, Thou shalt not kill, come to have the force
of a command, seems to be this. When a person, espe¬
cially one possessed of authority, asserts that an action,
depending on the will of a free agent, and therefore in
its own nature contingent,shall or shall not actually take
place } what are we to conclude from such an assertion ?
Why surely it is natural to conclude, that it is his will,
his command, that his assertion be verified. The Eng¬
lish word shall, if we be well informed, denoted origi¬
nally obligation ; a sense in which its past tense should is
has consulted several persons of undoubted learning, who have devoted a great part of their time to gramma¬
tical investigations $ and he is extremely unwilling to suppose that all his inquiries respecting the most im¬
portant part of speech have ended in error. He trusts, therefore, that he shall not be deemed a petulant ca¬
viller, though he examine with some severity the principal observations and arguments upon which the Doctor
has built his theory. Upon that examination he enters with diffidence : for the learned Professor’s knowledge
of the various powers of the mind appears, even in this essay, to be such as eminently qualifies him for ascertain¬
ing the precise import of every species of words employed for the purpose of communicating thought j and with
such a man the present writer would be much happier to agree than to differ in opinion.
The Doctor acknowledges (Trans, of the Royal Society, Edinburgh, vol. ii. lit. class, p. I950> that the
infinitive is most improperly called a mode: and on that account he thinks we ought to turn our thoughts
exclusively to it, “ when we endeavour to investigate the general import of the verb, with a view to ascertain
the accident which it denotes; and be led, step by step, to form a distinct notion of what is common in the acci¬
dents of all verbs, and what \s peculiar in the accidents of the several classes of them, and thereby be enabled to
give good definitions, specifying the essence of the verb,” &c. It may be true, that to the infinitive exclusively
we should turn our attention, when we wish to ascertain the accident denoted hy % particular verb or class of
verbs ; i. e. the kind of action, passion, or state of being, of which, superadded to affirmation, that verb or class of
verbs is expressive: but in accidents of this kind it may be doubted if there be any thing that with propriety
ca-u be said to be common to all verbs. There seems indeed to be nothing common to all verbs but that which
is essential to them, and by which they are distinguished from every other part of speech j but every kind of
action, passion, and state of being, may be completely expressed hy participles and abstract nouns ; and therefore in
such accidents we cannot find the essence of the verb, because such accidents distinguish it not from other parts of
speech. Were a man called upon to specify the essence of verse ov metre, he would not say, that it consists in the
meaning of the words, or in the using of these words according to the rules of syntax. In every kind of verse
where words are used they have indeed a meaning, and in all good verses they are grammatically constructed ; but
this is likewise the case in prose, and therefore it cannot be the essence of verse. The essence of verse must con¬
sist in something which is not to be found in prose, viz. a certain harmonic succession of sounds and num¬
ber of syllables: and the essence of the verb must likewise consist in something which is not to be found in any
vther part of speech ; and that, we are persuaded, is nothing but affirmation. But if affirmation be the very essence
of tha verb, it would surely be improper, when we endeavour to ascertain the general import of that part of
speech, to turn our thoughts exclusively to a word which implies no affirmation j for what does not affirm,
cannot in strictness of truth be either a verb or the mode of a verb.
In the same page it is said, that <( the infinitive denotes that kind of thought or combination of thoughts
which is common to all the other modes.” In what sense this is true, we are unable to conceive : it denotes
indeed the same accident, but certainly not the same thought or combination of thoughts. In the examples quoted,
bton est vivere, sed valere vita, &c. the infinitives have evidently the effect of abstract nouns, and not of
verbs ; for though vivere and valerv express the same states of being with vivo and valeo, they by no means express
the same combination of thoughts. Vivo and valeo affirm that I am living, and that I am well; and he who
niters these words must think not of life and health in the abstract, but of life and health as belonging to himself.
Vivere and valere, on the other hand, affirm nothing; and he who utters them thinks only of the states of
living and of being in health, without applying them to any particular person.
'1 he exquisitely learned author of The Origin and Progress of Language, having said that the infinitive is used
either as a noun, or that it serves to connect the verb with another verb or a noun, and so is useful in syntax,
the Doctor combats this opinion and infers the infinitive to be truly a verb; because “ the thought expressed
3
G R A M M A K.
tap. IV.
echs. still commonly employed. Tn English, therefore, the
-v foregoing process of inferring a command from an asser¬
tion of futurity seems to have been reversed; and the
word shall) from denoting a command or obligation) has
S6 come to denote futurity simply.
rerbs,«s g0< Having considered the verb in its essence, its ten-
r are ses, and its modes, we might seem to have exhausted the
0’rl subject; but there is still something more to he done,
ter. Grammarians have distinguished verbs into several spe¬
cies : and it remains with us to inquire upon what prin¬
ciple in nature this distinction is made, and how far it
proceeds. Now it must be obvious, that if predication
be the essence of verbs, all verbs, as such, must be of
the same species; {ov predication is the same in every pro¬
position, under every possible circumstance, and by whom¬
soever it is made. But the greater part of verbs con¬
tain the predicate as well as the predication of a pro¬
position ; or, to speak in common language, they denote
an attribute as well as an affirmation. Thus, lego is '■
“ I am reading f ambulo, “ I am walking sto, “ I
am standingverbero, “ I am strikingverberor, “ I
am stricken." But the attributes expressed by these
verbs are evidently of difierent kinds; some consisting in
action, some in suffering, and some in a state of being
which is neither active nor passive. Hence the distinc¬
tion of verbs, according to,the attributes which they de¬
note, into active, passive, and neuter. Lego, which is
an assertion that I am employed in the act of reading,
is an active verb ; verberor, which is an assertion that I
am suffering under the rod, is a passive verb, because it
denotes a passion ; and sto, which is an assertion that I
am standing still, is said to be a neuter verb, because it
denotes neither action nor passion. But it is self-evident
that there cannot be action without an agent, r\ovpassion
without
by means of it, may he expressed in synonymous and convertible phrases, in different languages, by means of
other parts or moods of the verb.” Of these synonymous and convertible phrases he gives several examples,
of which the first is taken from Hamlet’s soliloquy. “ To be or not to be, that is the question,” he thinks
equivalent in meaning to, “ The question is, whether we shall be or shall not be .2” But we are persuaded he is
mistaken. “ Whether we shall be or shall not be,” is a question asking, whether we shall exist at some future
and indefinite time? but the subject of Hamlet’s debate with himself was not. Whether, if his conscious existence
should be interrupted, it would be afterwards at some future and indefinite time restored? but whether it was to
continue uninterrupted by his exit from this world ? This, we think, must be self-evident to every reader of the
Soliloquy. It is likewise very obvious, that the word question in this sentence does not signify interrogatory, but
subject of debate or affair to be examined; and that the word that serves for no other purpose than to complete
the verse, and give additional emphasis, perhaps, to an inquiry so important. “ To be or not to be, that is the
question,” is therefore equivalent in all respects to “ The continuance or non-continuance of my existence, is the
matter to be examined ;” and the infinitive is here indisputably used as an abstract noun in the nominative case.
Should it be said, that the Doctor may have taken the sentence by itself unconnected with the subject of
Hamlet's soliloquy; we beg leave to reply that the supposition is impossible; for, independent of the circum¬
stances with which they are connected, the words “ To be or not to be," have no perfect meaning. Were it not
for the subject of the soliloquy, from which every reader supplies what is wanting to complete the sense, it might
be asked, “ To be or not to be"—What? A coward, a murderer, a king, or a dead man 1 Questions all equally
reasonable, and which in that case could not be answered.
^ ith the same view, to prove the infinitive to be truly a verb, the Doctor proceeds to remark upon the fol¬
lowing phrases, Dico, credo, puto, Titium existere, valere,jacere, cecidisse, procubuisse, projecisse Mcevium, pro¬
ject umfuisse a Mcevio ; which, he says, have the very same meaning with dico, &c. quod Titius existat, quodjaceat,
quod cecident, &c. He adds, that “ the infinitives, as thus used, acquire not any further meaning, in addition
to the radical import of the verb with tense, like the proper moods ; but the subjunctives after quod lose their
peculiar meaning as moods, and signify no more than bare infinitives." In the sense in which this observation
is made by the author, the very reverse of it seems to be the truth. The infinitives, as thus used, acquire, at
least in the mind of the reader, something like the power of affirmation, which they certainly have not when
standing by themselves ; whereas, the subjunctives neither lose nor acquire any meaning by being placed after
quod. Dico, credo, puto, Titium existere, valere,jacere, &c. when translated literally, signify, I say, believe, think,
Titius to exist, to be well, to lie along; a mode of speaking which, though now not elegant, was common with
the best writers in the days of Shakespeare, and is frequently to be found in the writings of Warburton at the
present day. Dico, credo, puto, quod Titius existat, quodjaceat, &c. signifies literally, 1 say, believe, think, that
Titius may exist, may lie along, &e. Remove the verbs in the indicative mode from the former set of phrases,
and it will be found that the infinitives had acquired a meaning, when conjoined with them, which they have not
when left by themselves: for Titium existere, jacere ; “ Titius to exist, to lie along,” have no complete meaning,
because they ajfrm nothing. On the other hand, when the indicative verbs are removed, together with the won¬
der-working quod, from the latter set of phrases, the meaning of the subjunctives remains in all respects as it was
before the removal; for Titius existat, jaceut, &c. signify, Titius may exist, may lie along, as well when they
stand by themselves as when they make the final clauses of a compound sentence. Every one knows that quod,
though often called a conjunction, is always in fact the relative pronoun. Dico, credo, puto, quod Titius existat,
must therefore be construed thus : Titius existat [est id) quod dico, credo, &c. “Titius may exist is that thing,
that proposition, which I say, believe, think.” In the former set of phrases, the infinitives are used as abstract
nouns in the accusative case, denoting, in conjunction with Titium, one complex conception, the existence, &c.
Titius . iJito, aedo, puto ; I say, believe, think ;” and the object of my speech, belief, thought, is Titium eo*-
istere, “ the existence of Titius.”
Vol. X. Part I. -j- p
41
Verb?.
In
42
GRAM
Verbs, without a passive being; neither can we make npredica-
—j—J tion of any kind, though it denote neither action x\oxpas-
s7 sion, without predicating ot something. All verbs, there-
hav Va! ne ^ore’ wlather active, passive, or neuter, have a necessary
eessary re- inference to some noun expressive of the substance, oi
Terence to a which the attribute, denoted by the verb, is predicated.
noun in the This noun, which in all languages must be in the
nominative ji0minative case, is said to be the nominative to the verb;
and in those languages in which the verb has person
and number, it must in these respects agree with its
SS nominative.
Active Of action, and consequently of verbs denoting action,
verbs tran- there are obviously two kinds. There is an action which
transitive11* Passes ^rom ^ aSent to some suk)ect; llPon which he is
employed j and there is an action which respects no ob¬
ject beyond the agent himself. Thus lego and ambulo
are verbs which equally denote action; but the action of
lego refers to some external object as well as to the agent;
for when a man is reading, he must be reading some¬
thing, a book, a newspaper, or a letter, &c. whereas,
the action ai ambulo is confined wholly to ihe agent; for
when a man is walking, he is employed upon nothing
beyond himself,—his action produces no effect upon any
thing external. These two species of verbs have been
denominated transitive and intransitive; a designation
extremely proper, as the distinction which gave rise to it
MAR. Chap. I\
is philosophically just. Verbs of both species are active; partj •,
but the action of those only which are called transitive &Ci
respects an external object; and therefore in those lan-'~~v^«
guages of which the nouns have cases, it is only after
verbs which are transitive as well as active, that the fo,'
noun denoting the subject of the action is put in the oc-oovein*
cusative or objective case. Verbs which are intransitive, nouns in
though they be really flcfz’ir, are in the structure ofl|ie acci
sentences considered as neuter, and govern no case. tmcase
And so much for that most important of all words
the VERB. We proceed now to the consideration of
participles, adjectives, and adverbs; which as they have
a near relation to one another, we shall treat of in the
same chapter.
Chap. V. Of Participles, Adjectives, and Adverbs.
Sect. I. Of Participles.
. po I
81. 1 HE nature of verbs being understood, that ofPart'c'P
PARTICIPLES is not of difficult comprehension. Every de,10te ‘
verb, except that which is called the67/bstantivc verb, is ex- ^mblm
pressiveof -aw attribute, oitime, and of -An assertion. Now with tin
if we take away the assertion, and thus destroy the vei'b,
there will remain the attribute and the time ; and these
combined make the essence of that species of words call¬
ed
In confirmation of the same idea, that the infinitive is truly a verb, the author quotes from Horace a passage,
which, had we thought quotations necessary, we should have urged in support of our own opinion :
 — jNec quicquam tibi prodest
Aerias tentasse domos, animoque rotundum
Peiicukrisse polum, morituro.
To our apprehension, nothing can be clearer than that TENTASSE and fercurrisse are here used as nouns; for if
they be not, where shall we find a nominative to the verb prodest? It was certainly what was signified by tentasse
aerias domos, animoque rotundum percurrisse polum, that is said to have been no advantage to Archytas at his
death. This indeed, if there could be any doubt about it, would be made evident by the two prose versions
which the professor subjoins to these beautiful lines. The first of which is as follows : Nee quicquam tibi prodest
quod aerias domos tentaveris, et animo percurreris polum; which must be thus constructed : Tentaveris
aerias domos, et percurreris animo polum (est id) quod nee quicquam tibipi'odest. This version, however is not
perfectly accurate : for it contains two propositions, while Horace’s lines contain but one. The second, which
though it may be a crabbed inelegant sentence, expresses the poet’s sense with more precision, is in these words:
Nec quicquam tibi prodest morituro tua tentatio domuum acriarum, etcuRsustuus circa polum. Havingobserved
with truth, that this sentence has the very same meaning with the lines of Horace, Dr Gregory asks, “ Why are
not tentatio and cursus reckoned verbs as well as tentasse and percurrisse Let those answer this question who
believe that any of these words are truly verbs ; for they are surely, as he adds, all very near akin ; indeed so
near, that the mind, when contemplating the import of each, cannot perceive the difference. Meanwhile
we beg leave in our turn to ask, Why are not tentasse and percurrisse reckoned abstract nouns as well as tentatio
and cursus?- To this question it is not easy to conceive what answer can be returned upon the Doctor’s
principles. In his theory there is nothing satisfactory ; and what has not been done by himself, we expect
not from his followers. On the other hand, our principles furnish a very obvious reason for excluding
tentatio and cursus from the class of verbs; it is, because these words express no predication. Tentasse and
percurrisse indeed denote predication no more than tentatio and cursus ; and therefore upon the same principle
we exclude them likewise from a class to which, if words are to be arranged according to their import, they cer¬
tainly do not belong.
Should the reader be inclined to think that we have dwelt too long on this point, we beg him to reflect that if
our ideas of the essence of the verb and of the nature of the infinitive be erroneous, every thing which we have
said of modes and tenses is erroneous likewise. We were therefore willing to try the solidity of those principles
which hold the essence of the verb to consist in energy: and we selected Dr Gregory’s theory for the subject of
examination, not from any disrespect to the author, whom the writer of this article never saw ; but because we be¬
lieve his abilities to be such, that
    ' " ' Si Pergama dextrd
Defendipossent, etiam hac difensafuissent.
lap.
ective*.
V.
GRAMMAR.
43
ed PARTICIPLES. Thus, take away the assertion from
the verb y^xtyu luriteth, and there remains the 'participle
y^xtpu'j writing; which, without the assertion, denotes
the same attribute and the same time. After the same
manner, by withdrawing theassertion, we discover
written in wrote ; ygxipaiv about to write in y^x^u
shall be writing. This is Mr Harris's doctrine respect¬
ing participles; which, in our opinion, is equally ele¬
gant, perspicuous, and just. It has, however, been
controverted by an author, whose rank in the republic
of letters is such, that we should be wanting in respect
to him, and in duty to our readers, were we to pass his
objections wholly unnoticed.
82. It is acknowledged by I)r Beattie, that this,
which we have taken, is the most convenient light in
which the participle can be considered in universal gram-
mart and yet he affirms that present participles do not
always express present time, nor preterite participles
past time; nay, ih&iparticiples have often no connection
with time at all. He thus exemplifies his assertion, in
Greek, in Latin, and in English.
“ When Cebes says, Ervy^aev«ftw Tri^vxrov^n a ru
X^ovev ‘ We WERE walking in the temple of Sa¬
turn,' the participleof the present WALKING, is,by means
of the verb WERE, applied to time past; and therefore
of itself cannot be understood to signify any sort of
time.” Again, after observing, that in English we
have but two simple participles, such as writing and
written, of which the former is generally considered as
the present and the latter as the past, the Doctor adds,
But “ the participle writing, joined to a verb of dif¬
ferent tenses, may denote either postf or future action ;
for we may say not only, L am writing, but also, I
WAS writing yesterday, and I SHALL BE writing to¬
morrow whence he infers that no time whatever is
denoted by the present participle. But surely this is a
hasty inference, drawn from the doctrine of absolute time
and a definite present, which we have already shown to be
groundless and contradictory. When we speak simply
of an action as present, we must mean that it \% present
with respect to something besides itself, or we speak a
jargon which is uninteiliixible, but we do not ascertain
the time of its presence. From the very nature of time,
an action may \se present now, it may have been present
formerly, or it may be present at ‘somefuture period; but
the precise time of its presence cannot be ascertained
even by the present of the indicative of the vcib itself $
vet who ever supposed that the present of the indicative
denotes no time? The participle oi the present represents
the action of the verb as going on; but an action cannot
be going on without being present in time with some¬
thing. When, therefore, Cebes says, “We were walk¬
ing in the temple of Saturn,” be represents the action of
the verb walk as present with something; but by using
the verb expressive of his assertion in a past tense, he
gives us to understand that the action was not present
with any thing at the period of his speaking, but at some
portion of time prior to that period : what that portion of
time was, must be collected from the subsequent parts of
his discourse. The same is to be said of the phrases 1 was
writing yesterday, and I sh ill be writing to-morrow.
They indicate, that the action of the verb WRITE was
present with me yesterday, and will again be present
with me to-morrow. The action, and the time oi action,
are denoted by the participle; that action is affirmed to
belong to me by means of the verb ; and the time at Adjective*.
which it belonged to me is pointed out by the tenses of —-1
that verb, am, was, and shall be. All this is so plain,
that it could not have escaped Dr Beattie’s penetration,
had he not hastily adopted the absurd and contradictory
notion of a definite present.
Of the truth of his assertion respecting past participles,
he gives a Greek and a Latin example. The former
is taken from St Mark : 0 Tnnvtrxs <rwl)no-{]xi; and the
/aMer is that which is commonly called the perfect future
of the passive verb amor, amatus fuero. In the first in¬
stance, be says that the participle, though belonging to
the aorist of the past time, must be rendered either by
the indefinite present, “ be who believeth ;" or by the
future, “ he who to///believe and the reason which
he gives for this rendering of the word is, that “ the be¬
lieving here spoken of is considered as posterior in time
to the enunciation oi the promise." This is indeed true,
but it is not to the purpose; for with the enunciation
of the promise, the time of the participle has no manner
of concern. The time of TrufUvrxi depends entirely
upon the time of vu^a-irxi, with respect to which it must
undeniably he past. Our Lord is not here asserting, that
he who shall believe at the day of final retribution, shall
be saved; but that be who shall on that day be found
to have believed in time past, shall be saved : and if the
participle had not been expressive of n.finished action
and a past time, the whole sentence would have convey¬
ed a meaning not friendly to the interests of the gospel.
In like manner, the time of amatus is referred, not to the
time oi speaking, but to the time Hfuero, with respect
to which, who sees not that it is past ? The two words,
taken together, contain a declaration, that he who
utters them shall, at some time posterior to that of
speaking, have BEEN loved; shall have been loved de¬
notes two times, hath future with respect to the time of
speaking; but when the time, denoted by shall have,
comes to be present, that, of the participle loved must
he past, for it is declared that the action of it filiall then
be complete and finished.
We conclude, then, that it is essential to a participle
to express both an attribute nnA time; and that such
words as denote no time, though they may be in the
form of participles, as doctus, “ learned,” eloquens,
“ eloquent,” &c. belong to another part of speech,
which we now proceed to consider.
Sect. IT. Of Adjectives.
91
83. The nature of verbs and participles being un- Adjective*
derstood, that of ADJECTIVES becomes easy. A t/c/Adenote at-
implies (as we have said) an attribute, time, and anf?,y,?er-tll|i)l"e‘ as
tion ; a participle implies only an attribute and time; and ^ su'jl'ian-
an ADJECTIVE implies only an attribute belonging to«es.
some substance. In other words, an adjective has
no assertion, and it denotes only such an attribute as has
not its essence either in motion or privation. Thus,
in general, the attributes of quantity, quality, and rela¬
tion, such as many, few, great, little, black, white, good,
bad, double, treble, &c. are all denoted by ADJECTIVES, 92
84. To understand the import and the use of this spe-d^,cy have
cies of words, it must be observed that every adjective is of^bstract
resolvable into a substantive and an expression of connec- n0UUSi toge-
tion equivalent to of. Thus, a good man is a w/////o/’iher with
goodness ; where we see the attribute denoted by the ad~ die power
jective fully expressed by an abstract noun. But it is0141®011*
F 2 evident ne*UTe’
1
44
Adjectives.
93
The usual
effect of ad
jectives is
to modify
a general
term.
94
The re¬
verse of
this is
sometimes
the case.
GRAM
evident tliat the noun goodness does not express the whole
meaning of the adjective good ; for every adjective ex¬
presses not only an attribute, but also the connection
between the attribute and its substance; whereas in the
abstract noun, the attribute is considered as a. substance
unconnected with any other substance.
In the next place it is to be observed, that the con¬
nection expressed by adjectives, like that expressed by of,
is of a nature so general and indefinite, that the particu¬
lar kind of connection must, in some languages, be infer¬
red from our previous knowledge of the objects be¬
tween which it subsists, or it will for ever remain un¬
known. This might be proved by a variety of ex¬
amples, but will perhaps be sufficiently evident from
the following. Color salubris signifies colour that indi¬
cates health j exercitatio salubris, exercise that preserves
health j victus salubris, food that improccsliealth; medi-
cina salubris, medicine that restores health. In all these
examples the connection expressed by the adjective form
of salubris is different; and though it may be known
from previous experience, there is nothing in any of the
expressions themselves by which it can be ascertain¬
ed. Thus, adjectives are each significant of an attri¬
bute and con/nection ; but the particular kind of connec¬
tion is ascertained by experience.—The usual effect of
adjectives in language, is to modify or particularise a ge-
neralterm, by adding some quality or circumstance which
may distinguish the object meant by that term, from
the otlter objects of the same species. I have occasion,
for example, to speak of a particular man, of whose
name I am ignorant. The word tnan is too general
for my purpose, it being applicable to every individual
of the human species. In what way then do I pro¬
ceed, in order to particularize it, so as to make it de¬
note that very man whom I mean to specify? I annex or
conjoin to it such words as are significant of objects and
qualities with which he is connected, and which are not
equally applicable to others from whom I mean to
distinguish him. Thus I can say, a man of prudence or a
prudent man, a wiseman, n good man, a brave man, &c.
By these additions the general term man is limited, or
modified, and can be applied only to certain men to
whom belong the attributes expressed by the adjectives
prudent, wise, good, and brave. If it be still too gene¬
ral for my purpose, I can add to it other qualities and
circumstances, till I make it so particular as to be ap¬
plicable to but dne individual man in the universe.
85. This is the way in which adjectives are com¬
monly used, but this is not the only way. Instead of be¬
ing employed to modify 3.substantive, they sometimesap-
pear as t\\eprincipahvords in the sentence, when thesole
use of the substantive seems to be to modify the abstract
noun, contained under the adjective to which that sub¬
stantive is joined. In order to understand this, it will be
necessary to attend to the following observations.
It may be laid down as a general proposition, that
when any term or phrase is employed to denote a com¬
plex conception, the mind has a power of considering, in
what order it pleases, the simple ideas of which the com¬
plex conception is composed. To illustrate this observa¬
tion by an example: The word eques in Latin denotes a
complex conception, of which the constituent simple ideas
are those of a man and ahorse; with this connection sub¬
sisting between them, that the man is conceived as on
the back ol the horse. In the use of this word, it is.
z
MAR. Chap.1
well known that the idea first in order, as being the Adjeeti
principal subject of the proposition, is commonly the man
on the back of the horse ; but it is not so always, for the
mind may consider the HORSE as the principal object.
Thus when Virgil says,
Frcena Pelethronii Lapithee gyrosque dedere,
Impositi dorso ; atque equitem docuere sub armis
Insult are solo, et gressus glomerare superbos-—
the energies attributed to the object signified by EQUI-
TEM, make it evident that the horse -and not the man
is meant ; for it is not the property of a man, insultare
solo, et gressus glomerare superbos.
The same observation holds true where the complex
object is denoted by two or more words; an adjective, for
instance, and a substantive. Thus in the phrase summus
mans se inter nubila condit, the words summus mans re¬
present a complex conception, of which the constituent
ideas are those of height and mountain, connected toge¬
ther by the adjective form of summus. Either of these
ideas may he the subject of the proposition ; and the ex¬
pression will accordingly admit of two different signifi¬
cations. If mans be made the subject of the proposition,
the meaning will he, “ the highest mountain hides itself
among the clouds.” If the substantive included in the
radical part of summus he made the subject of the pro¬
position, the expression will signify, “ the summit, or
highest part of the mountain, hides itself among the
clouds.” The latter is the true import of the sentence. 95
86. From these observations and examples, we shall Tw0UI
he enabled to understand the two uses of the adjective. of l'ie
It is either employed, as has been already observed,JeCtlVe
to restrict or modify, a general term; or the abstract
substantive contained in the adjective is modified by
the noun, with which, in the concrete or adjective form,
that abstract substantive is joined. The first may be
called the direct, the second the inverse, acceptation of
adjectives.
The inverse acceptation of adjectives and participles
(for both are used in the same manner) has not, ex¬
cept in a very few instances, been noticed by any
grammarian ; yet the principle is of great extent in lan¬
guage. In order to explain it, we shall produce a few
examples 'r which on any other principle it is impossible
to understand-
Livy, speaking of the abolition of the regal authori¬
ty at Rome, says, Begnatum est Bomce ah urse coneita
ad liberatam annos dneentos quadraginta quatuor,
“ Monarchy subsisted at Rome, not from the city built
(which would convey no meaning), hut from the build,
ing of the city, to its deliverance,” &c_ Both the parti¬
ciples condita and liberatam are here used inversely; that
is, the abstract substantivescontained in condita and libc-
ratam are modified or restricted by the substantives urbs
and urbem, with which they unite. Again, Ovid, speak¬
ing of the contest between Ajax and Ulysses for the
arms of Achilles, has these lines:
licet eloquio fidum quoque Nestor a vincat,
Hand tamen ejfciet, desertum ut Nestora crimen
Nullum esse rear. 
Here also the adjective or participle DESERTUM is taken
inversely, and the general notion of desertion contained
in it is mod fed or rendered particular by being joined
with the substantive Nestora. The meaning of the
passage
T\w.
of tli
jeetii
iap. V. G R A
jctives. passage Is, “ I will never be Induced to believe that the
•v—desertion of Nestor was not a crime.” Were (Usertvm
to be taken directly as an adjective modifying Its sub¬
stantive, the sentence must be translated, “ I cannot
believe that Nestor deserted was not a crime.” But it
Is evident that this is nonsense: as Nestor, whether
deserted or not deserted, could not be a crime.
It were easy to produce many more examples of ad-
jectives taken inversely ; but these may suffice to illu¬
strate the general principle, and to show, that without
attending to It, it is impossible to understand the ancient
authors. We shall adduce one instance of it from Shake¬
speare, to evince that it is not confined to the ancient
languages, though in these it is certainly more frequent
than in the modern :
“ Freeze, freeze, thou bitter sky j
“ Thou canst not bite so nigh
“ As benefits forgot :
u Though thou the waters warp,
“ Thy sting is not so sharp
“ As friends remember1 d not.”
Here it is evident, that the adjective forgot is taken
inversely •, for it is not a benefit, but \\vs forgetting oi a
benefit, which bites more than the bitter sky : and there¬
fore, in this passage, the adjective serves not to modify
the noun; but the noun benefits is employed to modify
the abstract substantive contained in the adjective ybr-
got, which is the subject of the proposition, and the
principal word in the sentence.
Had Mr Harris attended to the principle, and re¬
flected upon what he could not but know, that all adjec¬
tives denote substances ; not indeed subsisting by them¬
selves, as those expressed by nouns, but concretely, as the
attributes of other substances ; he would not have classed
adjectives with verbs, or have passed so severe a ce'nsure
upon the grammarians for classing them with nouns. It
matters very little how adjectives are classed, provided
their nature and effect be understood ; but they have at
least as good a title to be ranked with nouns as with
verbs, and in our opinion a better. To adopt Mr Har¬
ris's language, they are homogeneous with respect to
nouns, as both denote substances ; they are heterogeneous
with respect to verbs, as they never do denote assertion.
87. Besides original adjectives, there is another class,
which is formed from substantives. Thus, when we say,
the party of Pompey, the style of Cicero, the philosophy
of Socrates ; in these cases, the party, the style, and the
philosophy spoken of, receive a stamp and character from
the persons whom they respect: Those persons, there¬
fore, perform the part of attributes. Hence they actu¬
ally pass into attributives, and assume as such the form of
adjectives. It is thus we say, the Hompeian party, the
Ciceronian style, and the Socratic philosophy. In like
manner, for a trumpet of brass, we say a bra-zen trumpet,
and for a crown of gold, a golden crown, &c. Fven
pronominal substantives admit the like mutation. Thus,
instead of saying the book of me, and of thee, we say
my book, and thy book j and instead of saying, the
country of us, and of you, we say our country, and ijour
country. These words my, thy, our, your, &c. have
therefore been properly ca\\e& pn'onominal adjectives..
95
t jectives
$ med
f m sub-
J ntives,
97
s i from
3 nouns.
45
Adveibs,
&.C.
98
M M A R.
88. It has been already observed, and must be obvi¬
ous to all, that substances alone are susceptible of sex ;
and that therefore substantive nouns alone should have
distinctions respecting gcWcr. The same is true with
respect to number and person. An attribute admits Adjectives
of no change in its nature, whether it belong to you from their
or to ME, to a MAN or a WOMAN, to ONE man or to h{lye
MANY j and therefore the worr/s expressive aiattributes, ]lo varia_
ought on all occasions, and in every situation, to be fix- tjon to ,je_
ed and invariable. For as the qualities good and note sex,
black and white, are the same, whether they be applied numb<ir> or
to a man or a woman, to manij or to few ; so the wordl,en,0lu
which expresses any one of these attributes ought in
strictness to admit of no alteration with whatever sub¬
stantive it may be joined. Such is the order of nature 5
and that order, on this as on other occasions, the Eng¬
lish language most strictly observes : for we say equally,
a good man or a good woman ; good men or good wo¬
men ; a good house or good houses. In some languages,
indeed, such as Greek and Latin, of which the nouns
admit of cases, and the sentences of an inverted struc¬
ture, it has been found necessary to endow adjectives
with the threefold distinction of gender, number, and
person ; but as this is only an accidental variation, oc¬
casioned by particular circumstances, and not in the
least essential to language, it belongs not to our subject,
but to the particular grammars of these tongues. ^
There is, however, one variation of the adjective, They have
which has place in all languages, is founded in the nature however
of things, and properly belongs to universal grammar.
It is occasioned by comparing the attribute oi one sub-etj jn tjie "
stance with a similar attribute of another, and falls na-nature of
turally to be explained under the next section. tilings.
Sect. III. Gj' Adverbs, and the Comparison of Ad¬
jectives.
J . 100
89. As adjectives denote the attributes of substances, The import
so there is an inferior class of words which denote the mo- of adverbs.
dificalions of these attributes. Thus, when we say “ Ci¬
cero and Pliny were both of them eloquent ; Statius and
Virgil both of them wrotethe attributes expressed
by the words eloquent and wrote are immediately refer¬
red to Cicero, Virgil, &c.; and as denoting the attri¬
butes oi substances, these words, the one an adjective, and
the other a verb, have been both called attributives
OF THE first order. But when we say, il Pliny was
moderately eloquent, but Cicero exceedingly eloquent',
Statius wrote indifferently, but Virgil wrote admirably
the words moderately, exceedingly, indifferently, and ad¬
mirably, are not referable to substantives, but to other
attributes; that is, to the words eloquent and wrote,
the signification of which they modify. Such words,
therefore, having the same effect upon adjectives that
adjectives have upon substantives, have been called 101
ATTRIBUTIVES OF THE SECOND ORDER. By gram- The reason
marians they have, been called ADVERBS; and, if we °f their
take the word VERB in its most comprehensive signi- liamts“
fication (a), as including not only verbs properly so
called, but also every species oj words, which, whe¬
ther essentially or accidentally, are significant of the at¬
tributes of substances, we shall find the name ADVERB
to
(a) Aristotle and his followers called every word a verb, which denotes the predicate of a proposition. This
classification was certainly absurd ; for it confounds not only adjectives and participles, but even substantives, with
verbs : but the authority of Aristotle was great and hence the name of adverb, though that word attaches itself
only to an adjective or participle, or a verb significant of an attribute: it does not attach itself to the pure verb*.
46
Adverbs,
Sec.
T02
Adverbs
denoting
intension
pared by
means of
such ad¬
verbs.
to be a very just appellation, as denoting A PART OF
SPEECH, THE NATURAL APPENDAGE OF SUCH VERBS.
So great is this dependence in grammatical syntax, that
an adverb can no more subsist without its verb, i. e. with¬
out some word significant of an attribute, than a verb or
adjective can subsist without its substantive. It is the
same here as in certain natural subjects. Every colour,
for its existence, as much requires a superjicies, as the
superficies for its existence requires a solid body.
90. Among the attributes of substance are reckoned
quantity &m\ quality: thus we say a white garment, a high
mountain, &c.Now some of these quantitiesand qualities
and icmis- are capH|j|e 0f intension or remission; or, in other words,
one substance may have them in a greater or less degree
than another.'Y\m$ wesAq,a garment EXCEEDINGLY white,
^mountain toler abl y or moderately high. Hence, then,
one copious source of secondary attributes or adverbs to
denote these two, that is, intension and remission ; such
as greatly, tolerably, vastly, extremely, indifferently, &c.
... V', But where there are difl’erent intensions of the same
of the same ^tribute', they may be compared together: Ihus, it the
kii d com- garment A be exceedingly white,aoA the garment B be
MODERATELY white, we may say, the garment A is MORE
white than the garment B. This p:'per is white, and
snow is white ; but snow is more while than this paper.
In these instances, the adverb more not. only denotes in-
tension,hn\.relativeitltension: nay, we stop not here, as we
not only denote intension merely relative, hut relative in¬
tension than which there is none greater. Thus we say, So¬
phocles was wise, Socrates was more wise than he, but So¬
lomon was the most wise of men. Even verbs, properly so
called, which denote an attribute as well as an assertion,
must admit both of simple and also of comparative inten¬
sions; but the simple verb TORE admits of neither the one
nor the other. Thus, in the following example, Fume he
loveth more than riches; but virtue of all things he lov-
ETHMOST; the words MORE and MOST denote the different
■comparative intensionsai the attribute\nc\u<\ei\ under the
Verb loveth; but the assertion itself, which is the essen¬
tial part of the verb, admits neither of intension nor re¬
mission, but is the same in all possible propositions.
91. From this circumstance of quantities and qualities
parison of being capable of intension and remission, arise the com-
adjeclives, parison of adjectives, and its different DEGREES, which
eii u.r by canriot well be more than the two species above men¬
tioned 5 one to denote simple excess, and one to denote
superlative. Were we indeed to introduce more degrees
than these, we ought peihaps to introduce infinite,
which is absurd. For why stop at a limited number,
when in all subjects susceptible of intension, the inter¬
mediate excesses are in a manner infinite ? Between the
first simple white and (lie superlative whitest, there are
infinite degrees oimore white; and the same may be said
of more great, more strong, more minute, &c. The doc¬
trine of grammarians about three such degrees of com¬
parison, which they call the positive, the comparative, and
the superlative, must be absurd ; both because in their
positive there is wo comparison at all, and because their
superlative is a comparative as much as their comparative
itself. Examples to evince this may he met with every¬
where'. Socrates was the mosi' wise of all the Athenians;
Homer was the most sublime of all poets, &c. In this
104
The com¬
ae! verbs,
GRAMMAR. Chap.
sentence Socrates is evidently compared with the Athe- A(jVf
nians, and Homer with all other poets. Again, if it be &
said that Socrates was more wise than any other Athe- ''“""v
nian, but that Solomon was the most wise of men ; is not
a comparison of Solomon with mankind in general, as
plainly implied in the last clause of the sentence, as a com¬
parison oi Socrates with the other Athenians in the first?
But if both imply comparison, it may be asked, In what
consists the difference between the comparative and su¬
perlative? Does the superlative always express a greater
excess than the comparative? No: for though Socrates
was the most wise of the Athenians, yet is Solomon af¬
firmed to have been more wise than he $ so that here a
higher superiority is denoted by the comparative more
than by the superlative most. Is this then the diflerence
between these, two degrees, that the superlative implies
a comparison of one with many, while the comparative
implies only a comparison of one with one? No : this is
not always the case neither. The Psalmist says, that
“ he is wiser (or more wise) than all his teachers j”
where, though the comparative is used, there is a com¬
parison of one with many. The real diflerence between
these two degrees of comparison may be explained thus :
When we use the superlative, it is in consequence of
having compared individuals with the species 10 which
they belong, or one or more species with the un¬
der which they are comprehended. Thus, Socrates was
the most wise of the Athenians, and the Athenians were
the most enlightened of ancient nations. In the first
clause of this sentence, Socrates, although compared
with the Athenians, is at the same time considered as
one of them ; and in the last, the Athenians, although
compared with ancient nations, are yet considered as
one of those nations. Hence it is that in English the
superlative is followed by the preposition of and in
Greek and Latin by the genitive case of the plural
number; to show, that the object which has the pre¬
eminence is considered as belonging to that class of
things with which it is compared.
But when we use the comparative degree, the objects
compared are set in direct opposition ; and the one is con¬
sidered not as a part of the other, or as comprehended
under it, hut as something altogether distinct and be¬
longing to a different class. Thus, were one to say,
“ Cicero was more eloquent than the Romans,” he would
speak absurdly ; because every body knows, that of
the class of men expressed by the word Romans Cicero
was one, and such a sentence would affirm that orator
to have been more eloquent than himself. But when
it is said that “ Cicero was more eloquent than all the
other Komans, or than oLfer Roman,” the language
is proper, and the affirmation true : for though the
persons spoken of were all of the same class or city,
yet Cicero is here set in contradistinction to the rest
of his countrymen, and is not considered as one of the
persons with whom he is compared. It is for this
reason that in English the comparalh'e degree is follow¬
ed by a noun governed by the word of contradistinc¬
tion than, and in Latin by a noun in the ablative case
governed by the preposition pree (b) either expressed
or understood. We have already observed, that the
ablative case denotes concornttancy: and therefore when
(b) See Ruddimanni Grammaticce Institutiones, Pars secunda, lib. i. cap. 2.
Although it is certainly true, that when we use the superlative, we ought in propriety to consider the things
compared
GRAMMAR.
106
ipara-
s seme-
;s lose
r rela-
11 at u re
an adjective in tlie comparative degree is prefixed to a
noun, that noun is put in the ablative case, to denote that
two things are compared together in company; but by
means of the preposition, expressed or understood, that
which is denoted by the comparative adjective is seen to
he preferred before that which is denoted by the twun.
92. We have hitherto considered comparatives as ex¬
pressed by the words more and most; but the authors,
or improvers of language, have contrived a method to
retrench the use of these adverbs, by expressing their
force by an inflection of the adjective. Thus, instead of
morefair, they say FAIRER ; instead of most fair, FAIR¬
EST : and the same method of comparison takes place
both in the Greek and Latin languages*, with this dif¬
ference, however, between the genius of these langua¬
ges and ours, that we are at liberty to form the com¬
parison either in the one method or in the other J
whereas in those languages the comparison is seldom if
ever formed by the assistance of the adverb, but always
by the inflection of the adjective. Hence this inflection
is by the Greek and Latin grammarians considered as
a necessary accident of the adjective ; but it has reached
no farther than to adjectives, and participles sharing t/ie
nature of adjectives. The attributes expressed by verbs
are as susceptible of comparison as those expressed by
adjectives ; but they are always compared by means of
adverbs, the verb being too much diversified already to
admit of more variations without perplexity.
93. It must be confessed that comparatives, as well
the simple as the superlative, seem sometimes to part
with their relative nature, and to retain only their in¬
tensive. Thus in the degree denoting simple excess :
Tristior, et lacrymis ocitlos stiff us a nitentes. Virg.
Tristior means nothing more than that Venus was vei'y
sad. In the degree called the superlative this is more
usual. Phrases extremely common are, Vir doctissimus,
virfortissimusj1 n most learned man,a most brave man j”
i. e. not the bravest and most learned man that ever ex¬
isted, hut a man possessing those qualities in an eminent
degree. In English, when we intimate that a certain
quality is possessed in an eminent degree, without mak¬
ing any direct comparison between it and a similar qua¬
lity, we do it by the intensive word very, more common¬
ly than by most: as, Cicero was VERY eloquent; the mind
of Johnson was VERY vigorous. This mode of expres¬
sion has been called the superlative of eminence, to di¬
stinguish it from the other superlative, which is superla¬
tive upon comparison. Yet it may be said, that even in
47
the superlative of eminence something of comparison must Adverbs
be remotely or indirectly intimated, as we cannot reason- See.
ably call a man very eloquent, without comparing his ’ v
eloquence with the eloquence of other men. This is in¬
deed true j hut we cannot therefore affirm that compari¬
son is more clearly intimated in this superlative than in
the simple adjective eloquent: for when we say that a man
is eloquent, we mark between his eloquence and that of
other men a distinction of the same kind, though not in
the same degree, as when we say that he is very eloquent.
In English we distinguish the twm superlatives, by
prefixing to the one the definite article the, to show that
something is predicated of the object expressed by it,
which cannot be predicated of any other object; and by
subjoining the preposition of, to show that tbe objects
with which it is compared are of the same class with it¬
self : as, “ Solomon was the wisest of men ; Hector was
the most valiant o/the Trojans.” To the other (c) su¬
perlative we only prefix the indefinite article a : as, “ he
was « very good man : he was a most valiant soldier.” lr>
94. As there are some qualities which admit of cow-Adjectives
parison, so there are others which admit of none : such, which ad-
for example, are those which denote that quality of bodies™**- not of
arising from their figure ; as when we say, a circular <hsreeS;
table, a quadrangular court, a conical piece of metal,
&c. The reason is, that a million of things participat¬
ing the same figure, participate it equally, if they do it
at all. To say, therefore that while A and B are both
quadrangular, A is more or less quadrangular than B,
is absurd. The same holds true in all attributives de¬
noting definite quantities of whatever nature : for as
there can be no comparison without fwte/i.v/’o?! or remission,
and as there can be no intension or remission in things
always definite, therefore these attributives can admit of
no comparison. By the same method of reasoning, we
discover the cause why no substantive is susceptible of
these degrees of comparison. A mountain cannot be said
more to be or to exist than a mole-hill; but tbe
more or less must be sought for in their quantities. In
like manner, when we refer many individuals to one
species, tbe lion A cannot be called more a lion than tbe
lion B (d)} but if more any thing, he is more fierce,
more swij't, or exceeding in some such attribute. So
again, in referring many species to one genus, a croco¬
dile is not more an animal than a lizard 5 nor a tiger
more than a cat; but, if any thing, the crocodile and
tiger are more bulky, more strong, &c. than the animals
with which they are compared j the excess, as before, ,
being derived from their attributes.
95-
compari¬
son.
compared as of the same class ; and when we use the comparative, as of different classes $ yet is not this distinction
always attended to by the best writers in any language. In Latin and Greek the comparative is sometimes used,
where in English we should use the superlative; as dextra est fortior manuum ; and in the Gospel it is said, that
“ a grain of mustard-seed is the smaller (fivcgolegef') of all seeds, but when grown up it is the greater of
herbs.” Even in English, the custom of the language permits us not to say “ he is the tallest of the two,” it must
be the taller of the two *, but we cannot say “ he is the taller of the three,” it must be the tallest. For these
and other deviations Irom the general rule no reason is to be found in the nature of things $ they are errors made
proper by use.
(c) In English, the termination est is peculiar to the superlative of comparison, to which the definite article is
prefixed. Ihus we may say, “ Homer was the sublimest of poets j” but we cannot say, “ Homer was <7 sublimest
poet.” Again, we may say “ Homer was a wry sublime poet ;” but not, “ Homer was the the very sublime poet.” ’
(p) When Pope says ot a certain person, that he is “ a tradesman, meek, and much a liar f the last phrase
is the same with much given to lying, the word liar having the effect of an attributive.
s.
i
4S
Adverbs, 95. Of \\\e'adverbs or secondary attributives already
&c. mentioned, those denoting intension and remission may
be called ADVERBS of QUANTITY CONTINUOUS, ^ great-
h/, vastly, tolerably, &c. once, twice, thrice, &c. (e)
divided in- »re ADVERBS of QUANTITY DISCRETE j more and most,
to classes, less and least, to which may be added equally, 'proportion¬
ally, &c. are ADVERBS of relation. There are o-
thers of quality : as when we say, honestly indus¬
trious, prudently brave; they fought bravely, he
painted finely.
And here it may be worth while to observe, how the
same thing, participating thesame essence, assumes differ¬
ent grammatical forms from its different relations, lor
example, suppose it should be asked, How differ/tonesf,
honestly, and honesty? The answer is, They are in essence
the same: but they differ in as much as honest Istheattnbu-
tiveof a noun; honestly, of verb or adjective; and honesty
being divested of these its attributive relations, assumes the
power of a noun or substantive, so as to stand by itself.
96. The adverbs hitherto mentioned are common to
verbs of every species; but there are some which are con¬
fined to verbs properly so called, that is, to such verbs as
denote motions or energies with their privations. All
motion and rest imply time and place as a kind of neces¬
sary coincidence. Hence, when we would express the
place or time of either, we have recourse to adverbs form¬
ed for this purpose ; of PLACE, as when we say, he stood
there, he went hence, he came hither ; of time, as
when we say, he stood then, he went afterwards, he
travelled formerly. To these may be added the adverbs
which denote the intensions and remissions pecuhartOMO-
tion, such as speedily, hastily, swiftly, slowly, &c. j as
also adverbs of place made out of prepositions, such as
upward and downward from up and down. It may,
however, be doubted whether some of these words, as
well as many others, which do not so properly modify
attributes, as mark some remote circumstance attenAmg '
an attribute or our way of conceiving it, are truly ad¬
verbs, though so called by the grammarians. The simple
affirmative and negative YES and NO are called adverbs,
though they surely do not signify that which we hold
to be the very essence of the adverb, a modification of
attributes. “ Is he learned ? No.” “ Is he brave ? Yes.”
H ere the two adverbs, as they are called, signify not
any modification of the attributes brave and learned,
but a total negation of the attribute in the one case,
and in the other a declaration that the attribute belongs
to the person spoken of.
Adverbs are indeed applied to many purposes ; and
their general nature may be better understood by read-
rtained a and attending to their etymology,
by elymo- than by any general description or definition. Many of
them seem to have been introduced into language in or-
113 der to express by one word the meaning of two or three j
and are mere abbreviations of nouns, verbs, and adjec¬
tives. Th us, the import of the \>[\\Yise, in what place, is
expressed by the single word WHERE ; to what place,
by WHITHER \ from this place, by HENCE 5 in a direction
ascending, by upwards; at the present time, by now ;
at what time, by WHEN; at that time, by THEN; many
times, by OFTEN; not many times, by seldom, &c.
G R A M M A B. Chap.
97. Mr Horne Tooke has, with great industry and Advet
The mean
ing of ad¬
verbs to be
ascer
Many of
them mere
abbrevia¬
tions.
accuracy, traced many of the English adverbs from
tbeir origin in tbe ancient Saxon and other northern'"
tongues, and shown them to be either corruptions of
other words or abbreviations of phrases and sentences.
He observes, “ that all adverbs ending in LY, the most
prolific branch of the family, are sufficiently under¬
stood : the termination being only the word /ike cor¬
rupted ; and tbe corruption so much tbe more easily and
certainly discovered, as the termination remains more
pure and distinguishable in the other sister languages, in
which it is written lick, lyk, lig,ligen.” He might have
added, that in Scotland the word like is, at this day,
frequently used instead of the English termination ly;
as for a goodly fgure, the common people say a good-like
figure. Upon this principle the greater part oi adverbs
are resolved into those parts of speech which we have
already considered, as honestly into honest-like, vastly,
into vast-like, &c. so that when we say of a man he is
honestly industrious, we affirm that he is honest-like in¬
dustrious, or that his industry has the appearance of be¬
ing honest. Adverbs of a different termination the
same acute writer resolves thus ; Aghast into the past
participle AGAZED ;
“ The French exclaimed,—the devil was in arms.
“ All the whole army stood aga%ed on him.” Shakesp.
Ago, into the past participle agone or gone. Asun¬
der he derives from asundered, separated; the past
participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb asundrian : a word
which, in all its varieties, is to be found, he says, in all
tbe northern tongues; and is originally from sond, i. e.
sand. To wit, from wittan to know ; as videlicet and
scilicet, in Latin, are abbreviations of videre-licet and
scire-lieet. Needs, he resolves into need is, used pa¬
renthetically; as, “ I must needs do such a thing.”—“ I
must (need is) do such a thing ;” i. e. “ I must do it,
there is need of it.” Anon, which our old authors use
for immediately, instantly, means, he says, in one ; i. e.
in one instant, moment, minute. As,
“ And right anon withouten more abode.”
“ Anon in all the haste I can.”
Alone and ONLY are resolved into all one, and one-
like. In the Dutch, EEN is one ; and all EEN alone ;
and all-een-like, only, anciently alonely. Alive is
on live, or in life. Thus,
“ Christ eterne on live.” Chaucer.
Aught or ought ; a whit or o whit ; o being for¬
merly written for the article A, or for the numeral ONE;
and whit or hwit, \x\ Saxon, signifying a small thing, as
a point ov jot. Awhile, which is usually classed with
adverbs, is evidently a noun with tbe indefinite article
prefixed ; a while, i. e. a time. Whilst, anciently
and more properly whiles, is plainly the Saxon HWILE-
es, time that. Aloft was formerly written on-loft :
As,
“ And ye, my mother, my soveregne pleasance
“ Over al thing, out take Christ on lofte.” Chaucer.
Now, says Mr Horne Tooke, lyft, in the Anglo Saxon,
(e) These words were anciently written one's, twie's, thrie's ; and are merely tbe genitives of one, two, three,
the substantive time or turn being omitted. Thus, How often did you write? Answer, Once, i. e. one's time.
See Horne Tooke's Diversions of Hurley.
ap. VI. G R A
2rbs. is the air or the clouds, as IN LYFTE cummende, coming
■y—J in the clouds (St Luke'). In the Danish, luft is air;
and “ at spronge i Iv/tcn,” to blow up into the air, or
ALOFT. Soin the Dutch, de loef hebben, to sail be¬
fore the wind ; loeven, to ply to windward ; loef, the
weather gage, &c. From the same root are our other
words ; Loft, lofty, to luff, lee, leeward, lift, &c. It
would be needless, as the ingenious author observes, to
notice such adverbs as, afoot, adays, ashore, astray,
aslope, aright, abed, aback, abreast, afloat, aloud, aside,
afield, aground, aland, &c. These are at first view
seen for what they are. Nor shall we follow him
through the analysis which he has given of many other
adverbs, of which the origin is not so obvious as of
these. 'Of the truth of his principles we are satisfied $
and have not a doubt, but that upon those principles a
man conversant with our earliest writers, and thorough¬
ly skilled in the present languages, may trace every
English (s) adverb to its source, and show that it is no
part of speech separate from those which we have al¬
ready considered. The adverbs, however, of affirmation
and negation, are of too much importance to be thus
passed over ; and as we have never seen an account of
them at all satisfactory, except that which has been gi¬
ven by Horne Tooke, we shall transcribe the substance
of what he says concerning aye, YEA, yes, and no.
To us these words have always appeared improperly
classed with adverbs upon every definition which has
been given of that part of speech. Accordingly, our
author says, that AYE or YEA is the imperative of a
verb of northern extraction ; and means, have, possess,
enjoy. And YES is a contraction of AY-ES, have, pos¬
sess, enjoy, that. Thus, when it is asked whether a
man be learned, if the answer be by the word YES, it is
equivalent to have that, enjoy that, belief or that pro¬
position. (See what was said of the nature of interro¬
gation, Chap. IV. N° 76.).
The northern verb of which yea is the imperative,
is in Danish EJER, to possess, have, enjoy. Eja, aye or
yea; Y.z'E., possession; EJER, possessor. In Swedish it is
EGA, to possess; of which the imperative is ja, aye,
yea: egare, possessor. In German, ja signifies aye,
or yea ; eigener, possessor, owner ; EIGEN, own. In
Dutch, EIGENEN is to possess ; JA, yea.
Greenwood derives NOT and its abbreviate NO from
the Latin; Minshow, from the Hebrew; and Junius,
from the Greek. Our author very properly observes,
that the inhabitants of the north could not wait for a
word expressive of dissent till the establishment of those
nations and languages : and adds, that we need not be
inquisitive nor doubtful concerning the origin and signi-
M M A B. 49
fication of not and NO ; since we find that, In the Da- Preposi-
nish nodig, in the Swedish NODIG, and in the Dutch, tions, &c.
NOODE, node, and NO, mean averse, unwilling. So that ~
when it is asked whether a man be brave, if the answer
he NO, it is a declaration that he who makes it is averse
J'rom or unwilling to admit that proposition.
98. Most writers on grammar have mentioned a
species of adverbs, which they call adverbs of interroga¬
tion, such as where; whence, whither, how, &c. But
the truth is, that there is no part of speech, which, of
itself, denotes interrogation. A question is never ask¬
ed otherwise than by abbreviation, by a single word,
whether that word be a noun, & pronoun, a verb, or an
adverb. The word WHERE is equivalent to-—in what
place ; WHENCE to—from what place; and HOW to—in
what manner, &c. In these phrases, IN what place,
FROM what place, and IN what manner, the only word
that can be supposed to have the force of an interroga¬
tive, is what, which is resolvable into that which; But
we have already explained, in the chapter of Pro«o«»s,
the principles upon which the relative is made to denote
interrogation, and the same reasoning will account for
the adverbs where, whence, whither, how, &c. being
employed as interrogatives. When we say, where were
you yesterday? whence have you come? whither are you
going? how do you perform your journey ? We merely
use so many abbreviations for the following sentences ;
tell us, or describe to us, THE place where (or in which)
you were yesterday; the pj.ace ivhencc (or from which)
you have come ; the place to which you are going;
THE manner in which you perform your journey? And
so much for adverbs. We now proceed to those parts
of speech which are usually called prepositions and con¬
junctions, and of which the use is to connect the other
words of a sentence, and to combine two or more simple
sentences into one compound sentence.
Chap. VI. Of Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inter¬
jections.
• 111
99. It has been observed, that a man while awake Objects,
is conscious of a continued train of perceptions and of
ideas passing in his mind, which depends little upon|'ourse,^e88>
his own will; that he cannot to the train add a new t0*
idea; and that he can but very seldom break its con'.
nexion. To the slightest reflection these truths must
be apparent. Our first ideas are those which we de¬
rive from external objects making impressions on the
senses ; hut all the external objects which fall under our
observation are linked together in such a manner as
indicates them to he parts of one great and regular
system
(s) The same resolution might probably be made of the Greek and Latin adverbs, were we as intimately ac¬
quainted with the sources of those tongues as Mr Horne Tooke is with the sources of the English language.
“ Many of the Latin adverbs (says the learned Ruddiman) are nothing else hoi adjective nouns or pronouns, hav¬
ing iht preposition and substantive understood ; as, quo, eo, eodem, for ad qua;, ea, eadetn (loco) or cui, ei, eidem
(loco) ; for of old these datives ended in 0. Thus, qua, hac, iliac, &c. are plainly adjectives in the abl. sing,
fennn. the word via, “ a way,” and the preposition in, being understood. Many of them are compounds ; as,
quomodo, i. e. quo modo ; quemadmodum, i. e. ad quern modutn ; quamobrem, i. e. oh quam rem ; quare, i. e. (pro)
qua re; quorsum, i.e. versus quern (locum); scilicet, i. e. scire licet; videlicet, i. e. rid ere licet; ihcet, i. 0. ire licet;
illico, i. e. in loco; magnopere, i. e. magno opere; nimirtim, i. e. ni (est) minim ; hodie, i. e. hoc die;postndie, k e.
postero die ; pridie, i. e.prce die. Perfecto, certe, sane, male, bene, plane, are obviously adjectives. Forte is the
ablative of fors; and it we had leisure to pursue the subject, and were masters of all the languages from which
the Latin is derived, we doubt not but we should be able to resolve every adverb into a substantive or adjective.
Vol.X. Parti. f G
50
GRAMMAR.
I 12
by various
leiaticns:
Preposi- system. When we take a view of the things by which
tions, &e. we are surrounded, and which are the archetypes of our
ideas, their Inherent qualities are not more remarkable
than the various relations by which they are connected.
Cause and effect, contiguity in time or in place, high and
low, prior and posterior, resemblance and contrast, with
a thousand other relations, connect things together with¬
out end. There is not a single thing which appears so¬
litary and altogether devoid of connexion. The only
difference is, that some are intimately and some slight¬
ly connected, some nearly and some at a distance. That
the relations by which external objects are thus linked
together must have great influence in directing the
train of human thought, so that not one perception or
idea can appear to the mind wholly unconnected with
all other perceptions or ideas, will be admitted by every
man who believes that his senses and intellect represent
things as they are.
This being the case, it is necessary, if the purpose
of language be to communicate thought, that the
speaker be furnished with words, not only to express
the ideas of substances and attributes which he may
have in his min'd, but also to indicate the order in
which he views them, and to point out the various re¬
lations bv which they are connected. In many instan¬
ces all this may be done by the parts of speech which
we have already considered. The closest connexion
which we can conceive is that which subsists between
a substance and its qualities ; and in every language
with which we are acquainted, that connexion is indi¬
cated by the immediate coalescence of the adjective
with the substantive; as we say, a good man, a learned
man; vir bonus, vir doctus. Again, there is a connec¬
tion equally intimate, though not so permanent, be¬
tween an agent and his action : for the action is really
an attribute of the agent j and therefore we say, the
boy reads, the man writes ; the noun coalescing with
the verb so naturally, that no other word is requisite to
unite them. Moreover, an action and that which is
acted upon being contiguous in nature, and mutually
affecting each other, the words which denote them
should in language be mutually attractive, and capable
of coalescing without external aid j as, he reads a book,
he builds a house, he breaks a stone. Further j because
an attribute and its modifications are inseparably united,
an adjective or a verb is naturally connected with the
adverb which illustrates or its signification; and
therefore, when we say, he walks slowly, he h prudently
brave, it is plain that no other word is necessary to pi'o-
mote the coalescence of the attributes walking and bra-
very with their modifications of slowness and prudence.
The agreement between the terms of any proposition
which constitutes truth is absolutely perfect *, but as
either of the terms may agree with many other things
besides its correlate, some word is requisite in every pro¬
position to connect the particular predicate with the
particular subject: and that is the office of the simple
verb TO BE j as, the three angles of every triangle are
equal to two right angles.
Thus we see, that many of the relations subsisting
between our ideas may be clearly expressed by means
of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs ; and in those
languages of which the nouns have cases, there is per¬
haps no relation of much importance which might not
be thus pointed out, without being under the necessity
of employing the aid of any additional part of speech..
Chap. V
In English, however, the case is otherwise ; for were prepo>|
we to say, “ He rode Edinburgh, went the parliament- lions, &
house, walked his counsel the court met,” we should V'
speak unintelligibly j as in these expressions there is
either a total want of connexion, or such a connec¬
tion as produce falsehood and nonsense. In order to
give meaning to the passage, the several gaps must be
filled up by words significant of the various relations
by which the different ideas are connected in the mind j ,I3
as, “ He rode to Edinburgh, went to the parliament-Espresse
house, and walked with his counsel till the court met.”
Of these connecting words, to and with are called pre-^ff™-
positions, AND and TILL are usually called conjunctions,
Although fazsz prepositions and conjunctions are not so
absolutely necessary in Greek and Latin as they are in
English i yet as there is no language wholly without
them, nor any language in which it is not of importance
to understand their force, they well deserve a place in
universal grammar. n4
ioo. The sole use of conjunctions prepositions in These<y
language is to connect either sentences or other loom's; necteiti
but the theory of these co/ittecffoos themselves has certain- ®en^'
ly never been understood, unless Horne Xooke liasor"01
at last hit upon the truth. Mr Harris writes about
them and about them, quoting passages from Greek and
Latin authors, and pi’oduces at last no information.
Plis definitions of both, as parts of speech void of signi¬
fication, are highly absurd j and even the principal di¬
stinction which he makes between them seems not to be
well founded. Prepositions and conjunctions denote the
relations subsisting between the ideas expressed by those
words or sentences which they serve to connect j and
as relations are contemplated by the mind as well po¬
sitive ideas themselves, the words which denote those re¬
lations cannot be insignificant. The essential difference
between the conjunction and preposition, according to
the same author, consists in this, that the former con¬
nects sentences, and the latter words : but the fact is
often otherwise. An obvious example occurs where the
conjunction AND connects not sentences but ivords. “ A
man of wisdom and virtue is a perfect character.”
Here it is not meant to be asserted, “ that the man of
wisdom is a perfect character, and that the man of
VIRTUE is a perfect characterboth these assertions
would be false. This sentence therefore (and many
such will occur) is not resolvable into two j whence it
follows, that the conjunction AND does not always con¬
nect sentences ; and the same is frequently the case with
other conjunctions.
Horne Tooke's idea of prepositions and conjunctions is,
that they do not form distinct classes of words, but are
merely abbreviations of nouns and verbs : and with re¬
spect to the English language, he has been remarkably
successful in proving bis position. But though such
be undeniably the case in English, it would be rash to
conclude h priori that it is so in all other tongues. To
establish this general conclusion would require a long
and tedious deduction in each particular language :
and how much language, leisure, industry, and acute¬
ness, such an undertaking would require, even in one
tongue, it is not easy to determine. In the languages
with which we are best acquainted, many conjunctions,
and most prepositions, have the appearance at least of ori¬
ginal words; and though this most acute grammarian,
from his knowledge of the northern tongues, has been
able to trace the most important of those in English to
very
r' C
hi
li# c
^ MIS.
E,r
y ft
lioi
Mlji
lioii
ip. VI. GRAM
jane- very plausible sources, the same thing would be diffi¬
cult in other languages of which the sources are ob¬
scure, and absolutely impossible in those of which they
are wholly unknown. It is, however, a strong pre¬
sumption in favour of his opinion, that grammarians
have never been able to assign ^ general characteristic
of those species of words; which, did they constitute
distinct parts of speech, one would think could not have
so long remained undiscovered. It is a farther pre¬
sumption in his favour, that many words in Greek and
Latin, as well as in English, which have been called
conjunctions, zve obviously resolvable upon his principles,
and indeed discover their meaning and origin upon
mere inspection. We shall therefore content ourselves
with retailing the common doctrine respecting these
parts of speech so far as it is intelligible j subjoining at
the bottom of the page the analysis given by Horne
Tooke of the most important English conjunctions and
prepositions; and requesting our readers, who would un¬
derstand the subject, to attend more to the relations be¬
tween their various ideas, than to the frivolous distinc¬
tions which, in compliance with custom, we are com¬
pelled to lay before them. We shall treat first of the
conjunction.
Sect. I. Of Conjunctions.
I inition I OX. A conjunction is a part of speech of which, as its
o :onjunc-name indicates, the use is to connect either two or more
b >'’• words in a sentence, or to makeof two simple sentences one
compound sentence. It is usually said, that conjunctions
never connect words, but sentences only, and that this
is the circumstance which distinguishes them from pre¬
positions. We have already given one example which
proves this distinction to be ill founded $ we shall now
give from Horne Tooke one or two more, which will
place its absurdity in a still clearer light: Two and
two are four ; John and Jane are a handsome couple;
AB and BC and CS. form a triangle. Are two four ?
Is John a couple and Jane a couple ? Hoes one straight
line form a triangle $ Erom the subjoined note it ap¬
pears, that AND (g) may connect any two things which
can be connected, as it signifies addition.
\ ich arc Conjunctions connecting sentences', sometimes connect
« i*t con- their meaning, and sometimes not. For example, let us
j Clive or take these two sentences, Rome was enslaved, Ccesar
d unciive. was amf)itious, and connect them together by the con¬
junction because j Rome teas enslaved BECAUSE Ccr-
sar was ambitious. Here the meanings, as well as the
sentences, appear to be connected by that natural rela¬
tion which subsists between an effect and its cause ; for
the enslaving of Rome was the effect of Caesar’s ambi¬
tion. rY\\?i\.particular relation therefore is that which is
MAR. 5i
denoted by the conjunction BECAUSE (h), which would Conjune-
be improperly used to connect two sentences between tion*.
which the relation of an effect to its cause exists not. But
if it be s-aiA,manners must be reformed, on liberty will be
lost; here the conjunction OR, though it join the sen¬
tences, yet as to their meaning is a perfect disjunctive.
Between the reformation of manners and the loss of li¬
berty there is certainly & natural relation; but it is not
the relation of contiguity or similitude, or of cause and
effect, but of contrariety. The relation of contrariety
therefore is the signification of the word OR (1). And
thus it appears, that though all conjunctions may com¬
bine sentences, yet, with respect to the sense, some are
CONJUNCTIVE and others DISJUNCTIVE. n7
102. Those conjunctions which conjoin both sentences Conjunc-
and their meanings are either copulatives or conti- tions either
NUATIVES. The principal copulative in English is^oiibnu-
AND, which we have already considered. The conti-aUve_
nuatives are much more numerous ; IF, AN, because,
therefore, WHEREFORE, hence, &c. The differ¬
ence between them is this: The copulative does no
more than barely couple words or sentences, and is
therefore applicable to all subjects of which the natures
are not incompatible f EL). The relation which it denotes
is that of juxtaposition, or oi one thing added to another.
Continuatives, on the contrary, by a more intimate con¬
nection, consolidate sentences into one continuous whole ;
and are therefore applicable only to subjects which
have an essential relation to each other, such as that of
an effect to its cause or of a cause to its effect. For ex¬
ample, it is no way improper to say, Lysippus was a
statuary, and Priscian a grammarian ; the sun shineth,
and the sky is clear ; because these are things that may
coexist, and yet imply no absurdity. But it would be
absurd to say, Lysippus teas a statuary because Pris¬
cian was a grammarian; though not to say, the sun
shineth because the sky is clear. With respect to the
first, the reason is, that the word BECAUSE denotes the
relation which an effect bears to its cause : but the skill
of Priscian in grammar con\A not possibly be the cause
of Lysippus's s\l\W in statuary ; the coincidence between
the skill of the one and that of the other, in arts so very
difierent, was merely accidental. With respect to the
shining of the sun and the clearness of the sky, the case is
widely different; for the clearness of the sky \s the CAUSE
of the sun's shining, at least so as to be seen by us. IlS
As to the continuatives, they are either SUPPOSITIVE, Continua-
such as if,an; or POSITIVE,such as because, therefore,as, lives, either
&c. Take examples of each : You will live happily if you supposnive
live honestly ; you live happily because you live honestly ; 01 P0SlUve>
you live honestly, therefore you live happily. The dif¬
ference between these continuatives is this : The svppo-
sitives denote connection, but do not assert actual ex-
G 2 istence;
(g) And is a Saxon word, being (according to Mr H. Tooke) an abbreviation of ANAD, the imperative of the
verb ananad, to add to or heap up. So that when we say two and two are four, we only declare that tivo
added to two are four.
(h) Because is compounded of the Saxon BE—by, and cause ; and by some of our most ancient authors it was
written BY cause. Rome was enslaved BECAUSE Cwsar was ambitious, is therefore equivalent to, Rome was en¬
slaved by the cause Caisar WAS ambitious ; taking the phrase, Ccesar was ambitious as an abstract noun in con¬
cord with the other noun cause.
(1) Or seems to be a mere contraction of the Saxon ODER, which signifies other, i. e. something different
often contrary. So that the conjunction or must always denote diversity, and very often contrariety.
(k) As day and night, heat and cold: for rve cannot say of the same portion of time, it is day and it is night;
or of the same body, it is both hot and cold.
52
Conjunc¬
tions.
11S
Positives,
either cau¬
sa! or col¬
lective.
GRAMMAR. Chap, t
Jstence; the positives imply both the one and the other as, therefore, wherefore, &c.^ The tli (Terence between Couju
these is this : The can sals subjoin causes to effects; as, tion
The positives above mentioned areeitherCAUSALj such the sun is in eclipse, because the moon intervenes . 1 he c
as, because, since, as(M), &c.: Or collective; such collectivessx\b]o\nejjectslocausesizs,themoonintervenes,
THEREFORE
(l) The reason of all this will be apparent from the analysis given by Horne Tooke of those words which we
have called suppositive conjunctions. If and AN may be used mutually and indifferently to supply each other’s
place ; for they are both verbs, and of the same import. If is merely the imperative of the Gothic and Anglo-
Saxon verb GIFAN, to give; and in those languages, as well as in the English formerly, this supposed conjunction
was pronounced and written as the common imperative GIF. Thus,
_____ My largesse
“ Hath lotted her to be your brother’s mistresse,
“ Gif shee can be reclaimed ; GIF not, his prey.” Sad Shepherd, Act ii. scene I.
Gaivin Douglass almost always uses GIF for IF, as the common people in some counties of Scotland do even at
this day ; and it is obvious, that our IF has always the signification of the English imperative g/t’e, and no other.
So that the resolution of the construction in the sentence, If you live honestly you will live happily, is simply this,
Give you live honestly (taking you live honestly as an abstract noun) you. will live happily. Your living happily is
declared to depend upon your living honestly as the condition; but give that, and your happiness is positively
asserted. In like manner may such sentences be resolved as,
“ I wonder he can move ! that he’s not fixed !
“ If that his feelings be the same with mine.”
Thus, “ His feelings be the same with mine, give that, I wonder he can move,” &c. And here we cannot
forbear giving our assent to the truth of MrTooke’s observation, that when the datumuyon which any conclusion
depends is a sentence, the article that, if not expressed, may always be inserted. We do not, however, think the
insertion at all times absolutely necessary to complete the syntax; for active verbs goxtxnwhole sentences and clauses
of sentences as well as substantive nouns. Instances of this occur so frequently in the Latin classics, that they can
have escaped no man’s notice who has ever read Horace or Virgil with attention. We agree likewise with our
most ingenious author, that where the datum is not a sentence, but some noun governed by the verb IF or give, the
article that can never be inserted. For example, if we be asked, how the weather will dispose of us to morrow?
we cannot say : If that fair, it will send us abroad ; IF THAT foul, it will keep us at home ;” but “ if fair, it
will send us abroad,” &c. The reason is obvious : the verb in this case directly governs the noun ; and there-
solved construction is, “ GIVE fair weather, it will send us abroad ; GIVE foul weather, it will keep us at home.”
An, the other suppositive conjunction mentioned, is nothing else than the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb
ANAN, which likewise means to give or to grant. As, “ An you had an eye behind you, you might see more de¬
traction at your heels than fortune before you;” that is, “ Grant you had an eye behind you, you might see,” &c.
This account of the two conditional conjunctions in English is so rational and satisfactory, that we are strongly in¬
clined to believe that all those words which are so called, are in all languages to be accounted for in the same man¬
ner. Not indeed that they must all mean precisely to give ox grant, but some word equivalent; such as, be it, sup¬
pose, allow, permit, &c.; which meaning is to be sought for in the particular etymology of each respective language.
(m) Of the causal conjunctions mentioned in the text, recause has been already considered ; and some account
must be given of the two words SINCE and AS. The former of these, according to Mr H. Tooke, is a very cor¬
rupt abbreviation, confounding together different words and different combinations of words. To us it appears
to be compounded of seand, seeing ; and ES, that or it; or of SIN, seen, and ES. Seand and sin are the present
and past participles of the Anglo-Saxon verb SEON, to see. In modern English SINCE is used four ways ; two as a
preposition affecting words, and two as a conjunction affecting sentences. W hen used as a proposition, it
has always the signification of the past participle SEEN joined to thence (i. e. seen and thenceforward'), or else
the signification of the past participle seen only. When used as a conjunction, it has sometimes the signification
of the present participle SEEING, or seeing that; and sometimes the signification of the past participle SEEN, or
SEEN THAT. Wfe shall give examples of all these significations. 1st. As a preposition signifying seen and thence¬
forward: “ A more amiable sovereign than George HI. has not swayed the English sceptre since the conquesti‘'>
That is, “ The conquest seen (or at the completion of the sight of the conquest), and thenceforward, a more ami¬
able sovereign than George III. has not swayed the English sceptre.” Since, taken in this sense, seems rather
to be a corruption of siththan or sithence, than a compound of SEAND and ES. 2dly, As a preposition signi¬
fying SEEN simply : Hid George III. reign before or SINCE that example ? 3dly, As a conjunction, SINCE means
seeing that: as, “ If I should labour for any other satisfaction but that of my own mind, it would be an effect of
phrenzy in me, not of hope ; SINCE (or seeing that) it is not truth but opinion that can travel through the world
without a passport.” 4thly, It means seen that or that seen ; as, “ Since death in the end takes from all
whatsoever fortune or force takes from any one, it were a foolish madness in the shipwreck of worldly things, when
all sinks but the sorrow, to save that ;” i. e.—Heath in the end takes from all whatsoever fortune or force takes
from any one ; THAT SEEN, it were a foolish madness,” &,c.
As, the other causal conjunction mentioned in the -text, is an article meaning always IT, or THAT, or WHICH.
Take the following example :
“ She glides away under the foamy seas
“ As swift AS darts or feather’d arrows fly.n
That
ap. VI.
jimc- therefore (n) the sun is in eclipse. We therefore use
19
GRAMMAR. 53
T10NS ; a species of wonls which hear tins contradic- Conjunc-
tory name, because while they cohjoih the sentences, Uons- ,
they DISJOIN the sense ; or, to speak a language more
intelligible, they denote relations of DIVERSITY or OP¬
POSITION.
That there should be such words, whether called con-
□ns caw.9o/A‘in those instances where, the effect being conspi¬
cuous, we seek lor its cause j and collectives, in demon¬
stration and science, properly so called, where the cause
being first known, by its help we discern effects.
1 As to rvmsfl/conjunctions, we may further observe,   , „ . .
idalc-on-. . of the four species of causes or not, is extremely natural. For as there is
For example, a principle of union diffused through all things, by
Jui lions that there is no one
dc ite four which they are not capable of denoting,
ki S of
ca es
Iio
I junc-
t : con¬
i’ ctions.
the MATERIAL cause ; The trumpet sounds because it
is made of metal. The formal ; The trumpet sounds
because it is long and hollow. The efficient ; Ihe
trumpet sounds because an artist blows it. The final ;
The trumpet sounds that it may raise our courage. It
is worth observing, that the three first causes are ex¬
pressed by the strongest affirmation because if the effect
actually be, these must be also. But this is not the case
with respect to the last, which is only affirmed as a
thing that maij happen. The reason is obvious j for
■whatever may be the end which set the artist first to
work, that end it may still be beyond his power to
obtain 5 as, like all other contingents, it may either
happen or not. Hence also it is connected by a parti¬
cular conjunction, THAT (o), absolutely confined to this
cause.
103. We come now to the disjunctive conjunc-
121
sim-
or ad¬
versative.
which THIS WHOLE is kept together and preserved from
dissipation ; so is there in like manner a principle of di¬
versity diffused through all, the source of distinction,
of number, and of order. Now it is to express in some
degree the modifications of this diversity, that those
words called disjunctive conjunctions are employed.
Of these disjunctives some are SIMPLE and some AD- Either
VERSATIVE : Simple ; as when we say, EITHER it is day
or it is night: Adversative; as when we say, it is not vr’/
day but it is night. The difference between these is,
that the simple express nothing more than a relation of
diversity } the adversative ex press a relation not barely
of diversity ; but also of opposition. Add to this, that
the adversatives are DEFINITE, the simple INDEFINITE.
Thus when we say, the number three is not an even num¬
ber but (p) an odd, rve not only disjoin two opposite
attributes, but we definitely affirm the one to belong to
the
That is “ She glides away (with) THAT swiftness (with) WHICH darts or feathered arrows fly.” In German,
where as still retains its original signification and use, it is written ES., So is another conjunction of the same
import with AS, being evidently the Gothic article sa or SO, which signifies or . .
(n) As Mr Harris has called THEREFORE, wherefore, &c. collective conjunctions, we have retained the tie-
nomination, though perhaps a more proper might be found. It is indeed of little consequence by what name any
class of words be called, provided the import of the words themselves be understood. Wherefore and THERE¬
FORE evidently denote the relation of a cause to its effects. They are compounds of the Saxon words HW,er and
THAiR with FOR or VOOR: and signify, /or which, for those, or that. It is worthy of remark, that in some parts
of Scotland the common people even at this day use THIS for these.^ . ... -r » j c
(o) We have already considered the word that, and seen that it is never a conjunction, but unnormly a defi¬
nite article. “ The trumpet sounds (for) that it may raise our courage j” taking the clause it may raise our
courage as an abstract noun in concord with that and governed hy for. Or the sentence may be resolved thus :
“ The trumpet may raise our courage (for) that (purpose) it sounds.” .
(p) Mr Horne Tooke has favoured us with some ingenious remarks on the two different derivations o. the word
BUT, when used in the two acceptations that are usually annexed to it, viz. that which it bears in the beginning
of a sentence, and that which it has in the middle. He has given it as his opinion, that this word, when employ¬
ed in the former way, is corruptly put for BOT, the imperative of the Saxon verb botan, to boot, to superadd,
to supply, &c. and that when used in the latter it is a contraction of be-utan, the imperative of BEONUPAN, to
be out. Our ancient writers made the proper distinction between the orthography of the one word and that of
the other. Gawin Douglass, in particular, although he frequently confounds the two words, and uses them im¬
properly, does yet abound with many instances of their proper use ; and so contrasted, as to awaken, says our
author, the most inattentive reader. Of the many examples quoted by him, we shall content ourselves with the
two following: ...
“ Bot thy worke shall endure in laude and glorie,
“ But spot or fault condigne eterne memorie.” Preface.
■ ■“ Bot gif the fates, BUT pleid,
“ At my pleasure suffer it me life to leid.” ' . Took iv.
If this derivation of the word but from botan, to superadd, be just, the sentence in the text, “ the number^,
three is not an even number BUT an odd,” will be equivalent to, “ the number three is not an even number,
superadd (it is) an odd number j” and if so, the opposition is not marked (at least directly) by the word Bur,
but by the adjectives EVEN and ODD, which denote attributes in their own nature opposite. It is only when
BUT has this sense that it answers to sed in Latin, or to mais in French. In the second line of the quotation
from Gawin Douglass’s Preface, the word BUT is evidently a contraction of BE-UTAN, and has a sense very differ¬
ent from that of bot in the preceding line. The meaning of the couplet is, “ SuPERADD (to something said
or supposed to be said before) thy work shall endure in laude and glorie, BE out (i. e. without) spot or fault,
&c. In the following passage from Donne, the word BUT, although written in the same manner, is used in
both its meanings : “ You must answer, that she was brought very near the fire, and as good as thrown in 5 .
or else, that she was provoked to it by a divine inspiration. But that another divine inspiration moved
the beholders to believe that she did therein a noble act, this act of tier’s might have.been calumniated.”
That
is,
54
GRAMMAR.
Chap. \
Coitjune- the subject, and deny the other. But when we say, the
lions. number of the stars is either (Q_) even OR odds though
' we assert one attribute to be, and the other not to be,
yet the alternative is notwithstanding left indefinite.
An bnpi o- to adversative disjunctives, it has been already said,
per dhtiuc- after Mr Harris, that they imply opposition : but the
tiou. truth seems to be, that they only unite in the same sen¬
tence words ovphrases of opposite meanings. Now it is
obvious, that opposite attributes cannot belongtothe same
subject; as when we say, Nereus was beautiful, we can¬
not superadd to this sentence, that he was ugly; we
cannot say, he was beautiful but ugly. When there is
opposition, it must be either of the same attribute in
different subjects; as when we say, li Brutus was a pa¬
triot, BUT Ccesar was not:” Or of different attributes
in the same subject j as when we say “ Gorgiusw&s a so¬
phist, but not & philosopher.” Or of different attributes in
different subjects; as when we say, ” Plato was a philo¬
sopher, BUT Hippias was a sophist.” The conjunctions
used for all these purposes hare been called absolute ad-
versatives, we think improperly, as the opposition is not
marked by the conjunctions, but by the words or sentences
which they serve to connect. Mr Locke, speaking of the
word but, says, that “ it sometimes intimates ft stop
of the mind, in the course it was going, before it came
to the end of itto which Mr Tooke replies with
truth, that but itself is the farthest of any word in
the language from intimating a stop. On the contrary,
it always intimates something to follow; insomuch, that
when any man in discourse finishes his words with BUT,
instead of supposing him to have stopped, we always
ask, BUT what ?-
Besides the adversatives already mentioned, there are
two other species, of which the most important are un¬
less and ALTHOUGH. For example, “ Troy will be
taken, UNLESS the palladium be preserved; Troy will
be taken, ALTHOUGH Hector defend it.” The na¬
ture of these adversatives may be thus explained. As
every event is naturally allied to its cause, so by parity
of reason it is opposed to its,preventive; and as every
cause is either adequate ox inadequate (inadequate when
it endeavours without being effectual), so in like man¬
ner is every preventive. Now adequate preventives are
expressed by such adversatives as UNLESS : “ Troy will
be taken, UNLESS the palladium be preserved that is,
this alone is sufficient to prevent it. The inadequate are
expressed by such adversatives as ALTHOUGH: “ Troy
will be taken ALTHOUGH Hector defend itthat is,
Hector's defence will prove ineffectual. These may be
called adversatives ADEQUATE and INADEQUATE.
Such is the doctrine of Mr Harm; which although
we can discover in it no determinate meaning, we have
ventured with others to retail, in respect to our readers,
who may be more perspicacious than ourselves. The
author was a man of great learning; and the subject, as
he has treated it, appears to be intricate. But what¬
ever sense or nonsense there may be in what he says of
causes preventives adequate and inadequate, we have
no hesitation to affirm that he has totally mistaken the
import of the words UNLESS and although. From these
being called both preventives, the one adequate and the
other inadequate, an unwary reader might be led to infer,
that they denote the same idea or the same relation; and
that the whole difference between them is, that the ex¬
pression of the one is more forcible than that of the
other. Nothing, however, can be farther than this from
the truth. The meaning of unless is directly oppo¬
site to that of although. Unless (r) and though
is, You must answer, that she was brought very near the fire,” See. Superadd (to that answer) be out
(or unless or without; for, as will be seen by and bye, all those words are of the same import) that another
divine inspiration moved,” &c. To these remarks and examples it may be worth while to add, that even now
but is often used by the illiterate Scotch for WITHOUT; as nothing is more common than to hear a clown say,
“ He came from home BUT his breakfast.”
Having mentioned without as a word of the same import with but when distinguished from EOT, it may
not be improper to consider that word here; for though in modern English it is entirely confined to the office cf
a preposition, it was formerly used indifferently either as preposition or a conjunction. Without then is nothing
hut the imperative Wyrthan-utan, from the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic verb WEORTHAN, withan ; which in
the Anglo-Saxon language is incorporated with the verb beox, esse. According to this derivation, which is
HorneTooke's, the word without, whether called conjunction or preposition, is the same as BE OUT; and such will
be its impoit, should it after all be nothing more than a compound of with, which signifies to join, and sometimes
to be, and UTE, out.
(q) Either is nothing more than a distributive pronoun, which every body understands ; and or we have
already explained.
(r) So low down as in the reign of Queen Elizabeth (says Horne Tcoke') this conjunction ivas sometimes
written oneles or onelesse ; but more anciently it was written ONLES and sometimes ONLESSE. Thus, in the trial
of Sii John Oldcastie in 14135 u not possible for them to make whole Christes cote without seme, ONLESSE
certeyn great men were brought out of the way.” So, in “ The image of governance,” by Sir T. Elliot, 14^,
“ Men do fere to approache unto their sovereigne Lord, ONELES they be called.” So again, in “ A necessary
doctrine and erudition for any Christian man, set furthe by the king’s majestic of England,” 1543, “ Onles ye
believe, ye shall not understande.” “ No man shall be crowned, ONLES he lawfully fight.” “The soul waxetb
feeble, ONLESSE the same be cherished.” “ It cannot begynne, ONELESSE by the grace of God.” Now. ONLES
is the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb onlesan, to dismiss or remove.
Les, the imperative of lesan (which has the same meaning as onlesan), is likewise used sometimes by old
writers instead of unless. Instances might be given in abundance from G. Douglass and Ben Johnson; but
perhaps it may be of more importance to remark, that it is this same imperative les, which, placed at the end of
nouns and coalescing with them, has given to our language such adjectives as hopeless, restless, deathless, motion¬
less, See. 1. e. dismiss hope, rest, death, motion, &c.
Mr looke observes, that all the languages which have a conjunction corresponding to less or unless, as
3 weH
tap. VI.
njunc
[on«.
G R A
are both verbs in the imperative mode: the former sig¬
nifying take away or dismiss : the latter allow, permit,
grant, yield, assent. This being the case, “ Troy will be
taken UNLESS the palladium be preserved,” is a sen¬
tence equivalent to “ Remove the palladium be preserved
(taking the palladium be preserved as an abstract noun,
the preservation of the palladium) Troy will be taken.”
Again, “ Troy will be taken, although Hector de¬
fend it,” is the same as “ Troy will be taken ALLOW
Hector (to) defend it.” The idea, therefore, expressed
by UNLESS is that of the REMOVAL of one thing to make
way for another ; the idea expressed by ALTHOUGH (s)
is that of allowing one thing ^coexist ivith another,
with which it is APPARENTLY incompatible.
104. Before we take leave of this subject, we might
treat, as others have treated, of adverbial conjunctions,
and conjunctions (t) of various other denominations.
But of multiplying subdivisions there is no end } and
systems, in which they abound, convey for die most
part no information. The nature of conjunctions can
be thoroughly understood only by tracing each to its
original in some parent or cognate tongue j and when
that shall be done in other languages with as much suc-
M M A R. 55
cess as it has lately been done by Mr Horne Tooke in Corjune-
Englisb, then, and not till then, may we hope to see a tions.
rational, comprehensive, and consistent theory of this v
part of speech. Then too shall we get rid of all that 12.3
farrago of useless distinctions into conjunctive, adjunc- '•V',ich
live, disjunctive, subjunctive, copulative, continuativc
subcontinuative, positive, suppositive, causal, collective, norance,
preventive, adequate and inadequate, adversative, condi¬
tional, illative, &c. &c. j which explain nothing, and
which serve only to veil ignorance and perplex sagacity.
That Mr Tooke's principles will apply exactly to the
conjunctions of every language both dead and living, is
what onr limited knowledge of these languages does
not authorise us positively to affirm. It is, however, a
strong presumption in favour of his opinion, that illite¬
rate savages, the first cultivators of language, are little
likely to have sent out their faculties in quest of words
to denote the abstract relations subsisting among their
ideas, when we have such evidence as his book affords
that the names of the most common substances and quali¬
ties could answer that and every other purpose, which in
the ordina-y intercourse of life can be answered by the
faculty of speech. It is a farther presumption in his
favour,
well as the manner in which the place of these words is supplied in the languages which have not a conjunction cor¬
respondent to them, strongly justify his derivation which we have adopted. The Greek upn, the Latin nisi, the
Italian se non, the Spanish sino, the French si non, all mean be it not. And in the same manner do we sometimes
supply its place in English by but, without, be it not, but if, &c. It may be proper just to add, that, according to
the same author, the conjunction LEST is a contraction of LESED, the past participle of LESENj and that LEST with
the article that, either expressed or understood, means no more than hoc dimisso or quo dimisso.
(s) Although is compounded of al or all, and tho’, though, that, or, as the vulgar more purely pronounce
it, THAE, thauf, and THOF. Now, THAF or THAUF, is evidently the imperative THAF or THAFIG of the verb
THAFIAN or THAFIGAN to alloiu, permit, grant, yield, assent; and THAFIG becomes thah, though, thoug, (and
thoch, as G. Douglass, and other Scotch authors write it) by a transition of the same sort, and at least as easy as
that by which HAFUC becomes hawk. It is no small confirmation of this etymology, that anciently they often
used all be, albeit, all had, all were, all give, instead of although ; and that as the Latin Si {if) means be it, and
Nisi and SINE {unless and without) mean be not, so ETSI {although) means and be it.
(t) In a work of this kind, which professes to treat of universal grammar, it would be impertinent to waste our
own and our readers time on a minute analysis of each conjunction which may occur in any one particular language.
We shall therefore pursue the subject no farther*, but shall subjoin Mr Horne Tooke’s table of the English con¬
junctions, referring those who are desirous of fuller satisfaction to his ingenious work entitled The Diversions of
Parley.
- f Gif
2-
I <4 I
j> M
i
'Gif
An
Onles
Eac
Get
Stell
Ales
Thafig
or
Thaf
Bot
Be-utan
Wyrth-utan
.An ad
Lest is the participle LESED of LESAN, to dismiss.
r Siththan)
Syne
* Siththe8 f1 is the PartIcIPle of Seon» t0 3€e*
or
I.S1N-ES J
That is the article or pronoun THAT.
As is Es, a German article, meaning it, that, or which. And
So is sa or so, a Gothic article of the same import with as.
If
An
Unless .
Eke
Yet
Still
Else
Though
or
Tho1
But
But
Without
And
Since
Anan
Onlesan
Eakan
Get an
Stellan
ALESAN
Thafigan ■)
or
Thafian
Botan
Beon-utan
Wyrthan-utan
Anan ad
To give.
To grant.
To dismiss.
To add.
To get.
To put.
To diminish.
To allow.
To boot, or superadd.
To be out.
To be out.
Dare congeriem.
5 6
Proposi¬
tions.
G E
favour, that in the nulest languages there are few if
any conjunctions j and that even in others which are
J the most highly polished, such as Greek and Latin, as
well as English, many oi those words which have been
called conjunctions are obviously resolvable into other
parts ot speech. T. hus «AA<s, translated is evidently
the neuter gender of either the nominative or accusative
plural aiciXMg anotheri and when used as a conjunction,
it intimates that you are going to add something to
what you have already said. Gceterum has the same
meaning, and is nothing but r.ai grsgar. MaIS {but in
French) is the Latin majus; ut, uti, «r<, quod, is the rela¬
tive pronoun. Of quocirca, quia, prceterea, antequam,
quenquam, quemvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, &c. the reso¬
lution is too obvious to require being mentioned. Where
such resolutions as these can be made, or when the con¬
junctions of any particular tongue can be traced to their
origin in any other, there needs be no dispute about their
true import i but when the case is otherwise, and the
conjunction either appears to be an original word, or is
derived from a source to which it cannot be traced, we
would advise such of our readers as wish to speak or
The import write correctly, to dismiss from their minds all considera-
ofconjunc- tion of copulatives, continuatives, causals, and disjunc-
imisui any with the rest of that jargon which we have already
mentioned j and to inquire diligently in what manner
from tile and for what purpose the conjunction in question is used
best authors by the best writers, both ancient and modern, ot the par-
nciintand ticu|ar language which they are studying. This will
modern.
US
Preposi-
that refuse
to
of them¬
selves :
,a8e
indeed be found a work of labour ; but it appears to us
to be the only means left of discovering the precise re¬
lations which such conjunctions were intended to ex¬
press ; and, by consequence, of knowing what words or
sentences they are fitted to connect, so as to produce a
style at once accurate and perspicuous.
Sect. II. Of Prepositions.
105. By Mr Harris and his followers, a PREPOSITION
lions unTe is delined to he a part of speech devoid itse If of signifi-
uvo words catiQni but so formed as to unite two words that are sig-
coalesce ntflcantian(^ ^iai refise to coalesce or unite of themselves.
We have already expressed our opinion of that theory
which holds certain words to he devoid of signification ;
but its absurdity, in the present instance, is more than
ever glaring. Concerning the number ot prepositions,
it is well known that hitherto authors have never
agreed. The ancient Greek grammarians admitted
only 18; the ancient Latin grammarians above 50 j
though the moderns, Sanctius, Sciopius, Perizonius,
Vossius, and Ruddiman, have endeavoured to lessen the
number without fixing it. Bishop Wilkins thinks that
36 are suflicient*, and Girard says that the French
language has done the business effectually with 32.
But Mprepositions be words devoid of signification, why
should there be disputes respecting their numbers ? or
why in any language should there be more than one
preposition, since a single unmeaning mark of connec¬
tion would certainly answer the purpose as well as a thou¬
sand? The cypher, which has no value of itself, and on¬
ly serves (if we may use the language of grammarians)
to connote and consignfy, and to change the value of
figures, is not several and various, but uniformly o«e
and the same. That “ the preposition is so formed, as
to unite two words which refuse to coalesce or unite of
themselves,” is indeed true ; and this union it effects,
5
A M M A R. Chap. I
not by having no signification of its own, but by signifying prepo
the relation by which the things expressed by the united tiow
-.words are connected in nature. Prepositions are to be r
accounted for in much the same manner as the cases
nouns. The necessity of this species ol words, or ofjngt^‘
some equivalent invention, follows from the possibility lationl
of having in language a distinct complex term for each tween
distinct collection of ideas which we may have occasion
to put together in discourse. The addition or subtrac¬
tion of any one idea to or from a collection of ideas,
makes it a different collection ; and, if, alter either of
these operations, it were to be expressed by the same
word as before, nothing could ensue but misrepresenta¬
tion and falsehood. Now, to use in language a differ¬
ent and distinct complex term for each different and di¬
stinct collection of ideas, is equally impossible, as to use
a distinct particular term for each particular and indi¬
vidual idea. To supply, therefore, the place of the com¬
plex terms which are wanting in a language, are the
cases of nouns and prepositions employed $ by the aid of
which, complex and general terms are prevented from
being infinite or too numerous, and are used only for
those collections of ideas which we have most frequent
occasion to mention in discourse. By means of pre¬
positions this end is obtained in the most simple man¬
ner. For, having occasion to mention a collection of
ideas for which there is no single complex term in the
language, we either take that complex term which
includes the greatest number, though not all of the ideas
we would communicate*, or else we take that complex
term which includes all and the fewest ideas more than
those we would communicate ; and then, by the help
of the preposition, we either make up the deficiency in
the one case, or retrench the superfluity in the other.
For instance, having occasion to mention a house of a
particular description, and knowing that the term house
is too general for our purpose, and that the building
we have in view has no appropriate name, we say, per¬
haps, a house with a party-wall, or a house without a
roof.—In the first instance, the complex term house is
deficient, and the preposition directs to add what is want¬
ing.—In the second instance, the complex term is re¬
dundant as it denotes a complete house ; the preposition,
therefore, directs to take away what is superfluous.
Now, considering prepositions in this the most simple
light, as serving only to limit or modify general terms,
it is absolutely necessary that they should have mean¬
ings of their own j for otherwise, how could we, in the
instance before us, make known by them our inten¬
tion, whether of adding to, or retrenching from, the
same general term house. If, to a disciple of Mr Har¬
ris, we should say, a house JOIN j he would reply, JOIN
WHAT? But he would not contend that join is an in¬
declinable word which has ns meaning of its own, because
he knows that it is the imperative of a verb, of which
the other parts are still in use j and its own meaning is
clear, though the sentence is not completed. If, in¬
stead of JOIN, we should say to him, a house WITH ; he
would still ask the same question, with what ? But if
we were to discourse with him concerning the word
WITH, he would probably tell us, that WITH is & pre¬
position, an indeclinable word, which is itself devoid oj
signification, but so formed as to unite two words that are
significant. And yet it Would be evident by his que¬
stion, that he fell it had a meaning of its own; which
is
!c
'.iifr1-
iap.
VL
GRAM
is in reality the same as JOIN (u). Indeed, so far has
always been plainly perceived, that WITH and WITHOUT
are directly opposite and contradictory $ and it would
puzzle the most acute philosopher to discover opposition
and contradiction in two words where neither of them
had any signification. Wilkins, therefore, has well
expressed their meaning, where he says, that WITH is
a preposition “ relating to the notion of social, or cir¬
cumstance of society AFFIRMED j and that WITHOUT
is a preposition relating to the same notion of social, or
circumstance of society denied.”
106. But to denote the relations of adding and taking
away, is not the only purpose for which prepositions
are employed. They all indeed serve to modify some
general term or general affirmation, but not precisely in
the same way as WITH and WITHOUT. It has been al¬
ready observed, that words significant of those things
which coincide in nature, coalesce with one another in
syntax, without being beholden to any auxiliary tie.
For instance, ^.n adjective coalesces with its substantive,
a verb with its nominative; a noun expressing an object
acted upon, with a verb denoting action; and an adverb
with its vei'b. Take the following example: The SPLEN¬
DID SUN GENIALLY WARMETH THE FERTILE EARTH.
But suppose we were desirous to modify this affirmation
by the addition of other substantives, AIR, for instance,
and beams : how would these coincide with the other
words of the sentence, or under what character could
MAR. 57
they be introduced P Not as nominatives or accusatives prfp(.
to the verb, for both these places are already filled:
the nominative by the substance sun, which is cer¬
tainly the agent in this operation ; the accusative by the
substance earth, which is as certainly the object act¬
ed upon. Not as qualities of the sun and earth : for
qualities inhering in their substances can only be ex¬
pressed by adjectives, and the words air and beams are
both substantives. Here then we must have recourse to
prepositions ; but we can employ only such prepositions
as point out the relations which the air and the BEAMS
have to the sun warming the earth. In English we
should say, the splendid sun with his beams genially
warmeth through the air the fertile earth. The sen¬
tence, as before, remains entire and one; the substantives
required are both introduced; and not a word which
was there before is detruded from its proper place.
The import of WITH we have already discovered ; it di¬
rects to unite the beams to the sun, as jointly with
him performing the operation. But the AIR has no
other connexion with this operation, than as the ME¬
DIUM or PASSAGE between the SUN and the EARTH: and
therefore1 the preposition THROUGH (x) must denote
that relation which subsists between an object in motion,
and the medium in which it moves ; nor could a prepo¬
sition of a different import have been employed, with¬
out altering the meaning of the whole sentence (y).
107. Mr Harris is of opinion that most, if not all,
prepositions
(u) This account of prepositions is taken from Horne Tooke, who adds, that the only difference between the
two words WITH and JOIN, is, that the other parts of the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon verb W1THAN, to join (of
which with is the imperative), have ceased to be employed in the language. As with meansjWw, so the cor¬
respondent French preposition AVEC means, and have that, or, have that also. But though WITH, as the impe¬
rative of Withan, means^om, it has sometimes a very different signification. Mr Tyrwhit in his Glossary has
truly observed, that with and by are often synonymous. They certainly are so j but then WITH seems to be an
abbreviation of the imperative of WYRTHAN, to be; as WITHOUT is of WYRTHAN-UTAN, to be out. This being
the case, our two instances in the text will stand thus : a house join a party-wall; a house by.-out a roof. Nor
let any one be surprised that we make no difference between the conjunction without and the preposition WITH¬
OUT. The word is the same, whether it be employed to unite words or sentences. Prepositions were originally,
and for a long time, classed with conjunctions ; and when first separated from them, they were only distinguished
by the name o[ prepositive conjunctions. They are generally used to unite words, but not always ; for we may
say indifferently, / came after his departure, or 1 came after HE departed. By the greater part of gram¬
marians, indeed, AFTER, when employed as in the first sentence, is classed with the prepositions ; when em¬
ployed as in the second, it is classed with the conjunctions. The word, however, is the same in both sentences j
its meaning is the same, and its effect precisely the same. The only circumstance of discrimination is, that in
the first example it is prefixed to a noun, his departure ; in the second, it is prefixed to a nominative and a verb,
he departed. But even the nominative and the verb, thus applied, express no more than a specifying circum¬
stance annexed to the other proposition, I came ; and whenever they are rightly apprehended by the mind, they
are stript of their prepositionary form, and considered abstractly under a new phasis, his departure. Thus, then,
the two sentences are synonymous in every respect, excepting the apparent grammatical nature of the words his
departure, and he departed; and even these are reduced to one grammatic form in the mind, whenever the im¬
port of tire propositions is rightly apprehended. Without, and many other prepositions, especially in the learn¬
ed languages, are used exactly as AFTER is used in the two instances which we have given. Horne Tooke quotes
Lord Mansfield for saying, “ It cannot be read WITHOUT the Attorney-General consents to it.” This, in mo¬
dern English, is not the common phraseology, but it offends not against any principle of grammar. The nomi¬
native and the verb are here, as in the former instance, considered as an abstract noun. “ It cannot be read
WITHOUT the consent of the Attorney-General.”
(x) ’Ihorourh, thourough, thorow, through, or thro’, is no other, says Horne Tooke, than the Gothic
substantive Dauro, or the Teutonic substantive THURUH, and, like them, means door, gate, passage. So that the
sentence in the text, resolved upon his principles, stands thus : “ The splendid sun—JOIN his beams—genially
warmeth passage the air, (or, the air being the passage or medium)—the fertile earth.” And in the same
mannei may we translate the preposition through in every instance where through is used in English, or its equi¬
valent preposition in any language ; as from the Latin and Italian word porta (in Spanish puerta and in French
portej, have come the Latin and Italian preposition per, the French por, and the Spanish por,
(y) If, for instance, we were to substitute with or of instead of through, we should in the 1
Vol. X. Part I. J. jj
one case alter the
meanings
('reposi¬
tion s.
i jS
1'reposi-
tions ori¬
ginally de-
iiot«d tire
various re
latious of
body.
12 9
and were
at first ei¬
ther verbs
or nouns.
prepositions were originally formed to denote the rela¬
tions of place. For this opinion we see not sufficient
evidence. It indeed we could suppose the inventors or
earliest improvers of language to have at all concerned
themselves with relations as abstracted from the objects
related, we must believe that those which first attracted
their attention were the re/a/torts subsisting among them¬
selves, and the various bodies with which they were
surrounded. We must likewise agree with our author,
that place is the grand relation which bodies or natural
substances maintain at all times to one another", but we
do not therefore think that it would attract the earliest
notice of untaught barbarians. On the contrary, we are
of opinion that mankind must have made very consider¬
able progress in science before they attempted to abstract
place from body ; an attempt which, according to some
of the most profound philosophers (z), is not only dif¬
ficult, but absolutely impracticable. But whatever be
in this, the relations of cause and effect, of duration and
motion, are in themselves as obvious, and as likely to ar¬
rest the attention and obtain names, as those of place.—
Among men totally illiterate they are evidently more
so •, for pain and pleasure would suggest some idea of
cause and effect as matters of importance. There is, how¬
ever, no probability that the inventors of any language
had the least idea of abstract relations. They doubtless
expressed complex conceptions by nouns and verbs, signi¬
ficant at once of the particular ideas and of the various
relations by which they viewed those ideas as combined
together in a complex conception. Afterwards, when
mens minds became enlarged, and when, from the fluctu¬
ation inseparable from a living language, objects or ideas
received new names, the old words, whether nouns or
verbs, which were originally employed to express a par-
GRAMMAR.. Chap. A
ticular complex conception, of which certain particular prep
relations made a part, might be retained for the pur- Uuns
pose of denoting those and all similar RELATIONS*, and -v
thus verbs and nouns would degenerate into particles
bearing the names of prepositions and conjunctions. For
instance, one Anglo-Saxon being desirous to communi¬
cate to another his own conception of a house with a
party-wall, and having (we shall suppose) no such word
in his tongue as a preposition, would naturally utter the
word house, desiring his friend, at the same time, to
add to that well known sound another sound (uttering
it) significant of the particular circumstance wanting
to complete his complex conception ;—A house WITH
(i. e. join) a party-wall. The word WITH, as the im¬
perative of a vei'b, denotes of course three ideas com¬
bined together, viz. a command or wish, an affirmation,
and the idea oijunction. But when the verb W1THAN
was dismissed from the English language, the impera¬
tive WITH was still retained ; but losing its verbal and
modal nature, it was thenceforth employed to denote
only one of the three ideas for which it originally stood,
viz. the idea of junction. And thus it is, that verbs,
and also nouns and adjectives, in passing from one lan¬
guage to another, may become prepositions (a) and con¬
junctions. Thus too it is, that some of those preposi¬
tions come to denote the contiguous, and some the de¬
tached, relation of body. The contiguous, as when we
say, Cains walked WITH a staff'; i. e. Cuius JOIN a
staff walked; the statue stood UPON (r) c pedestal, i. e.
the statue stood (the place of its standing) the HIGHER
PAR.T of a pedestal; the river ran over a sand, i. e.
the river ran (the place of its running) the HIGHER
PART of a sand. The detached relation, as when we
say, He is going TO (c) Italy, i. e. He is going, THE
END
meaning, and in the other speak nonsense. “ The sun warmeth WITH the air the fertile earth,” is an affirma¬
tion thaVthe sun warmeth BOTH THE AIR AND THE EARTH ; whereas the original sentence affirmed nothing
more than that he warmeth the EARTH. “ The sun warmeth OF the air the fertile earth,” is nonsense, as it
makes the earth a part, or a consequence, of the air. So necessary is it that prepositions have a meaning, and
that the meaning of each be attended to.
(z) The Bishr
See The Principh
Rhetoric.
lishops Berkeley and Law, with the very learned and ingenious Principal Campbell of Aberdeen.
"inciples of Human Knowledge, Law’s Notes on King’s Origin of Evil, and The Philosophy of
(a) As the Italian substantive casa, a house, race, family, nation, &c. in passing to the French, becomes the
preposition CHEZ, to which there is not, so far as we know, a preposition of precisely the same import in any lan¬
guage. Senza or SENZE, in Italian, becomes sans in French, and means absence. Nor is it necessary that verbs
and'wowws should always pass from one language to another, in order to be converted into prepositions. 1 he Greek
preposition is evidently the corrupted imperative of to sever, to disjoin, to separate. ri he Latin SINE
is SIT NE, be not. The German SONDER is the imperative of SONDERN, which has the same meaning as ya^ui.
(b) Up, UPON, OVER, ROVE, ABOVE, have all, says Horne Tooke, one common origin and signification. In
the Anglo-Saxon, UFA, UFERA, ufeMjEST, are the adjectives altus, ALTIOR, altissimus. Ufa or UFAN, up;
comparative UFERA, ofere or ofer, over or upper ; superlative UFEMA£ST, utmost or uppermost. Beufan,
BUFAN, ON BUFaN, bove, above. If this be a just account of the origin of these words, the sentences in the text,
where upon, over, and above, occur, will run thus: “ The statue stood ON HIGH a pedestal j” “ the river ran
HIGHER a sand j “ the sun is risen ON HIGH the hills.” And here we may observe, that the mere relation be¬
tween standing, running, &c. and place, is rather inferred from the verb itself than expressed by a separate
word; and the reason is obvious. For if a statue stand, every one knows that it must stand on some thing as
well as at some time. There is therefore no necessity, whatever elegance there may he in it, for employing any
word to denote that relation, which is commonly believed to be signified by on ; but it is necessary to insert, be¬
tween the verb and pedestal, a word significant oiplace, that pedestal may not be mistaken, by an ignorant per¬
son, for a portion of time, or any thing else connected with the standing of the statue.
(c) That TO is significant oi detached relation, is the language of Mr Harris, which, though it may be al¬
lowed in a loose and vulgar sense, is certainly not philosophically just. The preposition TO (in Dutch written
toe and tot) is the Gothic substantive TAUi or tauhts, signifying act, effect, result, or consummation ; which
Gothic substantive is itself no other than the past participle TAUID or TAUIDS of the verb tavjan agere. And
it
VI.
GRAMMAR. 59
But if we say, That lamp is falling FROM the ceiling, the prcp0tl;_
preposition in such case assumes a character of motion.”
But this is evidently a mistake : the detached relation'
in the former instance of the figs, as well as the motion
and rest in the present instances, are expressed not by
END (of his journey) Italy; the sun is risen above the
hills, i. e. the sun is risen (the place) THE TOP of the
hills: these figs came FROM Turkey, i. e. these figs came
BEGINNING (their journey at) Turkey. . .
Besides the detached relation of body, Mr Harris is . . - , . r ,/ 7 rr,
of opinion that the preposition FROM denotes two other the preposition, but by the verbs came,Jails, hangs. Ihe
relations not less different than those of motion and rest, word from has as clear, as precise, and at all turn ; as
Tims if we say, “ That lamp hangs from the ceiling, uniform and unequivocal a meaning, as any word in the
the preposition FROM assumes a character of quiescence, language. From means merely BEGINNING, and no¬
tions.
it is obvious, that what is done, is terminated, ended, finished. In the Teutonic, this verb is written TUAN or
TUON- whence the modern German THUN, and its preposition TU. In the Anglo-Saxon, the verb is TEOGAN,
and the preposition TO. Do, the auxiliary verb, as it has been called, is derived from the same root, and is in¬
deed the same word as TO. The difference between a T and a D is so very small, that an etymologist knows by
the
scarce
tongue. The preposition . . _ _ _ #
employed as a Latin substantive. He exhibits the derivation of AD thus :
{AGDUM AGD AD
or or or
ACTUM —ACT AT
The most superficial reader of Latin verse (he observes), knows how readily the Romans dropped their final urn.
And a little consideration of the organs and practice of speech will convince him how easily AGD or act would
become ad or at •, as indeed this preposition was indifferently written either way by the ancients. By the later
writers of Rome, the preposition was written AD with D only, in order to distinguish it from the other corrupt
word called the conjunction at ; which for the same reason was written with the T only, though that likewise had
anciently been written, as the preposition, either AD or AT. The preposition TO and the conjunction too in Eng¬
lish, are both in syntax and in meaning used exactly as the preposition AD and the conjunction AT in Latin. From
tiie specimens prefixed to Johnson’s dictionary, as a history of our language, it appears that, as late as the reign of
Elizabeth, the preposition and conjunction were both written with one O. And it has been shown in the first vo¬
lume of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, that TO and TOO, as well as AD and AT, are precisely
of the same import. The only difference, in either language, between the preposition and the conjunction, is, that
the former directs, as a modification of some previous proposition, the addition ot some substantive or noun ; the
latter, sometimes a sentence or clause of a sentence considered abstractly as a noun ; and that, when the former h
used, the preposition, to which the modifying circumstance is to be added, \s formally expressed, hot omitted when
the latter is employed. Thus Denham says,
“ Wisdom he has, and, to his wisdom courage ;
“ Temper TO that, and, UNTO all, success.”
In this example, every succeeding circumstance is by the preposition TO marked as an addition to the preceding.
“ Wisdom he has, and courage additional to his wisdom.” But Denham might with equal propriety have omitted
the object which TO governs, or to which it directs something to be added, though he must then, from the custom
of the language, have employed the conjunction instead of the preposition. As,
“ Wisdom he has, and courage too,” &c.
This mode of expression would have been more concise, and as intelligible as the other, “ Wisdom he has, and
courage to his wisdom,” &c.
Not only is the object governed by TO omitted, when it is represented by a substantive in the context, but
also when it is involved in a preposition ; and then the conjunction, as it is called, is always used. Unis,
“   Let those eyes that view
“ The daring crime, behold the vengeance TOO.”
So, “ He made him prisoner, and killed him #00.” In the one example, the circumstance of behold-
itw the vengeance is stated as an addition to the viewing of the crime; and in the other, the killing him
isolated as an addition to the making him a prisoner. In both examples, the object governed by TOO is the
amount of the preceding proposition taken abstractly as a noun or substantive. Thus then it appears, that TO and
TOO, though classed the one with the prepositions, and the other with the conjunctions, are really one and the
same word. The same is true of AD and at. Thus, “ Ad hoc, promissa barba et capilli efferaverant speciem
oris,” signifies “ Additional to this, his long beard and hair had given a wildness to his aspect.” But when
the object governed by ad is not formally stated, AD itself is classed with the conjunctions, and written differently,
at. Thus Terence, “ Ph. Fac ita ut jussi, deducantur isti. Pa. Faciam. Ph. At diligenter. Pa. Fiet.
Ph. At mature.” By the means of AT, the circumstances of diligence and haste are superudded to the action
commanded. “ Ph. It is not enough that you do it, you must do it carefully too.” Pa. W ell, it shall be carefully
done. “ Ph. In good time too.” At, taken in this sense, is most commonly employed, like the English BUT,
which signify to DO or act, it may be asked how they come themselves to denote addition, rite answer is obviom^.
6o GRAM
thing else. It is simply the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic
noun frum, beginning, origin, source, fountain, au¬
thor (d). Now if this meaning be applied to Mr Har¬
ris's instances, from will speak clearly for itself, with¬
out the assistance of the interpreting verbs, which are
supposed by him to vary its character.
“ These figs came FROM Turkey.”
“ That lamp falls FROM the ceiling.”
“ That lamp hangs FROM the ceiling.”
Came is a complex term for one species of motion ;
falls is a complex term for another species of motion j
and hangs\% a complex (e) term for a species of attach¬
ment. Have we occasion to communicate or mention
the COMMENCEMENT or BEGINNING of these motions,
and of this attachment, and also the place where they
commence or begin P To have complex terms for each
occasion of this sort is absolutely impossible j and there¬
fore nothing can be more natural or more simple than
to add the signs of those ideas, viz. the word BEGINNING
(which will remain always the same) and the NAME of
the place (which will perpetually vary). Thus,
“ These figs came—beginning Turkey."
** That lamps falls—beginning ceiling."
“ That lamp bangs—beginning ceiling."
That is,
“ Turkey \\\& place of BEGINNING to come.”
” Ceiling the place of BEGINNING to fall.”
M Ceiling t\\zplace of beginning to hang.”
It has been said by no less a man than Bishop Wilkins,
that FROM refers primarily to place, and secondarily to
time. But the truth is, that FROM relates to every thing
to which beginning relates, and to nothing else.
“ From morn till night the eternal larum rang.”
That is, “ The larurn rang beginning morning (or
morning being the time of its beginning) till night.”
As FROM always denotes beginning, so TO and TILL
always denote the end. There is, however, this dif¬
ference between them, that TO denotes the end of any
thing; TILL the end only of time. We may say indif¬
ferently—“ From morn TO night,” or “ from morn
TILL night, the eternal larum rang j” but we cannot
say—“ These figs came from Turkey till England.”
MAR. Chap. \
That till can, with propriety, be opposed to FROM prep0
only when we are talking of time, is evident j for it is tiom
a word compounded of TO and while, i. e. time. And '“"""V
as the coalescence of these two words TO-WHILE, took
place in the language long before the present superfluous
use of the article THE, the phrase—“ From morn till
night” is neither more nor less than—from From morn
TO time night. When we say, “from morn to night,"
the word time is omitted as unnecessary.
Besides FROM, Mr Hands mentions OVER as signifi¬
cant sometimes ofwo^bw and sometimes of and quotes
as instances the two following passages from Milton ;
 --To support uneasy steps
Over the burning marl.
Here, says he, over denotes motion. Again,
——He with looks of cordial love
Hung over her enamoured.
Here over denotes rest. But the truth is, that OVIR
denotes neither motion nor rest in either of the passages.
In the first quotation, indeed, motion is implied; but it
is implied in the word steps j and not in OVER, which
denotes only that the place of the steps was the top of
the burning marl. In the second quotation rest is im¬
plied, and that too a particular species of rest j but it i«
implied or rather expressed by the verb HUNG, and
over denotes the place of that species of rest.
108. But though the original use of prepositions
was to denote the relations of body, they could not be
confined to this office only. They by degrees extended
themselves to subjects incorporeal; and came to denote by deg
relations, as well intellectual as local. Thus, because insxtenc!
place he who is above has commonly the advantage over 8ubje(!
him who \sbelow; hence we transferoVER anduNDER (f) ®orilor
to dominion and obedience. Of a king, we say, he ruled
oVEBhis people; of a soldier, he served under his general.
So too w^e say, with thought j without attention j think¬
ing over a subject g under anxiety ',from fear j through
jealousy, &c. All which instances, with many others
of like kind, show, that the first words of men, like
Uplzxxfirst ideas, had an immediate reference to sensible
objects; and that in after days, when they began to
discern with their intellect, they took those words which
they
if a man should utter a sentence, and to the end of it subjoin the very general word do, the person to whom he
spoke, would naturally ask, do what ? and this question would, of course, produce an additionalsfatcact or clause
of a sentence. Besides, it is to be observed, that AGERE, from which the Latin preposition is derived, as well as
the Gothic verb, which is the source of the English particles, means not only TO DO, but also to adduce or bring;
so that when we say, Im is going to Italy,” we do nothing more than affirm that “ he is going," and desire the
person to whom we speak, “ to ADD Italy, to the journey.”
From this derivation of the preposition to, it will be seen at once upon what principle it is employed to mark
the infinitive mode. In the learned languages that mode is generally known by its termination $ but in English
it would be impossible, without the aid of to or of some other word significant of action, to distinguish the VERB
love from the noun or substantive.
(d) This derivation is Mr Horne looke’s j and he supports it by the following sentence : Ne rjedd ge se
THE ON FRUMMAN WORHTE, HE WORHTE WALPMAN AND WIFMEN J which is the Anglo-Saxon of St Matt. xix. 4,
“ Annon legistis, quod qui eos in principle creavit, creavit eos marem et feminam ?”
(e) Ihese are complex terms because they are verbs. .Each denotes an affirmation and time; and combined
with these, came nab falls denote motion, and hangs denotes rest.
(f) Under and beneath, though by the sound they seem to have little connection, are yet in fact almost the
same word, and may very well supply each other’s place. Under is nothing but on-neder, and beneath is
compounded of the imperative be and the noun NEATH. Neath uncompounded having slipped away from our
language, would perhaps be unintelligible, had not the mowtw nether and nethermost still continued in common
use. Neath ; Anglo-Saxon, neothan, neothe ; Dutch, neden j Danish, NED ; German, niedre j and Swe¬
dish, NEDRE and NEDER 5 is undoubtedly as much a substantive, and has the same meaning, as the word nadir
In common language it denotes the bottom.
a
VI.
GRAMMAR.
61
they found already made, and transferred them by me¬
taphor to intellectual conceptions.
Among the relations which may be considered ra¬
ther as intellectual than corporeal, are those of cause
and consequence; and for the denoting of these we have
two prepositions, which sometimes appear in direct op¬
position to one another, and at other times may ex¬
change places without injury to the sense.
“ Well! ’tis e’en so ! I have got the London dis¬
ease they call love. I am sick OF my husband, and
FOR my gallant.” Wycherley's Country. Wife.
Here OF and FOR seem almost placed in opposition; at
least their effects in the sentence appear to be very dif¬
ferent ; for, by the help of these two prepositions alone,
and without the assistance of any other words, she ex¬
presses the two contrary affections of loathing and desire.
The truth, however, is, that the author, if it had
pleased him, might have used OF where he has employ¬
ed FOR, and FOR where he has put OF. This is evident
from the following quotation :
“ Marian. Come, Amie, you'll go with us."
“ Amie. I am not well.
“ Lionel. She's sick of the young shepherd that
bekist her." . Sad Shepherd.
In the same manner we may, with equal propriety,
say—“ We are sick OF hunger or—“ We are sick
FOR hunger.” And in both cases we shall have expres¬
sed precisely the same thing, with only this difference,
that, in the former sentence, we declare sickness to be a
consequence ; in the latter, we declare hunger to be a
cause. But to return to the country wife; that poor
lady seems to have had a complication of distempers;
she had, at least, two disorders—a sickness of loathing,
and a sickness of love. She was sick FOR disgust, and
sick FOR love. She was
Sick of disgust for her husband;
Sick OF love for her gallant.
Sick for disgust of her husband.
Sick for love of her gallant.
In the first sentence, as thus stated, sickness is declared
to be the CONSEQUENCE of disgust, of which her husband
is declared to be the cause. In the second, sickness is
declared to be the consequence OF love, of which her
gallant is declared to be the cause. In the third sen¬
tence DISGUST is declared to be the cause of her sick¬
ness, and the consequence or offspring of her hus¬
band. In the fourth, love is declared to he the cause
of her sickness, and the consequence or offspring
of her gallant.
Thus, then, it appears, that though the two first of
these sentences, taken entire, convey the very same mean¬
ing with the two last, yet the import of the preposition
FOR is as different from that of OF, as CAUSE is from
CONSEQUENCE (g). When two words or sentences are
linked together by the former of these prepositions, the
object expressed by the last word or sentence is declared
to he the CAUSE of that which is expressed by the pre¬
ceding; when two words or sentences are linked toge¬
ther by the latter preposition, the object expressed by the Preposi-
first word or sentence is declared to be the CONSE- tions.
QUENCE OF, or to PROCEED FROM, the object expressed . w
by the second. It is therefore a matter of perfect indif¬
ference to the sense, whether we say sickness of hunger,
or sickness for hunger ; The man, OF he speaks little, is
wise, or the man is wise, for he speaks little. By means
of the preposition OF, we declare sickness to be the CON¬
SEQUENCE proceeding from hunger, and wisdom to he the
CONSEQUENCE we infer from the man's speaking little ;
by means of FOR, we declare hunger to he the CAUSE of
sickness, and the circumstance of speaking little to be the
cause from which we infer the man's wisdom. In the
one sentence, of is to be considered as nnoun in apposi¬
tion to sickness; in the other, as a noun in apposition to
the man is wise taken abstractly as a noun. In the one
sentence for (i.e. cause) is to be considered as a noun
in apposition to hunger; in the other, as the same noun
in apposition to he speaks little taken abstractly as a noun, j,,
109. In the foregoing use of prepositions, we havePrepoii-
seen how they are applied by way of juxta-position
that is to say, where they are prefixed to a word with-^|“^ c
out becoming a part of it. But they are used also pother
way of composition; that is, they are prefixed to other words,
words so as to become real parts of them. Thus in
Greek we have iTruflettrixi; in Latin intelligere; and in
Enlish UNDERstand. So also, to FOREtel, or ovERact,
to UNDERvalue, to ouTgo, &c.; and in Greek and Latin
other instances innumerable. In this case the preposi¬
tions commonly transfuse something of their own mean¬
ing into the word with which they are compounded. 1^2
For example, if we suppose some given space, E and EX transfuse
signify out of that space ; PER, through it; in, within zV; something
SURunderit. Hence E and per, in composition, augment:of thci1-
Enormis is something not simply big, but big in excess i^g'jnto
something got out of the rule, and beyond the measure.
Dico, “ to speak ;” Eclico, “ to speak out whence words.
Edictum “ an edict,” something so effectually spoken
as all are supposed to hear and all to obey.—On the
contrary, in and sub diminish and lessen. Injustus,
INiquus, “ UNjust, iNequitable ;” something that lies
within justice and equity, that reaches not so far, that
falls short of them. SuBniger, “ blackish sUBrubi-
cundus, “ reddish ;” tending to black, and tending, to
red ; but yet under the standard, and below perfection-. ^
HO. Before we dismiss this part of our subject, we Their real
shall make the same general remark on prepositions thatimport now
we formerly made on conjunctions ; vitr,. that the precise10 1,6 diace-
import of each can with certainty be known only byveBeo*
tracing it to its source in some word of known and de¬
terminate] meaning either in the language where the
preposition itself has place, or in some parent or cog¬
nate tongue. And it may be laid down as an infallible
rule, that where different languages use the same or a
simWar particle, that language ought to be considered
as its legitimate parent, in which the true meaning of
the word can be found, and where its use is as com¬
mon and familiar as that of any other verbs and sub¬
stantives.
(g) Junius derives for from the Greek ?r§s ; Skinner, from the Latin but I believe, says Horne Tooke,
that it is no other than the Gothic substantive Fairina, “ cause.” He imagines also that OF (in the Gothic
and Anglo-Saxon af) is a fragment of the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon words AFARA and AFORA, posteritas,
proles, &c. In a word, he considers FOR and OF as nouns or substantives ; the former always meaning cause,
the latter always meaning consequence, offspring, successor, follower, &c. If this account of these words be just,
and we have no doubt of it, the prepositions for and OF are in syntax to be considered as nouns in apposition
with other nouns, or with sentences taken abstractly as nouns»
62
G K A M M A R.
stantives. When prepositions can be traced to such
sources as these, no room can be left for disputes
concerning their meaning. In carrying on this ety¬
mological pursuit, we find advantages in the nature ot
prepositions which conjunctions do not afford us. With
and without, from and to, with many other words
belonging to this class, have meanings directly oppo¬
site and contradictory to each other. If, then, by the
total or partial extinction of an original language, the
root of any one preposition be lost, whilst that ot its
opposite remains, the philosopher ought to be satisfied
with reasoning from contrariety; as nothing is more
evident, than that the meaning of a word is known
when we know with precision the meaning of its op¬
posite. When we meet, however, with a luckless
preposition of which no root is left to be dug up, and
which has itself no direct opposite in the language, no¬
thing remains but that we inquire for what purpose it is
used by the best writers both ancient and modern ; and
if we can fix upon one meaning which will apply, how¬
ever awkwardly, to all the places where it occurs, or
to the greater part of them, the probability is, that we
have discovered the true and original (h) meaning of
the preposition $ and by keeping that meaning constant¬
ly in view, we shall ourselves be enabled to use the
word with perspicuity and precision.
Sect. III. Oj' Interjections.
ill. Besides the above parts of speech, there is an-
jectiou not other acknowledged in all the languages of Europe,
properly called the INTERJECTION $ a word which cannot be
any pan °rcompreiien(]efl under any of the foregoing classes.
The genuine interjections are very few in number, and
of very little importance, as they are thrown into a sen¬
tence without altering its form either in syntax or in
signification. In the words of Horne Tooke the brutish
inarticulate interjection has nothing to do with speech,
and is only the miserable refuge of the speechless. The
dominion of speech, according to the same author, is
erected on the downfal of interjections. Without the
artful contrivances of languages, mankind would have
nothing but interjections with which to communicate
orally any of their feelings. “ The neighing of a
horse, the lowing of a cow, the barking of a dog, the
purring of a cat, sneezing, coughing, groaning, shriek¬
ing, and every other involuntary convulsion with oral
sound, have almost as good a title to be called parts of
speech as interjections. In the intercourse of language,
interjections are employed only when the suddenness or
vehemence of some affection or passion returns men to
their natural state, and makes them for a moment
forget the use of speech ; or when, from some circum¬
stance, the shortness of speech will not permit them to
exercise it.” The genuine interjection, which is al¬
ways expressive of some very strong sensation, such, as
ah ! when we feel pain, does not owe its characteristi-
*34
The inter-
Chap.
cal expression to the arbitrary form of articulation, iute
but derives its whole force from the tone of voice and tii
modification of countenance and gesture. Of conse-1"
quence, these tones and gestures express the same
meaning, without any relation to the articulation which
they may assume j and are therefore universally under¬
stood by all mankind, Voluntary interjections are
used in books only for embellishment, and to mark
forcibly a strong emotion. But where speech can be
employed, they are totally useless ; and are always in¬
sufficient for the purpose of communicating thought. Dr
Beattie ranks strange, prodigious, amazing, wonderful,
O dear,dear me, fkc.when used alone, and without appa¬
rent grammatical syntax, among the interjections: but he
might with as much propriety have considered hardly,
truly, really, and even many Latin verbs, as interjections ;
for these two are often used alone, to supply the place
of whole sentences. The truth is, that all men, when
suddenly and violently agitated, have a strong ten¬
dency to shorten their discourse by employing a single
word to express a sentiment. In such cases, the word
employed, whether noun, adjective, or verb, would be
the. principal word of the sentence, if that sentence were
completed $ and the agitation of the speaker is such,
and the cause of it so obvious, that the hearer is in no
danger of mistaking the sense, and can himself supply
the words that are wanting. Thus if a person, after
listening to a romantic narrative, were to exclaim,
strange! would any man of common sense suppose,
that the word strange, because uttered alone, had lost
the power of an adjective and become an interjection 9
No, surely : Every one sees, that the exclamation is
equivalent to, That is strange, or That is a strange
story. Real interjections are never employed to convey
truth of any kind. They are not to be found amongst
laws, in books of civil institutions, in history, or in any
treatise of useful arts or sciences ; but in rhetoric and
poetry, in novels, plays, and romances,wheve in English,
so far from giving pathos to the style, they have gene¬
rally an effect that is disgusting or ridiculous.
Having now analysed every part of speech which
can be necessary for the communication of thought, or
which is acknowledged in any language with which we
are acquainted j we shall dismiss the article of Grammar,
after annexing a Table, which may present at one view
the several classes and subdivisions of words. Of the
different modes of dividing the parts of speech, as well
as of the little importance of systematic classifications,
we have already declared our decided opinion : but for
the sake of those who may think differently from us, we
shall in the annexed Table adopt Mr Harris's classifi¬
cation as far as it is intelligible ; after informing our
readers that Mr Horne Tooke admits only three parts
of speech, the article, the noun, and the verb, and con¬
siders all other words as corruptions or abbreviations of
the two last of these.
A
(h) For instance, let us suppose that Horne Tooke's derivation of FOR, from the Gothic substantive FAIRINA,
is fanciful and ill-founded ; yet there can be little doubt but CAUSE is its true and original meaning, when it is
found, that of sixteen examples brought by Greenwood, and forty-six by Johnson, of different significations of the
word for, there is not one where the noun CAUSE may not be substituted instead of the preposition FOR ; some¬
times indeed awkwardly enough, but always without injury to the sense. Even where FOR seems to be loco al-
terius, which Lowth asserts to be its primary sense, it will be found to be cause, and nothing else : Thus He
made considerable progress in the study of the law before he quitted that profession FOR this of poetry; i. e. be¬
fore he quitted that profession, this of poetry being the CAUSE of bis quitting it«
G R A
GRAMMARIAN, one that is skilled in or teaches
i grammar. t • i c i
Anciently the xwcnz grammarian was a title or no-
lda-, nnur, literature, and erudition, being given to persons
accounted learned in any art or faculty whatever.
But it is otherwise now, being frequently used as a
term of reproach, to signify a dry plodding person,
employed about words and phrases, but inattentive to
the true beauties of expression and delicacy of senti¬
ment. The ancient grammarians, called also phlolo-
uers, must not be confounded with the grammatists,
whose sole business was to teach children the first ele¬
ments of language. Varro, Cicero, Messala, and even
Julius Caesar, thought it no dishonour to be ranked
grammarians, who had many privileges granted to them
by the Roman emperors.
GRAM MONT, a town of France, in Upper Vi¬
enne, remarkable for its abbey, which is the chief of
the order. E. Long. i. 30. N. Lat. 46. 1.
GRAMPIAN HILLS *, a chain of high mountains
in Scotland, which run from east to west almost the
whole breadth of the kingdom. See (Scottish) Alps
and Scotland.—They take their name from only a
single hill, the Mans Grampius of Tacitus, where Gal-
gacus waited the approach of Agricola, and where the
battle was fought so fatal to the brave Caledonians.
GRAMPOUND, a town of Cornwall in England,
seated on the river Valle, over which there is here a
bridge. W. Long. 4. 45. N. Lat. 50. 18. The in¬
habitants have a considerable manufacture of gloves $
and the town sends two members to parliament. Some
think that this town is the Voluba of the ancients,
because it stands on the same river ; and that on the
building of the bridge, the name was changed into
Grandpont. It was made a borough in the reign of
Edward III. by whose charter it was endowed with
large privileges, particularly freedom from toll through
all Cornwall, a market on Saturday, and three fairs in
the year ; which the burgesses hold of the duchy of
Cornwall in fee-farm, at the rent of about 12 guineas.
Its privileges were confirmed by King Henry VIII.
but it did not send members to parliament till the
reign of Edward VI. It is a corporation with a
mayor, eight magistrates, a recorder, and town-clerk.
The mayor is chosen annually the Tuesday before Mi¬
chaelmas, and the members by the majority of the
magistrates and freemen, who are such of the inhabitants
as pay scot and lot. It sends two members to parlia¬
ment, who are chosen by no more than thirty voters.
Population 601 in 1811.
GRAMPUS, a species of delphinus. See DelpHI-
nus, Cetology Index.
GRANADA, a province of Spain, which for a
long tune was a kingdom distinct from the rest of that
country. See the article Spain.—It made a part
of the ancient Btetica ; and was inhabited by the Ba-
stuli, the Sexitani, &c. At present it is sometimes
called Upper Andalusia. It is hounded to the south
and east by the Mediterranean, to the west and north
by Lower Andalusia, and the north-east by Murcia.
Its extent from west to east is two hundred and ten
miles j but its greatest breadth exceeds not eighty.
The air here is temperate and healthy ; and though
there are many mountains in the province, and some
G R A
of them very high, yet they are almost everywhere Granada,
covered with vines and fruit-trees, together with laurel, ' »
myrtle, sweet-basil, thyme, lavender, marjoram, and
other aromatic herbs, which give an exquisite taste to.
the flesh of their sheep and cattle. A great deal of
silk and sugar, flax and hemp, honey and wax, is also
produced here J besides dates and acorns, superior to the
finest nuts j good stone for building } several sorts of
gems*, sumach, used in dressing goat-skins 5 and galls,
of which a dye is made for leather. The valleys, with
which the mountains are interspersed, are extremely
beautiful and fertile. J he inhabitants of some ot the
highest mountains are said to he descendants of the
Moors j and, though they are become Roman Catholics,
retain in a great measure, their ancient customs, man¬
ners, and language. The principal rivers in the pro¬
vince are the Geuil or Xenil, and Guadalantm, besides
which there are many lesser streams. Abundance of
salt is made in this province. The present population
is estimated at 700,000. Malaga is its principal port.
It was the last of the kingdoms possessed by the Moors,
and was not reduced and annexed to the crown of Cas¬
tile until 1492.
Granada, the capital of the above province, is si¬
tuated at the foot of the Sierra Nevada, or the Snowy
Mountain, in a wholesome air and fruitful country,
an hundred and eighty-eight miles south of Madrid, in
W. Long. 3. 40. N. Lat. 37. 17. It stands upon two
hills separated by the Dario. The Genii runs under
the walls, and these two rivers are formed from the
melting of the snow with which the mountain is con¬
stantly covered. The Darro is said to carry with it
small particles of gold ; and its name, derived from dat
aui'utn, may be alleged as a proof of this : the Genii,
in like manner, rolls with its stream little pieces of silver.
When Charles V. came to Granada in 1526, with the
empress Isabella, the city presented him with a crown
made of gold gathered from the Darro. The city is
large and magnificent, containing a great number of
very handsome public and private buildings. Its walls,
which are adorned with many towers at equal distances,
are said to be ten miles in compass. Here are two
castles ; the one huilt by the Moors, and the other by
Charles V. and Philip II. They both command a very
fine prospect; and the first is so large, that it looks
like a city by itself, and, it is said, has room enough to
accommodate forty thousand people, exclusive of the
royal palace, and the convent of St Francis. Here is
also a court of inquisition j a royal tribunal 5 and an
university, founded in 1531 *, with the see of an arch¬
bishop, who has a revenue of forty thousand ducats per
annum. A great many noblemen, clergymen, and
wealthy citizens, reside in this city, of which the silk
trade and manufacture is considerable, and the arsenal
is said to be the best furnished of any in Spain. The
inhabitants, who are partly descended of the Moors,
amounted to 66,000 in 1797. There are several fine
squares, particularly that called the Bivarambat^ 01
P/afa Mayor, where the bull-fights are held 5 and with¬
out the city is a large plain, full of towns and villages, t
called La Vega de Granada.
The Moors are said to regret nothing but Granada,
amongst all the losses they have sustained in Spain ; they
mention it in all their evening prayers, and supplicate
heaven )
[ 63 ]
3
G R A [
Granada, heaven to restore it to their possession. The last Moor-
' ish ambassador who came into Spain obtained permission
of the king to see Granada ; he shed tears on entering
the Alhambra, and could not refrain from exclaiming,
that the folly of his ancestors had deprived them and
their posterity of that delightful country.
Granada had formerly twenty gates : the first, that
of Elvira, which still remains j the second, that of Bib-
almazar, or of conference, because, with the Moots, it
was a kind of place of resort where they conversed on
affairs $ the third, Vivarambla, so called from its lead¬
ing to a grand square which still bears the same name 5
the fourth, Bib Racha, or of provisions $ the fifth, Bita-
taubin, or the gate of the hermits, which led to differ¬
ent solitudes, the abodes of dervises $ the sixth, Bib-
mitre, or Biblacha, the first gate j the seventh, the
mill gate 5 the eighth, that of the sun, because it open¬
ed to the east the ninth, the gate of the Alhambra,
called by the Moors Bib Luxar; the tenth, Bib Adam,
or the gate of the bones of Adam j the twelfth, Bib
Giedra, the gate of the nobles; the Moors kept this
gate shut for a long time, because it had been predicted
that the enemies which should one day take the city,
would enter by that gate $ the thirteenth, is that of
Faxalauza, or of the hill of almond trees $ the four¬
teenth, the lion gate, in Arabic, Bib Elecei j the fif¬
teenth, the coast gate, called by the Moors Alacabar j
the sixteenth, Bib Albonut, or the gate of the Banners,
at present the magdalen gate j the seventeenth, that of
the Darro j the eighteenth, that of the Mosayca ; the
nineteenth, that called the gate of Ecce Homo; the
twentieth, that by the side of the Alhambra.
The Moors have left more monuments in Granada
than in any other city in Spain. From the great num¬
ber of inscriptions in and about the city, and the fine
edifices of the Alhambra and the Generalif, it might
be supposed these people intended to make Granada
the greatest depository of their religion, manners, cu¬
stoms, and magnificence. There is not a wall which
does not bear some marks of their power $ but, not¬
withstanding this abundance of monuments, the reign
of the Moors in Spain is still buried in confusion and
obscurity. The ignorance of the Spaniards, their su¬
perstition, and the hatred they bore the Moors, have
much contributed to this darkness-, they have either
destroyed, or suffered to be eftaced by time, every
thing which bore the mark of Mahometanism, instead
of preserving the monuments of antiquity, which at the
same time were those of their own glory j and it may
be said, that chance alone, and the solidity of their con¬
struction, much more than curiosity or a love of the
arts, has preserved those which still exist, though daily
going to ruin. -
An account of the Alhambra has been already gi¬
ven under its name in the order of the alphabet. From
the hall of Comares there mentioned, there is a modern
little staircase the old one, which corresponded to the
beauty of the edifice, having been destroyed. At the
top of the staircase is a gallery, a part of which is in¬
closed with an iron railing : this kind of cage is called
the prison of the queen. It was here the wife of the
last king of Granada was imprisoned. The Gomels
and Legris, two families of distinction, bore false wit¬
ness against her virtue, and occasioned the destruc¬
tion of the greatest part of the Abencerrages, another
64 ] G R A
powerful and numerous family of Granada of whom
they were jealous. The history of this event is given
as follows :
In the year 1491, Abdali, surnamed the Little, still
reigned in Granada j but this city was upon the brink
of ruin, for the principal families were divided against
each other. The Moors had carried their arms against
Jaen, and had been bravely repulsed. Abdali was con¬
soling himself in one of his pleasure houses for the ill
success of his enterprise, when the Zegris, who long
had been the secret enemies of the Abencerrages,
took the opportunity of this defeat to represent them
to the king as rebellious subjects, who employed their
immense riches to gain the favour of the people and
dethrone their sovereign. They accused Albin Ha-
met, the most rich and powerful among them, of ha¬
ving an adulterous commerce with the queen, and pro¬
duced witnesses who asserted they had on a certain fe¬
stival seen, at Generalif, under a bower of rose trees,
Albin Hamet in the arms of that princess. The fury
of Abdali may easily be imagined j he swore the de¬
struction of the Abencerrages. But the Zegris, too
prudent to let his anger break forth, advised him to
dissimulate, and not to suffer it to be known to that
numerous and powerful family that he was informed of
their perfidy. It will be better, said they, to entice
them into the snare, and, before they can unite and
put themselves into a state of defence, revenge upon
their heads the insult offered to the crown. This ad¬
vice was followed ; Abdali went to the Alhambra,
having ordered thirty of his guards to arm themselves,
and the executioner to attend. The Abencerrages
were sent for one by one, and beheaded as soon as they
entered the hall of the lions, where there is still a large
vase of alabaster," which was quickly filled with blood
and the heads of expiring bodies. Thirty-five heads
had already been struck off, and all the Abencerrages
would have died in the same manner, had not a page,
who had followed his master, and remained unpercei¬
ved in the hurry of the execution, taken an opportu¬
nity of withdrawing and giving information to the rest
of the unhappy family of what had passed. These im¬
mediately assembled their friends in arms, crying out
through the city of Granada, “ Treason ! treason !
Let the king die ! he unjustly puts to death the Aben¬
cerrages ! ’ The people, with whom they were favou¬
rites, did not hesitate in assisting them : fourteen thou¬
sand men were soon found in arms, and immediately
proceeded towards the Alhambra, shouting all the
™ay> L,et ^ie k*ng die ! Abdali, surprised his secret
should have been so soon discovered, and severely re¬
penting of having followed the pernicious counsels he
had received, ordered the castle gates to be shut; but
they were presently set on fire. Muley Hacen, who had
ieen forced to abdicate the throne in favour of his son,
hearing the tumult of the people, had one gate open¬
ed and presented himself to appease the rage of the
citizeno j but he no sooner appeared, than he was lift-
‘^B1! bu he m.U!tltude ncarest gate, who cried out,
Behotd our king, we will have no other, long live
“neJ Ha?nA IeavinS llira surroundedSby a
te.edgHS d,il he AbenCe,?a£es’ and other fiobles, en-
drlT th1e,.castle’ accoi«Pan‘ed by upwards of an hun¬
dred soldiers. But they found the queen only, with
women, and m the utmost consternation at the
sudden
G R A [
C lada. sudden revolution, of which she knew not the cause.
w. j They asked for the king; and being informed he was
in the hall of the lions, entered it furiously, and found
him defended by the Zegris and the Gomels, and in
less than two hours killed upwards of two hundred of
them. Abdali had the good fortune to escape. The
bodies of the beheaded Abencerrages were laid upon
black cloth, and carried to the city. Muza, brother
to Abdali, and who by his great actions had gained
the favour of the people, seeing the Abencerrages were
revenged, found means to appease them } and having
learned that the king had taken refuge in a mosque
near the mountain now called Saint Helena, went and
brought him back to the castle of the Alhambra. For
several days nothing but sighs and groans were heard
throughout the city. Abdali shut himself up in the castle,
and refused to see the queen. Those who had accused
her of adultery, however, persisted in their false accu¬
sation, and said, they would maintain, with arms in
their hands, against all who should contradict them,
that the queen was guilty. The unhappy princess was
imprisoned, and the day arriving on which she was to
perish by the hands of the executioner, when none
among the Moors offering to defend her, she was ad¬
vised to commit her cause to some Christian knights,
who presented themselves at the time appointed, and
conquered her false accusers, so that she was immedi¬
ately set at liberty. The taking of Granada soon fol¬
lowed this combat ; Muza and the Abencerrages ha¬
ving, it is said, facilitated the conquest of it by Ferdi¬
nand and Isabella.
From the Alhambra you enter the Generalif by a
low gate, which favoured the escape of Abdali when
Ferdinand took Granada. Generalit is said to signify,
in Arabic, the house of love, of dance, and pleasure.
It was built by a prince of the name of Omar, who
was so fond of music, that he retired to this palace, en¬
tirely to give himself up to that amusement. The Ge-
neralif is the most pleasing situation in the environs of
Granada. It is built upon a very high mountain,
whence waters rush from every side, which escape in
torrents, and fall in beautiful cascades in the courts,
gardens, and halls of that ancient palace. The gar¬
dens form an amphitheatre, and are full ol trees, vene¬
rable from their antiquity. Two cypresses in particu¬
lar are noted, called the Cypresses of the Queen, be¬
cause it was near them the perfidious Gomel impeach¬
ed the virtue of that princess and the honour of the
Abencerrages. Of this place, travellers observe, that
the writers of romances have never imagined a scene
equal to it.
Granada was formerly called Ilhberia, and founded,
if we will believe some writers, by Liberia, a great-
grand-daughter of Hercules, daughter of Hispan, and
wife to Hesperus, a Grecian prince, and brother to
Atalanta. Others, who support their assertions by
proofs to the full as satisfactory, maintain that it was
founded by Iberus, grandson of Tubal, and that it took
the name of Granada, or Garnata, from Nata the
daughter of Liberia ; this word being composed of
Gar (which in the language of the time signified grot¬
to) and Nata ; that is, “ the grotto of Nata,” because
that princess studied astrology and natural history, and
delighted in the country. It is certain that such a
person as Nata, or Natayda, existed in the first ages of
Vol. X. Part I.
65 ] G R A
the foundation of Granada j and that in the place Granada
where the Alhambra now stands, there was a temple
dedicated to Nativala. The date of the foundation
Granada is said to be 2808 years before Christ,
know that in the time of the Romans it was a munici¬
pal colony.—A description in Latin of Granada, such
as it was in 1560, written by a merchant of Antwerp,
named George Hosnahel, who travelled into Spain, is
to be found in the work intitled Civitates orbis terra-
rum, printed at Cologne in 1576. This book also
contains a good plan of the city of Granada.
Granada, or Grenada, one of the Caribbee islands.
See Grenada.
Granada, a town of Mexico, in America, in the
province of Nicaragua, and in the audience of Guati-
mala, seated on the lake Nicaragua, 70 miles from the
South sea. It was taken twice by the French buc¬
caneers, and pillaged. The inhabitants carry on a
great trade by means of the lake, which communi¬
cates with the North sea. W. Long. 87. 46. N. Lat.
10. 12.
Granada, Neiv, a province of South America, in
Terra Firma, about 950 miles in length, and 240 in
breadth. It is bounded on the north by Carthagena
and St Martha, on the east by Venezuela, on the
south by Popayan, and on the west by Darien. It con¬
tains mines of gold, copper, and iron ; horses, mules,
good pastures, corn, and fruits. It belongs to the
Spaniards, and Santa-Fe de Bagota is the capital town.
See GrANADA, New, SUPPLEMENT.
GRANADILLOES, the name of some islands of
the Caribbees, in America, having St Vincent to the
north and Granada to the south. They are so incon¬
siderable that they are quite neglected; but were ceded
to England by the treaty of peace in 1763.
GRANADLER, a soldier armed with a sword, a
firelock, a bayonet, and a pouch full of hand grana-
does. They wear high caps, are generally the tallest
and briskest fellows, and are always the first upon all
attacks.
Every battalion of foot has generally a company
of granadiers belonging to it; or else four or five
granadiers belong to each company of the battalion,
which, on occasion, are drawn out, and form a com¬
pany of themselves. These always take the right of
the battalion.
GRANADO, or Grenade, in the art of war, a
hollow ball or shell of iron or other metal, of about 2\
inches diameter, which being filled with fine powder, is
set on fire by means of a small fuse driven into the
fuse-hole, made of well-seasoned beech-wood, and
thrown by the granadiers into those places where the
men stand thick, particularly into the trenches and
other lodgments made by the enemy. As soon as the
composition within the fuse gets to the powder in the
granado, it bursts into many pieces, greatly to the da¬
mage of all who happen to be in its way. Granadoes
were invented about the year 1594* ^,e autl,or
the Military Dictionary has the following remark on
the use of granadoes. “ Grenades have unaccountably
sunk into disuse ; but I am persuaded there is no¬
thing more proper than to have grenades to throw
among the enemy who have jumped into the ditch.
During the siege of Cassel under the count de la
Lippe, in the campaign of 1762, a young engineer
I undertook
GRA [66]. GRA
Granado undertook to carry one of the outworks with a much
|| smaller detachment than one which had been repul-
G ran ary. se(]) an({ succeeded with ease from the use of grenades j
which is a proof that they should not be neglected,
either in the attack or defence of posts.”—The word
Granado takes its rise from hence, that the shell is fill¬
ed with grains of powder, as a pomegranate is with
kernels.
GRANARD, a borough, market, fair, and post
town in the county of Longford, province of Lein¬
ster j it gives title of earl to the family of Forbes j
situated 52 miles from Dublin, and about 16 north-east
of Longford. N. Lat. 53. 44. W. Long. 7. 30* Here
is a remarkable hill or mount, called the Moat of
Granard, thought to be artificial, and the site of a
Danish castle or fort 5 which commands from its sum¬
mit a most extensive prospect into six or seven adjoin¬
ing counties. In this town have lately been given an¬
nual prizes to the best performers on the Irish harp.
Granard has a barrack for a company of foot; and for¬
merly returned two members to the Irish parliament ;
patronage in the families of Macartney and Greville.
Fairs held 3d May and 1st October. This place takes
its name from Grian-ard, or “ the height of the sun,”
and was formerly the residence of the chiefs of North
Teffia. It is sometimes written Grenard.
GRANARY, a building to lay or store corn in, es¬
pecially that designed to be kept a considerable time.
Sir Henry Wotton advises to make it look towards
the north, because that quarter is the coolest and most
temperate. Mr Wovlidge observes, that the best gra¬
naries are built of brick, with quarters of timber
wrought in the inside, to which the boards may be
nailed, with which the inside of the granary must be
lined so close to the bricks, that there may not he any
room left for vermin to shelter themselves. There may
he many stories one above another, which should he
near the one to the other $ because the shallower the
corn lies, it is the better, and more easily turned.
The two great cautions to be observed in the erect¬
ing of granaries are, to make them sufficiently strong,
and to expose them to the most drying winds. The
ordering of the corn in many parts of England, parti¬
cularly in Kent, is thus: To separate it from dust and
other impurities after it is thrashed, they toss it with
shovels from one end to the other of a long and large
room ; the lighter substances fall down in the middle
of the room, and the corn only is carried from side to
side or end to end of it. After this they screen the
corn, and then bringing it into the granaries, it is
spread about half a foot thick, and turned from time
to time about twice in a Week y once a-week they also
repeat the screening it. This sort of management they
continue about two months, and after that they lay it
a foot thick for two months more*, and in this time they
turn it once a-week, or twice if the season be damp,
and now and then screen it again. After about five
or six months they raise it to two feet thickness in the
heaps, and then they turn it once or twice in a month,
and screen it now and then. After a year, they lay
it two and a half or three feet deep, and turn it once
in three weeks or a month, and screen it proportion-
ably. When it has lain two years or more, they turn
k once in two months, and screen it once a-quarter y
and how long soever it is kept, the oftener the turn¬
ing and screening are repeated, the better the grain will Grajlar?
be found to be.—It is proper to leave an area of a 1—
yard wide on every side of the heap of corn, and other
empty spaces, into which they turn and toss the coin
as often as they find occasion. In Kent they make
two square holes at each end of the floor, and
one round in the middle, by means of which they
throw the corn out of the upper into the lower rooms,
and so up again, to turn and air it the better. Their
screens are made with two partitions, to separate the
dust from the corn, which falls into a bag, and when
sufficiently full this is thrown away, the pure and good
corn remaining behind. Corn has by these means
been kept in our granaries 30 years y and it is obser¬
ved, that the longer it is kept the more flour it yields
in proportion to the corn, and the purer and whiter
the bread is, the superfluous humidity only evapora¬
ting in the keeping. At Zurich in Swisserland, they
keep corn 80 years, or longer, by the same sort of me¬
thods.
The public granaries at Dantzick are seven, eight,,
or nine stories high, having a funnel in the midst of
each floor to let down the corn from one to another.
They are built so securely, that though every way
surrounded with water, the corn contracts no damp,
and the vessels have the convenience of coming up to
the walls to be loaded. The Russians preserve their
corn in subterranean granaries of the figure of a sugar-
loaf, wide below and narrow at top; the sides are well
plastered, and the top covered with stones. They
are very careful to have the corn well dried before it
is laid into these storehouses, and often dry it by
means of ovens y the summer dry weather being too
short to effect k sufficiently.—Dantzick is the grand
storehouse or repository of all the fruitful kingdom
of Poland. The wheat, barley, and rye, of a great
part of the country, are there laid up in parcels of 20,
30, or 60 lasts in a chamber, according to the size of
the room y and this they keep turning every day or
two, to keep it sweet and fit for shipping. A thunder
storm has sometimes been of very terrible consequences
to these stores. All the corn of the growth of former
years has been found so much altered by one night’s
thunder, that though over night it was dry, fit for
shipping or keeping, and proper for uses of any sort,
yet in the morning it was found clammy and sticking.
In this ease, there is no remedy but the turning of all
such corn two or three times a-day for two months or
longer y in which time it will sometimes come to it¬
self, though sometimes not. This effect of thunder
and lightning is only observed to take place in such
corn as is not a year old, or has not sweated thoroughly
in the straw before it was threshed out. The latter
inconvenience is easily prevented by a timely care j
but as to the former, all that can be done is carefully
to examine all stores of the last year’s corn after every
thunder storm, that if any of this have been so affected,
it may be cured in time y for a neglect of turning will
certainly utterly destroy it.
According to Vitruvius’s rules, a granary should al¬
ways he at the top of a house, and have its openings
only to the north or east, that the corn many not be
exposed to the damp winds from the south and west,
which are very destructive to it y whereas the contrary
ones are very necessary and wholsesome to it, serving
to
G R A t 67 ] G R A
^ na to cool and dry it from all external humidity, from
w. y whatever cause. Ihere must also be openings in the
roof to be set open in dry weather, partly to let in
fresh air, and partly to let out the warm effluvia which
are often emitted by the corn. The covering of the
roofs should always be of tiles, because in the worst
seasons, when the other openings cannot be safe, there
will always be a considerable inlet for fresh air, and a
way out for the vapours by their joinings, which are
never close. If there happen to he any windows to
the south, great care must he taken to shut them up in
moist weather, and in the time of the hot southern winds.
There must never he a cellar, or any other damp place
under a granary, nor should it ever be built over stables j
for in either of these cases the corn will certainly suf¬
fer by the vapours, and be made damp, in one, and
ill-tasted in the other.
M. du Hamel and Dr Hales recommend various
contrivances for ventilating or blowing fresh air through
corn laid up in granaries or ships, in order to pre¬
serve it sweet and dry, and to prevent its being de¬
voured by weevils or other insects. This may he done
by nailing wooden bars or laths on the floor of the
granary about an inch distant from each other, when
they are covered with hair-cloth only i or at. the dis¬
tance of two or three inches, when coarse wire-work,
or basket-work of osier, is laid under the hair-cloth, or
when an iron plate full of holes is laid upon them. These
laths may be laid across other laths, nailed at the dis¬
tance of 15 inches, and two or more deep, that there
may be a free passage for the air under them. The
under laths must come about six inches short of the
wall of the granary at one end of them ; on which end
a board is to be set edgewise, and sloping against the
wall: by this disposition a large air-pipe is formed,
which having an open communication with all the
interstices between and under the lyrrs, will admit
the passage of air below forcibly through a hole at the
extremity of it, into all the corn in the granary, that
will consequently carry off the moist exhalations of the
corn. The ventilators for supplying fresh air may be
fixed against the wall, on the inside or outside of the
granary, or under the floor, or in the ceiling ; hut
wherever they are fixed, the handle of the lever that
works them must be out of the granary, otherwise the
person who works them would be in danger of suffocation,
when the corn is fumed with burning brimstone, as is
sometimes done for destroying weevils. Small moveable
ventilators will answer the purpose for ventilating corn
in large bins in granaries, and may be easily moved
from one bin to another. If the granary or corn ship
be very long, the main air-pipe may pass lengthwise
along the middle of it, and convey air, on both sides,
under the corn. In large granaries, large double ven¬
tilators laid on each other, may be fixed at the middle
and near the top of the granary, that they may. be
worked by a wind-mill fixed on the roof of the build¬
ing, or by a water-mill. The air is to he conveyed
from the ventilators through a large trunk or trunks,
reaching down through the several floors to the bot¬
tom of the granary, with branching trunks to each
floor, by means of which the air may be made to pass
into a large trunk along the adjoining cross walls :
from these trunks several lesser trunks, about four inches
wide, are to branch off, at the distance of three or
four feet from each other, which are to reach through Granary,
the whole length of the granary, and their farther —•~y~—"
ends are to be closed : seams of ^ or xr of an inch
are to he left open at the four joinings of the boards^
where they are nailed together, that the air may pass
through them into the corn. In some of these lesser
trunks there may be sliding shutters, in order to stop
the passage of the air through those trunks which are
not covered with corn ; or to ventilate one part ot the
granary more briskly than others, as there may be oc¬
casion. There must also he wooden shutters, hung on
hinges at their upper part, so as to shut close of them¬
selves j these must he fixed to the openings in the walls
of the granary on their outside: by these means they
will readily open to give a free passage for the ventila¬
ting air, which ascends through the corn, to pass off,
but will instantly shut when the ventilation ceases, and
thereby prevent any dampness of the external air from
entering: to prevent this, the ventilation should be
made only in the middle of dry days, unless the corn,
when first put in, is cold and damp.
In lesser granaries, where the ventilators must be
worked by hand, if these granaries stand on staddles,
so as to have their lowest floor at some distance from
the ground, the ventilators may be fixed under the
lowest floor, between the staddles, so as to be worked
by men standing on the ground, without or within
the granary. A very commodious and cheap venti¬
lator may be made for small granaries, by making a
ventilator of the door of the granary j which may be
easily done by making a circular screen, of the size of
a quarter of a circle, behind the door : but in order to
this, the door must be open, not inwards but out¬
wards of the granary, so that as it falls back, it may
he worked to and fro in the screen ; which must be
exactly adapted to it in all parts of the circular side
of the screen, as well as at the top and bottom. But
there must be a stop at about eight or ten inches dis-,
tance from the wall, to prevent the door’s falling back
farther j that there may be room for a valve in the
screen to supply it with air j which air will be driven
in by the door, through a hole made in the wall near
the floor, into the main air-trunk, in which there must
be another valve over the hole in the wall, to prevent
the return of the air.
To destroy 1 re evils and other insects with which Gra¬
naries are apt to be infested.—The preservation of
grain from the ravages of insects may be best effected
by timely and frequent screening, and ventilation ; as
little or no inconvenience will follow corn or malt lod¬
ged dry, but what evidently results from a neglect of
these precautions. Tor, whether the obvious damage
arise from the weevil, the moth, or the beetle, that da¬
mage has ceqsed at the time the vermin make their ap¬
pearance under either of these species, they being, when
in this last state of existence, only propagators of their
respective kinds of vermiculi j which, while they con¬
tinue in that form, do the mischief.
In this last, or insect state, they eat little, their prin¬
cipal business being to deposit their ova (eggs), which
unerring instinct prompts them to do wheie large col¬
lections of grain furnish food for their successors while
in a vermicular state. It is therefore the business of
industry to prevent future generations of these ravagers,
by destroying the eggs previous to their hatching ; and
e
G R A [ 68 ] G R A
this is best accomplished by frequent screening, and ex¬
posure to draughts of wind or fresh air. By frequent¬
ly stirring the grain, the cohesion of their ova is bro¬
ken, and the nidus of those minute worms is destroyed,
which on hatching collect together, and spin or weave
numerous nests of a cob-web like substance for their
security. To these nests they attach, by an affinity of
small threads, many grains of corn together, first for
their protection, and then for their food. When their
habitations are broken and separated by the screen,
they fall through its small interstices, and may be easi¬
ly removed from the granary with the dust. Those that
escape an early screening will be destroyed by subse¬
quent ones, while the grain is but little injured ; and
the corn will acquire thereby a superior purity. But
by inattention to this, and sometimes by receiving grain
already infected into the granary, these vermin, parti¬
cularly the weevil, will in a short time spread themselves
in that state everywhere upon its surface, and darken
even the walls by their number. Under such circum¬
stances, a hen or hens, with new hatched chickens, if
turned on the heap, will traverse, without feeding (or
very sparingly so) on the corn, wherever they spread ;
and are seemingly insatiable in the pursuit of these in¬
sects. When the numbers are reduced within reach, a
hen will fly up against the walls, and brush them down
with her wdngs, while her chickens seize them with the
greatest avidity. This being repeated as often as they
want food, the whole species will in a day or two be
destroyed. Of the phalaena (moth), and the small
beetle, they seem equally voracious : on which account
they may be deemed the most useful instruments in
nature for eradicating these noxious and destructive
vermin. See Vermin', Destruction of.
GRANATE, or Garnet, a species of mineral be¬
longing to the siliceous genus. See Mineralogy
Index.
GnANATE-Pastc. See Garnet.
GRAND, a term rather French than English,
though used on many occasions in cur language. It
has the same import with great, being formed of the
Latin grandis. In this sense we say, the grand-master
of an order, the grand-master of Malta, of the free¬
masons, &c. So also the grand-signior, the grand-visir,
&c. grand-father, grand-mother, &c.
Among the French there were formerly several of-
iicers thus denominated, which we frequently retain in
English j as grand almoner, grand ecuyer, grand cham-
bellan, grand voyer, &c.
Grand-Assize. See Assise.
Grand Distress (districtiomagnd), in English Law, a
writ of distress, so called on account of its extent, which
reaches to all the goods and chattels of the party within
the county. The writ lies in two cases : either when
the tenant or defendant is attached and appears not,
but makes default; or where the tenant or defendant
hath once appeared, and after makes default. On such
occasions, this writ lies by common law, in lieu of a
petit cape.
Grand Gusto, among painters, a term used to ex¬
press that there is something in the picture very great
and extraordinary, calculated to surprise, please, and
instruct.—Where this is found, they say, the painter
was. a map of grand gusto; and they use tlie words sub¬
lime and marvellous, when they speak of a picture, in Gra8(
much the same sense. [j
Grand Jury, larcency, serjeanty, &.c. See Jury, Graud;
&c. ' a!ld
GRANDEE, is understood of a lord of the first rank .Subl1^
or prime quality.
In Spain, the term grandees is used absolutely to de¬
note the prime lords of the court, to whom the king
has once given leave to be covered in his presence :
there are some grandees for life only j made by the
king’s saying simply, Be covered. Others are grandees
by descent; made by the king’s saying, Be covered for
thyself and heirs. These last are reputed far above the
former.
There are some who have three or four grandeeships
in their family. ;
GRANDEUR and Sublimity. These terms havep0iib!ci
a double signification: they commonly signify the qua-nificatioi
lity or circumstance in objects by which the emotions
of grandeur and sublimity are produced ; sometimes
the emotions themselves.
In handling the present subject, it is necessary that
the impression made on the mind by the magnitude of
an object, abstracting from its other qualities, should be
ascertained. And because abstraction is a mental ope¬
ration of some difficulty, the safest method forjudging
is, to choose a plain object that is neither beautiful nor
deformed, if such a one can be found. The plainest
that occurs, is a huge mass of rubbish, the ruins per¬
haps of some extensive building j or a large heap of
stones, such as are collected together for keeping in
memory a battle or other remarkable event. Such an
object, which in miniature would be perfectly indiffer¬
ent, makes an impression by its magnitude, and ap¬
pears agreeable. And supposing it so large as to fill the
eye, and to prevent the attention from wandering upon
other objects, the impression it makes will be so much
the deeper. See Attention.
But though a plain object of that kind be agreeable
it is not termed grand: it is not entitled to that cha¬
racter, unless, together with its size, it be possessed of
other qualities that contribute to beauty, such as regu-
larity, proportion, order, or colour : and according to
the number of such qualities combined with magnitude,
it is more or less grand. Thus St Peter’s church at
Rome, the great pyramid of Egypt, the Alps towering
above the clouds, a great arm of the sea, and above all
a clear and serene sky, are grand j because, beside their
size, they are beautiful in an eminent degree. On the
other hand, an overgrown whale, having a disagreeable
appearance, is not grand. A large building, agreeable
by its regularity and proportions, is grand •, and yet a
much larger building, destitute of regularity, has not
the least tincture of grandeur. A single regiment in
battle-array, makes a grand appearance j which the
surrounding crowd does not, though perhaps ten for
one. in number. And a regiment where the men are
all in one livery, and the horses of one colour, makes a
grander appearance, and consequently strikes more ter¬
ror, than where there is confusion of colour and dress. ,
Thus greatness or magnitude is the circumstance thatGfSnd
distinguishes grandeur from beauty: agreeableness isdistinf
the genus, of which beauty and grandeur are species.
Tha emotion of grandeur, duly examined, will be*)£aUl
found
Sul
D
n
r<
®u
tiii
gn
G R A [ 69 ] G R A
]eur found an additional proof of the foregoing doctrine,
i That this emotion is pleasant in a high degree, requires
uity. no other evidence but once to have seen a grand object:
and if an emotion of grandeur be pleasant, its cause or
object, as observed above, must infallibly be agreeable
in proportion.
The qualities of grandeur and beauty are not more
distinct, than the emotions are which these qualities
produce in a spectator. It is observed in the article
Beauty, that all the various emotions of beauty
have one common character, that of sweetness and
gaiety. The emotion of grandeur has a different cha¬
racter : a large object that is agreeable, occupies the
whole attention, and swells the heart into a vivid emo¬
tion, which, though extremely pleasant, is rather se¬
rious than gay. And this affords a good reason for
distinguishing in language these different emotions.
The emotions raised by colour, by regularity, by pro¬
portion, and by order, have such a resemblance to each
other, as readily to come under one general term, viz.
the emotion of beauty; but the emotion of grandeur is
so different from these mentioned, as to merit a pecu¬
liar name.
I Though regularity, proportion, order, and colour,
riel contribute to grandeur as well as to beauty, yet these
trity. qualities are not by far so essential to the former as to
the latter. To make out that proposition, some preli¬
minaries are requisite. In the first place, the mind, not
being totally occupied wit!} a spiall object, can give its
attention at the same time to every minute part; but
in a great or extensive object, the mind, being totally
occupied with the capital and striking parts, has no at¬
tention left for those that are little or indifferent. In
the next place, two similar objects appear not similar
when viewed at different distances : the similar parts of
a very large object, cannot be seen but at different di¬
stances ; and for that reason, its regularity, and the
proportion of its parts, are in some measure lost to the
eye : neither are the irregularities of a very large ob¬
ject so conspicuous as of one that is small. Hence it
is, that a large object is not so agreeable by its regula¬
rity, as a small object j nor so disagreeable by its irre¬
gularities.
These considerations make it evident, that grandeur
is satisfied with a less degree of regularity, and of the
other qualities mentioned, than is requisite for beau¬
ty ; which may be illustrated by the following experi-
ties ment. Approaching to a small conical hill, we take an
ibu- accurate survey of every part, and are sensible of the
0 slightest deviation from regularity and proportion. Sup-
eur' posing the hill to be considerably enlarged, so as to
make us less sensible of its regularity, it will upon
that account appear less beautiful. It will not, how¬
ever, appear le^s agreeable, because some slight emo¬
tion of grandeur comes in place of what is lost in
beauty. And at last, when the hill is enlarged to a
great mountain, the small degree of beauty that is
left, is sunk in its grandeur. Hence it is, that a
towering hill is delightful, if it have but the slightest
resemblance of a cone j and a chain of mountains not
less so, though deficient in the accuracy of order and
proportion. We require a small surface to be smooth ;
but in an extensive plain, considerable inequalities are
overlooked.. In a word, regularity, proportion, order,
and colour, contribute to grandeur as well as to beau- Grandeur
ty ; but with a remarkable difference, that in passing ani1.
from small to great, they are not required in the same ^-Uimity.
degree of perfection. This remark serves to explain " ~y
the extreme delight we have in viewing the face of na¬
ture, when sufficiently enriched and diversified with ob¬
jects. The bulk of the objects in a natural landscape
are beautiful, and some of them grand : a flowing ri¬
ver, a spreading oak, a round hill, an extended plain,
are delightful j and even a rugged rock, or barren
heath, though in themselves disagreeable, contribute
by contrast to the beauty of the whole •, joining to these
the verdure of the fields, the mixture of light and shade,
and the sublime canopy spread over all, it will not ap¬
pear wonderful, that so extensive a group of splendid
objects should swell the heart to its utmost bounds, ami
raise the strongest emotion of grandeur. The spectator
is conscious of an enthusiam which cannot bear con¬
finement, nor the strictness of regularity and order:
he loves to range at large ; and is so enchanted with
magnificent objects, as to overlook slight beauties or
deformities.
The same observation is applicable in some measure
to works of art. In a small building, the slightest ir¬
regularity is disagreeable: but in a magnificent palace,
or a large Gothic church, irregularities are less regard¬
ed. In an epic poem, we pardon many negligences
that would not be permitted in a sonnet or epigram.
Notwithstanding such exceptions, it may be justly laid
down for a rule, That in works of art, order and re¬
gularity ought to be governing principles ; and hence
the observation of Longinus, “ In works of art we have
regard to exact proportion ; in those of nature, to gran¬
deur and magnificence.”
Th e same reflections are in a good measure applicable Sublimity,
to sublimity : particularly that, like grandeur, it is a
species of agreeableness ; that a beautiful object placed
high, appearing more agreeable than formerly, produces
in the spectator a new emotion, termed the emotion of
sublimity; ,and that the perfection of order, regularity,
and proportion, is less required in objects placed high,
or at a distance, than at hand.
The pleasant emotion raised by large objects, has not
escaped the poets :
.—    — -He doth bestride the narrow world
Like a colossus ; and we petty men
Walk under his huge legs.
Julius Ccesar, act i. sc. 3.
Cleopatra. I dreamt there was an emperor Antony:
Oh such another sleep, that I might see
But such another man !
His face was as the heav’ns: and therein stuck
A sun and moon, which kept their course, and lighted
The little O o’ th’ earth.
His legs bestrid the ocean, his rear’d arm
Crested the world.
Antony and Cleopatra, act v. sc. 3.,
     Majesty
Hies not alone j but, like a gulf, doth draw
What’s near it with it. It’s a massy wheel
Fix’d on the summit of the highest mount 5
To whose huge spokes ten thousand lesser things
Are.
G R A [ 7° ]
Are mortis’d and adjoin’d j which, when it falls,
Each small annexment, petty consequence,
Attends the boist’rous ruin. Hamlet, act iii. sc. 8.
The poets have also made good use of the emotion
produced by the elevated situation of an object :
Quod si me lyricis vatibus inseres,
Sublimi feriam sidera vertice.
Horat. Carm. 1. ii. ode I.
O thou ! the earthly author of my blood,
Whose youthful spirit, in me regenerate,
Doth with a twofold vigour lift me up,
To reach at victory above my head.
Richard II. act i. sc. 4.
Northumberland, thou ladder wherewithal
The mounting Bolingbroke ascends my throne.
Richard II. act v. sc. 2.
Antony. Why was I rais’d the meteor of the world,
Hung in the skies : and blazing as I travell’d,
Till all my fires were spent; and then cast downward,
To be trod out by Caesar ?
Dryden, Allfor Love, act i.
The description of Paradise in the fourth book of
Paradise Lost, is a fine illustration of the impression
made by elevated objects.
So on he fares, and to the border comes
Of Eden, where delicious Paradise,
Now nearer, crowns with her inclosure green,
As with a rural mound, the champain head
Of a steep wilderness ; whose hairy sides
With thicket overgrown, grotesque and wild,
Access deny’d ; and over head up grew
Insuperable height of loftiest shade,
Cedar, and pine, and fir, and branching palm,
A silvan scene $ and as the ranks ascend,
Shade above shade, a woody theatre
Of stateliest view. Yet higher than their tops
The verd’rous wall of Paradise up sprung j
Which to our general sire gave prospect large
Into his nether empire, neighb’ring round.
And higher than that wall a circling row
Of goodliest trees, loaden with fairest fruit,
Blossoms and fruits at once of golden hue,
Appear’d, with gay enamell’d colours mix’d.
1. 131.
Though a grand object is agreeable, we must not in¬
fer that a little object is disagreeable^ which would be
unhappy for man, considering that he is surrounded
with so many objects of that kind. The same holds
with respect to place: a body placed high is agree¬
able ; but the same body placed low, is not by that cir¬
cumstance rendered disagreeable. Littleness and low¬
ness of place are precisely similar in the following par¬
ticular, that they neither give pleasure nor paiq. And
in this may visibly be discovered peculiar attention in
fitting the internal constitution of man to his external
circumstances. Were littleness and lowness of place
agreeable, greatness and elevation could not be so ;
were littleness and lowness of place disagreeable, they
would occasion uninterrupted uneasiness.
The difference between great and little with respect
G xt A
to agreeableness, is remarkably felt in a series when we GrHlt|
pass gradually from one extreme to the other. A anil
mental progress from the capital to the kingdom, from
that to Europe-—to the whole earth—to the planetary
system—to the universe, is extremely pleasant : the
heart swells, and the mind is dilated at every step.
The returning in an opposite direction is not positively
painful, though our pleasure lessens at every step, till
it vanish into indifference : such a progress may some¬
times produce pleasure of a different sort, which arises
from taking a narrower and narrower inspection. The
same observation holds in a progress upward and down¬
ward. Ascent is pleasure because it elevates us 5 but de¬
scent is never painful : it is for the most part pleasant
from a dilferent cause, that it is according to the order
of nature. The fall of a stone from any height, is ex¬
tremely agreeable by its accelerated motion. We
feel it pleasant to descend from a mountain, because
the descent is natural and easy. Neither is looking
downward painful ; on the contrary, to look down up¬
on objects, makes part of the pleasure of elevation :
looking down becomes then only painful when the ob¬
ject is so far below as to create dizziness ; and even
when that is the case, we feel a sort of pleasure mixed
with the pain : witness Shakespeare’s description of
Dover cliffs :
      How fearful _
And dizzy ’tis, to cast one’s eye so low !
The crows and choughs, that wing the midway air.
Show scarce so gross as beetles. Half-way down
Hangs one that gathers samphire ; dreadful trade !
Methinks he seems no bigger than his head.
The fishermen that walk upon the beach
Appear like mice ; and yon tall anchoring bark
Diminish’d to her cock ; her cock, a buoy
Almost too small for sight. The murm’ring surge,
That on th’ unnumbered idle pebbles chafes,
Cannot be heard so high. I’ll look no more,
Lest my brain turn, and the deficient sight
Topple down headlong. King Lear, act iv. sc. 6.
A remark is made above, that the emotions of gran¬
deur and sublimity are nearly allied. And hence it is,
that the one term is frequently put for the other : an
increasing series of numbers, for example, producing an
emotion similar to that of mounting upward, is com¬
monly termed an ascending series : a series of numbers
gradually decreasing, producing an emotion similar to
that of going downward, is commonly termed a descend¬
ing series: we talk familiarly of going vp to the capital,
and of going down to the country : from a lesser king¬
dom we talk of going up to a greater 5 whence the ana¬
basis in the Greek language, when one travels from
Greece to Persia. We discover the same way of speak¬
ing in the language even of Japan $ and its universali¬
ty proves it the offspring of a natural feeling. 6
The foregoing observation leads us to considerGr»n(
grandeur and sublimity in a figurative sense, and asaIld,i
applicable to the fine arts. Hitherto these ternisj11^'
have been taken in their proper sense as applicable to sense,
objects of sight only : and it was of importance to be¬
stow some pains upon that article; because, generally
speaking, the figurative sense of a word is derived from
its proper sense, which bolds remarkably at present.
Beauty
Grandeur
and
Sublimity.
G F A
1
Gra cur
.Soli lily.
[ 71
’’ PKe ib-
8 ilKf i
a •ell.
>
5,
in
ID
a- nti
tea ind
ive
eur
itely
fS om cted.
to
Beauty, in its original signification, is confined to ob¬
jects of sight j but as many other objects, intellectual
as well as moral, raise emotions resembling that of
beauty, the resemblance of the effects prompts us to ex¬
tend the term beatity to these objects. This equally
accounts for the terms grandeur and sublimity taken in
a figurative sense. Every emotion, from whatever
cause proceeding, that resembles an emotion of gran¬
deur or elevation, is called by the same name : thus
generosity is said to be an elevated emotion, as well as
great courage j and that firmness of soul which is supe¬
rior to misfortunes obtains the peculiar name of magna¬
nimity. On the other hand, every emotion that con¬
tracts the mind, and fixeth it upon things trivial or of
no importance, is termed low, by its resemblance to
an emotion produced by a little or low object of sight:
thus an appetite for trifling amusements is called a low
taste. The same terms are applied to characters and
actions : we talk familiarly of an elevated genius, of a
great man, and equally so of littleness of mind : some
actions are great and elevated, and others are little
and grovelling. Sentiments, and even expressions, are
characterized in the same manner : an expression or
sentiment that raises the mind is denominated great or
elevated; and hence the SUBLIME in poetry. In
such figurative terms, we lose the distinction between
great and elevated in their proper sense $ for the resem¬
blance is not so entire as to preserve these terms distinct
in their figurative application. We carry this figure
still farther. Elevation, in its proper sense, imports
superiority of place ; and lowness, inferiority of place :
and hence a man of superior talents, of superior rank $
of inferior parts, of inferior taste, and such like. The
veneration we have for ogr ancestors, and for the an¬
cients in general, being similar to the emotion produced
by an elevated object of sight, justifies the figurative
expression of the ancients being raised above us, or
possessing a superior place. The notes of the gamut,
proceeding regularly from the blunter or grosser sounds
to the more acute and piercing, produce in the hearer
a feeling somewhat similar to what is produced by
mounting upward ; and this gives occasion to the figu¬
rative expressions, a high note, a low note.
Such is the resemblance in feeling between real and
figurative grandeur, that among the nations on the east
coast of Africa, who are directed purely by nature, the
officers of state are, with respect to rank, distinguished
by the length of the batoon each carries in his hand j
and in Japan, princes and great lords show their rank
by the length and size of their sedan-poles. Again,
it is a rule in painting, that figures of a small size are
proper for grotesque pieces : but that an historical sub¬
ject, grand and important, requires figures as great as
the life. The resemblance of these feelings is in rea¬
lity so strong, that elevation in a figurative sense is ob¬
served to have the same effect, even externally, with
real elevation.
) GRA
K. Henry. This day is call’d the feast of Urispian. Grandeur
He that outlives this day, and comes safe home, and
Will stand a tiptoe when this day is nam’d, Sublimity.
And rouse him at the name of Crispian.
Henry V. act iv. sc. 8.
The resemblance in feeling between real and figura¬
tive grandeur is humorously illustrated by Addison in
criticising upon English tragedy-f. “The ordinary \ Spectator,
method of making a hero is to clap a huge plume of^0'4*'
feathers upon his head, which rises so high, that there
is often a greater length from his chin to the top of
his head than to the sole of his foot. One would be¬
lieve, that we thought a great man and a tall man the
same thing. As these superfluous ornaments upon the
head make a great man, a princess generally receives
her grandeur from those additional incumbrances that
fall into her tail : I mean the broad sweeping train
that follows her in all her motions, and finds constant
employment for a boy who stands behind her to open
and spread it to advantage.” The Scythians, impres¬
sed with the fame of Alexander, were astonished when
they found him a little man.
A gradual progress from small to great is not less
remarkable in figurative than in real grandeur or ele¬
vation. Every one must have observed the delightful
effect of a number of thoughts or sentiments, artfully
disposed like an ascending series, and making impres¬
sions deeper and deeper : such disposition of members
in a period is termed a climax.
Within certain limits grandeur and sublimity pro¬
duce their strongest effects, which lessen by excess as
well as by defect. This is remarkable in grandeur
and sublimity taken in their proper sense : the grandest
emotion that can be raised by a visible object is where
the object can be taken in at one view : if so im¬
mense as not to be comprehended but in parts, it
tends rather to distract than, satisfy the mind (a) : in
like manner, the strongest emotion produced by ele¬
vation is where the object is seen distinctly j a
greater elevation lessens in appearance the object, till ^
it vanish out of sight with its pleasant emotions. The Figurative
same is equally remarkable in figurative grandeur and grandeur,
elevation *, which shall be handled together, because, as
observed above, they are scarcely distinguishable. Sen¬
timents may be so strained as to become obscure, or to
exceed the capacity of the human mind : against such
license of imagination, every good writer will be upon
his guard. And therefore it is of greater importance
to observe, that even the true sublime may be carried
beyond that pitch which produces the highest enter¬
tainment. We are undoubtedly susceptible of a greater
elevation than can be inspired by human actions the
most heroic and magnanimous , witness what we feel
from Milton’s description of superior beings : yet
every man must be sensible of a more constant and
sweet elevation when the history of his own species is
the
(a) It is justly observed by Addison, that perhaps a man would have been more astonished with the majestic
air that appeared in one of Lysippus’s statues of Alexander, though no bigger than the life, than he might have
been with Mount Athos, had it been cut into the figure of the hero, according to the proposal of Phidias, with a.
river in one hand and a city in the other. Spectator, N° 4.15,
}
G R A
Grandeur the subject: he enjoys an elevation equal to that of
and the greatest hero, of an Alexander or a Caesar, of a
Sublimity. Brutus or an Epaminondas : he accompanies these he-
—^oes jn their sublimest sentiments and most hazardous
exploits,^ with a magnanimity equal to theirs $ and
finds it no stretch to preserve the same tone of mind
for hours together without sinking. The case is not
the same in describing the actions or qualities of supe¬
rior beings : the reader’s imagination cannot keep pace
with that of the poet j the mind, unable to support it¬
self in a strained elevation, falls as from a height 5 and
the fall is immoderate like the elevation : where that
effect is not felt, it must be prevented by some obscu¬
rity in the conception, which frequently attends the
descriptions of unknown objects. Hence the St Fran¬
cises, St Dominies, and other tutelary saints among
the Roman Catholics. A mind unable to raise itself to
the Supreme Being self-existent and eternal, or to sup¬
port itself in a strained elevation, finds itself more at
ease in using the intercession of some saint whose piety
and penances while on earth are supposed to have made
him a favourite in heaven.
A strained elevation is attended with another incon¬
venience, that the author is apt to fall suddenly as well
as the reader j because it is not a little difficult to des¬
cend, sweetly and easily, from such elevation to the or¬
dinary tone of the subject. The following passage is
a good illustration of that observation :
Ssepe etiam immensum ccelo venit agmen aquarum,
Et fcedarn glomerant tempestatem imbribus atris
Collects ex alto nubes. Ruit arduus sether,
Et pluvifl ingenti sata Iseta, boumque labores
Diluit. Implentur fossae, et cava flumina crescunt
Cum sonitu, fervetque fretis spirantibus aequor.
Ipse Pater, media nimborum in nocte, corusca
Fulmina molitur dextra. Quo maxima motu
Terra tremit: fugere ferae, et mortalia corda
Per gentes humilis stravit pavor. Ille flagranti
Aut Atho, aut Rhodopen, aut alta Ceraunia telo
Dejicit: ingetmnant Austt'i, et densissimus imber,
Virg. Georg, i. 322.
. In the description of a storm, to figure Jupiter
throwing down huge mountains with his thunder¬
bolts, is hyperbolically sublime, if we may use the
expression: the tone of mind produced by that image
is so distant from the tone produced by a thick
shower of rain, that the sudden transition must be un¬
pleasant.
Objects of sight that are not remarkably great nor
high, scarce raise any emotion of grandeur or of sub¬
limity : and the same holds in other objects j for we
often find the mind roused and animated, without
being carried to that height. This difference may be
discerned in many sorts of music, as well as in some
musical instruments: a kettle-drum rouses, and a haut¬
boy is animating ; but neither of them inspires an
emotion of sublimity : revenge animates the mind in a
considerable degree ; but it never produceth an emotion
that can be termed grand or sublime ; and perhaps no
disagreeable passion ever has that effect.
No desire is more universal than to be exalted and
honoured *, and upon that account, chiefly, are we
ambitious of power, riches, titles, fame, which would
suddenly lose their relish did they not raise us above
G R A
others, and command submission and deference : and GrsnA
it may be thought that our attachment to things aid
grand and lofty, proceeds from their connection with Snl)l>»s
our favourite passion. This connection has undoubted-
ly an effect j but that the preference given to things
grand and lofty must have a deeper root in human
nature, will appear from considering, that many be¬
stow their time upon low and trifling amusements,
without having the least tincture of this favourite
passion : yet these very persons talk the same language
with the rest of mankind ; and prefer the more
elevated pleasures : they acknowledge a more refined
taste, and are ashamed of their own as low and grovel¬
ling. This sentiment, constant and universal, must
be the work of nature ; and it plainly indicates an
original attachment in human nature to every object
that elevates the mind : some men may have a greater
relish for an object not of the highest rank ; but they
are conscious of the preference given by mankind in
general to things grand and sublime, and they are
sensible that their peculiar taste ought to yield to the
general taste.
What is said above suggests a capital rule for
reaching the sublime in such works of art as are sus-
# O # • 10
eeptible of it; and that is, to present those parts or Gran(]ti
circumstances only which make the greatest figure, 0f mat;,
keeping out of view every thing low or trivial 5 for
the mind, elevated by an important object, cannot,
without reluctance, be forced down to bestow any
share of its attention upon trifles. Such judicious
selection of capital circumstances, is by an eminent
critic styled grandeur of manner*. In none of the fine * Sped::
arts is there so great scope for that rule as in poetry ; N®41;
which, by that means, enjoys a remarkable power
of bestowing upon objects and events an air of gran¬
deur: when we are spectators, every minute object pre¬
sents itself in its order; but in describing at second
hand, these are laid aside, and the capital objects are
brouglit close together. A judicious taste in thus se¬
lecting the most interesting incidents, to give them an
united force, accounts for a fact that may appear sur¬
prising; which is, that we are more moved by spirited
narrative at second hand, than by being spectators ol
the event itself, in all its circumstances.
Longinus f exemplifies the foregoing rule by a com-f CK
parison of two passages.
Ye pow’rs, what madness ! how on ships so frail
(T remendous thought!) can thoughtless mortals sail?
For stormy seas they quit the pleasing plain,
Plant woods in waves, and dwell amidst the main.
Far o’er the deep (a trackless path) they go,
And wander oceans in pursuit of wo.
No ease their hearts, no rest their eyes can find,
On heaven their looks, and on the waves their mind;
Sunk are their spirits, while their arms they rear,
And gods are wearied with their fruitless prayer.
ArISTAX'S.
Burst as a wave that from the cloud impends,
And swell’d with tempests on the ship descends.
White are the decks with foam: the winds aloud
Howl o’er the masts, and sing through every shroud.
Pale, trembling, tir’d, the sailors freeze with fears,
And instant death on every wave appears. Homer*
Ir
[ 72 ]
G R A
cleur In tlie latter passage, the most striking circumstances
d are selected to fill the mind with terror and astonish-
n'ty- ment. The former is a collection of minute and low
f circumstances, which scatter the thought, and make no
impression : it is at the same time full ot verbal anti¬
theses and low conceit, extremely improper in a scene
of distress.
The following description of a battle is remarkably
sublime, by collecting together, in the fewest words,
those circumstances which make the greatest figure.
“Like autumn’s dark storms pouring from two echo¬
ing hills, toward each other approached the heroes •, as
two dark streams from high rocks meet and roar on
the plain, loud, rough, and dark in battle, meet Loch-
lin and Inisfail. Chief mixes his strokes with chief,
and man with man : steel sounds on steel, and helmets
are cleft on high : blood bursts and smokes around :
strings murmur on the polish’d yew: darts rush along
the sky : spears fall like sparks of flame that gild the
stormy face of night.
“ As the noise of the troubled ocean when roll the
waves on high, as the last peal of thundering heaven,
such is the noise of battle. Though Cormac’s hundred
bards were there, feeble were the voice of a hundred
bards to send the deaths to future times ; for many
were the deaths of the heroes, and wide poured the
blood of the valiant.” FlNGAL.
The following passage in the 4th book of the Iliad
is a description of a battle wonderfully ardent.—
“ When now gathered on either side, the host plun¬
ged together in fight j shield is harshly laid to shield ;
spears crash on the brazen corslets : bossy buckler with
buckler meets 5 loud tumult rages over all ; groans
are mixed with boasts of men j the slain and slayer join
in noise j the earth is floating round with blood. As
when two rushing streams from two mountains come
roaring down, and throw together their rapid waters
below, they roar along the gulphy vale ; the startled
shepherd hears the sound as he stalks o’er the distant
hills : so, as they mixed in fight, from both armies
clamour with loud terror arose.” But such general
descriptions are not frequent in Homer. Even his
single combats are rare. The fifth book is the longest
account of a battle that is in the Iliad ; and yet con¬
tains nothing but a long catalogue of chief's killing
chiefs, not in single combat neither, but at a distance
with an arrow or a javelin j and these chiefs named for
the first time and the last. The same scene is conti¬
nued through a great part of the sixth hook. There
is at the same time a minute description of every
wound, which for accuracy may do honour to an ana¬
tomist, but in an epic poem is tiresome and fatiguing.
There is no relief from horrid languor, but the beauti¬
ful Greek language and melody of Homer’s versifica¬
tion.
In the twenty-first book of the Odyssey, there is a
passage which deviates widely from the rule above laid
down : it concerns that part of the history of Penelope
and her suitors, in which she is made to declare in fa¬
vour of him who should prove the most dexterous in
shooting with the bow of Ulysses :
Now gently winding up the fair ascent,
By manv an easy step the matron went :
Vol. X. Part I. f
Grandeur
and
Sublimity.
The bolt, obedient to the silken string,
Forsakes the staple as she pulls the ring ;
The wards respondent to the key turn round ;
The bars fall back ; the flying valves resound.
Loud as a bull makes hill and valley ring,
So roar’d the lock when it releas’d the spring.
She moves majestic through the wealthy room,
Where treasur’d garments cast a rich perfume :
There, from the column where aloft it hung,
Reach’d, in its splendid case, the bow unstrung.
Virgil sometimes errs against this rule : in the fol¬
lowing passages minute circumstances are brought into
full view ; and what is still worse, they are described
with all the pomp of poetical diction, JKneid^ lib. i.
1. 214. to 219. lib. vi. 1. 176. to 182. lib. vi. 1. 212.
to 231.: and the last, which describes a funeral, is the
less excusable, as the man whose funeral it is makes no
figure in the poem.
The speech of Clytemnestra, descending from her
chariot, in the Iphigenia of Euripides *, is stuffed with * ^cl *'*•
a number of common and trivial circumstances.
But of all writers, Lucan in this article is the most
injudicious : the sea fight between the Romans and
Massilians f is described so much in detail, without t Lib. Hi.
exhibiting any grand or total view* that the reader is^6L
fatigued with endless circumstances, without ever feel¬
ing any degree of elevation *, and yet there are some
fine incidents, those, for example, of the two brothers,
and ot the old man and his son, which, taken separate¬
ly, would affect us greatly. But Lucan, once engaged
in a description, knows no end. See other passages of
the same kind, lib. iv. 1. 292. to 337. lib. iv. 1. 750.
to 765. The episode of the sorceress Erictho, end of
book sixth, is intolerably minute and prolix.
This rule is also applicable to other fine arts. In
painting it is established, that the principal figure
must be put in the strongest light j that the beauty of
attitude consists in placing the nobler parts most in
view, and in suppressing the smaller parts as much as
possible ; that the folds of the drapery must be few and
large j that foreshortenings are bad, because they make
the parts appear little ; and that the muscles ought to
be kept as entire as possible, without being divided
into small sections. Every one at present subscribes
to that rule as applied to gardening, in opposition to
parterres split into a thousand small parts in the stiff-
est regularity of figure. The most eminent architects
have governed themselves by the same rules in all their
works. 11
Another rule chiefly regards the sublime, though it Geaerul
is applicable to every sort of literary performance J*n-aroid-
tended for amusement: and that is, to avoid as much e{j whert.
as possible abstract and general terms. Such terms, »ublimity is
similar to mathematical signs, are contrived to express intended,
our thoughts in a concise manner j but images, which
are the life of poetry, cannot he raised in any per¬
fection but by introducing particular objects. General
terms, that comprehend a number of individuals, must
be expected from that rule : our kindred, our clan, our
country, and words of the like import, though they
K scarce
[ 73 1 G R A
Then o’er the pavements glides with grace divine
(With polish’d oak the level pavements shine).
The folding gates a dazzling light display’d,
With pomp of various architrave o’erlaid.
G R A [74
Grandeur scarce raise any image, have, however, a wonderful
and power over the passions : the greatness of the complex
Subliu.ity. overbalances the obscurity ot the image.
“ Grandeur, being an extremely vivid emotion, is not
readily produced in perfection but by reiterated im¬
pressions. The effect of a single impression can be
but momentary ; and if one feel suddenly somewhat
like a swelling or exaltation of mind, the emotion va-
nisheth as soon as felt. Single thoughts or sentiments
are often cited as examples o{ the sublime j but their
effect is far inferior to that ot a grand subject displayed
in its capital parts. We shall give a few examples, that
the reader may judge for himself. In the famous ac¬
tion of Thermopylae, where Teonidas the Spartan
king, with his chosen band, fighting for their country,
were cut off to the last man, a saying is reported of
Di eneces, one of the band, which, expressing cheer¬
ful and undisturbed bravery, is well entitled to the first
place in examples of that kind : talking of the number
of their enemies, it was observed, that the arrows shot
such a multitude would intercept the light of the
i 5 “ So much the better (says he), for we shall then
fight in the shade.”
Somerset. Ah ! Warwick, Warwick, wert thou as we
/ are
We might recover all our loss again.
The Queen from France hath brought a puissant power.
Ev’n now we heard the news. Ah ! couldst thou fly !
Warwick. Why, then I would not fly.
Third part) Henry VI. act v. sc. 3.
Such a sentiment from a man expiring of his wounds,
is truly heroic j and must elevate the mind to the great¬
est height that can be done by a single expression ; it
will not suffer in a comparison with tbe famous senti¬
ment Qidil mourut of Corneille : the latter is a senti¬
ment of indignation merely, the former of firm and
cheerful courage.
To cite in opposition many a sublime passage, en¬
riched with the finest images, and dressed in the most
nervous expressions, would scarce be fair. We shall
produce but one instance, from Shakespeare, which
sets a few' objects before the eye, without much pomp
of language : it operates its effect by representing these
objects in a climax, raising the mind higher and higher
til! it feel the emotion of grandeur in perfection :
The cloud-capt tovv’rs, the gorgeous palaces,
The solemn temples, the great globe itself,
Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve, &c„
Herodot.
by
22
Grandeur
and subli¬
mity em¬
ployed in-
directly to
sink the
mind.
The cloud-capt tow'rs produce an elevating emotion,
heightened by the gorgeous palaces; and the mind is
carried still higher and higher, by the images that fol¬
low. Successive images, making thus stronger and
stronger impressions,must elevate more than any single
image can do.
As, on the one hand, no means directly applied
have more influence to raise the mind than grandeur
and sublimity ; so, on the other, no means indirectly
applied have more influence to sink and depress it: for
in a state of elevation, the artful introduction of an
humbling object, makes the fall great in proportion
to the elevation. Of this observation Shakespeare gives
a beautiful example in the passage last quoted
] G R A
The cloud-capt tow’rs, tbe gorgeous palaces,
The solemn temples, the great globe itself,
Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve,
And like the baseless fabric of a vision
Leave not a wreck behind Tempest, act iv. sc. 4*
The elevation of the mind in the former part of this
beautiful passage, makes the fall great in proportion,
when the most humbling of all images is introduced,
that of an utter dissolution of the earth and its inhabi¬
tants. The mind, when warmed, is more susceptible
of impressions than in a cool state ; and a depressing
or melancholy object listened to, makes the strongest
impression when it reaches ihe mind in its highest state
of elevation or cheerfulness.
But a humbling image is not always necessary to
produce that effect: a remark is made above, that in
describing superior beings, the reader’s imagination,
unable to support itself in a strained elevation, falls
often as from a height, and sinks even below its ordi¬
nary tone, The following instance comes luckily in
view j for a better cannot be given : “ God said, Let
there be light, and there was light.” Longinus
quotes this passage from Moses as a shining example
of the sublime 5 and it is scarce possible, in fewer
words, to convey so clear an image of the infinite
power of the JDeity : hut then it belongs to the pre¬
sent subject to remark, that the emotion of sublimity
raised by this image is hut momentary $ and that the
mind, unable to support itself in an elevation so much
above nature, immediately sinks down into humility and
veneration for a Being so far exalted above grovelling
mortals. Every one is acquainted with a dispute about
that passage between two French critics *, the one po-# ^
sitively affirming it to be sublime, the other as posi-andft
lively denying. What has been remarked, shows, that
botli of them have reached the truth, but neither of
them the whole truth : the primary effect of the pas¬
sage is undoubtedly an emotion of grandeur ; which so
far justifies Boileau : but then every one must he
sensible, that the motion is merely a flash, which, va¬
nishing instantaneously, gives way to humility and ve¬
neration. That indirect effect of sublimity justifies
Eluet, on the other hand, who being a man of true
piety, and probably not much carried by imagina¬
tion, felt the humbling passions more sensibly than
his antagonist did. And laying aside difference of
character, Huet’s opinion may perhaps be defended as
the more solid; because, in such images, the depressing
emotions are the more sensibly felt, and have the longer
endurance*. i
The straining an elevated subject beyond due bounds, p8ife
and beyond the reach of an ordinary conception, islime
not a vice so frequent as to require the correction of
criticism. But false sublime is a rock that writers of
more fire than judgment commonly split on ; and
therefore a collection of examples may be of use as a
beacon to future adventurers. One species of false su¬
blime, known by tire name of bombast, is common among
writers of a mean genius ; it is a serious endeavour, by
strained description, to raise a.low or familiar subject
above its rank ; which, instead of being sublime, fails
not to be ridiculous. Ine mind, indeed, is extremely
prone, in some animating passions, to magnify its oh-
Gt t leur
!, 1*1
»Sul lity-
G R A
[ 75 ]
G R A
jects beyond natural bounds : but such hyperbolical
description has its limits ; and when carried beyond
the impulse of the propensity, it degenerates into bur¬
lesque. Take the following examples :
Sejamis.
-Great and high
The world knows only two, that’s Kome and 1.
My roof receives me not: ’tis air I tread,
And at each step I feel my advanc’d head
Knock out a star in heav’n.
Ben Johnson, Sejanus, act v.
A writer who has no natural elevation of mind devi¬
ates readily into bombast: he strains above his natu¬
ral powers j and the violent effort carries him beyond
the bounds of propriety.
Guildford. Give way, and let the gushing torrent
come j
Behold the tears we bring to swell the deluge,
Till the flood rise upon the guilty world,
And make the ruin common.
Lady Jane Gray, act iv. near the end.
Another species of false sublime is still more faulty
than bombast: and that is, to force elevation by in¬
troducing imaginary beings without preserving any
propriety in their actions j as if it were lawful to
ascribe every extravagance and inconsistence to beings
of the poet’s creation. No writers are more licentious
in that article than Johnson and Dryden.
Methinks I see Death and the Furies uniting
What we will do, and all the heaven at leisure
For the great spectacle. Draw then your swords :
And if our destiny envy our virtue
The honour of the day, yet let us care
To sell ourselves at such a price, as may
Undo the world to buy us, and make Fate,
While she tempts ours, to fear her own estate.
Catiline, act v.
-The Furies stood on hills
Circling the place, and trembled to see men
Do more than they : whilst Piety left the field,
Griev’d for that side, that in so bad a cause
They knew not what a crime their valour was.
The sun stood still, and was, behind the cloud
The battle made, seen sweating to drive up
His frighted horse, whom still the noise drove back¬
wards. Ibid, act v.
Osmyn. While we indulge our common happiness,
He is forgot by whom we all possess,
The brave Almanzor, to whose arms we owe
All that we did, and all that we shall do ;
Who like a tempest that outrides the wind,
Made a just battle ere the bodies join’d.
Abdulla. His victories we scarce could keep in view,
Or polish ’em so fast as he rough drew.
Abdemelech. Fate after him below with pain did
move,
And Victory could scarce keep pace above.
Death did at length so many slain forget,
And lost the tale, and took ’em by the great.
Conquest of Granada, act ii. at beginning.
An actor on the stage may be guilty of bombast as .Grandeur
well as an author in his closet : a certain manner of act- end¬
ing, which is grand when supported by dignity in the Subiimity
sentiment and force in the expression, is ridiculous Qral|!Cas
where the sentiment is mean and the expression flat. > < »
GKANDGOR is used in Scotland for the pox. In
the Philosophical Transactions, N° 469. sect. 5. we have
a proclamation of King James IV. of Scotland, order¬
ing all who had this disease, or who had attended others
under it, forthwith to repair to an island (Inchkeith)
in the frith of Forth. If the grandgor was the pox,
and this distemper came into Europe at the siege of
Naples in 1495, it must have made a very quick
progress to cause such an alarm at Edinburgh in
1497-
GRANGE, an ancient term for a barn or place
wherein to lay up and thresh corn. The word is form¬
ed of the Latin granea: or of granum, “ grain, corn,”
&c. Hence also granger or grangier, “ a grange*
keeper or farmer.”
Grange is also used, in a more extensive sense, for
a whole farm, with all the appendages of stables for
horses, stalls for cattle, &c. and for an inn.
GRANI, in our ancient writers, mustachoes or
whiskers of a beard. The word seems formed from
the ancient British or Irish greann, “ a beard.” It
is given for a reason why the cup is refused to the
laity, Q/m/ barbati, et prolixos habent granos, dum po-
culurn inter epulas summit, prius liquore pilos inficiunt,
quum ori infundunt.
GRAN1CUS, a small river near the Hellespont
in Lesser Asia, remarkable for the first victory gained
by Alexander the Great over the armies of Darius.—
Authors disagree very much about the number of the
Persians, though all agree that they were vastly more
numerous than the Greeks. Justin and Orosius tell
us, that the Persian army consisted of 600,000 foot
and 20,000 horse j Arian makes the foot amount to
200,000 ; but Diodorus tells us, that they were not
more than 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse. The Ma¬
cedonian army did not exceed 30,000 foot and 5000
horse. The Persian cavalry lined the banks ol the
Granicus, in order to oppose Alexander wherever he
should attempt a passage and the foot were posted be¬
hind the cavalry on an easy ascent. Parmenio would
have had Alexander to allow his troops some time to
refresh themselves ; but he replied, that after having
crossed the Hellespont, it would be a disgrace to him
and his troops to be stopped by a rivulet. Accor¬
dingly a proper place for crossing the river was no
sooner found, than he commanded a strong detach¬
ment of horse to enter j he himself followed with the
right wing, which he commanded in person j the trum¬
pets in the mean time sounding, and loud shouts of joy
being heard through the whole army. The Persians let
fly such showers of arrows against the detachment of
Macedonian horse as caused some confusion $ several of
their horses being killed or wounded. As they drew
near the bank a most bloody engagement ensued ; the
Macedonians attempting to land, and the Persians
pushing them back into the river. Alexander, who
observed the confusion they were in, took the com¬
mand of them himself j and landing in spite of all op¬
position, obliged the Persian cavalry, after an obstinate
K 2 resistance,
Granieu*
G R A [76
resistance, to give ground* However, Spithrobates,
(governor of Ionia* and son-in-law to Darius, still main-
Giant. tained his ground, and did all that lay in his power
 v Iji’ing them hack to the charge* Alexander ad¬
vanced full gallop to engage him j neither did he de¬
cline the combat, and both were slightly wounded at
the first encounter. Spithrobates having thrown his
javelin without effect, advanced sword in hand to meet
his antagonist, who ran him through with his pike
as he raised his arm to discharge a blow with his sci¬
mitar. But Rosaces, brother to Spithrobates, at the
same time gave Alexander such a furious blow on
the head with his battle-axe, that he beat off his plume,
and slightly wounded him through the helmet. As
he was ready to repeat the blow, Clitus W'ith one
stroke of his scimitar cut oft Ilosaces’s head, and thus
in all probability saved the life of his sovereign. The
Macedonians then, animated by the example of their
king, attacked the Persians with new vigour, who
soon after betook themselves to flight. Alexander
did not pursue them*, hut immediately charged the
enemy’s foot with all his forces, who had now passed the
river. The Persians, disheartened at the defeat of their
cavalry*, made no great resistance. The Greek merce¬
naries retired in good order to a neighbouring hill,
whence they sent deputies to Alexander, desiring leave
to march off unmolested. But he, instead of coming to
a parley with them, rushed furiously into the middle of
this small body, where his horse was killed under him,
and he himself in great danger of being cut in pieces.
The Greeks defended themselves with incredible valour
for a long time, hut were at last almost entirely cut oil'.
In this battle the Persians are said to have lost 20,000
foot and 2500 horse, and the Macedonians only 55 foot
and 60 horse.
GRANITE, a compound rock which is considered
as one of the oldest of which the earth is composed $ as
in most cases all other rocks are incumbent on granite.
The constituent parts of granite are feld-spar, quartz,
and mica, in very variable proportions. See Geology
Index.
GRANITILLO, or Grakitel, a name given
by some mineralogists to a particular species or va¬
riety of granite, which contains also sometimes horn¬
blende.
GRANIVOROUS, an appellation given to animals
which feed on corn or seeds. These are principally of
the bird kind.
GRANT, in Law, a conveyance in writing of such
things as cannot pass or he conveyed by word only j
such as rents, reversions, services, &c.
Grant, Fi'ancis. Lord Cullen, an eminent law¬
yer and judge of Scotland, was descended from a
younger branch of the family of the Grants of Grant
in that kingdom, and was horn about the year 1660.
When he commenced advocate, he made a distinguish¬
ed figure at the revolution, by opposing the opinion
of the old lawyers, who warmly argued on the inabi¬
lity of the convention of estates to make any dispo¬
sition of the crown. The abilities which he discovered
in favour of the revolution introduced him to extensive
practice j in which he acquired so much reputation,
that when the unio n between the two kingdoms was
in agitation, Queen Anne, without solicitation, created
him a baronet, with a view of securing his interest in
] G R A
that measure j and upon the same principle, she soon af- <
ter created him a judge, or one of the lords of session.
From this time, according to the custom of Scotland,
he was styled, from the name of his estate, Lord Cul¬
len : and the same good qualities that recommended
him to this honourable office, were very conspicuous
in the discharge of it ; which he continued for 20
years with the highest reputation, when a period was
put to his life by an illness which lasted but three
days. He died March 16th, 1726. His character
is drawn to great advantage in the Biographia Bri-
tannica *, where it is observed, among other re¬
marks to his honour, “ That as an advocate he was
indefatigable in the management of business j but at
the same time that he spared no pains, he would
use no craft. He had so high an idea of the dignity
of his profession, that he held it equally criminal to
neglect any honest means of coming at justice, or to
make use of any arts to elude it. In respect to for¬
tune, though he was modest and frugal, and had a
large practice, yet he was far from being avaricious.
His private charities were very considerable, and grew
in the same proportion with his profits. He was, be¬
sides, very scrupulous in many points j he would not
suffer a just cause to be lost through a client’s want of
money. He was such an enemy to oppression, that
he never denied his assistance to such as laboured un¬
der it j and with respect to the clergy of all professions
(in Scotland), his conscience obliged him to serve them
without a fee. When his merit had raised him to the
bench, he thought himself accountable to God and
man for Ids conduct in that high office: and that deep
sense of his duty, at the same time that it kept him
strictly to it, encouraged and supported him in the
performance. Whenever he sat as lord ordinary, the
paper of causes was remarkably full j for his reputation
being equally established for knowledge and integrity,
there were none, who had a good opinion of their
own pretensions, but were desirous of bringing them
before him, and not many who did not sit down sa¬
tisfied with his decision. This prevailed more espe¬
cially after it was found that few of his sentences were
reversed *, and when they were, it was commonly owing
to himself: for if, upon mature reflection, or upon new
reasons offered at the re-hearing, he saw any just ground
for altering his judgment, he made no scruple of de¬
claring it ; being persuaded that it was more manly, as
well as more just, to follow truth, than to support opi¬
nion : and his conduct in this respect had a right effect|j
for instead of lessening, it raised his reputation. He
would not, however, with all this great stock of know¬
ledge, experience, and probity, trust himself on matters
of blood, or venture to decide in criminal cases on the
lives of his fefjow-creatures j which was the reason
that, though often solicited, he could never be prevail¬
ed upon to accept of a seat in the justiciary court.—
In his private character he was as amiable as he was
respectable in his public. He was charitable without
ostentation, disinterested in his friendships, and bene¬
ficent to all who had any thing to do with him. He
was not only strictly just, but so free from any species
of avarice, that his lady, who was a woman of great
prudence and discretion, finding him more intent on
the business committed to him by others than on his
own, took upon herself the care of placing out his mo-
5 ney y
G R A ' [ 77 ] G R A
ant ney ; anti to prevent his postponing, as he was apt to
C uviile. do, such kind of affairs, when securities offered, she
y—' caused the circumstances of them to be stated in the
form of cases, and so procured his opinion upon Ills own
concerns as if they had been those of a client. He
was so true a lover of learning, and was so much ad¬
dicted to his studies, that, notwithstanding the multi¬
plicity of his business while at the bar, and his great
attention to his charge when a judge, he nevertheless
found time to write various treatises on very different
and important subjects : Some political, which were
remarkably well timed, and highly serviceable to the
government: others of a most extensive nature, such as
his essays on law, religion, and education, which were
dedicated to George II. when prince of Wales; by
whose command, his then secretary, Mr Samuel Mo-
lyneaux, wrote him a letter of thanks, in which were
many gracious expressions, as well in relation to the
piece as to its author. He composed, besides these,
many discourses on literary subjects, for the exercise of
bis own thoughts, and for the better discovery of
truth: which went no farther than his own closet, and
from a principle of modesty were not communicated
even to his most intimate friends.”
GRANTHAM, a town of Lincolnshire, no miles
N. from London, situated on the river Witham. It is
supposed to have been a Roman town by the remains of
a castle which have been formerly dug up here. It is
governed by an alderman and I 2 justices of the peace,
a x-ecorder, a coroner, 8tc. Here is a fine large church
with a stone spire, one of the loftiest in England, be¬
ing 288 feet high, and, by the deception of the sight,
seems to stand awry. Here is a free-school, where
Sir Isaac Newton received his first education, be¬
sides two charity-schools. It contained 3646 inha¬
bitants in 1811. W. Long. 1. 37. N. Lat. 52.
55-
GRANVILLE, George, Lord Lansdowne, was
descended from a very ancient family, derived from
Rollo the first duke ot Normandy. At eleven years
of age he was sent to Trinity College in Cambridge,
where he remained five yeais ; but at the age of 13 was
admitted to the degree of master of arts ; having, be¬
fore he was I 2, spoken a copy of verses of his own com¬
position to the duchess of York at his college, when
she paid a visit to the University of Cambridge. In
1696, his comedy called the She-gallants was acted at
the theatre-royal in Lincoln’s-inn-fields, as hia ti’agedy
called Heroic Love was in the year 1698. In 1702 he
translated into English the second Olynthian of Demo¬
sthenes. He was member for the county of Cornwall in
the parliament which met in 1710; was afterwards se¬
cretary of war, comptroller of the household, then trea¬
surer, and sworn one of the privy council. The year
following he vvas created Baron Lansdowne. On the
accession of King George I. in 1714, he was removed
from his treasurer’s place; and the next year entered
his protest against the bills for attainting Lord Boling-
broke and the duke of Ormond. He entered deeply
into the scheme for raising an insurrection in the west of
England ; and being seized as a suspected pei’son, was
committed to the Tower, where he continued two years.
In 1719, he made a speech in the house of lords,
against the bill to prevent occasional conformity. In
2722, he withdrew to France, and continued abroad
almost ten years. At his return in 1732, he published Granville
a fine edition of his works in 2 vols quarto. He died fl
in 1735, leaving no male issue. Grates.
Granville, a sea-port town of France, in Lower '""v
Normandy, partly seated on a rock and partly on a
plain. It gave title to an English earl, now extinct.
W. Long. 1. 32. N. Lat. 48. 50.
GRANULATED, something that has undergone
granulation, or has been reduced to grains.
GRANULATION, in Chemistry, an operation by
which metallic substances ai’e reduced into small grains,
or roundish particles ; the use of which is, to facilitate
their combination with other substances.—This opera¬
tion is very simple; it consists only in pouring a
melted metal slowly into a vessel filled with water,
which is in the mean time to be agitated with a
bi'oom. Lead or 'tin may be granulated by pouring
them when melted into a box ; the internal surface of
which is to be rubbed with powdered chalk, and the
box strongly shaken till the lead has become solid.
Metals are granulated, because their ductility renders
them incapable of being pounded, and because filing is
long and tedious, and might render the nx^tal impure
by any admixture of iron from the file.
GRAPE, the fruit of the vine. See Vine and
Wine. See also Currant and Raisin.
GnAPE-Shot, in artillery, is a combination of small
shot, put into a thick canvas bag, and corded strongly
together, so as to form a kind of cylinder, whose dia¬
meter is equal to that of the ball adapted to the can¬
non. The number of shot in a grape varies according
to the service or size of the guns : in sea-service nine is
always the number; hut by land it is increased to any
number or size Irom an ounce and a quarter in weight
to three or lour pounds. In sea-service the bottoms
and pins are made of iron, whereas those used by land
are of wood.
GRAPES, in the manege, a term used to signify
the arrests or mangy tumours that happen in the horse’s
leg#.
GRAPHOMETER, a mathematical instrument,
otherwise called v. semicircle; the use of which is to ob¬
serve any angle whose vertex is at the centre of the in¬
strument in any plane (though it is most commonly ho¬
rizontal, or nearly so), and to find how many degrees
it contains. See MENSURATION.
GRAPNEL, or Grapling, a sort of small anchor,
fitted with lour or five flukes or claws, and commonly
used to ride a boat or other small vessel.
Fire-Grappling, an instrument nearly resembling
the former, hut differing in the construction of its flukes,
which are furnished with strong barbs on their points.
These machines are usually fixed on the yard-arms of a
ship, in order to grapple any adversary whom he in¬
tends to board. They are, however, more particularly
useful in Fire Ships for the purposes described in that
article.
GRASS, in Botany, a plant having simple leaves, a
stem generally jointed and tubular, a husky calyx (cal¬
led gluma), and the seed single. For the classification
of grasses, see Botany Index; and for an account of
the culture, see Agriculture Index.
GRASSHOPPER, a species of gryllus. See Gryl-
lus, Entomology Index.
GRATES for Fires, are composed of ribs of iron
placed!
G R A [
Giaies placed at small distances from one another, so that the
11 air may have sufficient access to the fuel, and the ac-
Gratitudc. cumulation of the ashes, which would choke the fire,
v—-y— ^6 prevented.—Grates seem peculiarly adapted to
the use of pit-coal, which requires a greater quantity
of air to make it burn freely than other kinds of fuel.
The hearths of the Britons seem to have been fixed in
the centre of their halls, as is yet practised in some
parts of Scotland, where the fire is nearly in the middle
of the house, and the family sit all around it. Their
fire-place was perhaps nothing more than a large stone,
depressed a little below the level of the ground, and
thereby adapted to receive the ashes. About a cen¬
tury ago, it was only the floor of the room, with the
addition of a bank or hob of clay. But it was now
changed among the gentlemen for a portable fire¬
pan, raised upon low supporters, and fitted with a
circular grating of bars. Such were in use among the
Gauls in the first century, and among the Welsh in the
tenth.
GRATTAN, the son of Valentinian I. by his first
wife, was declared Augustus by his father at the city
of Amiens in 365, and succeeded him in 367 ; a prince
equally extolled for his wit, eloquence, modesty, cha¬
stity, and zeal against heretics. He associated Theo¬
dosius with him in the empire, and advanced the poet
Ausonius to the consulate. He made a great slaugh-
*- See Ar ter of the Germans at Strasburg *, and hence was sur-
gentora. named Alemannicus. Pie was the first emperor who
refused the title of Pontifcx Maximus, upon the score
of its being a Pagan dignity. He was assassinated by
Andragathius in 375, in the 24th year of his age.
Gratian, a famous Benedictine monk, in the I 2th
century, was born at Chiusi in Tuscany, and employed
above 24 years in composing a work, entitled JAecre-
tum, or Concordantia Discordantium Canonum, because
he there endeavoured to reconcile the canons which
seemed contradictory to each other. This work was
first printed at Mentz, in 1472. As he is frequently
mistaken, in taking one canon of one council, or one
passage of one father for another, and has often cited
false decretals, several authors have endeavoured to cor¬
rect his faults 5 and chiefly Anthony Augustine, in his
excellent work entitled De emendatione Gratiani. To
the decretals of Gratian, the popes principally owed the
great authority they exercised in the 13th and follow¬
ing centuries.
GRATINGS, in a ship, are small edges of sawed
plank, framed one into another like a lattice or prison
grate, lying on the upper deck, between the mainmast
and foremast, serving for a defence in a close fight, and
also for the coolness, light, and conveniency of the
ship’s company.
GRATIOLA, Hedge Hyssop ; a genus of plants
belonging to the diandria class. See Botany Index.
GRATITUDE, in Ethics, a virtue disposing the
mind to an inward sense and outward acknowledgment
of benefits received.
Examples of ingratitude, Mr Paley observes, check
and discourage voluntary beneficence ; hence the culti¬
vation of a grateful temper is a consideration of public
importance. A second reason for .cultivating in our¬
selves that temper is : That the same principle which
is touched with the kindness of a human benefactor, is
capable of being affected by the divine goodness, and
78 ] G R A
and of becoming, under the influence of that affection,
a source of the purest and most exalted virtue. The s——y,
love of God is thesublimest gratitude. It is a mistake,
therefore, to imagine, that this virtue is omitted in the
Scriptures j for every precept which commands us “ to
love God, because he first loved us,” presupposes the
principle of gratitude, and directs it to its proper ob-
ject- ...
It is impossible to particularize the several expres¬
sions of gratitude, which vary with the character and
situation of the benefactor, and with the opportunities
of the person obliged 5 for this variety admits of no
bounds. It may be observed, however, that on one
part gratitude can never oblige a man to do what is
wrong, and what by consequence he is previously obli¬
ged not to do ; On the other part, it argues a total
want of every generous principle, as well as of moral
probity, to take advantage of that ascendency, which
the conferring of benefits justly creates, to draw or
drive those whom we have obliged into mean or disho¬
nest compliances.
The following pleasing example of genuine gratitude
is extracted from HackwePs Apol. lib. xiv. c. 10. p. 436.
—Francis Frescobald, a Florentine merchant, descend¬
ed of a noble family in Italy, had gained a plentiful
fortune, of which he was liberal-handed to all in ne¬
cessity ; which being well known to others, though
concealed by himself, a young stranger applied to him
for charity. Signior Frescobald, seeing something in his
countenance more than ordinary, overlooked his tat¬
tered clothes; and compassionating his circumstances,
asked him “ What he was, and of what country.’*
“ I am (answered the young man) a native of Eng¬
land ; my name is Thomas Cromwell, and my father-
in-law is a poor sheer-man. I left my country to seek
my fortune ; came with the French army that were
routed at Gatylion, where I was a page to a footman,
and carried his pike and burgonet after him.” Fres¬
cobald commiserating his necessities, and having a
particular respect for the English nation, clothed him
genteelly ; took him into his house till he had recover¬
ed strength by better diet; and, at his taking leave,
mounted him upon a good horse, with 16 ducats of
gold in his pockets. Cromwell expressed his thank¬
fulness in a very sensible manner, and returned by land
towards England ; where, being arrived, he was pre¬
ferred into the service of Cardinal Wolsey. After the
cardinal’s death, he worked himself so effectually into
the favour of King Henry VIII, that his majesty made
him a baron, viscount, earl of Essex, and at last made
him lord high chancellor of England. In the mean
time, Signior Frescobald, by repeated losses at sea and
land, was reduced to poverty ; and calling to mind
(without ever thinking of Cromwell), that some Eng¬
lish merchants were indebted to him in the sum of
15,000 ducats, he came to Eondon to procure payment.
Travelling in pursuit of this affair, he fortunately met
with the lord chancellor as he was riding to court;
who thinking him to be the same gentleman that had
done him such great kindness in Italy, he immediately
alighted, embraced him, and with tears of joy asked
him, “ If he was not Signior Francis Frescobald, a
Florentine merchant?” “ Yes, Sir (said he) and your
most humble servant.” “ My servant! (said the chan¬
cellor) No ; you are my special friend, that relieved me
in
G Pv A ' L 79 ] G P A
e. in my wants, laid the foundation of my greatness, and,
as such, I receive you j and, since the afiairs of my so¬
vereign will not now permit a longer conference, I beg
you will oblige me this day with your company at my
house to dinner with me.” Signior Frescobsld was
surprised and astonished with admiration who this great
man should be that acknowledged such obligations, and
so passionately expressed a kindness tor him j but, con¬
templating a while his voice, his mien, and carriage,
he concludes it to be Cromwell, whom he had relieved
at Florence j and therefore not a little overjoyed, fjoes
to his house, and attended his coming. His lordship
came soon after j and immediately taking his friend by
the hand, turns to the lord high admiral and other no¬
blemen in his company, saying, “ Don’t your lordships
wonder that I am so glad to see this gentleman ? This
is he who first contributed to my advancement.” He
then told them the whole story y and holding him still
by the hand, led him into the dining-room, and placed
him next himself at table. The company being gone,
the chancellor made use of this opportunity to know
what affair had brought him into England* Frescobald
in few words gave him the true state of his circumstan¬
ces : To which Cromwell replied, “ I am sorry for your
misfortunes, and I will make them as easy to you as I
can y but, because men ought to be just before they are
kind, it is fit I should repay the debt I owe you.”
Then leading him into his closet, he locked the
door; and opening a coffer, first took out 16 ducats,
delivering them to Frescobald, and said, “ My friend,
here is the money you lent me at Florence, with ten
pieces you laid out lor my apparel, and ten more you
laid out for my horse; hut, considering you are a mer¬
chant, and might have made some advantage of this
money in the way of trade, take these four bass, in
every one of which is 400 ducats, and enjoy them as
the free gift of your friend.” These the modesty of
Frescobald would have refused, but the other forced
them upon him. He next caused him to give him the
names of all his debtors, and the sums they owed :
which account he transmitted to one of his servants,
with a charge to find out the men, and oblige them to
pay him in 15 days under the penalty of his displea¬
sure ; and the servant so well discharged his duty, that
in a short time the entire sum was paid. All this time
Signior Frescobald lodged in the chancellor’s house,
where he was entertained according to his merits, with
repeated persuasions for his continuance in England,
and an offer of the loan of 60,000 ducats for four years
if he would trade here : but he desired to return to
Florence, which he did, with extraordinary favours
from the lord Cromwell.
There is a species of grateful remorse, which some¬
times has been known to operate forcibly on the minds
of the most hardened in impudence. Of this Mr An¬
drews, who makes the remark, gives an instance in the
following anecdote, said to have been a favourite one
with the late Dr Campbell. “ Towards the beginning
of this century, an actor, celebrated for mimicry, was
to have been employed by a comic author, to take off
the person, the manner, and the singularly awkward
deliveiy of the celebrated Dr Woodward, who was in¬
tended to be introduced on the stage in a laughable
character, (viz. in that of Dr Fossile, in Three Hours
after Marriage). The mimic dressed himself as a coun-
2
try man, and waited on the doctor with a long cata- Gratitude
logue of ailments, which he said attended on his wife. [|
The physician heard with amazement diseases and pains Grave'
of the most opposite nature, repeated and redoubled on
the wretched patient. For, since the actor’s greatest
wish was to keep Dr Woodward in his company as long
as possible, that he might make the more observations
on his gestures, he loaded his poor imaginary spouse with
every infirmity which had any probable chance of pro¬
longing the interview. At length, being become com¬
pletely master of bis errand, he drew from his purse a
guinea, and, with a scrape, made an uncouth offer of it.
‘ Put up thy money, poor fellow (cried the doctor) ;
thou hast need of all thy cash and all thy patience too,
with such a bundle of diseases tied to thy back.’ The
actor returned to his employer, and recounted the
whole conversation, with such true feeling of the phy¬
sician’s character, that the author screamed with ap¬
probation. His raptures were soon checked ; for the
mimic told him, with the emphasis of sensibility, that
he would sooner die than prostitute his talents to the ren¬
dering such genuine humanity a public laughing-stock.
The player’s name was Griffin.
GRATZ> a strong town of Germany, and capital of
Styria, with a castle seated on a rock, and an univer¬
sity. 1 be Jesuits bad a college here; and there are a
great number ot handsome palaces, and a fine arsenal.
1 he castle stands upon a very lofty hill, and communi¬
cates with the river by means of a deep well. The em¬
press dowager was obliged to retire hither during the
war of 1741 a|H I742, I*- seated on the river Muer,
in E. Long. 15. 16. N. Lat. 47. 10.
GRATIUS, a Latin poet, contemporary with Ovid,
the author of a poem entitled CynegelicoUy or the Ma?i-
ner of hunting with clogs; the best edition of which is
that of Leyden, i2mo, with the learned notes of Janus
Ulitius.
GRAVE, in Grammar, a species of accent opposite
to acute. The grave accent is expressed thus (') ; and
shows that the voice is to he depressed, and (he sylla¬
ble over which it is placed pronounced in a low deep
tone.
Grave, in Music, is applied to a sound which is in
a low or deep tone. The thicker the chord or string,
the more yrave the tone or note, and the smaller the
acuter. Notes are supposed to be the more grave
in proportion as the vibrations of the chord are less
quick.
Grave, in the Italian music, serves to denote the
slowest movement.
Grave, is also used for a tomb, wherein a person
defunct is interred.
Graves, among the Jews, were generally out of the
city, though we meet with instances of their interring
the dead in towns. Frequent mention is made of
graves upon mountains, in highways, in gardens, and
private houses. So that nothing on this head seems
to have been determined. The same may be observed
with respect to the Greeks. The Thebans had a law
that every person who built a house should provide a
burial ground. Men who had distinguished themselves
were frequently buried in the public forum. The most
general custom was, however, to bury out of the city,
chiefly by the highway side. The Romans were for¬
bidden by the law of the 12 tables to bury or burn
the.
G
Grave
II
GraVe-
sande.
R A [ 80 ] G R A
but some we find had their se- mathematical learning was his favourite amusement. GraT{
When he had taken his doctor’s degree in 1707, he samle,
settled at the Hague, and practised at the bar, iu Gravesen
the dead in the city ,
pulchres in Rome, though they paid a fine for the in¬
dulgence.
Grave, a very strong town of the Netherlands, in
Dutch Brabant, seated on the river Maese, beyond
which there is a fort. E. Long. 5. 41. N. Lat. 51.
46.
GRAVEL, in Natural History and Gardening, a
congeries of pebbles, which, mixed with a stiff' loam,
makes lasting and elegant gravel-walks ; an ornament
peculiar to our gardens, and which gives them an ad¬
vantage over those of other nations.
Gravel. See Medicine Index.
GnAVEL-Walks. To make these properly, the bot¬
tom should be laid with lime-rubbish, large ffint-stones,
or any other hard matter, for eight or ten inches thick,
to keep weeds from growing through, and over this
the gravel is to be laid six or eight inches thick. This
should be laid ronnding up in the middle, by which
means the larger stones will run off to the sides, and
may be raked away *, for the gravel should never be
screened before it is laid on. It is a common mis¬
take to lay these walks too round, which not only
makes them uneasy to walk upon, but takes off' from
their apparent breadth. One inch in five feet is a suffi¬
cient proportion for the rise in the middle j so that a
Walk of 20 feet wide should be four inches higher at
the middle than at the edges, and so in proportion. As
soon as the gravel is laid, it should be raked, and the
large stones thrown back again : then the whole should
be rolled both lengthwise and crosswise j and the per¬
son who draws the roller should wear shoes with flat
heels, that he may make no holes j because holes made
in a new walk are not easily remedied. The walks
should always be rolled three or four times in very hard
showers, after which they will bind more firmly than
otherwise they could ever be made to do.
Gravel with some loam among it, binds more firmly
than the rawer kinds *, and when gravel is naturally
very harsh and sharp, it is proper to add a mixture of
loam to it. The best gravel for walks is such as
abounds with smooth round pebbles, which, being mix¬
ed with a little loam, are bound so firmly together,
that they are never afterwards injured either by wet or
dry weather. These are not so liable to be turned up
by the feet in walking, as the more irregularly shaped
pebbles, and remain much more firmly in their places
after rolling.
GRAVELINES, a strong sea-port town of the Ne¬
therlands, in Flanders, with a castle and harbour, seat¬
ed in a marshy country on the river Aa, near the sea,
in E. Long. 2. N. Lat. 50. 59.
GRAVELLY LAND or SOIL, that abounding with
gravel or sand, which easily admits of heat and mois¬
ture 5 and the more stony such lands are, the more bar¬
ren they prove.
GRAVEN AC, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Suabia, and capital of a county of the same name.
E. Long. 8. 15. N. Lat. 48. 22.
GRAVER, in the art of engraving, a tool by which
all the lines, scratches, and shades, are cut in copper,
&c. See Engraving.
GRAVESANDE, William James, was born of
an ancient and honourable family at Delft in Holland,
in 1688. He studied the civil law at Leyden, but
which situation he cultivated an acquaintance with
learned men 5 with a society of whom, he published a
periodical review entitled Le Journal Literaire, which
was continued without interruption from the year 1713
to the year 1722, when he died. The most consider¬
able of his works are, “ A treatise on perspective ; An
introduction to the Newtonian philosophy, or a treatise
on the elements of physics confirmed by experiments $
A treatise on the elements of algebra, for the use of
young students j” and “ A course of logic and meta¬
physics.” He had intended to have presented the pub¬
lic with a system of morality, but his death prevented
the execution. The ministers of the republic consulted
him on all occasions wherein his talents were requisite ;
and his skill in calculation was often of service to
them ; as was his address in deciphering, for detecting
the secret correspondence of their enemies. As profes¬
sor of mathematics and astronomy at Leyden, none ever
applied the powers of nature with more success, or to
more useful purposes.
GRAVESEND, a town of Kent in England, si¬
tuated on the banks of the Thames. It is 25 miles
from London j and has a blockhouse well mounted
with cannon, to command the ships and river, di¬
rectly opposite to Tilbury fort in Essex. The town
was plundered and burnt by the French and Spaniards
in the reign of Richard II. to compensate which, the
king, at the request of the abbot of St Mary-le-
Grace of Tower-hill, to whom he had granted a ma¬
nor there called Parrocks, vested it and Milton with
the sole privilege of carrying passengers by water
from hence to London at 4s. the whole fare, or 2d. a-
head ; which was confirmed by Henry VIII. •, but
now the fare is 9d. a-head in the tilt-boat, and is. in
the wherry. The former must not take in above forty
passengers, the latter no more than eight. Coaches
ply here at the landing of people from London, &c. to
carry them to Rochester. This town and Milton were
incorporated by Queen Elizabeth by the name of the
portreeve, (now the mavor), jurats, and inhabitants of
Gravesend and Milton : And as Gravesend is the place
where most passengers through Kent from foreign parts
take boat for London, that queen, in order to show
the grandeur of the metropolis of her kingdom, order¬
ed the lord mayor, aldermen, and city companies, to
receive all ambassadors and eminent strangers here in
their formalities, and to attend them to London in
barges if by water; or if they chose to come by
land, they rvere to meet them on horseback on Black-
heath in their livery gowns. The towns for several
miles round are supplied from hence with garden stuffs;
of which great quantities are also sent to London,
where the asparagus of Gravesend is preferred to that
of Battersea. All outward-bound ships are obliged to
anchor in this road till they have been visited by the
customhouse officers; and for this purpose a centinel
at the blockhouse fires a musket: but the homeward-
bound all pass by without notice, unless it be to put
waiters on board, if they are not supplied before. As
the outward-bound generally take in provisions here,
the place is full of seamen, who are all in a hurry.
The whole town being burn down in 1727, 5000I.
was
G R A
£. <5i fesendwas granted by parliament in 1731 for rebuilding its
» v tl church, as one of the 50 new ones. In 1624, one Mr
'to ay* Pinnock gave 21 dwelling-houses here, besides one for
*■ ^ v a master weaver, to employ tlie poor £ and here is a
charity-school for 24 boys. Population 3119 in iSit*
E. Long. o. 22. N. Lat. 51. 27.
GRAVINA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and Terra di Bari, with a bishop’s see, and the
titb of a duchy. E. Long. 17. N. Lat. 4!.
Grapina's Islands, a range of islands in the North
Pacific ocean, 43 miles in length. E. Long. 228. 24.
N. Lat. 54. y2.
GRAVITATION, in Natural Philosophy, is some¬
times distinguished from gravity. Thus M. Mauper-
tuis takes gravity for that force whereby a body would
fall to the earth ; but gravitation for the same dimi¬
nished by the centrifugal force. See Newtonian
Philosophy.
GRAVITY, or Gravitation (for the words are
most commonly used synonymously), signifies either the
force by which bodies are pressed towards the surface
of the earth, or the manifest effect of that force ; in
which last sense the word has the same signification with
weight or heaviness.
Concerning gravity in the first sense of the word,
or that active power by which all bodies are impelled
towards the earth, there have been great disputes.
Many eminent philosophers, and among the rest Sir
Isaac Newton himself, have considered it as the first of
all second causes; an incorporeal or spiritual substance,
which never can be perceived any other way than by
its effects; an universal property of matter, &c. Others
have attempted to explain the phenomena of gravita¬
tion by the action of a very subtle ethereal fluid *,
and to this explanation Sir Isaac, in the latter part of
his life, seems not to have been averse. He hath even
given a conjecture concerning the manner in which
this fluid might occasion these phenomena. But for a
full account of the discoveries of this great philosopher
concerning the laws of gravitation, the conjectures
made by him and others concerning its cause, the va¬
rious objections that have been made to his doctrine,
' and the state of the dispute at present, see the articles
Newtonian Philosophy and Astronomy.
Specific Gravity denotes the weight belonging to
an equal bulk of every different substance. Thus the
exact weight of a cubic inch of gold, compared with a
cubic inch of water, tin, lead, &c. is called its specific
gravity. SeeHYDRoDYNAMics, and Specific Gravity.
GRAY, or Grey, a mixed colour partaking of tlie
two extremes, black and white. See Dyeing Index.
In the manege they make several sorts of grays ; as
the branded or blackened gray, which has spots quite
black dispersed here and there. The dappled gray,
which has spots of a darker colour than the rest of the
body. The light or silver gray, wherein there is but a
small mixture of black hairs. The sad or iron gray,
which has but a small mixture of white. And the
brownish or sandy-coloured gray, where there are bay-
coloured hairs mixed with the black.
Gray, a town of France, in the department of Up¬
per Saone, anti capital of the bailiwick of Amont. It
L a trading place, and seated on the river Saone, in
E. Long. 53- 40. N. Lat. 47. 30.
Gray, Lady Jane, See Grey.
Vol. X. Part I. ’ 4.
[ 81 ] G R A
Gray, Thomas, an admired English poet, was the Gray,
youngest and only surviving son of a reputable citi- y——
len of London, and was born in Cornhill in 1716.
He was educated at Eton, where he contracted a friend¬
ship with Mr Horace Walpole, and with Mr Richard
West son of the lord chancellor of Ireland. Mr West
and Mr Gray were both intended for the bar: but the
former died early in life, and the latter was diverted
from that pursuit by an invitation to accompany Mr
Walpole in his travels ; which he accepted without any
determined plan for his future life. During Mr Gray’s
travels, he Wrote a variety of letters to Mr West and
to his parents, which are printed with his poems ; and
when he returned, finding himself in narrow circum¬
stances, yet with a mind indisposed for active employ¬
ment, he retired to Cambridge, and devoted himself to
study. Soon after his return, his friend West died ;
and the melancholy impressed on him by this event may
be traced in his admired “ Elegy written in a country
churchyard j” which is thought to have been begun,
if not finished, at this time ; though the conclusion,
as it stands at present, is certainly different from what
it was in the first manuscript copy. The first impulse
ot his sorrow for the death of his friend gave birth to
a very tender sonnet in English, on the Petrarchian
model j and also to a sublime apostrophe in hexame¬
ters, written in the genuine strain of classical majesty,
with which he intended to begin one of his books De
Principiis Cogitandi.
From the winter of the year 1742, to the day of his
death, his principal residence was at Cambridge ; from
which he u'as seldom absent any considerable time, ex¬
cept between the years 1759 and 1762 ; when on the
opening of the British Museum, he took lodgings in
Southampton-row, in order to have recourse to the
Harleian and other manuscripts there deposited, from
which he made several curious extracts, amounting in
all to a tolerable sized folio, at present in the hands of
Mr Walpole.
About the year 1747, Mr Mason, the editor of Mr
Gray’s poems, was introduced to him. The former
had written, a year or two before, some imitations of
Milton’s juvenile poems, viz. A Monody on the Death
of Mr Pope, and two pieces entitled II Bellicoso and
II Pacifico on the peace of Aix la-Chapelle ; and the
latter revised them at the request of a friend. This
laid the foundation of an intimacy which continued
without interruption to the death of Mr Gray.
About the year 1750, Mr Gray had put his last hand
to his celebrated Elegy written in a country church¬
yard, and had communicated it to his friend Mr Wal¬
pole, whose good taste was too much charmed with it to
suffer him to withhold the sight of it from his acquaint¬
ance. Accordingly it was shown about for some time in
manuscript, and received with all the applause it so
justly merited. At last the publisher of one of the ma¬
gazines having obtained a surreptitious copy of it, Mi-
Gray wrote to Mr Walpole, desiring that he would put
his own manuscript into the hands of Mr Dodsley, and
order him to print it immediately. This was the most
popular of all our author’s publications. It ran through
II editions in a very short space of time; was finely
translated into Latin by Messrs Ansty and Roberts;
and in the same year by Mr Lloyd.
From July 1759 to the year 1762, he generally re-
Ij sided
G R A [ 82 ] G R A
Gray, sided in London, with a view, as we have already ob-
v~'—•• served, of having recourse to the British Museum. In
July 1786, his grace the duke of Grafton wrote him
a polite letter, informing him, that his majesty had
been pleased to offer to him the professorship ol Mo¬
dern History in the university of Cambridge, then va¬
cant by the death of Mr Laurence Brocket. This
place was valuable in itself, the salary being 400I. a
year ", but what rendered it particularly acceptable to
Mr Gray was its being given him without any solici¬
tation. He was indeed remarkably disinterested in all
his pursuits. Though his income, before this addi¬
tion, was very small, he never read or wrote with a
view of making his labours useful to himself. He may
be said to have been of those few personages in the
annals of literature, especially in the poetical class,
who are devoid of self-interest, and at the same time
attentive to economy $ and also was among mankind
in general one of those very few economists, who pos¬
sess that talent, untinctured with the slightest stain of
avarice. When his circumstances were at the lowest,
he gave away such sums in private charity, as would
have done credit to an ampler purse. But what chiefly
deterred him from seeking any advantage by his lite¬
rary pursuits, was a certain degree of pride, which led
him to despise the idea of being thought an author by
profession.
However, it is probable, that early in life he had
an intention of publishing an edition of Strabo } for
his papers contain a great number of notes and geo¬
graphical disquisitions on that author, particularly
with respect to that part of Asia which comprehends
Persia and India. The indefatigable pains which he
took with the writings of Plato, and the quantity of
critical as well as explanatory observations which he
has left upon almost every part of his works, plainly
indicate, that no man in Europe was better prepared
to republish and illustrate that philosopher than Mr
Gray. Another work, on which he bestowed uncom¬
mon labour was the Anthologia. In an interleaved
copy of that collection of Greek epigrams, he has tran¬
scribed several additional ones, which he selected in his
extensive reading ; has inserted a great number of cri¬
tical notes and emendations, and subjoined a copious
index. But whether he intended this performance for
the press or not, is uncertain. The only work which
he meditated upon with this direct view from the be¬
ginning was a history of English poetry, upon a plan
sketched out by Mr Pope. He has mentioned this
himself in an advertisement to those three fine imita¬
tions of Norse and Welsh poetry, which he gave the
world in the last edition of his poems. But after he
had made some considerable preparations for the exe¬
cution of this design, and Mr Mason had offered him
his assistance, he was informed, that Mr Wharton, of
Trinity College, Oxford, was engaged in a work of
the same kind. The undertaking was therefore relin¬
quished, by mutual consent; and soon after, on that
gentleman’s desiring a sight of the plan, our author
readily sent him a copy of it.
Among other sciences, Mr Gray had acquired a
great knowledge of Gothic architecture. He had seen
and accurately studied in his youth, while abroad, the
Roman proportions on the spot, both in ancient times,
and in the works of Palladio. In his later years he
applied himself to consider those stupendous structures Gray,
of more modern date that adorn our own country ; -yX
which, if they have not the same grace, have undoubt¬
edly equal dignity. He. endeavoured to trace this
mode of building from the time it commenced through
its various changes, till it arrived at its perfection in
the reign of Henry VIII. and ended in that of Eliza¬
beth. For this purpose, he did not so much depend
upon written accounts, as that internal evidence which
the buildings themselves give of their respective anti¬
quity ; since they constantly furnish to the well-inform¬
ed eye, arms, ornaments, and other marks, by which
their several ages may be ascertained. On this account
he applied himself to the study of heraldry as a prepa¬
ratory science j and has left behind him a number of
genealogical papers, more than sufficient to prove him
a complete master of it. By these means he arrived at
so very extraordinary a pitch of sagacity, as to be en¬
abled to pronounce, at first sight, on the precise time
when every particular part of any of our cathedrals was
erected. But the favourite study of Mr Gray for the
last ten years of his life was natural history, which he
then rather resumed than began j as by the instruc¬
tions of his uncle Antrobus, he was a considerable bo¬
tanist at 15. The marginal notes which he has left on
Linnaeus and other writers on the vegetable, animal,
and fossil kingdoms, are very numerous; but the most
considerable are on Hudson’s Flora Anglica, and the
tenth edition of the Systema Nature ; which latter he
interleaved and filled almost entirely. While employ¬
ed on zoology, he read Aristotle’s treatise on that sub¬
ject with great care, and explained many difficult pas¬
sages of that obscure ancient by the lights he had re¬
ceived from modern naturalists. In a word, excepting
pure mathematics, and the studies dependent on that
science, there was hardly any part of human learning
in which he had not acquired a competent skill, and in
most of them a consummate mastery. To this account
of his literary character we may add, that he had a fine
taste in painting, prints, gardening, and music j and
was moreover a man of good breeding, virtue, and hu¬
manity.
He died in 1771 : and an edition of his poems, with
memoirs of his life and writings, were published in 4to,
in 1775, by Mr Mason. This gentleman, however,
instead of employing his own pen in drawing Mr Gray’s
character, has adopted one drawn by the reverend Mr
Temple, rector of Mamhead in Devonshire, in a letter to
Mr Bpswellj to whom the public are indebted for com¬
municating it. “ Perhaps (says Mr Temple) he was the
most learned man in Europe. He was equally acquaint¬
ed with the elegant and profound parts of science, and
that not superficially but thoroughly. He knew every
branch of history, both natural and civil y had read all
the original historians of England, France, and Italy :
and was a great antiquarian. Criticism, metaphysics,
morals, politics, made a principal part of his plan oi
study y voyages and travels of all sorts were his favour¬
ite amusement y and he had a fine taste in painting,
prints, architecture, and gai'dening. With such a
fund of knowledge, his conversation must have been
equally instructing and entertaining j but he was also
a good man, a well-bred man, a man of virtue and hu¬
manity. There is no character without some speck,
some.imperfection j and I think the greatest defect in
G R E [ 83 ] G R E
, a_ his was an affectation in delicacy, or rather effeminacy,
| and a visible fastidiousness, or contempt and disdain of
C ives. his inferiors in science. He also had, in some degree,
  ’ that weakness which disgusted Voltaire so much in Mr
Congreve: though he seemed to value others chiefly
according to the progress they had made in knowledge,
yet he could not bear to be considered himself merely
as a man of letters; and though without birth, or for¬
tune, or station, his desire was to be looked upon as a
private independent gentleman, who read for his amuse¬
ment. Perhaps it may be said, What signifies so
much knowledge, when it produces so little ? Is it
worth taking so much pains to leave no memorial but
a few poems? But let it be considered, that Mr Gray
was, to others, at least innocently employed ; to him¬
self, certainly beneficially. His time passed agreeably ;
he was every day making some new acquisition in
science ; his mind was enlarged, his heart softened, and
his virtue strengthened ; the world and mankind were
shown to him without a mask ; and he was taught to
consider every thing as trifling, and unworthy the at¬
tention of a wise man, except the pursuit of knorv-
ledge, and the practice of virtue in that state wherein
God hath placed us.”
GRAYLING. See Salmo, Ichthyology Index.
In angling for this fish the hook must be armed
upon the shanks with a very narrow plate of lead, which
should be slenderest at the bent of the hook, that the
bait (which is to be a large grashopper, the uppermost
wing of which must be pulled oil) may come over to
it the more easily. At the point let there be a cod-
bait in a continual motion. The jag-tail, which is a
worm of a pale flesh-colour, with a yellow tag on its
tail, is an excellent bait for the grayling in March and
April.
GREASE, a swelling and gourdiness of the legs
of a horse. See FARRIERY, N° 482.
GREAT, a term of comparison, denoting a thing
to have more extension than some other to which it is
referred. Thus we say, a great space, a great distance,
a great figure, a great body, &c.
Great is likewise used figuratively in matters of
morality, &c. to signify ample, noble, elevated, extra¬
ordinary, important, &c. Thus we say, Shakespeare
was a great genius, Da Vinci a great painter, Galileo
a great philosopher, Bossu a great critic, &c.
Great is also a title or quality appropriated to cer¬
tain princes and other illustrious personages. Thus
we say, the great Turk, the great Mogul, the great
cham of Tartary, the great duke of Florence, &c.
Great is also a surname bestowed on several kings
and emperors. Thus we say, Alexander the great;
Cyrus the great; Charles the great, or Charlemagne;
Henry the great of France, &c.
Great is also applied to several officers who have
pre-eminence over others. Thus we say, the lord great
chamberlain ; the great marshal of Poland, &c.
GREATER tone, in Music. See Tone.
GREAVES, John, an eminent physician and an¬
tiquary, was the eldest son of John Greaves rector of
Colemore, near Alresford in Hampshire, and born in
1602. He was educated at Baliol College in Oxford,
from which he removed to Merton. He was after¬
wards, on the foot of his great merit, chosen geo¬
metry professor of Gresham college His ardent thirst
of knowledge soon carried him into several parts of Greaves
Europe, where he eagerly seized every opportunity of II
improving it. His next voyage was into the eastern Greece,
countries ; where nothing remarkable in the heavens, " *
earth, or ^n subterraneous places, seems to have
escaped his nice observation. He, with indefatigable
industry, and even at the peril of his life, collected
a considerable number of Arabic, Persic, and Greek
manuscripts, for Archbishop Laud. Of these he well
knew the value, as he was a master of the languages
in which they were written. He also collected for
that prelate many oriental gems and coins. He took
a more accurate survey of the pyramids than any tra¬
veller who went before him. On his return from the
East, he visited several parts of Italy a second time.
During his stay at Rome, he made a particular inquiry
into the true state of the ancient weights and measures.
Soon after he had finished his second voyage, he was
chosen Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford. Pie
was eminently qualified for this professorship, as the
works of ancient and modern astronomers were fami¬
liar to him. His books relating to oriental learning,
his Pyramidographia, or a description of the pyramids
in Egypt, his Epochce Celebriores, and other curious
and useful pieces, of which Mr Ward has given us a
catalogue, show him to have been a great man. Those
which he intended to publish would have shown him to
be a greater ; but he was stopped in his great career by
death in 1652*
GREBE. See Colymbus, Ornithology Index.
GREECE, the present Romelia, and in many re¬
spects one of the most deservedly celebrated countries
in the world, was anciently bounded on the north by
Mount Rhodope and the river Strymon; on the west by
the Ionian sea ; on the south by the Mediterranean ; on
the east by the Egean sea and Archipelago. It ex¬
tended from Mounts Rhodope and Orbelus to the pro¬
montory of Tenaurus, the southmost point of Pelopon¬
nesus, now the Morea, about 450 English miles ; in
breadth from east to west about 235 miles, and it em¬
braced an area of about 57,750 square miles.
The general names by which the inhabitants of this
country were known to the ancients were those of
Graioi, or Graicoi, from whence the name of Greece is
plainly derived. These names are thought to come from
Graecus, the father, or (according to some) the son, of
Thessalus, who gave name to Thessaly; but some mo¬
dern critics choose to derive it from Ragau, the same
with Peu, the son of Peleg, by the transposition of a
letter to soften the sound.—-These names were after¬
wards changed for Achau'and Hellenes; the first, as is
supposed from Achceus, the son of Xuthus, the son of
Hellen, and father of Ion ; or, according to the fable,
the son of Jupiter: the other from Hellen, above men¬
tioned, the son of Deucalion, and father of Dorus,
from whom came the Dores, afterwards a famous na¬
tion among the Greeks. Another name by which the
Greeks were known in some parts of the country, was
that of Pelasgi, which the Arcadians, the most ancient
people in Greece, deduced from their pretended foun¬
der Pelasgus, who is said to have got such footing in
Peloponnesus, that the whole peninsula from him was
called Pelasgia. But the most ancient name of all is
universally allowed to have been that of lones, which
the Greeks themselves derived from Ion the son of
L 2 Xuthus ;
G R E [ 84 ] G R E
reecc. Xntlius •, or, as the fable hath it, of Apollo, by Cre-
usa the daughter of Erichtheus the grandson of Deu¬
calion. Josephus, however, afiirm'*, that their origi¬
nal is of much older date; and that Javan, the son of
Japhet, and grandson ot Noah, was the first who
peopled these countries ; which Bochart hath also ren¬
dered very probable. It is true, indeed, that among
the Greeks themselves, only the Athenians, and such
colonies as sprung from them, were called Zones : but
it is also plain beyond exception, that other nations
sgave this name to all the inhabitants of Greece,
The inhabitants of Greece in the first ages, even
by the confession of their own historians, appear to
have been savages scarce a degree removed from brutes.
They lived indifferently on every fruit, herb, or root
that came in their way : and lay either in the open
fields, or at best sheltered themselves in dens, caves,
and hollow trees: the country itself in the mean time
remaining one continued uncultivated desert. The first
improvement they made in their way of living, was
the exchanging of their old food for the more whole¬
some acorns, building huts for themselves to sleep in,
and covering their bodies with the skins of beasts. For
all this, it seems, they were beholden to Pelasgus a-
bove mentioned (supposed by some to be Peleg spoken
of in Scripture), and who was highly reverenced by
them on that account.—This reformation in their way
of life, however, it seems, wrought none in their man¬
ners. On the contrary, they who had nothing to fight
for but a hole to sleep in, began now to envy and rob
one another of these slender acquisitions. This, in
process of time, put them under a necessity of joining
themselves into companies under some head, that they
might either more safely plunder their neighbours,
or preserve what they had got. Laws they had none,
except that of the sword : so that those only lived in
safety who inhabited the most barren and craggy pla¬
ces ; and hence Greece for a long time had no settled
inhabitants, the weakest being always turned out by
the strongest. Their gigantic size and strength, if we
may believe Plutarch, added so much to their insolence
and cruelty, that they seemed to glory in committing
the greatest acts of violence and barbarity on those
that unhappily fell into their hands.
The next advance towards civilization, was their
forming themselves into regular societies, to cultivate
the lands, and build themselves towns and cities for
their safety. Their original barbarity and mutual vio¬
lences against each other naturally prevented them from
uniting as one nation, or even into any considerable
community : and hence the great number of states in¬
to which Greece wTas originally divided. The most
remarkable of these small principalities mentioned in
history are the following : In Peloponnesus were those
of Sicyon, Argos, and Messenia, Achaia Propria,
Arcadia, and Laconia. In Grsecia Propria, (that
part of Greece which lay without Peloponnesus,) were
those of Attica, Megara, Boeotia, Lucris, Epichne-
midia, Doris, Phocis, Locris, Ozolaea, and Ailtolia.
In Epirus were the Molossi, Amphilochi, Cassiopaei,
Drceopes, Chances, Thesprotii, Almtni, and Acar-
nani. In Thessaly were those of Thessaliotis, Esti-
otis, Pelasgiotis, Magnesia and Phthia.—-All these
have at one time or other been severally governed by
kings of their own, though we only find the names of
many of them mentioned in the histories of the more GrefCf
considerable kingdoms of Sparta, Attica, Thebes,
&c.—-The erection of these kingdoms, however, for
some time, did not much alter the case ; the inhabi¬
tants of the new kingdoms plundered and destroyed
one another without mercy. Attica was the only place
in any degree free from these incursions, because it
was naturally destitute of every thing that could in¬
vite a plundering enemy ; but those cities fared much
worse which were situated on the sea-coasts; because
they were in continual danger of being plundered ei¬
ther by sea or land : for pirates at that time did not
less infest all those seas than robbers did the land. And
this was one main cause why most of the ancient cities
of Greece were situated at some considerable distance
from the shore ; but even in these, as all their fafety
consisted in the resistance they could make against an
invader, their inhabitants were under the necessity of
going constantly armed, and being ever on their
guard.
Another mischief arising from these continual pira¬
cies and robberies was, that they occasioned the far
greater part of the lands to lie uncultivated, so that
the people only planted and sowed as much as was
barely necessary for their present support ; and where
there was such an universal neglect of agriculture,
there could be as little room for any discoveries in
other useful arts and trades. Hence, when other na¬
tions, as the Jews, Egyptians, Midianites, Phoenicians,
&c. had improved themselves to a very high degree,
the Greeks seem to have been utter strangers to every
useful art.
During this period of savage barbarity, the most
renowned Grecian heroes, as Hercules, Theseus, &c,
performed their exploits ; which, however exaggera¬
ted by poetic fiction, no doubt had a foundation in
truth. Some indeed are of opinion that the Grecian-
heroes are entirely fictitious, and their exploits de¬
rived from those of the Hebrew worthies, such as Sam¬
son, Gideon, &c. Yet, considering the extreme de¬
gree of barbarity which at that time prevailed through¬
out Greece, it seems not at all improbable that some
persons of extraordinary strength and courage might
undertake the cause of the oppressed, and travel about
like the more modern knights-errant in quest of adven¬
tures.
The first expedition in which we find the Greeks
united, was that against Troy, the particulars of which
are recited under the article Troy. Their success
here (which happened about 1184 B. C.) cost them
very dear ; vast numbers of their bravest warriors be¬
ing slain ; great numbers of the survivors being cast
away in their return ; and many of those who had the
good luck to get back again being soon after mur¬
dered, or driven out of their country. It is probable,
however, that their having staid for such a long time
in Asia, might contribute to civilize the Greeks some¬
what sooner than what they otherwise would lia%-e
been ; and accordingly, from this time, we find theis
history somewhat less obscure, and as it were begin¬
ning to emerge out of darkness. The continual wars,
indeed, in which they were engaged among themselves,
no doubt, for a long time, prevented them from ma¬
king any considerable advances in those arts in which
they afterwards made so great progress. These wars,
which
G R E L 85 J G R E
,e which indeed never ceased as long as the Greeks pre-
w served their liberty, rendered them brave, and skilled
in the military art above all other nations j but at the
same time they effectually prevented them from making
permanent conquests, and confined them within the
bounds of their own country j while the different states
were one way or other so equally balanced, that scarce
one of them was able perfectly to subdue another. The
Spartans, however, having with great difficulty, re¬
duced the kingdom of Messene, and added its terri¬
tories to their own, became the leading people in
Greece. Their superiority was long disputed by A-
thens 5 but the Peloponnesian war at last determined
that point in favour of the Spartans, when the city
of Athens was taken, and its walls demolished by Ly-
sander the Spartan general. See Attica, N° 164.
— By the battle of Leuctra, the Spartans lost that
superiority which they had maintained for 500 years,
and which now devolved on the Thebans. After the
death of Epaminondas, the celebrated Theban gene¬
ral, however, as no person was found possessed of his
abilities, the Thebans were again obliged to yield
the superioritv to the Spartans. But by this time
the Greeks had become acquainted with the luxuries
and elegancies of life*, and all the rigour of their ori¬
ginal laws could not prevent them from valuing these
as highly as other people. This did not indeed abate
their valour, but it heightened their mutual animosi¬
ties, at the same time that, for the sake of a more
easy and comfortable life, they became more disposed
to submit to a master. The Persians, whose power they
had long dreaded, and who were unable to resist them
by force of arms, at last found out (by the advice of
Alcibiades) the proper method of reducing the Gre¬
cian power J namely, by assisting them by turns, and
supplying one state with money to fight against another
till they should be all so much reduced, that they
might become an easy prey. Thus the Greeks were
weakened, though the Persians did not reap any bene¬
fit from their weakness. Philip of Macedon entered
into the same political views*, and partly by intrigue,
partly by force, got himself declared generalissi¬
mo of Greece. His successor Alexander the Great
completed their subjection ; and by destroying the ci¬
ty of Thebes, and exterminating its inhabitants, struck
such a terrror throughout Greece, that he was as
fully obeyed by all the states as by any of the rest of
his subjects. During his absence in Persia, however,
they attempted to shake off the Macedonian yoke, but
were quelled by his general Antipater. The news of
Alexander’s death was to them a matter of the utmost
joy; but their mutual animosities prevented them
from joining in any solid plan for the recovery of their
liberties, and hence they continued to he oppressed by
Alexander’s successors, or other tyrants, till Aratus,
an Achaean, about 268 B. C. formed a design of set¬
ting his country free from these oppressors. He per¬
suaded a number of the small republics to enter into a
league for their own defence, which was called the
Achcean league $ and notwithstanding that the repub¬
lics, taken singly, bad very little strength, they not
only maintained their independency, but soon became
formidable when united. This association continued
to become daily more and more powerful; but received
a severe check from Cleomenes, king of Sparta, which
obliged them to call in Antigonus to their assistance, Greece.
This prince overcame Cleomenes, at the battle of Sel- ——y——
lasia, and afterwards made himself master of Sparta.
Thus he became a more formidable enemy than the
one he had conquered, and the recovery of* the Gre¬
cian liberties was incomplete.
Soon after this, the Greeks began to feel the weight
of a power more formidable than any which they had
yet experienced j namely, that of the Romans. That
insidious and haughty republic first intermeddled with
the Grecian aflairs, under pretence of setting them at
liberty from the oppression of Philip of Macedon.
This, by a proper union among themselves, they might
have accomplished : but in this they acted as though
they had been infatuated ; receiving with the utmost
joy the decree of the Roman consul, who declared
them free ; without considering, that he who had thus
given them liberty, might take it away at his pleasure.
This lesson, however, they were soon taught, by the
total reduction of their country to a Roman province j
yet this scarce can be called a misfortune, when we
look back to their history, and consider their outra¬
ges upon one another: nor can we sympathize with
them for the loss of that liberty which they only made
use of to fill their country with slaughter and blood¬
shed. After their conquest by the Romans, they
made no united effort to recover their liberty. They
continued in quiet subjection till the beginning of the
15th century. About that time they began to suffer
under the tyranny of the l urks, and their sufferings
were completed by the taking of Constantinople in
I453* Since that time they have groaned under the
yoke of a most despotic government j so that all traces
of their former valour, ingenuity, and learning, are
now in a manner totally extinct.
Modern Greece comprehends Macedonia; Albania,
now called Arnaut; Epirus; Thessaly, now Jana; A-
chaia, now Livadia; the Peloponnesus, now Morea;
together with the islands on its coast, and in the Archi¬
pelago. The continent of Greece is seated betwixt
the 36th and 43d degrees of north latitude; and be¬
tween the 19th and 23th degrees of longitude, east
of London. To the north, it is bounded by Bulga¬
ria and Servia, from which it is divided by a ridge
of mountains ; to the south by the Mediterranean sea ;
to the east by Romania and the Archipelago; and to
the west by the Adriatic or gulf of Venice. Its
length is said to be about 450 miles, and its utmost
breadth about 335 miles. The air is extremely tem¬
perate and healthy : and the soil fruitful, though bad¬
ly cultivated ; yielding corn, wine, delicious fruits, and
abounding with cattle, fowls, and venison. As to re¬
ligion, Christianity was planted in Greece soon after
the death of our Saviour, and flourished there for many
ages in great purity; but since the Greeks became
subject to the Turkish yoke, they have sunk into the
most deplorable ignorance, in consequence of the slavery
and thraldom under which they groan, and their re¬
ligion is now greatly corrupted. It is indeed little
better than a heap of ridiculous ceremonies and absur¬
dities. The head of the Greek church is the patriarch
of Constantinople ; who is chosen by the neighbouring
archbishops and metropolitans, and confirmed by the
emperor or grand vizir. He is a person of great dig¬
nity, being the head and director of the eastern church-
The
G R E [ 86 ] G R E
Greece. The other patriarchs are those of Jerusalem, Antioch,
—-v——' and Alexandria. Mr Tournefort tells us, that the pa¬
triarchates are now generally set to sale, and bestowed
upon those who are the highest bidders. The patriarchs,
metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops, are always cho¬
sen from among the Caloyers or Greek monks. Before
the patriarchs receive their patents and the caftan, which
is a vest of linsey-woolsey, or some other stuff, presented
by the grand signior to ambassadors, and other persons
newly invested with some considerable dignity, they are
obliged to make large presents to the vizir, &c. The
income of the patriarch of Constantinople is said to
amount to no less than one hundred and twenty thou¬
sand guilders, of which he pays the one-half by way
of annual tribute to the Ottoman Porte, adding six
thousand guilders besides as a present at the feast of
Bairam. The next person to a bishop among the
clergy is an archimandrite, who is the director of one
or more convents, which are called mandren; then
come the abbot, the arch-priest, the priest, the dea¬
con, the under-deacon, the chanter, and the lectu¬
rer. The secular clergy are subjected to no rules, and
never rise higher than high-priest. They are allowed
to marry once $ but it must be with a virgin, and be¬
fore they are ordained. They have neither glebe nor
tythes, but depend upon the perquisites that arise from
their office ; and they seldom preach but in Lent.
The Greeks have few nunneries; but a great many
convents of monks, who are all priests, and, students
excepted, obliged to follow some handicraft employ¬
ment, and lead a very austere life. The Greeks deny
the supremacy of the pope, and abhor the worship
of images; but have a multitude of pictures of saints
in their churches, whom they pray to as mediators.
Their fasts are very severe. They believe also in the
doctrine of transubstantiation, and that the Holy
Ghost does not proceed from the Son. They admit
not of purgatory, says Mr Thevenot: but yet they
allow a third place, where they say the blessed re¬
main, in expectation of the day of judgment. At
mass they consecrate with leavened bread j and com¬
municate under both kinds, as well laics as priests,
and as well women and children as men. When they
carry the sacrament to the sick, they do not pro¬
strate themselves before it, nor expose it to be adored :
neither do they carry it in procession, or have any
particular feast in honour of it. Baptism is perform¬
ed among them by plunging the whole body of the
child thrice into water. Immediately after baptism,
they give it confirmation and the communion j and
seven days after that, it undergoes the ceremony of
ablution. When a priest is married, among other ce¬
remonies, the bridegroom and bride drink each two
glasses of wine $ then the glass is given to the priest,
who merrily drinks off the rest of the wine, and break¬
ing the glass, says, So may the bridegroom break the
virginity of the bride. As to the character of the
modern Greeks, they are said to be very covetous, hy¬
pocritical, treacherous, great pederasts, and at the
same time revengeful to the highest degree; but very
superstitious. They are so much despised by the Turks,
that these do not value even a Greek who turns Ma¬
hometan. The Turks are remarkable for their taci¬
turnity ; they never use any unnecessary words; but
the Greeks, on the contrary, are very talkative and
3
lively. The Turks generally practise what their re- Gl.{e[f
ligion enjoins, but the Greeks do not; and their mi- Greel,,
sery puts them upon a thousand mean shifts and scan- ’"■—v-s
dalous practices, authorised by bad example, and per¬
petuated from father to son. The Greek women have
fine features and beautiful complexions: their coun¬
tenances still very much resemble those of the ancient
Greek statues. See Greece, Supplement.
GREEK, or Grecian, any thing belonging to
ancient Greece.
The Greek language, as preserved in the writings
of the celebrated authors of antiquity, as Homer, He¬
siod, Demosthenes, Aristotle, Plato, Xenophon, Sec.
has a great variety of terms and expressions, suitable
to the genius and occasions of a polite and learned
people, who had a taste for arts and sciences. In it,
proper names are significative; which is the reason that
the modern languages borrow so many terms from it.
When any new invention, instrument, machine, or the
like, is discovered, recourse is generally had to the
Greek for a name to it; the facility wherewith words
are there compounded, affording such as will be ex¬
pressive of its,use: such are, barometer, hygrometer,
microscope, telescope, thermometer, &c. But of all
sciences, medicine most abounds with such terms; as
diaphoretic, diagnosis, diarrhoea, hsemorrhagy, hydro¬
phobia, phthisis, atrophy, &c. Besides the copious¬
ness and significancy of the Greek, wherein it excels
most, if not all, other languages, it has also three num¬
bers, viz. a singular, dual, and plural: also abundance
of tenses in its verbs, which makes a variety in dis¬
course, prevents a certain dryness that always accom¬
panies too great an uniformity, and renders that lan¬
guage peculiarly proper for all kinds of verse. The
use of the participles, of the aorist and preterite, toge¬
ther with the compound words already mentioned, give
it a peculiar force and brevity, without taking any thing
from its perspicuity,.
It is no easy matter to assign the precise difference
between the modern and ancient Greek; which con¬
sists in the terminations of the nouns, pronouns, verbs,
Stc, not unlike what obtains between some of the di¬
alects of the Italian or Spanish. There are also in the
modern Greek many new words, not to be met with
in the ancient. We may therefore distinguish three
ages of the Greek tongue: the first of which ends at
the time when Constantinople became the capital of
the Roman empire; the second lasted from that period
to the taking of Constantinople by the Turks; and the
third from that time to this.
Greek Bible. See Bible.
Greek Church, is that part of the Christian church
which is established in Greece; extending likewise to
some other parts of Turkey. See Greece.—It is thus
called in Europe, Asia, and Africa, in contradistinction
from the Latin or Romish church ; as also the Eastern
church, in distinction from the Western.
The Romanists call the Greek church the Greek
schism; because the Greeks do not allow the authority
of the pope, but depend wholly, as to matters of reli¬
gion, on their own patriarchs. They have treated them
as schismatics ever since the revolt, as they call it, of
the patriarch Photius.
Greek Monks and Nuns, of whatever order, consider
St Basil as their founder and common father, and
esteem
G R E [ ’ 87 ] G R E
e i Gi k esteem it the Iiighest crime to deviate in the least from
ee. Gi n- his constitutions. There are several beautiful convents
as' ho with churches, in which the monks perform divine
^' ' service day and night. Some of the monks are coeno¬
bites, or live together, wear the same habit, eat at the
same table, and perform the same exercises and employ¬
ments.
Greek Orders, in Architecture, are the Doric, Ionic,
and Corinthian ; in contradistinction to the two Latin
orders, the Tuscan and Composite. See Order.
GREEN, one of the original prismatic colours,
exhibited by the refraction of the rays of light. See
Chromatics and Colour.
Green, among painters and dyers. See Colour-
flaking, N° 27. and Dyeing, N® 367.
GREEN-Cloth, a board or court of justice held in the
compting-house of the king’s household, composed of
the lord steward and officers under him, who sit
daily. To this court is committed the charge and over¬
sight of the king’s household in matters of justice and
government, with a power to correct all oilenders, and
to maintain the peace of the verge, or jurisdiction of
the court-royal ; which is every way about 200 yards
from the last gate of the palace where his majesty re¬
sides.
It takes its name, board of green cloth, from a green
cloth spread over the board where they sit.
Without a warrant first obtained from this court,
none of the king’s servants can be arrested for debt.
Clerks of the Green Cloth were two officers of the
board of green cloth, who appointed the diet of the
king and his heusehold ; and kept all records, legers,
and papers relating thereto; made up bills, parcels, and
debentures for salaries, and provisions and necessaries
for the officers of the buttery, pantry, cellar, &c. They
also waited upon foreign princes when entertained by
his majesty. But this has been lately abolished.
GREEN-Finch, the English name of the greenish
fringilla, with the wings and tail variegated with yel¬
low. See Fringilla, Ornithology Index.
Green-Housc, or Conservatory, a house in a garden,
contrived for sheltering and preserving the most curious
and tender exotic plants, which in our climate will not
bear to be exposed to the open air, especially during
the winter season. These are generally large and beau¬
tiful structures, equally ornamental and useful.
The length of green-houses must be proportioned to
the number of plants intended to be preserved in them,
and cannot therefore be reduced to rule j but their
depth should never be greater than their height in the
clear; which, in small or middling houses, may be 16
or 18 feet, but in large ones from 20 to 24 feet; and
the length of the windows should reach from about one
foot and a half above the pavement, and within the
same distance of the ceiling, which will admit of a
corniche round the building over the heads of the win¬
dows. Their breadth cannot be in proportion to their
length : for if in the largest buildings they are more
than seven or seven feet and a half broad, they will be
extremely heavy and inconvenient. The piers between
the windows must be as narrow as may be to support
the building; for which reason they should either be of
stone or of hard burnt bricks. If the piers are made
of stone, they should be 30 inches wide in front, and
sloped off behind to about 18 inches, by which means Grecn-
there will be no corners to take olf the rays of the sun. house.
If they are of brick, they will require to be at least' 'v—“
three feet in front, but they should be in the same man¬
ner sloped oft behind. Over the green-house may be
rooms for drying and preserving seeds, roots, &c. and
behind it a place for tools and other purposes; and both
these behind, and the rooms above, will be of great use
in keeping off the frosts, so that the wall between these
need not be of more than two bricks and a half in
thickness.
The floor of the green-house, which should be laid .
either with Bremen squares, Purbeck stone, or flat
tiles, must be raised two feet above the surface of the
adjoining ground, or if the situation be damp, at least
three feet; and if the whole is arched with low brick
arches under the floor, they will be of great service
in preventing damps: and under the floor, about two
feet from the front, it will be very adviseable to make
a flue of ten inches wide and two feet deep : this
should be carried the whole length of the house, and
then returned back along the hinder part, and there be
carried ep into funnels adjoining to the tool-house, by
which the smoke may be carried off. The fire-place
may be contrived at one end of the house, and the
door at which the fuel is put in, as also the ash-grate,
may be contrived to open into the tool-house, and the
fuel being laid in the same place, the whole will be out
of sight. Bradley advises, that the front of green¬
houses, in the colder parts of England, be built in a
sweep or semicircle, so that one part or other of it may
receive the sun’s rays all day. The use of fires must, .
however, be very sparing in this place : and it is not
one winter in three or four that will require them in
any part, only when the weather is very severe, and the
frost cannot well be kept out any other way, this is an
expedient that is good to have in readiness, as it may
save a whole house of plants. Withinside of the win¬
dows, in front of the green-house, there should be good
strong shutters, made with hinges, to fold back close
to the piers, that they may not obstruct the rays of
the sun. The back part of the house should be either
laid over with stucco or plastered with mortar, and
whitewashed, in order to prevent the frosty air from
penetrating through the walls. When the green-house
is wainscotted, the walls should be plastered with lime
and hair behind the wainscot, to keep out the cold ;
and the wainscot, as well as the ceiling, and every
part within the house should be painted white, for
the reflection of the sun’s rays. There must be a num¬
ber of tressels with forms of wood upon them, to sup¬
port the pots and plants ; the tallest to be placed hind¬
most, the lowest within four feet of the windows : and
the rows of plants should rise gradually, so that the
heads of the second row should be entirely above the
first; and behind them there should be a space of at
least five feet, for the conveniency of watering the
plants, and for a free circulation of air. It lias been
observed that the placing of the euphorbium, cereuses, .
and other succulent plants among orange-trees, and
other common green-house plants, is always destruc¬
tive of them, by making them receive an improper
sort of effluvia, which plants of that kind imbibe very
freely. They should therefore be placed in two wings
built :
G B E [ 88 ] GEE
Green- built at each end of the green-house ; which, if well
house contrived, will be a great beauty as well as use to the
A building. These wings may be made capable ot a
Greenland. gr{ia(, warmtj1 a]so ^ more flues, and may be made to
' v contain a hot-bed of tanner’s bark for the raising many
of the tender plants, natives of warm climates.
Whilst the front of the green-house is exactly south,
one of the wings may be made to face the south-east,
and the other the south-west. By this disposition the
heat of the sun is reflected from one part of the build¬
ing to the other all day, and the front of the main
green-house is guarded from the cold winds. These
two wings may be so contrived as to maintain plants
of different degrees of hardiness, which may be easily
effected by the situation and extent of the fire-place,
and the manner of conducting the flues : the wing fa¬
cing the south-east is evidently the most proper for the
Warmest stove •, this may be divided in the middle by
a partition of glass, with glass-doors opening from one
division to the other. In each of these there should be
a fire-place, with flues carried up against the back-wall,
through which the smoke should be made to pass as
many times the length of the house as the height will
admit of the number of flues •, for the longer the smoke
is in passing, the more beat will be given to the bouse
with a less quantity of fuel. The other wing, facing
the south-west, should be divided and furnished with
flues in the same manner $ and thus difterent degrees
of heat may be obtained, according to the seasons and
the particular sorts of plants that are to be preserved.
If there are no sheds behind these wings, the walls should
not be less than three bricks thick : and the back part,
having sloping roofs, which are covered with tiles or
slates, should be lined with reeds, See. under the cover¬
ing. The sloping glasses of these houses should be
made to slide and take off, so that they may be drawn
down more or less in warm weather to admit air to the
plants ; and the upright glasses in front may be so con¬
trived as that every other may open as doors upon hin¬
ges, and the alternate glasses may be divided into two :
the upper part of each should be so contrived as to be
drawn down like sashes, so that either of them may be
used to admit air in a greater or less quantity as there
may be occasion.
As to the management of the plants in the green¬
house, Mortimer recommends the opening of the mould
about them from time to time, and sprinkling a little
fresh mould in them, and a little warm dung on that; as
also to water them when the leaves begin to wither and
curl, and not oftener, which would make them fade
and be sickly $ and to take off such leaves as wither and
grow dry.
Gbeen-Sickness. See Chlorosis, Medicine Index.
Green-SiIvc}', the name of an ancient custom within
the manor of Writtel in the county of Essex in Eng¬
land ; which is, that every tenant whose fore-door opens
to Greenbury, shall pay an halfpenny yearly to the lord,
by the name of green-silver.
Green Wax, is used where estates are delivered
to the sheriffs out of the exchequer, under the seal of
that court, made in green wax, to he levied in the seve¬
ral counties. This word is mentioned the 43d stat.
Ed. Ill, c. 9. and 7 Hen. IV. c. 7.
GREENLAND, a general name by which are de¬
noted the most easterly parts of America, stretching to-
J
wards the north pole, and likewise some islands to the Gree. C(eei
northward of the continent of Europe, lying in very
high latitudes. j
This country is divided into West and East Green-Weti
land.*—West Greenland is now determined by our latest Gr«nli»j
maps to be a part of the continent of America, though^CiCrife
upon what authority is not very clear. That part of it
which the Europeans have any knowledge of is bound¬
ed on the west by Baffin’s bay, on the south by Davis’s
straits, and on the east by the northern part of the
Atlantic ocean. It is a very mountainous country, and
some parts of it so high that they may be discerned
30 leagues off at sea. The inland mountains, hills,
and rocks, are covered with perpetual snow j but the
low lands on the sea-side are clothed with verdure in the
summer season. The coast abounds with inlets, bays, and
large rivers ; and is surrounded with a vast number of
islands of different dimensions. In a great many places,
however, on the eastern coast especially, the shore is
inaccessible by reason of the floating mountains of ice.
The principal river, called Baal, falls into the sea in Ac«<
the 64th degree of latitude, where the first Danish lodge ^
was built in 1721 j and has been navigated above 40
miles up the country. ,
West Greenland was first peopled by Europeans inPeopWI
the eighth century. At that time a company of Ice-aeotaj
landers, headed by one Ericke Rande, were by accident^1"
driven on that coast. On his return he represented the1
country in such a favourable light, that some families
again followed him thither, where they soon became a
thriving colony, and bestowed on their new habitation
the name of Greenland or Greenland, on account of its
verdant appearance. This colony was converted to
Christianity by a missionary from Norway, sent thither
by the celebrated Olaf, the first Norwegian monarch
who embraced the true religion. The Greenland set¬
tlement continued to increase and thrive under his pro¬
tection j and in a little time the country was provided
with many towns, churches, convents, bishops, &c. un¬
der the jurisdiction of the archbishop of Drontheim. A
considerable commerce was carried on between Green¬
land and Norway ; and a regular intercourse maintain¬
ed between the two countries till the year 1406, when j
the last bishop was sent over. From that time all cor-AlIc® ^
respondence was cut off, and all knowledge of Green-SP°^(1 tore,
land has been buried in oblivion. ,'crt
This strange and abrupt cessation of all trade and0g-' ^
intercourse has been attributed to various causes; but
the most probable is the following : The colony, from
its first settlement, had been harassed by the natives, a
barbarous and savage people, agreeing in customs, garb,
language, and appearance, with the Esquimaux found
about Hudson’s bay. This nation, called Schrellings,
at length prevailed against the Iceland settlers who
inhabited the western district, and exterminated them ^
in the 14th century : insomuch, that when their brethren cc]0!ii
of the eastern district came to their assistance, theyposed
found nothing alive but some cattle and flocks of sheepe*tet"
running wild about the country. Perhaps they them-te^‘
selves afterwards experienced the same fate, and were
totally destroyed by these Schrellings, whose descend¬
ants still inhabit the western parts of Greenland, and
from tradition confirm this conjecture. They affirm
that the houses and villages, whose ruins still appear,
were inhabited by a nation of strangers, whom their
ancestors
G R E
ancestors destroyed. There are reasons, however, for
believing that there may be still some descendants
of the ancient Iceland colony remaining in the eastern
district, though they cannot be visited by land, on ac¬
count of the stupendous mountains, perpetually cover¬
ed with snow, which divide the two parts of Green¬
land ; while they have been rendered inaccessible by
sea, by the vast quantity of ice driven from Spitzber-
gen, or East Greenland. One would imagine that
there must have been some considerable alteration in the
northern parts of the world since the 15th century, so
that the coast of Greenland is now become almost to¬
tally inaccessible, though formerly visited with very
little difficulty. It is also natural to ask, By what
means the people of the eastern colony surmounted
the above-mentioned obstacles when they went to the
assistance of their western friends $ how they returned
to their own country j and in what manner historians
learned the success of their expedition P Concerning
all this we have very little satisfactory information.
All that can be learned from the most authentic re-
t cords is, that Greenland was divided into two districts,
called Jrest Bygd and East Bygd: that the western di¬
vision contained four parishes and 100 villages : that
the eastern district was still more flourishing, as being
nearer to Iceland, sooner settled, and more frequented
by shipping from Norway. There are also many ac¬
counts, though most of them romantic and slightly
attested, which render it probable that part of the east¬
ern colony still subsists, who, at some time or other,
may have given the imperfect relation above mention¬
ed. This colony, in ancient times, certainly compre¬
hended twelve extensive parishes, one hundred and
ninety villages, a bishop’s see, and two monasteries.
The present inhabitants of the western district are en¬
tirely ignorant of this part, from which they are di¬
vided by rocks, mountains, and deserts, and still more
effectually by their apprehensions: for they believe the
eastern Greenlanders to be a cruel, barbarous nation,
that destroy and eat all strangers who fall into their
hands. About a century after all intercourse between
Norway and Greenland had ceased, several ships were
sent successively by the kings of Denmark in order to
discover the eastern district; but all of them miscar¬
ried. Among these adventurers, Mogens Heinson,
eo after having surmounted many difficulties and dangers,
got sight of the land ; which, however, he could not
approach. At his return, he pretended that the ship
was arrested in the middle of her course by certain
rocks of loadstone at the bottom of the sea. The
same year, 1576, in which this attempt was made,
has been rendered remarkable by the voyage of Cap¬
tain Martin Frobisher, sent upon the same errand by
Queen Elizabeth. He likewise descried the land ; but
could not reach it, and therefore returned to England ;
G R E
yet not before he had sailed sixty leagues in the strait
which still retains his name, and landed on several
islands, where he had some communication with the na¬
tives. He had likewise taken possession of the country
in the name of Queen Elizabeth ; and brought away
some pieces of heavy black stone, from which the re¬
finers of London extracted a certain proportion of gold.
In the ensuing spring he undertook a second voyage,
at the head of a small squadron, equipped at the ex¬
pence of the public ; entered the straits a second time;
discovered upon an island a gold and silver mine ; be¬
stowed names upon different bays, islands, and head¬
lands ; and brought away a lading of ore, together with
two natives, a male and a female, whom the English
kidnapped.
Such was the success of this voyage, that another
armament was fitted out under the auspices of Admiral
Frobisher, consisting of 15 sail, including a considerable
number of soldiers, miners, smelters, carpenters, and
bakers, to remain all the winter near the mines in a
wooden fort, the different pieces of which they carried
out in the transports. They met with boisterous wea¬
ther, impenetrable fogs, and violent currents upon the
coast of Greenland, which retarded their operations
until the season was far advanced. Part of their wooden
fort was lost at sea ; and they had neither provision
nor fuel sufficient for the winter. The admiral therefore
determined to return with as much ore as he could
procure : of this they obtained large quantities out of
a new mine, to which they gave the name of the Coun¬
tess of Sussex. They likewise built a house of stone
and lime, provided with ovens; and here, with a view
to conciliate the affection of the natives, they left a
quantity of small morrice-bells, knives, beads, look¬
ing glasses, leaden pictures, and other toys, together
with several loaves of bread. They buried the timber
of the fort where it could be easily found next year ;
and sowed corn, pease, and other grain, by way of ex¬
periment, to know what the country would produce.
Having taken these precautions, they sailed from thence
in the beginning of September ; and after a month’s
stormy passage arrived in England : but this noble de¬
sign was never prosecuted.
Christiern IV, king of Denmark, being desirous of
discovering the old Greenland settlement, sent three
ships thither, under the command of Captain Godske
Lindenow ; who is said to have reached the east coast
of Greenland, where he traded with the savage inha¬
bitants, such as they are still found in the western di¬
strict, but saw no signs of a civilized people. Had he
actually landed in the eastern division, he must have
perceived some remains of the ancient colony, even in
the ruins of their convents and villages. Lindenow
kidnapped two of the natives, who were conveyed to
Copenhagen ; and the same cruel fraud (a) was prac¬
tised
C 89 ]
(a) Nothing can be more inhuman and repugnant to the dictates of common justice than this practice of
tearing away poor creatures from their country, their families, and connections ; unless we suppose them alto-
get ler estitute 0 natural affection : and that this was not the case with those poor Greenlanders, some of
w 10m roug it alive to Copenhagen, appears from the whole tenor of their conduct, upon their first cap-
ure, an unng t icir confinement in Denmark. When first captivated, they rent the air with their cries and
amen a 10ns . tiey even leaped into the sea ; and, when taken on board, for some time refused all sustenance,
eir ejea were continually turned towards their dear country, and their faces always bathed in tears. Even
Vol. A. Fart I. ' f M the
G R E
[ 9°
'and.Used by other two ships which sailed into Davis’s straits,
' where they discovered divers fine harbours, and de¬
lightful meadows covered with verdure. In some places
they are said to have found a considerable quantity of
ore, every hundred pounds of which yielded twenty-six
ounces of silver. The same Admiral Lindenow made
another voyage to the coast of Greenland in the year
1606, directing his course to the westward ot Cape
Fdrewell. He coasted along the straits of Davis •, and
having made some observations on the face of the
country, the harbours, and islands, returned to Den¬
mark. Carsten Richards, being detached with two
ships on the same discovery, described the high land on
the eastern side of Greenlarid •, but was hindered by the
ice from approaching the shore.
Other expeditions of the same nature have been plan¬
ned and executed with the same bad success, under the
auspices of a Danish company of merchants. Two
ships returned from the western part of Greenland
loaded with a kind of yellow sand, supposed to con¬
tain a large proportion of gold. This being assayed
by the goldsmiths of Copenhagen, was condemned as
useless, and thrown overboard ; but from a small quan¬
tity of’this sand, which was reserved as a curiosity,
an expert chemist afterwards extracted a quantity of
pure gold. The captain, who brought home this ad¬
venture, was so chagrined at his disappointment, that
he died of grief, without having left any directions
concerning the place where the sand had been disco¬
vered. In the year 1654, Henry Moller, a rich Dane,
equipped a vessel under the command of David de
Nelles, who sailed to the west coast of Greenland, from
which he carried off three women of the country. Other
efforts have been made, under the encouragement of
the Danish king, for the discovery and recovery of
the old Iceland colony in Greenland •, but all of them
miscarried, and people began to look upon such expe¬
ditions as wild and chimerical. At length the Green¬
land company at Bergen in Norway, transported a
colony to the western coast, about the 64th degree
of latitude ; and these Norwegians sailed in the year
iyi 2, accompanied by the Reverend Hans Egede, to
whose care, ability, and precision, we owe the best
and most authentic account of modern Greenland.—
This gentleman endeavoured to reach the eastern di¬
strict, by coasting southwards, and advanced as far as
the States promontory 5 but the season of the year,
and contirtual storms, obliged him to return j and as
he could not even find the strait of Frobisher, he con¬
cluded that no Such place ever existed. In the year
1724, a ship, being equipped by the company, sailed
on this discovery, with a view to land on the east side
try.
] G R E
opposite to Iceland 5 but the vast shoals of ice, which Qri
barricadoed that part of the coast, rendered this scheme w.
impracticable. His Danish majesty, in the year 1728,
caused horses to be transported to Greenland, in hope
that the settlers might by their means travel over land
to the eastern district : but the icy mountains were
found impassable. Finally, Lieutenant Richards, in a
ship which had wintered near the new Danish colo¬
ny, attempted, in his return to Denmark, to land on
the eastern shore j but all his endeavours proved abor¬
tive.
Mr Egede is of opinion, that the only practicable
method of reaching that part of the country, will be
to coast north about in small vessels, betw'een the great
flakes of ice and the shore *, as the Greenlanders have
declared, that the currents eontinully rushing from
the bays and inlets, and running south-westwards along
the shore, hinder the ice from adhering to the land j
so that there is always a channel open, through which
vessels of small burden might pass, especially if lodges
were built at convenient distances on the shore, for the
convenience and direction of the adventurers.
That part of the country which is now visited and MtEgsi
settled by the Danes and Norwegians, lies between ac<»i
the 64th and 68th degrees of north latitude j and thus1 ec®
far it is said the climate is temperate. In the sum¬
mer, which continues from the end of May to the
middle of September, the weather is warm and com¬
fortable, while the wind blows easterly j though even
at this time storms frequently happen, which rage with
incredible violence •, and the sea-coasts are infested with
fogs that are equally disagreeable and unhealthy.—
Near the shore, and in the bays and inlets, the low
land is clothed with the most charming verdure } but
the inland mountains are perpetually covered with ice
and snow. To the northward of the 68th degree of
latitude the cold is prodigiously intense ; and towai’ds
the end 6f August all the coast is covered with ice,
which never‘thaws till April or May, and sometimes
not till the1 latter end of June. Nothing can exhibit a
tnore dreadful, and at the same time a more dazzling,
appearance, than those prodigious masses of ice that
surround the iVhole coast in various forms, reflecting a
multitude of colours from the sun-beams, and calling
to mind the enchanted scenes of romance. Such pro¬
spects they yield in calm weather j but when the wind
begins to blow, and the waves to rise in vast billows,
the violent shocks of those pieces of ice dashing against
one another, fill the mind with horror.—Greenland is
seldom visited with thunder and lightning, but the Au¬
rora Borealis is very frequent and bright. At the time
of new and full moon, the tide rises and falls upon this
coast
the countenance of his Danish majesty, and the caresses of the court and people, could not alleviate their grief.
One of them was perceived to shed tears always when he saw an infant in the mother’s arms ; a circumstance
from whence it was naturally concluded, that he had left his wife with a young child in Greenland. Two of
them went to sea in their little canoes in hope of reaching Greenland j but one of them was retaken. Other
two made the same attempt: but were driven by a storm on the coast of Schonen, where they were apprehend¬
ed by the peasants, and reconveyed to Copenhagen. One of them afterwards died of a fever, caught in fishing
pearl, during the winter, for the governor of Kolding. The rest lived some years in Denmark j but at length,
seeing no prospect of being able to revisit their native country, they sunk into a kind of melancholy disorder,
*nd expired.
G R E [ 91 1 G R E
^Gret ind. coast about three fathoms ; and it is remarkable, that
v* t|ie springs and fountains on shore rise and fall with the
flux and reflux of the ocean.
The soil of Greenland varies like that of all other
mountainous countries. The hills are very barren,
being indeed frozen throughout the whole year ; but
the valleys and low grounds, especially near the sea,
are rich and fruitful. The ancient Norwegian chro¬
nicles inform us, that Greenland formerly produced a
great number of cattle 5 and that considerable quanti¬
ties of butter and cheese were exported to Norway ;
and, on account of their peculiar excellency, set apart
for the king’s use. The same histories inform us, that
some parts of the country yielded excellent wheat ; and
that large oaks were found here, which earned acorns
as big as apples. Some ot these oaks stul remain in
the southern parts, and in many places the marks
of ploughed land are easily perceived. At present,
however, the country is destitute of corn and cattle,
though in many places it produces excellent pasture ;
and, if properly cultivated, would probably yield grain
also. Mr Egede sowed some barley in a bay adjoin-
! 1 ing to the Danish colony. It sprang up so fast, that
by the latter end of July it was in the full ear j but
being nipped by a night-frost, it never arrived at ma¬
turity. This seed was brought from Bergen, where
the summer is of greater heat and duration than in
Greenland; but in all probability the corn which
grows in the northern parts of Norway would also
thrive here. Turnips and coleworts of an excellent
taste and flavour are also produced here. The sides of
the mountains near the bays are clothed with wild
thyme, which diffuses its fragrance to a great distance.
The herb tormentil is very common in this country,
and likewise many others not described by the bota¬
nists. Among the fruits of Greenland we number
juniper-berries, blue-berries, bil-berries, and bramble-
berries.
Greenland is thought to contain many mines of me¬
tal, though none of them are wrought. To the south¬
ward of the Danish colony are some appearances of a
mine of copper. Mr Egede once received a lump of
ore from one of the natives ; and here he found cala¬
mine of a yellow colour. He once sent a considerable
quantity of sand of a yellow colour, intermixed with
streaks of vermilion, to the Bergen company. They
probably found their account in this present; for they
desired him by a letter to procure as much of that
sand as possible : but he was never able to find the
place were he saw the first specimen. It was one of
the smallest among a great number of islands ; and the
mark he had set up was blown down by a violent
storm. Possibly this might be the same mineral of
which Captain Frobisher brought so much to England.
This country produces rock-crystals both red and
white, and whole mountains of the asbestos or incom¬
bustible flax. Around the colony, which is known
by the name of Good Hope, they find a kind of bastard
marble of various colours, which the natives form into
bowls, lamps, pots, &c. All that has been said of
the fertility of Greenland, however, must be under¬
stood only ol that part which lies between the 60th
and 65th degrees of latitude. The most northern parts
are totally destitute of herbs and plants. The wretched
inhabitants cannot find grass in sufficient quantities to
stuff1 into their shoes to keep their feet warm, but are Greenland,
obliged to buy it from those who inhabit the more >—y—*
southern parts.
The animals which abound most in Greenland are,
rein-deer, foxes, hares, dogs, and white bears. The
hares are of a white colour, and very fat; the foxes
are of different colours, white, grayish, and bluish ;
and smaller than those of Denmark and Norway. The
natives keep a great number of dogs, which are large,
white, or speckled, and rough, with ears standing up¬
right, as is the case with all the dogs peculiar to cold
climates. They are timorous and stupid ; and neither
bay nor bark, but sometimes howl dismally. In the
northern parts the natives yoke them in sledges;
which, though heavy laden, they will draw on the ice
at the rate of 70 miles in a short winter’s day. These
poor animals are very ill rewarded for their service ;
being left to provide for themselves, except when their
masters happen to catch a great number of seals. On
these occasions the dogs are regaled with the blood
and entrails ; at other times they subsist, like wild
beasts, upon muscles and berries. Here also are found
great numbers of ravens, eagles of a prodigious size,
falcons, and other birds of prey ; and likewise a kind
of linnet, which warbles very melodiously. Whales,
sword-fish, porpoises, &c. abound on the coasts ; also
holybut, turbot, cod, haddock, &c. S
The people who now inhabit the western coasts of Account of
Greenland, and who, without doubt, are the descend-'
dants of the ancient Schrcitings, who exterminated the
first Iceland colony, bear a near resemblance to the
Samoiedesand Laplanders in their persons, complexions,
and way of life. They are short, brawny, and inclined
to corpulency ; with broad faces, flat noses, thick
lips, black hair and eyes, and a yellowish tawny com¬
plexion. They are for the most part vigorous and
healthy; but remarkably short-lived; few of them
reaching the grand climacteric ; and many dying in
their infancy, and in the prime of youth. They are
subject to a weakness in the eyes, occasioned by the
piercing winds and the glare of the snow in the winter
time. The leprosy is known among them, but is not
contagious. Those that dwell in the northern parts
are miserably tormented with dysenteries, rheums, and
pulmonary disorders, boils, and epilepsy. The small¬
pox being imported among them from Copenhagen in
the year I734> nia(le terrible havock among these poor
people, who are utterly destitute of any knowledge of
the medicinal art, and depend entirely for assistance
upon their angekuts or conjurers. In their dispositions
the Greenlanders are cold, phlegmatic, indolent, and
slow of apprehension : but very quiet, orderly, and
good-natured. They live peaceably together; and
have every thing in common, without strife, envying,
or animosity. They are civil and hospitable, but slo¬
venly to a degree almost beyond the Hottentots them¬
selves. They never wash themselves with water ; but
lick their paws like the cat, and then rub their faces
with them. They eat after their dogs without wash¬
ing their dishes; devour the lice which devour them;
and even lick the sweat, which they scrape off" from
their faces with their knives. The women wash them¬
selves with their own urine, which they imagine makes
their hair grow; and in the winter-time go out imme¬
diately after, to let the liquor freeze upon their skin.
M 2 They
G R E [ 92 ] G R E
Greenland. They will often eat their victuals off the du ty ground,
v—J without any vessel to hold them in ; and devour rot¬
ten flesh with the greatest avidity. In times of scar¬
city they will subsist on pieces of old skin, reeds, sea¬
weed, and a root called tugloronet, dressed with train-
oil and fat. The dung of rein deer taken from the
intestines, the entrails of partridges, and all sorts of of-
fals, are counted dainties among these savages j and of
the scrapings of seal skins they make delicate pan-cakes.
At first they could not taste the Danish provisions
without abhorrence 5 but now they are become ex¬
tremely fond of bread and butter, though they still re¬
tain an aversion to tobacco and spirituous liquors ; in
which particular they differ from almost all savages on
the face of the earth.
The Greenlanders commonly content themselves
with one wife j who is condemned, as among other sa¬
vage nations, to do all the drudgery, and may be cor¬
rected, or even divorced, by the husband at pleasure.
Heroes, however, and extraordinary personages, are in¬
dulged with a plurality of wives. Their young women
are generally chaste and bashful j but at some of their
feasts, in the midst of their jollity, a man retires with
his neighbour’s wife behind a curtain made of skins ;
and all the guests, thus coupled, retire in their turns.
The women think themselves happy if an angekut or
prophet will thus honour them with his caresses. These
people never marry within the prohibited degrees of
consanguinity, nor is it counted decent in a couple to
marrv who have been educated in the same family.—
They have a number of ridiculous and superstitious
customs j among which the two following are the most
remarkable : While a woman is in labour the gossips
hold a chamber-pot over her head, as a charm to hasten
the delivery. When the child is a year old, the mo¬
ther licks and slabbers it all over, to render it, as she
imagines, more strong and hardy.
I an»ua e All the Greenlanders hitherto known speak the same
religion, language, though different dialects prevail in different
&c- parts of the country. It abounds with double con¬
sonants $ and is so guttural, that the pronunciation
of many words is not to be learned except by those
who have been accustomed to it from their infancy.
The letters C, D, F, Q, and X, are not known in
their alphabet. Like the North Americans, and in¬
habitants of Kamtschatka, they have a great number
of long polysyllables. Their words, nouns as well as
verbs, are inflected at the end by varying the termi¬
nation, without the help of articles : but their lan¬
guage being found defective, they have adopted a good
many words from the Norwegian dialect. Notwith¬
standing the endeavours of the Danish missionaries,
they have no great reason to boast of the proselytes
they have made of the natives of Greenland. These
savages pay great deference and respect to the Danes,
whom indeed they obey as their masters, and hear
the truths of the Christian religion expounded with¬
out doubting the veracity of their teachers *, but at
the same time they listen with the most mortifying in¬
difference, without being in the least influenced by
what they have heard. They believe in the immor¬
tality of the soul, and the existence of a spirit whom
they call Tomgai'SJtk; but of whom they have form¬
ed the most ridiculous notions. The angekuts, who
are supposed to ba his immediate ministers, differ con¬
cerning the principles of his existence ; some affirming Grecniamj
that he is without form or shape ; others, that he has
the shape of a bear j others, that he has a large human
body with only one arm *, while others affirm that he is
no larger than a man’s finger, with many other absur¬
dities of a similar kind. They have also a peculiar
kind of mythology, by which they believe all the ele¬
ments to be full of spirits, from among which every one
of their prophets is supplied with a familiar which they
name Torngack, and who is always ready when sum¬
moned to his assistance.
The Greenlanders are employed all the year round
either in fishing or hunting. At sea they pursue the
whales, horses, seals, fish for eating, and sea fowl.
On shore they hunt the rein-deer in diflerent parts of
the country. They drive these animals, which feed
in large herds, into a narrow circle or defile, where
they are easily slain with arrows. Their bow is made
of fir-tree, wound about with the twisted sinews of
animals; the string is composed of the same stufl, or
of seal skin : the arrow is a full fathom in length,
pointed with a bearded iron, or a sharp bone; but
those with which they kill birds are blunt, that they
may not tear the flesh. Sea fowls they kill with
lances, which they throw to a great distance with sur¬
prising dexterity. Their manner of catching whales
is quite different from that practised by the Euro¬
peans. About 50 persons, men and women, set out in
one long boat, which is called a kone-boat, from koney
a “ woman,” because it is rowed by females only.
When they find a whale, they strike him with har¬
poons, to which are fastened with long lines some seal
skins blown up like bladders. These, by floating on
the surface, not only discover the back of the whale,
hut hinder him from diving under water for any length
of time. They continue to pursue him until he loses
strength, when they pierce him with spears and lances
till he expires. On this occasion they are clad in
their spring coats, consisting of one piece, with gloves,
boots, caps made of seal-skin so closely laced and sew¬
ed that they keep out water. Thus accoutred, they
leap into the sea; and begin to slice off the fat, even
under water, before the whale is dead.—They have
many different ways of killing seals ; namely, by strik¬
ing them with a small harpoon equipped also with an
air-bag; by watching them when they come to breathe
at the air-holes in the ice, and striking them with
spears; by approaching them in the disguise of their
own species, that is, covered with a seal-skin, creep¬
ing upon the ice, and moving the head from side to
side as the seals are accustomed to do. By this stra¬
tagem the Greenlander moves towards the unsus¬
pecting seal, and kills him with a spear. The
Greenlanders angle with lines made of whale-bone
cut very small, by means of which they succeed
wonderfully. The Greenland canoe, like that used
in Nova Zembla and Hudson’s bav, is about three
fathoms in length, pointed at both ends, and three
quarters of a yard in breadth. It is composed of
thin rafts fastened together with the sinews of ani¬
mals. It is covered with dressed seal-skins both be¬
low and above, in such a manner that only a circular
hole is left in the middle, large enough to admit the
body of one man. Into this the Greenlander thrusts
himself up to the waist, and fastens the skin so tight
about
G R E l 93 1 G R E
tn(Ji about litm that no water can enter. Thus secured,
mmj and armed with a paddle broad at both ends, he will
venture out to sea in the most stormy weather to catch
seals and sea-fowl ; and if he is overset, he can easily
raise himself by means of his paddle. A Green¬
lander in one of these canoes, which vras brought
with him to Copenhagen, outstripped a pinnace of
16 oars, manned with choice mariners.—The kone-
boat is made of the same materials, but more durable $
and so large, that it will contain 50 persons with all
their tackle, baggage, and provisions. She is fitted
with a mast, which carries a triangular sail made of
the membranes and entrails of seals, and is managed
without the help of braces and bowlings. These
kones are flat bottomed, and sometimes 60 feet in
length. 'Hie men think it beneath them to take
charge of them j and therefore they are left to the
conduct of the women, who indeed are obliged to do
ail the drudgery, including even the building and re¬
pairing their houses, while the men employ themselves
wholly in preparing their hunting implements and fish¬
ing tackle.
The number of inhabitants In West Greenland in
1802 was estimated at 20,000. In the winter time the
people dwell in huts built of stone or turf: on the one
side are the windows, covered with the skins of seals or
rein-deer. Several families live in one of these houses,
possessing each a separate apartment, before which is
a hearth with a great lamp placed on a trevit, over
which hangs their kettle 5 above is a rack or shelf on
which their wet clothes are dried. They burn train
oil in their lamps ; and instead of wick, they use a kind
of moss, which fully answers the purpose. These fires
are not only sufficient to boil their victuals ; but like¬
wise to produce such a heat, that the whole house is
like a bagnio. The door is very low, that as little cold
air as possible may be admitted. The house within is
lined with old skins, and surrounded with benches for
the conveniency of strangers. In the summer time
they dwell in tents made of long poles fixed in a conical
form, covered in the inside with deer skins, and on the
outside with seal skins, dressed so that the rain cannot
pierce them.
ten- East Greenland was for a long time considered as a
part of the continent of West Greenland, hut is now
discovered to he an assemblage of islands lying betrveen
76° 46' and 8o° 30' of north latitude, and between
90 and 20° of east longitude. It was discovered by
Sir Hugh Willoughby in the year 1553, who called
it Greenland; supposing it to he a part of the western
continent. In 1595, it was again visited by William
Barentz and John Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pre¬
tended to be the original discoverers, and called the
country Spitsbergen^ or Sharp Mountains, from the
many sharp-pointed and rocky mountains with which
it abounds. They alleged that the coast discovered
by Sir Hugh Willoughby was some other country ;
which accordingly the Hollanders delineated on their
maps and charts by the name of Willoughby Land;
whereas in fact no such land ever existed \ and long
before the voyage of these Dutchmen, Stephen Bar-
rows, an English shipmaster, had coasted along a deso¬
late country from N. Lat. 78° to 8o° 11', which was
undoubtedly Spitzbergen. The sea in the neighbour¬
hood of the islands of Spitzbergen abounds very much
with whales, and is the common resort of the whale* Greenland,
fishing ships from different countries, and the country it- v ""
self is frequently visited by these ships j but till the voyage
of the Hon. Capt. Phipps (afterwards Lord Mulgrave},
by order of his majesty, the situation of it was erroneously
laid down. It was imagined that the land stretched to
the northward as far as 82° of north latitude ; but Capt.
Phipps found the most northerly point of land, called
Seven Islands, not to exceed 8o° 30' of latitude. To¬
wards the east he saw other lands lying at a distance,
so that Spitzbergen plainly appeared to be surrounded
by water on that side, and not joined to the continent
of Asia, as former navigators had supposed. The
north and west coasts also he explored, but was pre¬
vented by the ice from sailing so far to the northward
as he wished. The coast appeared neither habitable
nor accessible. It is formed of high, barren, black
rocks, without the least marks of vegetation j in many
places bare and pointed $ in others covered with snow,
appearing even above the clouds. The valleys be¬
tween the high cliffs were filled with snow and ice.
“ This prospect,” says Capt. Phipps, “ would have
suggested the idea of perpetual winter, had not the
mildness of the weather, the smooth water, bright sun¬
shine, and constant day-light, given a cheerfulness and
novelty to the whole of this romantic scene.” The
current ran along this coast half a knot an hour north.
The height of one mountain seen here was found by
geometrical mensuration to be at one time 1503^ feet,
at another 1503^ feet. By a barometer constructed
after De Luc’s method, the height was found to be
1588^ feet. On this occasion Capt. Phipps has the
following remarks. “ I cannot account for the great
difference between the geometrical measure and the
barometrical according to M. de Luc’s calculation,
which amounts to 84.7 feet. I have no reason to
doubt the accuracy of Dr Irving’s observations, which
were made with great care. As to the geometrical
measure, the agreement of so many triangles, each of
which must have discovered even the smallest error, is
the most satisfactory proof of its correctness. Since
my return I have tried both the theodolite and baro¬
meter, to discover whether there was any fault in ei¬
ther 5 and find them, upon trial, as I had always done
before, very accurate.”
There is good anchorage in Schmeerenburgh har¬
bour, lying in N. Lat. 740 44', E. Long. 90 50' 43'',
in 13 fathoms, sandy bottom, not far from the shore,
and well sheltered from all winds. Close to this har¬
bour is an island called Amsterdam Island, where the
Dutch used formerly to boil their whale-oil ; and the
remains of some conveniency erected by them for that
purpose are still visible. The Dutch ships, excepting
in time of war, still resort to this place for the later
season of the whale-fishery.—The rocks about this
place are chiefly a kind of marble or limestone. No
appearances of metals were observed, nor any signs of
ancient or modern volcanoes. No insects, or any spe¬
cies of reptiles, were seen, not even the common earth¬
worm. There were no springs or rivers $ but great
plenty of water was produced from the snow which
melted on the mountains.
The most remarkable views which these dreary re¬
gions present are those called Icebergs. They are large
bodies of ice filling the valleys between the high
mountains.
G It E
[ 94 ]
Greenland, mountains. Their face towards the sea is nearly per-
Greenoek.' pendicular, and of a very lively light-green colour,
1 ' One was about 300 feet high, with a cascade of wa¬
ter issuing from it. The black mountains on each
side, the white snow, and greenish-coloured ice, com¬
posed. a very beautiful and romantic picture. Large
pieces frequently broke off from the icebergs, and fell
with great noise into the water. One piece was ob¬
served to have floated out into the bay, and grounded
in 24 fathoms *, it was 50 feet high above the surface
of the water, and of the same beautiful colour with the
iceberg from which it had separated.
These islands are totally uninhabited, though it doth
not appear but that human creatures could subsist on
them, notwithstanding their vicinity to the pole.—
Eight English sailors, who were accidentally left here
by a whale-fishing ship, survived the winter, and were
brought home next season. The Dutch then attempted
to settle a colony on Amsterdam island above mention¬
ed ; but all the people perished, not through the seve¬
rity of the climate, but of the scurvy, owing to the
want of those remedies which are now happily disco¬
vered, and which are found to be so effectual in pre¬
venting and curing that dreadful disease.—The late ac¬
count also of six Russian sailors who staid four years
in this inhospitable country, affords a decisive proof,
that a colony might be settled on East Greenland,
provided the doing so could answer any good purpose.
Greenland Company. A joint stock of 40,000!.
was by statute to be raised by subscribers, who were
incorporated for 14 years from the first of October 1693,
and the company to use the trade of catching whales
&c, into and from Greenland, and the Greenland
seas ; they may make bye-laws for the government of
the persons employed in their ships, &c. Stat. 4. and
5 W. III. cap. 17. This company was farther en¬
couraged by parliament in 1696 $ but partly by un¬
skilful management, and partly by real losses, it was
under the necessity of entirely breaking up, before the
expiration of the term assigned to it, ending in 1707.
But any person who will adventure to Greenland for
whale-fishing, shall have all privileges granted to the
Greenland company, by I Anne, cap. 16. and thus the
trade was again laid open. Any subjects may import
whale-fins, oil, &c. of fish caught in the Greenland
seas, without paying any customs, &c. stat. 10 Geo. I.
cap. 16. And ships employed in the Greenland-fishery
are to be of such burden, provided with boats, so
many men, fishing-lines, harping irons, &c. and be
licensed to proceed j and on their return shall be paid
20s. per ton bounty, for whale-fins, &c. imported j
6 Geo. II. cap. 33. The bounty was afterwards in¬
creased •, but has been lately diminished, and since
this diminution, the trade has increased. See Whale-
Fishery.
GREENOCK, a sea-port town of Scotland, and
one of the ports of the city of Glasgow. It is distant
24 miles from that city. The frith of Clyde here ex¬
pands into a fine bason four miles wide, and is landlock¬
ed on all sides.
Greenock, till lately, was divided into what are call¬
ed the old and new parishes. Certain lands disjoined
from Innerkip and Houston, in the year 1636, by vir¬
tue of a petition from the proprietors to the lords of
commission for plantation of kirks, &c. which received
2
R E
when erected into a parish.
the name of Greenock
There are different opinions entertained respecting the
origin of the name, but the most probable opinion is,
that it is derived from the Gaelic Grianeg, which sig¬
nifies the bay of the sun. It lies in the north-west part
of the county of Renfrew, in the presbytery of Paisley,
and synod of Glasgow and Ayr, with the frith of Clyde
on the north. Greenock was erected into a burgh of
barony in 1575, and is governed by two bailies and
a council.
The parish of Greenock is hilly, with the exception of
a small strip of level ground of various breadths, stretch¬
ing along the shore. It abounds with peat for fuel to
the inhabitants, vast quantities of which they can afford
to dispose of to the neighbouring towns and villages.
The soil upon the shore is full of gravel, light and
sandy, which needs much rain to produce even a tole¬
rable crop. It produces, however, large quantities of
excellent potatoes, and by the assistance of sea ware,
much good barley and oats.
As far as is yet known, the parish of Greenock pro¬
duces no minerals which are in the least remarkable.
Freestone is the most common ; while limestone, which
has been but lately discovered, has been found in very
small quantities. No traces of coal have yet been met
with.
In descending from the hills, there are some rivulets
which form beautiful cascades, and appear like wreathes
of snow, when seen from the shore. The chief of them
bears the name of Wallace, the celebrated champion of
the liberties of Scotland.
On the west side of the bay of Greenock and Craw-
furdsdike, formerly denominated the bay of St Law¬
rence, from a chapel in the vicinity consecrated to that
saint, lies the new town of Greenock. In the begin¬
ning of the 18th century it consisted only of one row of
houses covei-ed with thatch, and had no vestige of a
harbour for vessels $ but at present it extends along the
Clyde rather more than an English mile, but not more
than a furlong in breadth. Before the year I745> anew
parish was erected in Greenock, by the permission of Sir
John Shaw, who gave up to the heritors and elders the
right of patronage $ and lately a third parish.
Both the parishes did not contain more than 4000
persons about the year 1745, and in 10 years after,
they had suffered a diminution of 142 persons, as ap¬
pears from the return transmitted to Dr Webster. The
increase of population has been rapid since that time,
the number of inhabitants being 19,042 in 1811.
Improvements have kept pace with the progress of
wealth and population. An infirmary was erected in
1808, and a bridewell in 1809. And in 1815 a new
customhouse was begun, which was finished in 1817*
It is a fine building, 172 feet long and 100 feet deep,
and has a handsome Doric portico in front. About a
third of the building is occupied by the excise. Two
newspapers are published at Greenock, and for some
years pdst there has been an annual exhibition of paint¬
ings and drawings. There are two commercial banks
in the town, a provident bank, and a number of benefit
societies. The harbour which has of late years been
greatly enlarged and improved, has from 16 to 26 feet
water at high tides, and is capable of receiving 500
sail of merchant vessels. There are three established
churches in the town, a Gaelic chapel, and meeting¬
houses
Grcensi,
Gr< lock,
Gre wich
GRE [95
houses of Roman Catholics, Relief, Independents, Bap¬
tists, Burghers, and Antiburghers.
The tovvn of Greenock is governed by a council of
nine feuars, of whom two are bailies. It is a burgh of
barony, erected by Sir John Shaw in the year 1757,
who was at that time superior. The inhabitants of
Greenock petitioned the Scotch parliament in 1700,
for a fund to build a harbour, which was absolutely
and unaccountably refused. This made them enter
into a contract with Sir John Shaw, paying a volun¬
tary assessment of sixteen pence on each sack of malt
brewed into ale within the limits of the town. In the
year 1740 the whole debt was extinguished, and a sur¬
plus remained of 2J,000 merks.
In Greenock there are several duck manufactories,,
three soap and candle works, one saddle and shoe ma¬
nufactory, and two sugar-houses, all carried on for ex¬
portation to a great extent.
In the year 1784, after peace with America, 436 ves¬
sels British and foreign, including outward and home¬
ward bound, carrying 14,911 tons, were entered at the
port of Greenock j and in 1791, there were 1962 ves¬
sels, the tonnage of which amounted to 31,704. In
1818, the registered shipping amounted to 40,195 tons.
In the same year the duties of customs amounted to
351,587!. and those of excise to 280,000!. The re¬
venues of the town and harbour were io,oool.
GREENWICH, a town of the county of Kent,
in England, pleasantly situated on the bank of the
Thame?, about five miles east from London. Here
was formerly a royal palace, built by Humphry duke
. of Gloucester, enlarged by Henry VII. and completed
by Henry VIII. The latter often chose this town
for his place of residence j as did also the queens Mary
and Elizabeth, who were born in it. The same Duke
Humphry began a tower on the top of the steep hill in
the park, which was finished by Henry VII. but af¬
terwards demolished, and a royal observatory erected
in its place by Charles II. furnished with mathemati¬
cal instruments for astronomical observations, and a
deep dry well for observing the stars in the day-time.
The palace being afterwards much neglected, King
Charles II. (who had enlarged the park, walled it a-
bout and planted it), pulled it down, and began ano¬
ther, of which he lived to see the first wing magnifi¬
cently finished. But King William III. in 1694,
granted it, with nine acres of ground thereto belong¬
ing, to be converted into a royal hospital for old and
disabled seamen, the widows and children of those who
lost their lives in the service, and for the encourage¬
ment of navigation. This wing, which cost King
Charles 36,000!. is now the first wing of the hospital
towards London. The front to the Thames consists
of two ranges of stone buildings, with the ranger’s
bouse in the centre of the area, but detached from any
part of the hospital. These buildings perfectly cor¬
respond with each other, and have their tops crowned
with a stone ballustrade. The buildings which are fa¬
cing the area, correspond with them, though in a finer
and more elegant style and have domes at their ends,
which are 120 feet high, supported on coupled co¬
lumns. Under one of these is the hall, which is finely
painted by Sir James Thornhill, and contains many
royal portraits j and under the other the chapel, which
] GRE
by accident was destroyed by fire. This fire brok out Green
in the hospital on the second of January I779> ant^ ~v
totally consumed the dome at the S. E. quarter of
the building, with the chapel, which was the most ele¬
gant in the world, the great dining hall, and eight
wards, containing the lodgings of near 600 pensioners.
The dome was rebuilt about the year 1785, and the
whole damage has since been repaired. On the sides
of the gate which opens to these buildings from the
park, are placed a large terrestrial and celestial globe,
in which the stars are gilt j and in the centre of the
area is a statue of George II. About 3000 °^d dis¬
abled seamen are maintained in this hospital, and 54°°
out-pensioners receive assistance from the funds. Be¬
sides private benefactions, to the amount of near 6o,oool.
the parliament, in the year 1732, settled upon it the
earl of Derwentwater’s estate, to the value of 6oool.
per annum. All strangers who see it, pay two-pence
each ; and this income is applied to the support of the
mathematical school for the sons of sailors. I or the
better support of it, every seaman in the merchant ser¬
vice, pays sixpence a month, stopped out of their pay,
and delivered in at the six-penny receiver’s office in
Tower-hill. On this account, a seaman, who can pro¬
duce an authentic certificate of his being disabled, and
rendered unfit for service, by defending any ship be¬
longing to his majesty’s British subjects, or in taking
any ship from the enemy, may be admitted into this
hospital, and receive the same benefit from it as if he
had been in his majesty’s immediate service. Besides
the seamen and widows above mentioned, about 200
boys, the sons of seamen, are bred up for the service of
the royal navy. Each of the mariners has a weekly
allowance of seven loaves, weighing 16 ounces each y
three pounds of beef, two of mutton, a pint of pease,
a pound and a quarter of cheese, two ounces of butter,
fourteen quarts of beer, and one shilling a-week tobac¬
co-money 5 the tobacco-money of the boatswains is tyvo
shillings and sixpence a-week each, that of their mates
one shilling and sixpence, and that of the other officers
in proportion to their rank : besides which, each com¬
mon pensioner receives once in two years, a suit of blue
clothes, a hat, three pairs of stockings, two pairs of
shoes, five neckcloths, three shirts, and two night-caps.
Out of all that is given for showing the hall, only three¬
pence in the shilling is allowed to the person that shows
them ; the rest makes an excellent fund for the yearly
maintenance of not less than 20 poor boys, who are the
sons of mariners that have been either slain or disabled
in the service of their country. The park is well stocked
with deer, and affords as much variety, in proportion
to its size, as any in the kingdom*, but the views from
the Observatory and the One-tree hill are beautiful
beyond imagination, particularly the former. The
projection of these hills is so bold, that you do not look
down upon a gradually falling slope, or flat inclosures,
but at once upon the tops of branching trees, which
grow in knots and clumps out of deep hollows and em¬
browned dells. The cattle which feed on the lawns,
which appear in breaks among them, seem moving in
a region of fairy land. A thousand natural openings
among the branches of the trees break upon little pic¬
turesque views of the swelling turf, which, when illu¬
mined by the sun, have an effect pleasing beyond the
power
G R E [ 96 ] G R E
Greenwich power of fancy to paint. This is the fore-ground of
|] the landscape: a little farther, the eye falls on that
Gregory, noble structure the hospital, in the midst of an amphi-
' v ’ theatre of wood •, then the two reaches of the river
make that beautiful serpentine which forms the Isle of
Dogs, and present the floating millions of the Thames.
To the left appears a fine tract ol country, leading to
the capital, which there finishes the prospect. The pa¬
rish-church of Greenwich, rebuilt by the commissioners
for erecting the 50 new churches, is a very handsome
structure, dedicated to St Alphage, archbishop of Can¬
terbury, who is said to have been slain by the Danes
in the year 1012, on the spot where the church now
stands. There is a college at the end of the town,
fronting the Thames, for the maintenance of 20 de¬
cayed old house-keepers, 12 out of Greenwich, and
eight who are to be alternately chosen from Snottisham
and Castle-Rising in Norfolk. This is called the duke
rjf Norfolk's College, though it was founded and endow¬
ed in 1613 by Henry earl of Northampton, the duke
of Norfolk’s brother, and by him committed to the
care of the Mercers company. To this college be¬
longs a chapel, in which the earl’s body is laid ; whichK
as well as his monument, was removed hither a few
years ago from the chapel of Dover castle. The pen¬
sioners, besides meat, drink, and lodging, are allowed
one shilling and sixpence a-week, with a gown every
year, linen once in two years, and hats once in four
years. In 1560, Mr Lambard, author of the Peram¬
bulation of Kent, also built an hospital, called Queen
Elizabeth’s college, said to be the first erected by an
English Protestant. There are likewise two charity-
schools in this parish. The river Thames is here very
broad, and the channel deep; and at some very high
tides the water is salt. This is the chief harbour for the
king’s yachts. In 1811 Greenwich contained 2315
houses, and 16,947 inhabitants. A market on Wednes¬
day and Saturday was erected here in 1737, the direc¬
tion of which is in the governors of the royal hospital,
to which the profits arising from it were appropriated.
GREGARIOUS, among zoologists, a term applied
to such animals as do not live solitary, but associate in
herds or flocks.
GREGORIAN calendar, that which shows the
new and full moon, with the time of Easter, and the
moveable feasts depending thereon, by means of epacts,
disposed through the several months of the Gregorian
year. See CHRONOLOGY, N° 26.
Gregorian Telescope. See Optics Index.
Gregorian Year. See, Chronology, N° 26.
GREGORY the Great, was born at Rome of a
patrician family. He discovered such abilities in the
exercise of the senatorial employments, that the emperor
Justin the younger appointed him prefect of Rome.
Pope Pelasgius II. sent him nuncio to Constantinople,
to demand succours against the Lombards. When he
thought of enjoying a solitary life, he was elected pope
by the clergy, the senate, and the people of Rome.
-Besides his learning and diligence in instructing the
church, both by writing and preaching, he had a very
happy talent in Running over princes in favour of the
temporal as well as spiritual interest of religion. He
undertook the conversion of the English, and sent over
some monks of his order, under the direction of Au¬
gustin their abbot. His morality with respect to the
3
chastity of churchmen was very rigid, asserting that Gre
a man who had ever known a woman ought not to be -y-*
admitted to the priesthood ; and he always caused the
candidates for it to be examined upon that point. He
likewise vigorously exerted himselt against such as
were found guilty of calumny. However, he flatter¬
ed the emperor Phocas, while his hands were yet
reeking with the blood of Mauritius, and of his three
children, who had been butchered in his sight. He
likewise flattered Brunehaut, a very wicked queen of
France. He is accused of destroying the noble mo¬
numents of ancient Roman magnificence, that those
who visited the city might not attend more to the tri¬
umphal arches than to holy things $ and burnt a mul¬
titude of heathen books, Livy in particular. He died
in 604.
Gregory of Nazianzen, surnamed the Divine, was
one of the most illustrious ornaments of the Greek
church in the fourth age. He was made bishop of
Constantinople in 379; but finding his election con¬
tested by Timotheus archbishop of Alexandria, he
voluntarily resigned his dignity about 382, in the ge¬
neral council of Constantinople. His works are ex¬
tant, in two volumes, printed at Paris in 1609. His
style is said to be equal to that of the most celebrated
orators of ancient Greece.
Gregory, Theodorus, surnamed Thaumaturgus on
account of his miracles, was the scholar of Origen ; and
was elected bishop of Neocaesarea, the place of his
birth, about the year 240, during his absence. He
assisted at the council of Antioch, in 255, against
Paulus Samosetanus; and died in 270. He had the
satisfaction of leaving only seventeen idolaters in his
diocese, where there were but seventeen Christians
when he was ordained. There is still extant of his, A
gratulatory oration to Origen, A canpnical epistle, and
some other works.
Gregory, bishop of Nyssa, one of the fathers of
the church, and author of the Nicene creed, was born
in Cappadocia, about the year 331. He was chosen
bishop of Nyssa in 372, and banished by the empe¬
ror Valens for adhering to the council of Nice. He
was nevertheless afterwards employed by the bishops
in several important affairs, and died in 396. He
wrote Commentaries on the Scriptures ; Sermons on
the mysteries; Moral discourses; Dogmatical treatises ;
Panegyrics on the saints; some letters on church dis¬
cipline ; and other works. His style is very allegorical
and affected.
Gregory of Tours, or Georgius Florentius Grego¬
rius, one of the most illustrious bishops and celebra¬
ted writers of the sixth century, was descended from
a noble family in Auvergne. He was educated by his
uncle Gallus, bishop of Clermont; and distinguished
himself so much by his learning and virtue, that in
573 he was chosen bishop of Tours. He afterwards
went to Rome to visit thfe tomb of the apostles, where
he contracted a friendship with Gregory the Great,
and died in 595" This author was extremely credu¬
lous with regard to miracles. He wrote, 1. The hi¬
story of France. 2. The lives of the saints ; and other
works. The best edition is that published by Father
Rumart, 1699.
Gregory, David, the eon of the reverend John
Gregory, minister of Drumoak, in the county of Aber¬
deen.
G R E [ 97 1 G R E
deen. He was born about the year 1628, educated by
1-L his father for business, and bound apprentice to a mer¬
cantile house in Holland. But as his love of letters
exceeded his desire for money, he relinquished commerce
in the year 1655, and on the death of an elder brother
he succeeded to the estate ol Ivinnairdie, about ^.0 miles
from Aberdeen, where he resided many years, and had
no fewer than 32 children borne to him by two wives.
Three of his sons became ,eminent for their extensive
literature, and were at one time professors of mathema¬
tics in the universities of Oxford, Edinburgh, and St
Andrews.
The neighbouring gentlemen made a jest ol Mr
Gregory for his ignorance of what was doing on his
own farm, but esteemed him highly as a man of letters.
Having studied physic merely for amusement, he prac¬
tised gratis among the poor; and his knowledge of it
being so extensive, he was employed by the nobility and
gentry in the neighbourhood, but he would take no
fees. Plaving much business during the day, he went
very early to bed, rose to his studies about two or three
in the morning, and then slept an hour or two before
breakfast.
In the country where he dwelt he was the first per¬
son who had a barometer, to the changes in which, ac¬
cording to the changes in the weather, he paid great
attention, and was once in great danger of being tried
by the presbytery for witchcraft or conjuration. He
was waited upon by a deputation of ministers, who in¬
quired into the truth of certain reports which had come
to their ears, whom he so far satisfied as to induce
them to wave a prosecution against a man who, by the
extensive knowledge of medicine which he possessed,
was a public blessing to the country.
About the beginning of last century he removed to
Aberdeen, and during Queen Anne’s war he turned
bis attention to the improvement of artillery, to make
great guns more destructive, and executed A model of
Ills intended engine. We are informed by Dr Reid,
that be knew a clock-maker who bad been employed
in making this model *, but as be made so many differ¬
ent pieces without knowing their design, or the method
of uniting them, he could give no consistent account of
the whole. Mr Gregory being satisfied with his in¬
vention by various experiments, be desired his son to
show it to Sir Isaac Newton, concealing the name of
the inventor; but Sir Isaac was much displeased with
it, and declared that the inventor was more entitled to
punishment than reward, as it was solely calculated for
destruction, and might come to be known to the enemy.
That great man urged the necessity of destroying it,
and it is probable that Mr Gregory’s son, the Savilian
professor, followed his advice, for the model was never
found.
When the rebellion broke out in 1715, the old
gentleman went a second time to Holland, and return¬
ed when it was over to Aberdeen, where he died about
1720, in the 93d year of his age, leaving behind
him a history ot his own times, which was never pub¬
lished.
Gregory, James, one of the most eminent mathe¬
maticians of the 17th century, was a son of the Rev. Mr
John Gregory minister of Drumoak in the county of
Aberdeen, and was born at Aberdeen in 1638. His
mother was a daughter of Mr David Anderson of
Vol. X. Part I.
Finzaugh, a gentleman who possessed a singular turn Gregory.
for mathematical and mechanical knowledge. This v '
mathematical genius was hereditary in the family
the Andersons, and from them seems to have been .
transmitted to their descendants of the name of Gre-f,xed to the
gory. Alexander Anderson, cousin-german of the Works of
above-mentioned David, was professor of mathematics
at Paris in the beginning of the 17th century, and
published there in 1612, Supplementum, Apollonii redi-
vivi, &jC. The mother of James Gregory inherited the
genius of her family ; and observing in her son, while
yet a child, a strong propensity to mathematics, she in¬
structed him herself in the elements of that science.
He received his education in the languages at the
grammar-school of Aberdeen, and went through the
usual course of academical studies in the Marischal col¬
lege.
At the age of 24 he published his treatise, entitled
Optica Promota, seu abdita radiorum reflexoram et re-
fractorum mysteria, geometrice enucleata : cui subnec-
titur appendix subtilissirnorum astronomic problematon
resolutionem exhibens, London 1663 : a work of great
genius, in which he gave the world an invention of his
own, and one of the most valuable of the modern dis¬
coveries, the construction of the reflecting telescope.
This discovery immediately attracted the attention of
the mathematicians, both of our own and of foreign
countries, who were soon convinced of its great impor¬
tance to the sciences of optics and astronomy. The
manner of placing the two specula upon the same axis
appearing to Sir Isaac Newton to he attended with the
disadvantage of losing the central rays of the larger
speculum, he proposed an improvement on the instru¬
ment, by giving an oblique position to the smaller spec¬
ulum, and placing the eve-glass in the side of the tube.
But it is worth remarking, that the Newtonian con¬
struction of that instrument was long abandoned for the
original or Gregorian, which is at this day universally
employed where the instrument is of a moderate size ;
though Mr Herschel has preferred the Newtonian form
for the construction of those immense telescopes, which
of late years he has so successfully employed in observ¬
ing the heavens.
The university of Padua being at that time in high Hii-
reputation for mathematical studies, James Gregory
went thither soon after the publication of bis first
work ; and fixing bis residence there for some years,
he published, in 1667, Circuitct Hyperboles qua-
dratura ; in which lie propounded another discovery of
his own, the invention of an infinitely converging se¬
ries for the areas of the circle and hyperbole. To this
treatise, when republished in 1668, be added a new
work, entitled, Geometrice pars universalis, inserviens
quantitatum curvarum transmutatione et mensura; in
which lie is allowed to have shown, for the first time, a
method for the transmutation of curves. These works
engaged the notice, and procured Mr Gregory the cor¬
respondence, of the greatest mathematicians of the age,
Newton, Huygens, Halley, and Wallis ; and their au¬
thor being soon after chosen a fellow of the royal so¬
ciety of London, contributed to enrich the Philosophi¬
cal Transactions at that time by many excellent papers.
Through this channel, in particular, he carried on a
dispute with Mr Huygens,upon the occasion of his trea¬
tise on the quadrature of the circle and hyperbole, to
N which
G R E
[ 98 ]
G R E
Gregory.
which that able mathematician had started some objec¬
tions. Of this controversy, it is unnecessary to. enter
into particulars. It is sufficient to say, that, in .the
opinion of Leibnitz, who allows Mr Gregory the high¬
est merit for his genius and discoveries, Mr Huygens
has pointed out, "though not errors, some considerable
deficiencies in the treatise above mentioned, and .shown
a much simpler method of attaining the end in view.
In 1688, Mr James Gregory published at London
another work, entitled Exercitutioncs Geometric&i which
contributed still to extend his reputation. About this
time he was elected professor of mathematics in the
university of St Andrew’s ; an office which he held for
six years. During his residence there, he married, in
1669, Mary, the daughter of George Jameson the ce¬
lebrated painter, whom Mr Walpole has termed the
Vandyke of Scotland, and who was fellow-disciple
with that great artist in the school of Rubens at Ant-
werp.
In 1674, he was called to Edinburgh, to fill the
chair of mathematics in that university. This place
he had held for little more than a year, when, in Octo¬
ber 1675, being employed in showing the satellites of
Jupiter through a telescope to some of his pupils, he
was suddenly struck with total blindness, and died a
few days after, at the early age of 37.
He was a man of an acute and penetrating genius.
His temper seems to have been warm, as appears from
the conduct of his dispute with Mr Huygens '7 and,
conscious perhaps of his own merits as a discoverer, he
seems to have been jealous of losing any portion of his
reputation by the improvements of others upon his in¬
ventions.
Gregory, David, Savilian professor of astronomy
at Oxford, whom Dr Smith has termed subtilissimi in¬
genii mat hematicus, wras the eldest son of Mr Gregory
of Kinnairdie, brother of the above-mentioned Mr James
Gregory. He was born at Aberdeen in 1661, and
received the earlier part of his education in that city.
He completed his studies at Edinburgh $ and, being
possessed of the mathematical papers of his uncle, soon
distinguished himself likewise as the heir of his genius.
In the 23d year of his age, he was elected professor of
mathematics in the university of Edinburgh j and pub¬
lished, in the same year, Exercitatio Geometnca de di-
mensione figurarvm, sive specimen methodi generahs di-
metiendi quasvis Jlgnras, Edinburgh, 1684, 4to. He
saw very early the excellence of the Newtonian philo¬
sophy ; and had the merit of being the first who intro¬
duced it into the schools by his public lectures at Edin-
« Afeinoirs burgh. “ He had (says Mr Whiston *) already caused
<lf his own several of his scholars to keep acts, as we call them,
i. 32. upon several branches of the Newtonian philosophy *,
while we at Cambridge, poor wretches,, were ignomi¬
Mid.
niously studying the fictitious hypotheses of the Carte- G
sian.” .
In 1691, on the report of Dr Bernard’s intention of
resigning the Savilian professorship of astronomy at Ox¬
ford, David Gregory went to London ; and being pa¬
tronized by Sir Isaac Newton, and warmly befriended
by Mr Flamstead the astronomer royal, he obtained the
vacant professorship, for which Dr Halley was a com¬
petitor. This rival ship, however, instead of animosity,
laid the foundation of friendship between these eminent
men ; and Halley soon after became the colleague of
Gregory, by obta’ining the professorship of geometry in
the same university. Soon after his arrival in London,
Mr Gregory had been elected a fellow of the royal so¬
ciety , and, previously to his election into the Savilian
professorship, had the degree of doctor ot physic con¬
ferred on him by the university of Oxford, (a).
In 1693, he published in the Philosophical Transac¬
tions a resolution of the Florentine problem de Tesiu-
dine velijornii quadmbili j and he continued to commu¬
nicate to the public, from time to time, many ingeni¬
ous mathematical papers by the same channel. In
1695, he printed at Oxford Cdtoptricce et Dioptrics
Sphericce Elementa ; a work which, as he informs us in
his preface, contains the substance of some of his pub¬
lic lectures read, eleven years before, at Edinburgh.
This valuable treatise was republished first with addi¬
tions by Dr William Brown, with the recommenda¬
tion of Mr Jones and Dr Desaguliers ; and afterwards
by the latter of these gentlemen, with an appendix
containing an account of the Gregorian and Newto¬
nian telescopes, together with Mr Hadley’s tables for
the construction ol both those instruments. It is not
unworthy of remark, that, in the end of this treatise,,
there is an observation which shows, that what is gene¬
rally believed to be a discovery of a much later date,
the construction of achromatic telescopes, which has
heen carried to great perfection by Mr Dollond and
Mr Ramsden, had suggested itself to the mind of Da¬
vid Gregory, from the reflection on the admirable
contrivance in nature in combining the different hu¬
mours of the eye. The passage is as follows : “ Quod
si ob difficultates physicas in speculis idoneis torno ela-
borandis et poliendis, etiamnum lentibus uti oporteat,.
fortassis media diversie densitatis ad lentem objectivam
componendam adlnbere utile foret, ut a natura factum
observamus in oculi fnbrica, ubi cristallinus humor (fere
ejusdem cum vitro virtutis ad radios lucis refringendos)
aqneo et vitreo (aquae quoad refractionem baud absi-
milibus) conjungitur, ad imaginem quam distinct^ fieri
poterit, 5 natura nihil frustra moliente, in oculi fundo
depingendam.” Catopt. et Diopt. Sphcer. Elem* Oxon.
1695, p. 98.
In 1702 our author published at Oxford, Astronomies
Phi/sica
(a) On obtaining the above professorship, he was succeeded in the mathematical chair at Edinburgh by his
brother James, likewise an eminent mathematician; who held that office lor 33 years, and retiring in 17^5 wa9
succeeded by the celebrated Maclaurin. A daughter of this professor James Gregory, a young lady of great
beauty and accomplishments, was the victim of an unfortunate attachment, which furnished the subject of Mal¬
let’s well-known ballad of William and Margaret.
Another brother, Charles, was created professor of mathematics at St Andrew’s by Queen Anne in 1707.
This office he held with reputation and ability for 32 years ; and, resigning in 1739, was succeeded by his son,
who eminently inherited the talents of his family, and died in 17^3*
p _ Physicce et Geometric# Element a; a work which is ac-
v > p counted his masterpiece. It is founded on the Newto¬
nian doctrines, and was esteemed by Sir Isaac Newton
himself as a most excellent explanation and defence of
his philosophy. In the following year he gave to the
world an edition in folio of the works of Euclid in
Greek and Latin ; in prosecution of a design ol his pre¬
decessor Dr Bernard, of printing the works of all the
ancient mathematicians. In this work, although it
contains all the treatises attributed to Euclid, Dr Gre¬
gory has been careful to point out such as he found rea¬
son, from internal evidence, to believe to be the pro¬
ductions of some inferior geometrician. In prosecution
of Dr Bernard’s plan, Dr Gregory engaged, soon af¬
ter, with his colleague Halley, in the publication of
the Conics of Apollonius ; but he had proceeded but a
little way in his this undertaking when he died, in the
49th year of his age, at Maidenhead in Berkshire, A. D.
1710. To the genius and abilities of David Gregory,
the most celebrated mathematicians of the age, Sir Isaac
Newton, Dr Halley, and Dr Keill, have given ample
testimonies. Indeed it appears that he enjoyed, in a
high degree, the confidence and friendship of Sir Isaac
Newton. This philosopher entrusted him with a ma¬
nuscript copy of his Principia, for the purpose of mak¬
ing observations on that work. Of these observations
there is a complete copy preserved in the library ot the
University of Edinburgh. They contain many valuable
commentaries on the Principia, many interesting anec¬
dotes, and various sublime mathematical discussions.
Some of the paragraphs are in the hand-writing of
Huygens, and they relate to the theory of light of this
philosopher. The observations of Dr Gregory had
come too late for the first edition of Newton’s great
work ; but he availed himself of them in the second.
Besides those works published in his lifetime, he left in
manuscript, A Short Treatise of the Nature and Arith¬
metic of Logarithms, which is printed at the end of
Dr Keill’s translation of Commandine’s Euclid j and a
Treatise of Practical Geometry, which was afterwards
translated, and published in 1745, by Mr Maclaurin.
Dr David Gregory married in 1695, Elizabeth the
daughter of Mr Olipliant of Langtown in Scotland.
By this lady he had four sons, of whom, the eldest, Da¬
vid, was appointed regius professor of modern history at
Oxford by King George I. and died in 1767, in an ad¬
vanced age, after enjoying for many years the dignity
of dean of Christ-church in that university.
Gregory, Dr John, professor of medicine in the
university of Edinburgh, was the son of Dr James Gre¬
gory professor of medicine in King’s college Aberdeen,
and grandson of James the inventor of the Gregorian
telescope. His father was first married to Catharine
Forbes, daughter of Sir John Forbes of Monymusk ;
by whom he had six children, most of whom died in
infancy. He married afterwards Ann Chalmers, only
daughter of the Rev. Mr George Chalmers principal of
1 ^ King’s college, by whom he had two sons and a daugh¬
ter. John, the youngest of the three, was born at A-
berdeen, June, 3. 1724. Losing his father when only
in the 7th year of his age, the care of his education de¬
volved on his grandfather Principal Chalmers, and on
his elder brother Dr James Gregory, who, upon the
resignation of their father a short time before his death,
had been appointed to succeed him in the professorship
of medicine in King s college. He likewise owed much Gregory,
in his infant years, and during the whole course of his
studies, to the care and attention of his cousin, the cele¬
brated Dr Reid, afterwards of the university of Glasgow.
The rudiments of our author’s classical education he re¬
ceived at the grammar-school of Aberdeen } and under
the eye of his grandfather, he completed, in King’s col¬
lege, his studies in the Latin and Greek languages, and
in the sciences of ethics, mathematics, and natural phi¬
losophy. His master in philosophy and in mathematics
was Mr Thomas Gordon, philosophy professor of King’s
college, who ably filled an academical chair for above
half a century.
In 1742, Mr Gregory went to Edinburgh, where
the school of medicine was then rising to that celebrity
which has since so remarkably distinguished it. Here
he attended the anatomical lectures of the elder Dr
Monro, of Dr Sinclair on the theory of medicine, and
of Dr Rutherford on the practice. He heard likewise
the prelections of Dr Alston on the materia medica and
botany, and of Dr Plummer on chemistry. The medi¬
cal society of Edinburgh, instituted for the free discus¬
sion of all questions relative to medicine and philosophy,
had begun to meet in 1737. Of this society we find
Mr Gregory a member in I742i ^,e time when Dr
Mark Akenside, his fellow student and intimate com¬
panion, was a member of the same institution.
In the year 1745 our author went to Leyden, and
attended the lectures of those celebrated professors
Gaubius, Albinus, and Van Royen. While at this
place he had the honour of receiving from the King’s
college of Aberdeen, his alma mater, who regarded him
as a favourite son, an unsolicited degree of doctor of
medicine; and soon after, on his return thither from
Holland, he was elected professor of philosophy in the
same university. In this capacity he read lectures du¬
ring the years 1747, 1748, and 1749, on mathematics,
on experimental philosophy, and on moral philosophy.
In the end of 1749, however, he chose to resign his
professorship of philosophy, his views being turned
chiefly to the practice of physic, with which he appre¬
hended the duties of this professorship, occupying a
great portion of his time, too much interfered. Pre¬
viously, however, to his settling as a physician at Aber¬
deen, he went for a few months to the continent ; a
tour of which the chief motive was probably amusement,
though, to a mind like his, certainly not without its
profit in the enlargement of ideas, and an increased
knowledge of mankind.
Some time after his return to Scotland, Dr Gregory
married in 1752, Elisabeth daughter of William Lord
Forbes; a young lady who, to the exterior endowments
of great beauty and engaging manners, joined a very
superior understanding, and an uncommon share of wit.
With her he received a handsome addition of fortune;
and during the whole period of their union, which was
but for the space of nine years, enjoyed the highest
portion of domestic happiness. Of her character it is
enough to say, that her husband, in that admired lit¬
tle work, A Father’s Legacy to his Daughters, the last
proof of his affection for them, declares, that “ while
he endeavours to point out what they should be, he
draws but a very faint and imperfect picture of what
their mother was.” The field of medical practice at
Aberdeen being at that time in a great measure pre-
N 1 occupied
G R E [ ioo ] G R 'E
Giegfory. occupied by his elder brother Dr James Gregory, and
.— 0t[iers 0f some note in their profession, our author de¬
termined to try his fortune in London. Thither ac¬
cordingly he went in 1754? and being already known
by reputation as a man of genius, he found an easy in¬
troduction to many persons of distinction both in the li¬
terary and polite world. The late George Lord Lyt¬
telton was his friend and patron. An attachment,
which was founded on a striking similarity ot manners,
of tastes, and of dispositions, grew up into a firm and
permanent friendship; and to that nobleman, to whom
Dr Gregory was wont to communicate all his literary
productions, the world is indebted for the publication
of the Comparative View ot the State and J acuities ot
Man, which made him first known as an author. Dr
Gregory likewise enjoyed the friendship of the late Ld-
wartl Montagu, Esq. and of his lady, the celebrated
champion of the fame of Shakespeare, against the ca¬
vils and calumnies of Voltaire. At her assemblies, or
conversaziones, the resort of taste and genius, our author
had an opportunity of cultivating an acquaintance with
many of the most distinguished literary characters of the
present times.
In 1734 Dr Gregory was chosen fellow of the royal
society of London ; and daily advancing in the public
esteem, it is not to be doubted, that, had lie continued
his residence in that metropolis, his professional talents
would have found their reward in a very extensive prac¬
tice. But the death of his brother, Dr James Crego-
7'Y, in November 1755, occasioning a vacancy in the
professorship of physic in King’s college, Aberdeen,
which he was solicited to fill, lie returned to his native
country in the beginning of the following year, and
took upon him the duties of that office to which he had
been elected in his absence.
H ere our author remained till the end of the year
1764, when urged by a very laudable ambition, and
presuming on the reputation he had acquired as afford¬
ing a reasonable prospect of success in a more extended
Reid of practice, he changed his place of residence for
Edinburgh. His friends in that metropolis had repre¬
sented to him the situation of the college of medicine as
favourable to his views of filling a professorial chair in
that university; which accordingly he obtained in 1766,
on the resignation of Dr llutlierford, professor of the
practice of physic. In the same year he had the honour
of being appointed first physician to bis majesty for
Scotland on the death of Dr Wbytt.
On his first establishment in the university of Edin¬
burgh, Dr Gregory gave lectures on the practice of
physic during the years 1767, 1768, and 1769. Af¬
terwards, by agreement with Dr Cullen, professor of
the theory of physic, these two eminent men gave al¬
ternate courses of the theory and of the practice.—As
a public speaker, Dr Gregory’s manner was simple,
natural, and animated. W ithout the graces of ora¬
tory, which the subject he bad to treat in a great de¬
gree precluded, he expressed his ideas with uncommon
perspicuity, and in a style happily attempered between
the formality of studied composition and the ease of
conversation. It was his custom to premeditate, for a
short time before entering the college, the subject of
his lecture, consulting those authors to whom he had
occasion to refer, and marking in short notes the ar¬
rangement of his intended discourse: then fully ma¬
ster of his subject, and confident of his own powers, he Grf ^
trusted to his natural facility of expression to convey u—^
those opinions which he had maturely deliberated. The
only lectures which he committed fully to writing,
were those introductory discourses which he read at the
beginning of his annual course, and which are publish¬
ed in these volumes under the title of Lectures on the
Duties and Qualifications of a Physician. Of these,
which were written with no view to publication, many
copies were taken by his pupils, and some from the
original ma'miscript, which he freely le nt for their peru¬
sal. On hearing that a copy had been offered for sale
to a bookseller, it became necessary to anticipate a
fraudulent, and perhaps a mutilated publication, by au¬
thorising an impression from a corrected copy, of which
he gave the profits to a favourite pupil. These lec¬
tures were first published in 1770, and afterwards in an
enlarged and more perfect form in 1772.
In the same year, 3772, Dr Gregory published
Elements of the Practice of Physic, for the use of
Students : a work intended solely for his own pupils,
and to be used by himself as a text-book to be comment¬
ed upon in his course of lectures. In an advertisement
prefixed to this work, he signified his intention of com¬
prehending in it the whole series of diseases of which he
treated in his lectures on the Practice of Physic ; hut
tins intention he did not live to accomplish, having
brought down the work no further than to the end of
the class of Febrile Diseases.—In his academical lec¬
tures, Dr Gregory never attempted to mislead the stu¬
dent by flattering views of the perfection of the sci¬
ence : but was, on the contrary, anxious to point out
its defects ; wisely judging that a thorough sense of
the imperfection of an art or science is the first step -
towards its improvement. In this view’ he was care¬
ful to expose the fallaciousness of the several theories
and hypotheses which have had the most extensive cur¬
rency, and perpetually inculcated the danger of syste¬
matizing with limited experience, or an imperfect
knowledge of facts.' Yet in the work last mentioned
it will appear from the order in which he has treated
of the several diseases, that he did not entirely neglect
the systematic arrangements of other authors. These;
however, he warned his pupils, that he had not adopt¬
ed from any conviction of the rectitude of those theo¬
ries to which they referred, but only as affording that
degree of method, and regularity of plan, which is
found to be the best help to the study of any science.
Considering a rational theory of physic to be as yet a
•desideratum, it was his object to communicate to his
pupils the greatest portion of practical knowledge, as
the only basis on which such a theory could ever be
reared. His method, in treating of the several diseases,
was first to mention those symptoms which are un¬
derstood among physicians to characterize or define a
disease ; proceeding from the general to the more par¬
ticular series of symptoms and their occasional varie*
ties ; to point out accurately the diagnostic symptoms,
or those by which one disease is essentially distinguish¬
ed from others that resemble it, and to mark likewise
the prognostics by which a physician is enabled to con¬
jecture of the probable event of a disease, whether fa¬
vourable or otherwise. He then proceeded to specify
the various causes, predisposing, occasional, and proxi¬
mate ; accounting, as far as he thought could be done
Oii
GRE [ioi] GRE
on just principles, for the appearance of the several
symptoms } and, finally, he pointed out the general
plan of cure, the particular remedies to be employed,
and the cautions requisite in the administration of
them. Thus desirous of establishing the science of
medicine upon the solid foundation of practice and
experience *, and knowing that many things asserted as
facts by medical writers have been assumed on a very
careless observation, while confirming a favourite theo¬
ry ; and that, on the other hand, many real and im¬
portant facts have, from the same spirit of system, been
explained away and discredited ; he constantly endea¬
voured, both by his precept and example, to inculcate
to his pupils the necessity of extreme caution either in
admitting or in denying medical facts, or what are
commonlv given as such. io the desire of enfoicing
this necessary caution is owing that multitude of que¬
ries respecting matters of fact, as well as matters of
opinion, which occurs in the Elements of the Practice
of Physic.
Dr Gregory, soon after the death of his wife, and
as he himself says, for the amusement of his solitary
hours,” employed himself in the composition of that
admirable tract, entitled, A Father’s Legacy to his
Daughters *, a work which, though certainly never in¬
tended by its author for the public eye, it would have
been an unwarrantable diminution of his fame, and a ca¬
pricious refusal of a general benefit to mankind, to have
limited to the sole purpose for which it was originally
designed. It was, therefore, with great propriety,
published after the author’s death by his eldest son.
This work is a most amiable display of the piety
and goodness of his heart, and his consummate know¬
ledge of human nature and of the world. It manifests
such solicitude for their welfare, as strongly recommends
the advice which lie gives. He speaks of the female
sex in the most honourable terms, and labours to in¬
crease its estimation, whilst he plainly, yet genteelly
and tenderly, points out the errors into which young
ladies are prone to fall.—It is particularly observable,
in what high and honourable terms he speaks of the
Holy Scriptures, of Christian worship, and faithful
ministers ; how warmly he recommends to his daugh¬
ters the serious and devout worship of God in public
and private. He dwells largely on that temper and
behaviour, which were particularly suited to their edu¬
cation, rank, and circumstances; and recommends that
gentleness, benevolence, and modesty, which adorn the
character of the ladies, and do particular honour to
their sex. His advices, with regard to love, courtship,
and marriage, are peculiarly wise, and interesting to
them. They show what careful observation he had
made on female domestic conduct, and on the different
effects of possessing or wanting the virtues and qualities
which he recommends. There is something peculiar¬
ly curious, animated, and useful, in his directions to
them, how to judge of, and manifest an honourable
passion in, and towards the other sex, and in the very
accurate and useful distinction which he makes be¬
tween true and false delicacy. Nothing can be more
striking and affecting, nothing more likely to give his
paternal advices their desired effect, than the respect¬
ful and affectionate manner in which he mentions his
lady their mother, and the irreparable loss which he
and they sustained by her early death. In short, in
this tract, the professor shines tvith peculiar lustre as a Gregory,
husband and father, and it is admirably adapted to pro- Gre-
mote domestic happiness. , nol‘n^- f
These letters to his daughters were evidently written y
under the impression of an early death, which Dr Gre¬
gory had reason to apprehend from a constitution sub¬
ject to the gout, which had begun to show itself at ir¬
regular intervals even from the 18th year of his age.
H is mother, from whom he inherited that disease, died
suddenly in 1770, while sitting at table. Dr Gregory
.had prognosticated for himself a similar death ; an
event of which, among his friends, he often talked,
but had no apprehension of the nearness of its ap¬
proach. In the beginning of the year 1773, in con¬
versation with his son Dr James Gregory, the lat¬
ter remarking, that having for the three preceding
years had no return of a fit, he might make his ac¬
count with a pretty severe attack at that season ; he re¬
ceived the observation with some degree of anger, as he
felt himself then in his usual state of health. The pre¬
diction, however, was too true ; for having gone to bed
on the 9th of February 1773, with no apparent disor¬
der, he was found dead in the morning. His death had
been instantaneous, and probably in his sleep; for there
was not the smallest discomposure of limb or of feature
—a perfect Euthanasia.
Dr Gregory, in person, was considerably above the
middle size. His frame of body was compacted with
symmetry, but not with elegance. His limbs were
not active ; he stooped somewhat in his gait; and hi*
countenance, from a fullness of feature and a heaviness
of eye, gave no external indication of superior power
of mind or abilities. It was otherwise when engaged
in conversation. His features then became animated,
and his eye most expressive. Fie had a warmth of
tone and of gesture which gave a pleasing interest to
every thing which he uttered ; But, united with this
animation, there was in him a gentleness and simplici¬
ty of manner, which, with little attention to the ex¬
terior and regulated forms of politeness, was more en¬
gaging than the most finished address. His conversation
flowed with ease ; and, when in company with literary
men, without affecting a display of knowledge, he was
liberal of the stores of his mind. Fie possessed a large
share of the social and benevolent affections, which, i«
the exercise of his profession, manifested themselves in
many nameless, hut important, attentions to those under
his care ; attentions which, proceeding in him from an
extended principle of humanity, were not squared to
the circumstances or rank of the patient, but ever be¬
stowed most liberally where they were most requisite.
In the care of his pupils, he was not satisfied with a
faithful discharge of his public duties. To many of
these, strangers in the country, and far removed from
all who had a natural interest in their concerns, it was
matter of no small importance to enjoy the acquaintance
and countenance of one so universally respected and
esteemed.
GRE-Hound. See Canis, Mammalia Index—
Among a litter of gre-hound puppies, the best are
always those which are lightest. These will make the
nimblest dogs r^s they grow up. The gre-hound is best
for open countries where there is little covert. In these
places there will sometimes he a course after a hare of
two or three miles or more, and both the dogs and the
game
G B E [ 102 ] G B E
Gre- game in sight all the while. It is generally supposed
hound, that the gre-hound hitch will beat the dog in running:
Grenada.. seems to be an error; for the dog is both longer
" made, and considerably stronger, than the bitch of the
same kind. In the breeding these dogs the bitch is prin¬
cipally to be regarded ; for it is lound by experience,
that the best dog and a bad bitch will not get so good
puppies as an indifferent dog with a good bitch. 'I he
dog and bitch should be as nearly as may be of the
same age ; and for the breeding of fine and perfect
dogs, they should not be more than four years old..
An old bitch may he used with a young dog, but the
puppies of a young bitch and an old dog will never be
good for any thing.
The general food for a gre-hound ought to he chip-
pings or raspings of bread, with soft bones and gristles ;
and those chippings ought always to he soaked in beet
or mutton broth.
The proper exercise for a gre-hound is coursing him
three times a-week, and rewarding lum with blood ;
which will animate him in the highest degree, and
encourage him to prosecute his game. But the hare
also should ever have fair play. She should have the
law, as it is called ; that is, have leave to run about
twelve score yards before the dog is slipped at her,
that he may have some difficulty in the course, and
not pick up the game too easily. If he kills the hare,
he must never be suffered to tear her ; but she must he
taken from him, his mouth cleaned of the wool, and
the liver and lights given him by way of encourage¬
ment. Then he is to be led home, and his feet washed
with butter and beer, and about an hour after he is to
be fed.
When the dog is to be taken out to course, he
should have nothing in the morning hut a toast and
butter, and then he is to be kennelled till taken out
to the field. The kennelling these dogs is of great
use, always giving them spirit and nimbleness when
they are set loose : and the best way of managing a fine
gre-hound is, never to let him stir out of the kennel,
except at the times of feeding, walking, or coursing.
GRENADA, one of the Caribhee islands, lying
in W. Long. 61. 30. N. Lat. 12. 10. It is the last of
the Windward Caribbees ; and lies 30 leagues north
of New Andalusia, on the continent. It is about 30
miles in length, and in some places 15 in breadth. The
chief port, formerly called Louts, now St George's,
stands on the west side of the island, in the middle of
a large hay, with a sandy bottom. It is said that
1000 barks, from 300 to 400 tons, may ride secure
from storms ; and that 100 ships, of 1000 tons each,
may be moored in the harbour. A large round bason,
which is parted from it by a bank of sand, would con¬
tain a considerable number of ships, if the bank was
cut through : but by reason of it the large ships are
obliged to pass within 80 paces of one of the mountains
lying at the mouth of the harbour; the other mountain
lying about half a mile distant. The island abounds
with wild game and fish ; it produces also very fine
timber, but the cocoa-tree is observed not to thrive
here so well as in the other islands. A lake on a high
mountain, about the middle of the island, supplies it
with fresh-water streams. Several bays and harbours
lie round the island, some of which might be fortified
2
to great advantage ; so that it is very convenient for
shipping, not being subject to hurricanes. The soil is ■—-yC
capable of producing tobacco, sugar, indigo, pease, and
millet.
In 1638, M. Poincy, a Frenchman, attempted to
make a settlement in Grenada ; but was driven off by
the Caribbeans, who resorted to this island in greater
numbers than to the neighbouring ones, probably on
account of the game with which it abounded. In 1650,
Mons. Parquet, governor of Martinico, carried over
from that island 200 men, furnished with presents to
reconcile the savages to them ; but with arms to sub¬
due them, in case they should prove intractable. The
savages are said to have been frightened into submis¬
sion by the number of the Frenchmen : but, according
to some French writers, the chief not only welcomed
the new-comers; but, in consideration of some knives,
hatchets, scissars, and other toys, yielded to Parquet
the sovereignty of the island, reserving to themselves
their own habitations. The Abbe Raynal informs us,
that these first French colonists, imagining they had
purchased the island by these trifles, assumed the sove¬
reignty, and soon acted as tyrants. The Caribs, un¬
able to contend with them by force, took their usual
method of murdering all those whom they found in a
defenceless state. This produced a war ; and the
French settlers having received a reinforcement of 300
men from Martinico, forced the savages to retire to a
mountain ; from whence, after exhausting all their ar¬
rows, they rolled down great logs of wood on their
enemies. Here they were joined by other savages
from the neighbouring islands, and again attacked the
French, but were defeated anew ; and were at last dri¬
ven to such desperation, that 40 of them, who had esca¬
ped from the slaughter, jumped from a precipice into
the sea, where they all perished, rather than fall into
the hands of their implacable enemies. From thence
the rock was called le morne des sauteurs, or “ the hill
of the leapers which name it still retains. The
French then destroyed the habitations and all the pro¬
visions of the savages ; but fresh supplies of Carib¬
beans arriving, the war was renewed with great vigour,
and great numbers of the French were killed. Upon
this they resolved totally to exterminate the natives:
and having according attacked the savages unawares,
they inhumanly put to death the women and children,
as well as the men; burning all their boats and ca¬
noes, to cut oft’ all communication between the few
survivors and the neighbouring islands. Notwithstand¬
ing all these barbarous precautions, however, the Ca¬
ribbees proved the irreconcileable enemies of theFrench;
and their frequent insurrections at last obliged Par*
quet to sell all his property in the island to the Count
de Cerillac in 1657. new proprietor, who pur¬
chased Parquet’s property for 30,000 crowns, sent
thither a person of brutal manners to govern the
island. He behaved with such insupportable tyranny,
that most of the colonists retired to Martinico ; and
the few who remained condemned him to death af¬
ter a formal trial. In the whole court of justice that
tried this miscreant, there was only one man (called
Archangcli') who could write. A farrier was the per¬
son who impeached : and he, instead of the signatures,
sealed with a horse-shoe ; and Archangeli, who per¬
formed
to¬
wn
ORE [ 103 ] GEE
formed the office of clerk, wrote round it these words
in French, “ Mark of M. de la Brie, counsel for the
court.”
It was apprehended that the court of i ranee wouki
not ratify a sentence passed with such unusual formali¬
ties $ and therefore most of the judges of the governor’s
crimes, and witnesses of his execution, disappeared.
Only those remained whose obscurity screened them
from the pursuit of the laws. By an estimate, taken
in 1700, there were at Grenada no more than 251
white people, 53 free savages or mulattoes, and 525
slaves. The useful animals were reduced to 64 horses
and 569 head of horned cattle. The whole culture
consisted of three plantations of sugar and 52 of in¬
digo.—The island had been sold in 1664 to the French
West India company for 100,000 livres.
This unfavourable state of the affairs of Grenada
was changed in 1714. The change was owing to the
flourishing condition of Martinico. The richest of
the ships from that island were sent to the Spanish
coasts, and in their way touched at Grenada to take
in refreshments. The trading privateers, who under¬
took this navigation, taught the people of that island
the value of their soil, which only required cultivation.
Some traders furnished the inhabitants with staves and
utensils to erect sugar plantations. An open account
was established between the two colonies. Grenada
was clearing its debts gradually by its rich produce $
and the balance was on the point of being closed,
when the war in 1744 interrupted the communication
between the two islands, and at the same time stopped
the progress of the sugar-plantations. This loss was
supplied by the culture of coffee, which was pursued
during the hostilities with all the activity and eager¬
ness that industry could inspire.—The peace of 1 748
revived all the labours, and opened all the former sour¬
ces of wealth. In 1753, the population of Grenada
consisted of 1262 white people, 175 free negroes,
and 11,991 slaves. The cattle amounted to 2298
horses or mules, 2456 head of horned cattle, 3278
sheep, 902 goats, and 331 hogs. The cultivation
rose to 83 sugar plantations, 2,725,600 coffee trees,
150,300 cocoa-trees, and 800 cotton plants. The
provisions consisted of 5,740,450 trenches of cassada,
933,596 banana trees, and 143 squares of potatoes
and yams. The colony made a rapid progress, in
proportion to the excellence of its soil; but in 1762
the island was taken by the British. At this time
one of the mountains at the side of St George’s har¬
bour was strongly fortified, and might have made a
good defence, but surrendered without firing a gun ;
and by the treaty concluded in 1763 the island was
ceded to Britain. On this cession, and the manage¬
ment of the colony after that event, the abbe Raynal
has the following remarks.—“ This long train of evils
[the ambition and mismanagement of his countrymenJ
has thrown Grenada into the hands of the English,
who are in possession of this conquest by the treaty
of 1763* But how long will they keep this colony?
Or, will it never again be restored to France ?—Eng¬
land has not made a fortunate beginning. In the first
enthusiasm raised by an acquisition, of which the
highest opinion had been previously formed, every one
was eager to purchase estates there. They sold for
much more than their real value. This caprice, by
expelling old colonists who were inured to the cli¬
mate, has sent about 1,553,000!. out of the mother-
country. This imprudence has been followed by ano¬
ther. The new proprietors, misled, no doubt, by na¬
tional pride, have substituted new methods to those of
their predecessors. They have attempted to alter the
mode of living among their slaves. The negroes, who
from their very ignorance are more attached to their
customs than other men, have revolted. It hath been
found necessary to send out troops, and to shed blood.
The whole colony was filled with suspicions. Ihe
masters who had laid themselves under a necessity of
using violent methods, were afraid of being burnt or
massacred in their own plantations. The labours have
declined, or been totally interrupted. rl ranquillity
has at length been restored. The number of slaves
has been increased as far as 40,000, and the produce
has been raised to the treble of what it was under the
French government. The plantation will still be im¬
proved by the neighbourhood of a dozen of islands,
called the Grenadines or Grenadilloes, that are depend¬
ent on the colony. They are from three to eight
leagues in circumference. The air is wholesome. Tire
ground, covered only with thin bushes, has not been
screened from the sun. It exhales none of those noxious
vapours which are fatal to the husbandman. Cariacou,
the only one of the Grenadines which the French have
occupied, was at first frequented by turtle fishermen ;
who, in the leisure afforded them by so easy an occu¬
pation, employed themselves in clearing the ground.
In process of time, their small number was increased
by the accession of some of the inhabitants of Guada-
loupe ; who, finding that their plantations were destroy¬
ed by a particular sort of ants, removed to Cariacou.
The island flourished from the liberty that was enjoyed
there. The inhabitants collected about I2C0 slaves,
by whose labours they made themselves a revenue of
near 20,oool. a-year in cotton.—The other Grenadines
do not afford a prospect of the same advantages, though
the plantation of sugar is begun there. It has succeed¬
ed remarkably well at Becouya, the largest and most
fertile of these islands, which is no more than two
leagues distant from St Vincent.”
In the year 1779, the conquest of this island was
accomplished by D’Estaign the French admiral, who
had been prevented from attempting it before by his
enterprise against St Vincent. Immediately after his
conquest of St Lucia, however, being reinforced by a
squadron under M. de laMotte, he set sail for Grenada
with a fleet of 26 sail of the line and 1 2 frigates, ha¬
ving on board 10,000 laud forces. Here he arrived
on the second of July; and landed 3000 troops, chiefly
Irish, being part of the brigade composed of natives
of Ireland in the service of France. These were con¬
ducted by Count Dillon, who disposed them in such
a manner as to surround the bill that overlooks and
commands George’s town, together with the fort
and harbour. To oppose these, Lord M‘Cartney, the
governor, had only about 150 regulars, and 300 or
400 armed inhabitants ; but though all resistance was
evidently vain, he determined nevertheless to make an
honourable and gallant defence. The preparations be
made were such as induced D’Estaign himself to be
present at the attack ; and, even with his vast superiori¬
ty of force, the first attack on the entrenchments proved
unsuccessful.
Grenada.
G R E [ 104- ] G R E
unsuccessful. The second continued two hours j when
the garrison were obliged to yield to the immense dis--
parity of numbers who assaulted them, alter having
killed or wounded 300 of their antagonists. Having
thus made themselves masters of the intrenchments on
the hill, the French turned the cannon of them to¬
wards the fort which lay under it; on which the go¬
vernor demanded a capitulation. Ihe terms, however,
were so extraordinary and unprecedented, that both
the governor and inhabitants agreed in rejecting them ;
and determined rather to surrender without any con¬
ditions at all than upon those which appeared so ex¬
travagant. On this occasion D’Estaign is said to have
behaved in a very haughty and severe manner ; indul¬
ging his soldiers also in the most unwarrantable liber¬
ties, and in which they would have proceeded much
farther had they not been restrained by the Irish troops
in the French service.
In the mean time Admiral Byron, who had been
convoying the homeward-bound West India fleet, ha¬
stened to St Vincent, in hopes of recovering it ; but
being informed, by the way, that a descent had been
made at Grenada, he changed his course, hoping that
JLord M‘Cartney would be able to hold out till his ar¬
rival. On the sixth of July he came in sight of the
French fleet *, and, without regarding D’Estaign’s su¬
periority of six ships of the line and as many frigates,
determined if possible to force him to a close engage¬
ment. The French commander, however, was not
so confident of his own prowess as to run the risk of
an encounter of this kind •, and having already at-
chieved his conquest, had no other view than to pre¬
serve it. His designs were facilitated by the good
condition of his fleet; which being more lately come
out of port than that of the British, sailed faster, so that
he was thus enabled to keep at what distance he
pleased. The engagement began about eight in the
morning, when Admiral Barrington with his own and
two other ships got up to the van of the enemy, which
they attacked with the greatest spirit. As the other
ships of his division, however, were not able to get up to
his assistance, these three ships were necessarily obliged
to encounter a vast superiority, and of consequence suf¬
fered exceedingly. The battle was carried on from be¬
ginning to end in the same unequal manner j nor were
the British commanders, though they used their utmost
efforts for this purpose, able to bring the French to a
close engagement. Thus Captains Collingwood, Ed¬
wards, and Cornwallis, stood the fire of the whole
French fleet for some time. Captain Fanshavv of the
Monmouth, a 64 gun ship, threw himself singly in the
way of the enemy’s van j and Admiral Ilowley and
Captain Butchart fought at the same disadvantage: so
that finding it impossible to continue the engagement
with any probability of success, a general cessation of
firing took place about noen. It recommenced in the
same manner about two in the afternoon ; and lasted,
with different interruptions,'till the evening. During
this action some of the British ships had forced their
way into St George’s harbour, not imagining that
the enemy were already in possession of the island.
They were soon undeceived, however, by perceiving
the French colours flying ashore, and the guns and
batteries firing at them. This discovery put an end
to the design which had brought on the engagement j
5
and as it was now high time to think of providing for
the safety of the British transports, which were in dan-'—ys
ger from the number of the enemy’s frigates, the en¬
gagement was finally discontinued. During this action
some of Admiral Byron’s ships had suffered extremely.
The Lion of 64 guns, Captain Cornwallis, was found
incapable of rejoining the fleet which were plying to
windward j and was therefore obliged to bear away
alone before the wind. Two other ships lay far astern
in a very distressed situation ; but no attempt was made
to capture them, nor did the French admiral show the
least inclination to renew the engagement.
Grenada was restored to Great Britain by the treaty
of peace of 1783.—George’s town, at St George’s, is
the residence of the governor.
When the levelling spirit of the French revolution
threatened to banish all rational liberty and subordina¬
tion from the face of the earth, the ill-fated island of
Grenada did not escape the contagion. The slaves in
this island were early tinctured with the love and ad¬
miration of those principles which subverted the mo¬
narchy of France. They were of consequence ready
to revolt at the instigations of republican emissaries,
who in 1795 effected a landing from the island of Gua¬
deloupe in considerable numbers. Yet many of the
slaves hesitated at first to take an active part in this un¬
natural rebellion against the British government} but
their perseverance was at length shaken by the alluring
temptations which were held out to them, of participat¬
ing of the property of their plundered masters, and the
flattering promises of total emancipation.
It is astonishing, as it seems repugnant to every feel¬
ing of human nature with which we are acquainted,
that such of the slaves, both male and female, as had
experienced the most humane treatment, and enjoyed
the greatest share of their masters confidence, were the
most active and cruel in this horrible insurrection.
This seems to be a melancholy proof of an assertion
often made by those who are inimical to the abolition
of the slave-trade, that the most humane and benevolent
treatment can make no impression on their native fe¬
rocity.
As the French troops had been too successful in
their attack upon Guadaloupe, the disaffected negroes
in Grenada who spoke the French language, as well
as numbers of white people who were charmed with the
extravagant doctrine of liberty and equality, were en¬
couraged to project and execute a revolt from the Bri¬
tish government, every step of which they marked with
plunder and with blood. Having effected a landing at
Grenville or La Baye, and Charlotte town, on different
sides of the island, the insurgents, to the number of too,
surrounded the former place, and about one o’clock in
the morning (March 6. 1795) plundered the dwelling
and storehouses, and dragging the innocent, the astonish¬
ed inhabitants into the streets, set them up as marks to
be shot at. When they fell before the discharge of
their musketry, the inhuman banditti mangled their
bodies with cutlasses in the most shocking manner. At
this time there were 14 English inhabitants in the
town, only three of whom escaped the insatiable ven¬
geance of those pretended lovers of freedom ! Some
escaped by swimming to the vessels which were then
lying in the roads, while others, captured by the insur¬
gents, were murdered on their way to the camp of the
line*'
I
re;
ORE [ 105 ]
t rebel chief Feclon, because they could not march so stored to him again,
quickly as desired.
By the last returns made to the house of commons,
the population of Grenada in 1811 was, slaves 29,381 $
whites 771 j free people of colour 1210 j total 31,362.
In 1776 the exports from Grenada amounted to 600,000!.;
and in 1809 they are stated to amount only to 189,000!.,
while the imports were 439)453h The island is 123
miles S. W.of Barbadoes, and 71 miles N.W. of Tobago.
GRENADINES, or Grenadillos. See the pre¬
ceding article.—In these islands, fresh water is found
only in one place. A small spring has been discovered
in the principal island Cariacou, by digging; but be-
ing of great value, it is kept locked by the proprietor.
The capital of that island is called Hilsborough, in
which there is a small church.
GRENAILLE, a name given by the French wri¬
ters to a preparation of copper, which the Chinese use
as a red colour in some of their finest china, particu¬
larly for that colour which is called oil-red or red in
oil. The china-ware coloured with this is very dear.
rIhe manner in which they procure the preparation is
thus: they have in China no such thing as silver coin¬
ed money, but they use in commerce bars or masses of
silver ; these they pay and receive in large bargains;
and among a nation so full of fraud as the Chinese,
it is no wonder that these are too often adulterated
with too great an alloy of copper. They pass, how¬
ever, in this state, in the common payments. There
are some occasions, however, such as the paying the
taxes and contributions, on which they must have their
silver pure and fine : on this occasion they have recourse
to certain people, whose sole business it is to refine the
silver, and separate it from the copper and the lead it
contains. This they do in furnaces made for the pur¬
pose, and with very convenient vessels. While the
copper is in fusion, they take a small brush, and dip
the end of it into water; then striking the handle of
the brush, they sprinkle the water by degrees upon the
melted copper ; a sort of pellicle forms itself bv this
means on the surface of the matter,'which they take
off while hot with pincers of iron, and immediately
throwing it into a large vessel of cold water, it forms
that red powder which is called the grenaille ; they re¬
peat the operation every time they in this manner se¬
parate the copper ; and this furnishes them with as
much of the grenaillc as they have occasion for in their
china works.
GRENOBLE, a large, populous, and ancient town
of France, in the department of Isere, with a bishop’s
see. It contains a great number of handsome structures,
particularly the churches and convents. The leather
and gloves that are made here are highly esteemed. It
is seated on the river Isere, over which there are two
bridges to pass into that part called Perriere, a large
street on the other side of the river. Population in 18x3,
23,000. E. Long. 5. 49. N. Lat. 45. 12.
GRESHAM, Sir Thomas, an opulent merchant
of London, descended from an ancient and honourable
family ol Norfolk, rvas born in i?J9. He
- # ’ — — ~ j " y' was, as
his father had been before him, appointed king’s agent
at Antwerp, for taking up money of the merchants ;
and in 1551 he removed to that city with his family,
llns employment was suspended on the accession of
Queen Mary : but on proper representations, was re-
Vol, X. Part I. I
G R E
Queen Elizabeth conferred the Gresham
honour of knighthood upon him, and made him her
agent in foreign parts. It was at this time he thought
proper to provide himself with a mansion-house in the
city, suitable to his station and dignity ; with which
intention he built a large house on the west side of
Bishopsgate-street, afterwards known by the name of
Gresham-college. His father had proposed building a
house or exchange for the merchants to meet in, in¬
stead of walking in the open street ; but this design
remained for the son to accomplish. Sir Thomas
went beyond his father: he offered, if the citizens
would provide a proper piece of ground, to build a
house at his own expence ; which, being accepted, he
fulfilled his promise after the plan of the exchange at
Antwerp. When the new edifice was opened, the
queen (Jan. 29. 1570) came and dined with the
founder; and caused a herald with a trumpet to pro¬
claim it by the name of the Royal Exchange. In pur¬
suance also of a promise to endow a college for the
profession of the seven liberal sciences, be made a testa¬
mentary disposition of his house in London for that
purpose ; leaving one moiety of the royal exchange to
the corporation of London, and the other to the mer¬
cers company, for the salaries of seven lecturers in
divinity, law, physic, astronomy, geometry, music, and
rhetoric, at 50I. each per annum. He left several
other considerable benefactions, and died in 1579.
As to the college, it was afterwards pulled down in
consequence of an application to parliament from the
city, and the excise-office erected in its place. The
lectures are read, or rather hurried through, in a cham¬
ber over the Royal Exchange. Those who have drawn
Sir Thomas’s character observe, that he had the hap¬
piness of a mind every way suited to his fortune ; ge¬
nerous and benign ; ready to perform any good actions,
and encourage them in others. He was a great friend
and patron of our celebrated martyrologist John Fox*.
He was well acquainted with the ancient and several
modern languages ; he had a very comprehensive know¬
ledge of all affairs relating to commerce, whether fo¬
reign or domestic; and his success was not less, being
in his time esteemed the highest commoner in Eng¬
land. He transacted Queen Elizabeth’s mercantile af¬
fairs so constantly, that he was called the royal mer¬
chant; and his house was sometimes appointed for the
reception of foreign princes upon their first arrival at
London.
GREUSSEN, a town of Upper Saxony, in the
county of Schwaitzburg, 16 miles north of Erfurt, and
18 east of Mulhausen. Long. ii° 3' east, Lat. 510 6'
north.
GRE\ ILLE, I ulke, Lord Brook, of Beauchamp’s
Court in Warwickshire, a poet and miscellaneous wri¬
ter, was born in the year I554> an^ descended from
the noble families of Beauchamps of Powick and Wil¬
loughby de Brook. In company with his cousin Sir
Philip Sidney, he began his education at a school in
Shrewsbury; thence he went to Oxford, where he
remained for some time a gentleman commoner, and
then removed to Trinity-college in Cambridge. Ha¬
ving left the university, he visited foreign courts, and
thus added to his knowledge of the ancient languages
a perfect knowledge of the modern. On his return
to England he was introduced to Queen Elizabeth by
^ his
ORE t i
his uncle Robert Greville, at that time in her majesty’s
service •, and by means of Sir Henry Sidney, lord presi¬
dent of Wales, was nominated to some lucrative emplo-
ments in that principality. . .
In the year 1581, when the French commissioners
who came to treat about the queen’s marriage with
the duke of Anjou were sumptuously entertained with
tilts and tournaments, Mr Greville, who was one ot
the challengers, so signalized himself, as to “ win the
reputation of a most valiant knight.” He continued
a constant attendant at court, and a favourite with the
queen to the end of her reign •, during which he ob¬
tained the office of treasurer of marine causes, also a
grant of the manor of Wedgnock, and likewise the
honour of knighthood. In this reign he was several
times elected member for the county of Warwick j and
from the journals of the house seems to have been a man
of business, as his name frequently appears in commit-
On the accession of King James I. he was installed
knight of the Bath ; and soon after obtained a grant
of the ruinous castle of Warwick, which he repaired
at a considerable expence, and where he probably re¬
sided during the former part ot this reign : but in the
year 1614, the twelfth of James I. he was made under
treasurer, and chancellor of the exchequer, one of the
privy council, and gentleman of the bed-chamber } and
in 1620, was raised to the dignity of a baron by the
title of Lord Brook of Beauchamp’s Court. He was
also privy-counsellor to King Charles I. in the begin¬
ning of whose reign he founded a history-lecture in
Cambridge.
Having thus attained the age of 74, through a life
of continued prosperity, universally admired as a gentle¬
man and a scholar, he fell by the hand of an assassin,
one of his own domestics, who immediately stabbed
himself with the same weapon with which he had mur¬
dered his master. This fellow’s name was Haywood j
and the cause is said to have been a severe reprimand
for his presumption in upbraiding his master for not
providing for him after his death. It seems he had
been witness to Lord Brook’s will, and knew the con¬
tents. Some say he stabbed him with a knife in the
back, others with a sword. This affair happened at
Brook-house in Holborne.—Lord Brook was buried
with great pomp in St Mary’s church at Warwick,
in his own vault, over which he had erected a monu¬
ment of black and white marble, ordering at his death
the following inscription to be engraved upon the
tomb : “ Fulke Greville, servant to Queen Elizabeth,
counsellor to King James, and friend to Sir Philip Sid¬
ney. Trophccum Peccati.” He wrote several works
both in verse and prose j among which are, I. Two tra¬
gedies, Alaham and Mustapha. 2. A Treatise of Hu¬
man Learning, &c. in verse, folio. 3. The Life of Sir
Philip Sidney. 4. An inquisition upon Fame and Ho¬
nour, in 86 stanzas. 6. Cceciiia, a collection of 109
songs. 7. H is Remains, consisting of political and phi¬
losophical poems.
GREVIUS. See GR2EVIUS.
GREW, Nebemiah, a learned English writer, in
the 17th century, had a consderable practice as a phy¬
sician in London, and succeeded Mr Oldenburg in
the office of secretary to the royal society. In this
capacity, pursuant to an order of council, he drew, up
2
06 ] G It E
a catalogue of the natural and artificial rarities be- G«
longing to the society, under the title of Muscewn Be J
S&aWaftV&cVidSi. He also wrote, besides se-
veral pieces in the Philosophical Iransactions, I. Ihe
Comparative Anatomy of the Stomach and Guts, fo¬
lio. 2. The Anatomy of Plants, folio. 3. Tractatus
de Salt's Cathartici naiura et usu. Cosmologia Sacra,
or a Discourse of the Universe as it is the Creature
and Kingdom of God, folio. He died suddenly in
I72r* 1 • 1
GREWIA, a genus of plants belonging to the gy-
nandria class, and in the natural method ranking under
the 37th order, Column/erce. See Botany Index.
GREY, or Gray colour. See Gray.
Grey, Lady Jane, a most illustrious and unfor¬
tunate lady, descended of the blood-royal of England
by both parents, was the eldest daughter of Henry
Grey marquis of Dorset, and Frances the daughter of
Charles Brandon Lord Suffolk, by Mary the dowager
of Louis XII. king of France, who was the youngest
daughter of Henry VII. king of England. She was
born in the year 1537, at Broadgate, her father’s seat
in Leicestershire. She discovered an early propensity
to all kinds of good literature ; and having a fins
genius, improved under the tuition of Mr Eimer, she
made a most surprising progress in the languages, arts,
and sciences. She understood perfectly both kinds of
philosophy, and could express herself very properly at
least in the Latin and Greek tongues j and we are in¬
formed by Sir Thomas Chaloner (in Strype’s Memo¬
rials, vol. iii. p. 93.), that she was well versed in
Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, French, and Italian 5 “ and
(he adds) she played well on instrumental music,
writ a curious hand, and was excellent at the needle.”
Chaloner also tells us, that she accompanied her musical
instrument with a voice exquisitely sweet in itself, as¬
sisted by all the graces that art could bestow.
In the year 1553* the dukes of Suffolk and Nor¬
thumberland, who were now, after the fall of Somer¬
set, arrived at the height of power, began, on tbs
decline of the king’s health, ta think how to prevent
that reverse of fortune which, as things then stood,
they foresaw must happen upon Edward’s death. Ta
obtain this end, no other remedy was judged sufficient
but a change in the succession of the crown, and
transferring it into their own families, by rendering
Lady Jane queen. Those most excellent and amiable
qualities which had rendered her dear to all who had
the happiness to know her, joined to her near affinity
to the king, subjected her to become the chief tool of
an ambition so notoriously not her own. Upon this
very account she was married to Lord Guilford Dud¬
ley, fourth son of the duke of Northumberland, wit}*-
out discovering to her the real design of the match >
which was celebrated with great pomp in the latter
end of May, so much to the king’s satisfaction, that
he contributed bounteously to the expence of it frons
the royal wardrobe. The young king Edward VI.
died in July following; and our fair scholar, with in¬
finite reluctance, overpowered by the solicitations of
her ambitious friends, allowed herself to be proclaim¬
ed queen of England, on the strength of a deed of
settlement extorted from that prince by her father-in-
law the duke of Northumberland, which set aside the
succession of Queen Mary, Queen Elizabeth, and Mary
, ~ nueeii
GUI [ 107 ] G R I
f queen of Scots. Her regal pageantry continued but
a few days. Queen Mary’s undoubted right prevail-
& ed ; and the unfortunate Lady Jane Grey and her
' husband were committed to the Tower, and on the
13th of November arraigned and found guilty of high
treason. On the I2th of February following they
were both beheaded on Tower-hill. Her magnanimi¬
ty in this dreadful catastrophe was astonishing. Im¬
mediately before her execution, she addressed herself
to the weeping multitude with amazing composure
and coherency : she acknowledged the justice of the
law, and died in charity with that wretched world
which she had so much reason to execrate. Thus
did the pious Mary begin her reign with the murder
of an innocent young creature ot 18 } who for sim¬
plicity of manners, purity of heart, and extensive
learning, was hardly ever equalled in any age or coun¬
try. But, alas ! Jane was an obstinate heretic.—A few
days before her execution, Fleckenham, the queen’s
chaplain, with a pious intention to rescue her poor
soul from eternal misery, paid her frequent visits in
the Tower, and used every argument in his power to
convert her to the Popish religion ; but he found her
so much his superior in argument, that he gave up
the contest: resigning her body to the block, and her
soul to the devil.
Her writings are, 1. Four Latin Epistles ; three to
Bullenger, and one to her sister Lady Catherine. The
last was written the night before her execution, in a
blank leaf of a Greek Testament. Printed in a book
entitled Epistolce Helvetica; Reformatorthus, vel ad eos
scriptcBf &c. Tiguri, 1742, 8vo. 2. Her Conference
with Fleckenham. (Ballard). 3. A letter to Dr
Harding, her father’s chaplain. Printed in the Phoe¬
nix, vol. ii. p. 28. 4. A prayer for her own use du¬
ring her confinement. In Fox’s acts and monuments.
5. Four Latin verses $ written in prison with a pin.
They are as follows :
Non aliena putes, homini quae obtingere possunt:
Sors hodierna mibi, tunc erit ilia tibi.
Jane Dudley.
Deo juvante, nil nocet livor mains :
Et non juvante, nil juvat labor gravis.
Post tenebras spero lucem.
6. Her Speech on the Scaffold. (Ballard). It began
thus : “ My Lords, and you good Christian people
who come to see me die j I am under a law, and by that
law, as a never-erring judge, I am condemned to die :
not for any thing I have offended the queen’s majesty j
for I will wash my hands guiltless thereof, and deliver
to my God a soul as pure from such trespass as inno¬
cence from injustice \ but only for that I consented to
the thing I was enforced unto, constraint making the
law believe I did that which I never understood,” &c.
—Hollinshed, Sir Richard Baker, Bale, and Fox, tell
us that she wrote several other things, but do not men-
. tion where they are to be found.
GnEY-Hound. See GEE-Hound.
GRIAS, a genus of plants belonging to the polyan-
dria class, and in the natural method ranking with
those of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Index.
GRIEF, or Sorrow. The influence of this pas¬
sion on the body is very great. Its effects resemble in
several instances those of fear, with, however, some
variations, owing perhaps to its being in general of G
longer duration. Grief diminishes the bodily strength
in general, and particularly the force of the heart and
circulation j as appears by the frequent sighs and deep
respirations which attend it, which seem to be neces¬
sary exertions, in order to promote the passage of the
blood through the lungs. It diminishes perspiration,
obstructs the menstrual discharge, produces paleness of
the skin, and cedematous complaints, and schirrns of
the glandular parts. It aggravates the scurvy, and the
malignity of putrid and contagious distempers, and ren¬
ders people more apt to receive the infection of them.
When it comes on suddenly, and in a great degree, it
causes a palpitation of the heart, and renders the pulse
irregular. Blindness, gangrene, and sudden death,
have followed the excess of this sensation. Its effects
of changing the colour of the hair are well known.
Opiates, if not given in large doses, are good cordials
in this case.
GRIEFENHAKEN, a town of Prussian Pomera¬
nia, in the duchy of Stetin, seated on the Oder, oppo¬
site to Gartz. E. Long. 14. 36. N. Lat. 53. 20.
GRIELUM, a genus of plants belonging to the de-
candria class. See Botany Index.
GRIERSON, Const anti a, born of poor parents in
the county of Kilkenny in Ireland, was one of the most
learned women on record, though she died in 1733, at
the early age of 27. She was an excellent Greek and
Latin scholar j and understood history, divinity, philoso¬
phy, and mathematics. She proved her skill in Latin
by her dedication of the Dublin edition of Tacitus to
Lord Carteret, and by that of Terence to his son } to
whom she also addressed a Greek epigram. She wrote
many elegant English poems, several of which were in¬
serted by Mrs Barber among her own. When Lord
Carteret was lord lieutenant of Ireland, he obtained a
patent for Mr Grierson to be king’s printer ; and to
reward the uncommon merit of his wife, caused her life
to be included in it.
GRIESSEWALDE, or Gripswalde, a town of
Upper Saxony, 15 miles south-east of Stralsund. E.
Long. 13. 22. N. Lat. 54. 4.
GRIFFON (Gryphus, y^), in the natural hi¬
story of the ancients, the name of an imaginary bird of
prey, of the eagle kind. They represented it with
four legs, wings, and a beak j the upper part repre¬
senting an eagle, and the lower a lion : they supposed
it to watch over gold mines, hidden treasures, &c.
The animal was consecrated to the sun $ and the an¬
cient painters represented the chariot of the sun as
drawn by griffons. M. Spanheim observes the same of
those of Jupiter and Nemesis.
The griffon in Scripture is that species of the eagle
called in Latin ossifraga, the “ osprey 5” and q-tDj of
the verb 012, paras, “ to break.”
The griffon is frequently seen on ancient medals;
and is still borne in coat-armour. Guillim blazons it
rampant j alleging, that any very fierce animal may
be so blazoned as well as the lion. Sylvester, Mor¬
gan, and others, use the terms segreiant instead of
rampant.
This is also an ornament of architecture in constant
O 2 use
fliiffon
I)
Grimaldi.
G R I [
use among the Greeks, and was copied from them, with
the other elegancies of architectural enrichments, by
the Romans. See Sl'HYNX.
GRIfLEA, a genus of plants belonging to the
octandria class •, and in the natural method ranking
under the 17th order, Calycanthenue. See Botany
Index.
GRIMALDI, Francisco, an eminent painter, ge¬
nerally known by the appellation of Bolognese, was born
at Bologna in 1606, where he became a disciple of
Annibal Caracci, and proved an honour to that illus¬
trious master. From the school of Annibal he went
to complete his studies at Rome, and improved himself
daily, by copying the works of those artists in which he
observed the greatest excellence, until his superior ta¬
lents recommended him to the favour of Innocent X.
who afforded him immediate opportunities of exerting
his genius in the gallery of his palace at Monte Ca-
vallo, and also in the Vatican. The merit of his per¬
formances very soon engaged the attention and applause
of the public, and increased the number of his ad¬
mirers and friends ; among whom were the prince
Pamphilio, and many of the principal nobility of Rome.
His reputation reached Cardinal Mazarine at Paris,
who sent for him, settled a large pension on him, and
employed him for three years in embellishing his palace
and the Louvre, by the order of Louis XIII. The
troubles of the state, and the clamours raised against
the cardinal, whose party he warmly espoused, put him
so much in danger, that his friends advised him to re¬
tire among the Jesuits. He did so, and was of use to
them j for he painted them a decoration for the exposi¬
tion of the sacrament during the holy days, according
to the custom of Rome. This piece was mightily relish¬
ed at Paris : the king honoured it with two visits, and
commanded him to paint such another for his chapel
at the Louvre. Grimaldi after that returned to Italy $
and at his arrival at Rome found his great patron
Innocent X. dead : but his two successors Alexan¬
der VII. and Clement IX. honoured him equally with
their friendship, and found him variety of employment.
Grimaldi was amiable in his manners, as well as skilful
in his profession : he was generous without profusion,
respectful to the great without meanness, and chari¬
table to the poor. The following instance of his bene¬
volence may serve to characterize the man. A Sicilian
gentleman, who had retired from Messina with his
daughter during the troubles of that country, was re¬
duced to the misery of wanting bread. As he lived
over-against him, Grimaldi was soon informed of it •,
and in the dusk of the evening, knocking at the Sici¬
lian’s door, without making himself known, tossed in
money and retired. The thing happening more than
once, raised the Sicilian’s curiosity to know his bene¬
factor *, who finding him out, by hiding himself behind
the door, fell down on his knees to thank the hand
that had relieved him. Grimaldi remained confused,
offered him his house, and continued his friend till his
death. He died of a dropsy at Rome in 1680, and left
a considerable fortune among six children. The genius
of Grimaldi directed him chiefly to landscape, which
he executed most happily. His colouring is strongs
his touch light and delicate j his situations are uncom¬
monly pleasing; and the leafing of his trees is admi¬
rable. Sometimes, indeed, his colouring
G E I
ig appears ra-
IC8 ]
ther too green : but those landscapes, which he painted Grimaif
in the manner of Caracci, may serve as models for all |)
those who admire the style of that school ; and he de-
signed his figures in an elegant taste. The pictures ofw""r'‘
this master are very rare, especially those of his best
time*, and whenever they are to be purchased, they af¬
ford large prices. Of ivis^ children above mentioned,
the youngest, named Alexander, proved a good painter,
in the same style and taste with his father, though very
far inferior to him : some of the pictures of Alexander,
however, are either artfully, or injudiciously, ascribed
to Francisco.
GRIMBERGEN, a town of Brabant, with an ab¬
bey and a castle, six miles north of Brussels. E. Long.
4. 27. N. Lat. 50. 57.
GRIMM, a town in the electorate of Saxony, with
a citadel, seated on the Muldaw, 10 miles south-east of
Leipsic. E. Long. 12. 35. N. Lat. 51. 15.
GRIMMEN, a town of Swedish Pomerania, five
miles south of Stralsund. E. Long. 13. 29. N. Lat.
54. 12.
GRIMSBY, Great, a large sea-port town of Lin¬
colnshire in England, 170 miles north from London j
and said to be the second, if not the first, corporation in
England. It had anciently three convents and a castle.
Here are several streets of good houses, and a church
that looks like a cathedral. It was a place of great
trade before its harbour was choked up ; yet the road
before it is a good station for ships that wait for a wind
to get out to sea. Its chief trade is in coals and salt
brought by the Humber. The population in 1811 was
estimated at 2747.
GRINDELWALD, a town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Bern, seated among mountains, at the foot
of a celebrated glacier, 25 miles south-east of Thun.
E. Long. 7. 43. N. Lat. 46. 27.
GRINDING, or Trituration, the act of break¬
ing or comminuting a solid body, and reducing it into
powder. See Pulverisation and Levigation.
The painters colours are grinded on a marble or por¬
phyry, either with oil or gum-water.
Grinding is also used for rubbing or wearing off
the irregular parts of the surface of a body, and redu¬
cing it to the destined figure, whether that be flat, con¬
cave, or the like.
The grinding and polishing of glass is a considerable
art; for which see Glass-Grinding. For the grinding
of optical glasses, see Optics, the Mechanical Part.
Grinding, in cutlery, is an operation universally
understood, by which edge-tools are sharpened. Ac¬
cording to the usual practice, this operation is attended
with considerable inconveniency, occasioned by the ex¬
trication of heat from friction. The steel very soon be¬
comes ignited when the friction is performed on a dry
stone ; and even when immersed in water, the cperar
tion must be slow, to prevent the water from being
thrown off by the centrifugal force ; and if the water is
poured on the stone from above by means of a cock,
the quantity will be too small to preserve a Sufficiently
low temperature. But let the quantity of water be ever
so great, if the instrument to be sharpened has not its
point or edge so held as to meet the stream, it will al¬
most inevitably be made softer.
To remedy these defects in the common mode of
grinding, Mr Nicholson made an experiment with a
grindstone
Sin
Gri.
G R I [ 109 ] G R I
,i'Gfin ig, grindstone from Newcastle of a line grit, 10 inches in
"s Grit ed. diameter, with a block, of mahogany to be employed
ernei,y on tl,e face of it. The grindstone and block,
were fixed on an axis, to be applied occasionally between
the centres of a strong lathe. Both were cylindrical,
and of the same diameter the wood was grooved in op¬
posite directions, in which the emery might be lodged.
The face of the stone was left smooth, with a trough
tinder it to hold the water. The cylinder of wood was
faced with emery and oil, and the stone was used with
water. A file was the instrument ground, and it was
proposed to efface all the teeth. The mechanism of the
lathe produced the rotation, by which the grinding ap¬
paratus nfade five revolutions in a second. The opera¬
tion of the stone was slow, and the workman soon found
inconvenience from the water in the trough being soon
exhausted ; but the emery cylinder cut rather faster.
The friction operated by quick changes on the whole
surface of the file, yet it soon became too hot to be held
conveniently by the uncovered hand •, and even when
it was held with a cloth, such was the rapid increase of
heat as to decompose the oil, which emitted an empy-
reumatic odour. When the stone became dry, the file
was tried on the face of it, which soon became blue,
and then nearly red hot. After this both cylinders
were covered with tallow, and emery was sprinkled up¬
on the wood evlinder, when the same instrument was
held to the stone in rapid motion. The friction at first
was scarcely apparent, but the pressure of the tool soon
fused the tallow, and the stone cut very fast. When
the tool after some time began to he a little heated, it
was removed to a new zone of the cylinder, by which
means the temperature was diminished. Similar effects
accompanied the use of the wooden cylinder.
When oil was used upon the cylinder of wood, the
heat occasioned by the friction raised the temperature
of the instrument and of the oil in a state of fluidity j
but when tallow instead of oil was employed, most of
the heat was used in fusing that substance. The in¬
creased capacity of the melted tallow absorbed this heat,
which became latent, and did not raise the temperature :
and when the tallow already melted began to grow hot,
as well as the tool, the employing another zone of con¬
sistent tallow reduced the temperature.
■ This discovery may yet be of considerable impor¬
tance, for which we are indebted to the ingenuity of
the learned editor of the Journal which bears his name,
a performance which is much esteemed upon the conti¬
nent as well as at home, by every man of literature and
science.
GRfNSTED, East and West ; two towns near
Salisbury in Wiltshire.
Grinsted, East, a town 29 miles from London,
seated on a hill, near the borders of Surry, near Ash¬
down forest. It has a handsome church, which was
rebuilt after being burnt down 1683. On November
12. 1785, the beautiful tower having lately fallen to
decay, fell down, and part lighting on the church very
considerably damaged it. An hospital in the reign of
King James I. for 31 poor people of this town, was
built and endowed with 330I. a-year. It is a bo¬
rough by prescription, governed by a bailiff and his
brethren j has sent burgesses to parliament ever since
the first of Edward II. who are elected bv about 35
burgage-holders j had a charter for a monthly market
from Henry VII. and is generally the place for the
assizes. The returning officer here is the bailiff, who
is chosen by a jury of burgage-holders. Its market is
on Thursday 5 and its fairs, which are well frequented,
are July 13. and December II. ; which last is a great
one for Welsh runts, that are bought up here by the
Kentish and Sussex farmers, and for fat hogs and other
cattle. The population in 1811 was 2804.
Grinsted, JFest, in Sussex, a town above 10 miles
to the south-west of East-Griusted, and containing in
l3ii a population of 998 persons.
GRIPES, in Medicine, a colic or painful disorder
of the lower belly, occasioned by irritating matters, or
by wind in the intestines. See Medicine Index.
GRIPS WALD, a strong and considerable town of
Pomerania in Germany $ formerly imperial, but now
subject to Prussia, with a good harbour and univer¬
sity. E. Long. 13. 53. N. Lat. 54. 12.
GRISGR1S, a superstition very prevalent among^
the negroes in the interior parts of Africa. The gris-
gris, according to Le Maire, are certain Arabic cha¬
racters mixed with magical figures drawn by the ma-
rabuts or priests upon paper. Labat affirms, that they
are nothing else than scraps of the Koran in Arabic5
but this is denied by Barbot, who brought over one of
these grisgris to Europe, and showed it to a number of
persons deeply skilled in oriental learning. None of
these could find the least trace of any character they
understood. Yet, after all, this might he owing to
the badness of the hand-writing j and the words are
probably of the Mandingo language, though the cha¬
racters are an attempt to imitate the Arabic. The
poorest negro never goes to war without his grisgris, as
a charm against wounds ; and if it proves ineffectual,
the priest transfers the blame on the immorality of his
conduct. These priests invent grisgris against all kinds
of dangers, and in favour of all desires and appetites 5
by virtue of which the possessors may obtain or avoid
whatever they like or dislike. They defend them from
storms, enemies, diseases, pains, and misfortunes j and
preserve health, long life, wealth, honour, and merit,
according to the marabuts. No clergy in the world
are more honoured and revered by the people than these
impostors are by the negroes; nor are any people in the
world more impoverished by their priests than these
negroes are, a grisgris being frequently sold at three
slaves and four or five oxen. The grisgris intended for
the head is made in the form of a cross, reaching from
the forehead to the neck behind, and from ear to ear ;
nor are the arms and shoulders neglected. Sometimes
they are planted in their bonnets in the form of horns ;
at other times, they are made like serpents, lizards, or
some other animals, cut out of a kind of pasteboard, &c.
There are not wanting Europeans, and otherwise intelli¬
gent seamen and merchants, who are in some degreei n-
fected with this weakness of the country, and believe
that the negro sorcerers have an actual communication
with the devil, and that they are filled with the malig¬
nant influence of that evil spirit, when they see them
distort their features and muscles, make horrid grima¬
ces, and at last imitate all the appearance of epileptics.
GRISONS, a people situated among the Alps, and
allies of the Swiss. Their country is bounded on the
north
G R I [
Grifon*. north by the countries of Surgans and Bludenz
v—' canton of Claris, and the principality of Lichtenstein 5
on the south by the canton’s Italian bailhvics, the
county of Chavenne, and the Valteline : on the east
by the territories of Venice and Milan ; and on the
west by some of the Italian bailiwics, and the canton
of Uri. It is divided into three leagues, viz. the
Grison or grey league, the league of the house oj God,
and that of the ten jurisdictions ; which unite and term
one republic. The two first lie towards the south, and
the third towards the north. The length of the whole
is above 70 miles, and the breath about 60. The in¬
habitants are said to have had the name of Orisons from
the grey coats they wore in former times. This coun¬
try, lying among the Alps, is very mountainous ; but
the mountains yield good pasture for cattle, sheep, and
goats, with some rye and barley : in the valleys there
is plenty of grain, pulse, fruits, and wine. This coun¬
try also abounds with hogs and wild-fowl } but there is
a scarcity of fish and salt, and their horses are mostly
purchased of foreigners. The principal rivers are the
Rhine, the Inn, and the Adda. Here are also several
lakes, most of which lie on the tops of the hills. The
language of the Grisons is either a corrupt Italian or
the German. Each of the leagues is subdivided into
several lesser communities, which are so many demo¬
cracies ; every male above 16 having a share in the go¬
vernment of the community, and a vote in the election
of magistrates. Deputies from the several communi¬
ties constitute the general diet of the Grison leagues,
which meets annually, and alternately at the capital of
each league ; but they can conclude nothing without
the consent of their constituents. This country was
anciently a part of Rhetia. After the extinction of
the Roman empire in the west, it w,as some time sub¬
ject to its own dukes, or those of Swabia. Then the
bishop of Coire, and other petty princes, dependent on
the emperors of Germany, became masters of great
part of it: at last, by the extinction of some, pur¬
chase, voluntary grants, and force, it got rid of all its
lords, and erected itself into three distinct republics,
each of which, as we observed already, is subdivided
into a certain number of communities, which are a sort
of republics, exercising every branch of sovereignty,
except that of making peace or war, sending embassies,
concluding alliances, and enacting laws relating to the
whole country, which belong to the provincial diets of
the several leagues. The communities may be compa¬
red to the cities of Holland, and the diets of the seve¬
ral leagues to the provincial states. The particular diets
are composed of a deputy from each community ; and
both in them and the communities every thing is deter¬
mined by a majority of votes. In the communities,
every male above 16 has a vote. Besides the annual
provincial diets for choosing the chiefs and other offi¬
cers, and deliberating on the affairs of the respective
leagues, there are general diets for what concerns all
the three leagues or whole body. In both these, the
representatives can do nothing of themselves, but are
tied down to the instructions of their principals.
There is a general seal for all the three leagues ; and
each particular league has a separate seal. Besides the
stated times of meeting, extraordinary diets are some¬
times summoned, when either the domestic affairs of
the state or any foreign minister require it. In the ge-
110 ] GRi
the neral diets, the Grey League has 28 votesthat of
the House of God, 23', and that of the Ten Jurisdic¬
tions, 15. These leagues, at different times, have en¬
tered into close alliances with the neighbouring cantons
and their associates. The. bailiwics, belonging in com¬
mon to the three leagues are those of the Valteline,
Chievane, Bormio, Meyenfeld, Malans, and Jenninsj,
the officers of which are nominated successively by the
several communities every two years. . The yearly
revenues arising to the Grisons from their bailiwics is
said to amount to about 13,500 florins. The public
revenues altogether are but small,though there are many
private persons in the country that are rich. However,
in case of any extraordinary emergency, they tax
themselves in proportion to the necessity of the service
and the people’s abilities. They have no regular
troops, but a well-disciplined militia ; and upon occasion,
it is said, can bring a body of 20,000 fighting men
into the field : but their chief security arises from the
narrow passes and high mountains by which they are
surrounded.
Of the jurisprudence, religion, &c. of the Grisons,
the following account is given by Mr Coxe in his tra¬
vels in Switzerland. Throughout the three leagues the
Roman law prevails, modified by the municipal customs.
The courts of justice in each community are composed
of the chief magistrate, who presides, and a certain
number of jurymen, chosen by the people : they have
no regular salaries, but receive for their attendance, a
small sum, arising in some communities from the ex-
pences of the process, which are defrayed by the crimi¬
nals j in others from a share of the fines. They enjoy
the power of pardoning or diminishing the penalty, and
of receiving a composition in money. This mode of
proceeding supposes what is as absurd in theory as it is
contrary to experience, that judges will incline to mer¬
cy when it is their interest to convict; or will impar¬
tially inflict punishment, even when injurious to their
own private advantage.—The prisoners are examined in
private ; frequently tortured for the purpose of forcing
confession, when the judges either divide the fines, or
remit the punishment for a composition. In some di¬
stricts a criminal trial is a kind of festival to the
judges, for whom a good repast is provided at the ex¬
pence of the prisoner if convicted; and thus the fol¬
lowing allusion, in Garth’s Dispensary, applied with
more wit than truth to our courts of justice, is literally
fulfilled: —
Grin
‘ And wretches hang, that jurymen may dine.'*
Capital punishments, however, are extremely rare j a
circumstance arising not from a want of severity in the
penal statutes, or from a propensity to mercy in the
judges: but because the latter draw more advantages
from fining than executing an offender. In a word,
to use the expression of Burnet, which is as true at
present as it was in his time, “ Many crimes go un¬
punished, if the persons who commit them have either
great credit or much money.” It is remarkable, that
torture is more frequently applied, and for smaller de¬
linquencies, in these independent republics, than in the
subject provinces. The infliction of it depends entirely
upon the arbitrary will of the judges ; a majority of
whom may order it for an offence which is not capi¬
tal, nor even punishable by corporal penalties. Thus
it
G R I [i
ms, it is not uncommon, in those communities, where fines
—-' are divided among the judges, to torture women of
loose conduct, for the purpose of compelling them to
confess with whom they have been connected ; for as
such offences are punishable by fines, the more persons
are convicted, the larger share of money is distributed
among the judges for the trouble of their attendance.
Even in the districts where the fines are paid to the
community, torture is often no less wantonly inflicted,
because when the prisoner is not found guilty, the ex-
pences of the process fall upon the public, and the judges
receive little emolument. Even in the civil courts
most causes are decided by bribing the judges*, and ap¬
peals in those communities, wherein they are admitted,
scarcely serve any other end than to enlarge the sphere
of corruption. Coire and a few other places are ex¬
cepted from this general reflection.
The religion of the Grisons is divided into Catholic
and Reformed. The doctrines of the reformation were
first preached about the year 1524, and received at
Flsesch, a small village in the Ten Jurisdictions upon
the confines of Sargans $ from thence they were ex¬
tended to Meyenfeld and Malantz, and soon after¬
wards through the whole valley of Pretigau. The new
opinions spread with such celerity, that before the end
of the 16th century they were embraced by the whole
league of the ten jurisdictions (excepting part of the
community of Alvenew), the greatest part of the Plouse
of God, and a few communities in the Grey League.
The difference of religion nearly excited a civil war
between the two sects, as well at the first introduction
of the Reformation as at the beginning of the troubles
in the Valteline. In the latter instance, the two parties
rose in arms j but the Catholics being overpowered by
the Protestants, matters were amicably adjusted. Since
that period all religious concerns have been regulated
with perfect cordiality. According to the general
consent of the three leagues, each community being ab¬
solute within its little territory, has the power of ap¬
pointing its own particular worship, and the inhabitants
are free to follow either the Catholic or Reformed per¬
suasion. In the administration of civil affairs religion
has no interference : the deputies of the general diet
may be members of either communion, as chosen by
the communities which they represent. By this mode¬
rate and tolerating principle, all religious dissensions
have been suppressed as much as possible j and the most
perfect amity subsists between the two sects.
In spiritual concerns, the Catholics for the most part
are under the jurisdiction of the bishop of Coire. For
the affairs of the Reformed churches, each league is di¬
vided into a certain number of districts, the ministers
whereof assemble twice every year : these assemblies
are called colloqma. Each colloquium has its president,
and each league a superintendant called a dean. The
supreme authority in spiritual concerns is vested in the
synod, which is composed of the three deans, and the
clergy of each league ; the synod assembles every year
alternately in each of the three leagues. Candidates
for holy orders are examined before the synod. The
necessary qualifications for admission into the church
ought to be the knowledge of Hebrew, Greek, and
Latin ; but this rule is not strictly adhered to; many
being ordained without the least acquaintance with ei¬
ther of those languages. Formerly Latin was solely
ii ] G R O
used, as well in the debates of the synod as for the Grisons
purpose of examining the candidates ; but at present (|
that tongue grows more and more into disuse, and Ger-Groni,,S*n-
man is employed in its stead. v
The number of reformed parishes in the whole three
leagues amounts to 135, in the following proportion :
—In the Grey League 46, in that of God’s House 53,
and in the League of Ten Jurisdictions 36. The mi¬
nisters of these churches enjoy but very small salaries.
The richest benefices do not perhaps yield more than
20I. or at most 25I. per annum, and the poorest some¬
times scarcely 61. This scanty income is attended
with many inconveniences. It obliges the clergy
who have families to follow some branch of traffic,
to the neglect of their ecclesiastical studies, and to the
degradation of the professional character. Another
inconvenience is superadded to the narrowness of their
income. In most communities the ministers, though
confirmed by the synod, are chosen by the people of the
parish, and are solely dependent on their bounty. In
1798, the Grisons, who had formerly been only the al¬
lies of the Swiss, were incorporated with the confe¬
deracy as a canton, which still remained however di¬
vided into the three leagues as before. The whole po¬
pulation of the Grisons has been recently estimated at
73,000, of whom 26,000 speak German, 10,000 Ita¬
lian, and 37,000 the Romansh, or ancient Rhcetian lan¬
guage. The canton furnishes a contingent of 1200 men,
but in money only 750I. to the Helvetic confederacy.
GRIST, in country affairs, denotes corn ground, or
ready* for grinding.
GRIT, or Gritstone, a kind of stone which is
used for building and for millstones and grindstones;
and sometimes for filtering water.
GROAT, an English money of account, equal to
four pence. Other nations, as the Dutch, Polanders,
Saxons, Bohemians, French, &c. have likewise their
groats, groots, groches, gros, &c. In the Saxon times,
no silver coin bigger than a penny was struck in Eng¬
land, nor after the Conquest, till Edward III. who,
about the year 1351, coined grosses, \. e. groats, or great
pieces, which went for 4d. a-piece : and so the matter
stood till the reign of Henry VIII. who, in 1504, first
coined shillings.
Groats, in country affairs, oats after the hulls are
off, or great oat-meal.
GROCERS, anciently were such persons as engross¬
ed all merchandise that was vendible; but now thev are
incorporated, and make one of the companies of the city
of London, which deals in sugar, foreign fruits, spices,
&c.
GROENLAND, or Spitzbergen. See Green¬
land.
GROGRAM, a kind of stuff made of silk and mohair.
GROIN, that part of the belly next the thigh.
Groin, among builders, is the angular curve made
by the intersection of two semi-cylinders or arches;
and is either regular or irregular.—K regular groin is
when the intersecting arches, whether semicircular or
semielliptical, are of the same diameters and heights.
An iri'egular groin is where one of the arches is semi¬
circular and the other semielliptical.
CROMWELL. See Lithospermum, Botany
Index.
GRONINGEN, the most northerly of the Seven
United <.
G II O [ 112 ] G R O
Gio«iir>ea United Provinces, is bounded on the north by the
|5 b German ocean j on the south, by the county of Drenthe}
Gtonovius. 0n the east, by the kingdom of Hanover j and on the
'v 1 ' West by the province of Friesland, from which it is
parted by the river Lavvers. Its greatest length from
south-east to north-west is about 47 miles j but its
breadth is very unequal, the greatest being about 33
miles. Here are rich pastures, large herds of great
and small cattle, plenty of sea and river fish, and of
turf, with some forests and corn-land. There are se-
. veral rivers in the province, of which the principal is
the Hunse $ and a great number of canals and dykes.
The surface is level, and lies so low that the whole pro¬
vince is intersected by a multitude of canals and wet
ditches for the purpose of carrying off the water, while
it is protected by dykes against the inundations of the
sea. In the towns there are some manufactures of
linen and woollen. The population is computed at
146,000, upon a surface of 770 square miles. The
province had anciently governors, under the title of
burgraves; but their power being limited, the people
enjoyed great privileges. Afterwards it became sub¬
ject to the bishop of Utrecht j but shook off his yoke
at last, and recovered its liberty. In 1536 it sub¬
mitted to Charles V. and in 1579 acceded to the union
of Utrecht. The colleges before the revolution were
much the same here as in the other provinces, viz,, the
provincial states, council of state, provincial tribunal,
and chamber of accounts) and six deputies were sent
to the states-general.
Groningen, the capital of the province of that name,
is situated about 12 miles from the nearest shore of the
German ocean, at the conflux of several rivulets, which
form the Hunse and Fivel. Ships of considerable bur¬
den can come up to the city, in consequence of which
it enjoys a pretty good trade. It was formerly very
strong, but its fortifications are now much neglected.
The university here was founded in 1615, and is well
endowed out of the revenues of the ancient monaste¬
ries. The town, which was formerly one of the Hanse,
and has still great privileges, is large and populous,
being the seat of the high colleges, and containing
three spacious market-places, and 27 streets, in which
are many fine houses, besides churches and other public
structures. By the river Fivel and the Ems, it has
a communication with Westphalia. In 1672 it made
such a gallant resistance against the bishop of Mun¬
ster, that he is said to have lost 10,000 men before it.
Rodolphus Agricola and Veselius, two of the most learn¬
ed men of the age in which they lived, were born here.
Under the jurisdiction of this city is a considerable
district, called the Gorecht. E. Long. 6. 25. Lat.
53- 10.
GRONQVIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria class j and in the natural method ranking
under the 34^^ order, Cucurbit ace ce. See Botany
Index.
GRONOVIUS, John Frederic, a very learned
critic, was born at Hamburgh in 1613 5 and having
travelled through Germany, Italy, and France, was
made professor of polite learning at Deventer, and af¬
terwards at Leyden, where he died in 1671. He pu¬
blished, 1. Diatribe in Statii, &c. 2. De sestertiis.
3. Correct editions of Seneca, Statius, T. Livy, Pliny’s
3
Natural History, Tacitus, Aulus Gellius, Ph«d ms’ c.ono,
Fables, &c. with notes) and other works. jj
Gronovius, James, son of the preceding, and a Gw
very learned man, was educated first at Leyden, then
went over to England, where he visited the universities,
consulted the curious MSS. and formed an acquaint¬
ance with several learned men. He was chosen by
the grand duke to be professor at Pisa, with a consi¬
derable stipend. He returned into Holland, after he
had resided two years in Tuscany, and consulted the
MSS. in the Medicean library. In 1679, he was in¬
vited by the curators of the university to a professor¬
ship ; and his inaugural dissertation was so highly ap¬
proved of, that the curators added 400 florins to his
stipend, and this augmentation continued to his death
in 1716. He refused several honourable and advanta¬
geous offers. His principal works are, The Treasure
of Greek Antiquities, in 13 vols. folio) and a great
number of dissertations and editions of ancient authors.
He was compared to Schioppus for the virulence of his
style ) and the severity with which he treated other
great men who differed from him, exposed him to just
censure.
GROOM, a name particularly applied to several
superior officers belonging to the king’s household, as
groom of the chamber, groom of the stole. See Stole,
and Wardrobe.
Groom is more particularly used for a servant ap¬
pointed to attend on horses in the stable.—The word i«
formed from the Flemish grom, “ a boy.”
GROOVE, among miners, is the shaft or pit sunk
into the earth, sometimes in the vein, and sometimes
not.
Groove, among joiners, the channel made by their
plough in the edge of a moulding, style, or rail, to put
their pannels in, in wainscotting.
GROSE, Francis, Esq. F. A. S. was born about
the year 1731, and was the son of Mr Francis Grose,
a jeweller of Richmond, by whom the coronation crown
of George II. was filled up. Young Grose obtained
an independent fortune by the death of his father, which
happened in the year 1769. He was paymaster and ad¬
jutant in the Surry militia, but dissipation so far pre¬
vented him for some time from paying proper attention
to his duty, that in his own humorous mode of express¬
ing himself, he kept but two books of accounts, his right
and left hand pockets. The losses which this thought¬
less conduct occasioned him, awakened his dormant ta¬
lents, and he resolved to turn his attention to literary
pursuits. His education was classical, to which he uni¬
ted an excellent taste for drawing, which induced him
to commence his “ Views of Antiquities in England
and Wales.” He began this work in numbers in 1773>
and completed it in 1776 ) and by it he obtained both
reputation and profit, the latter of which his almost un¬
pardonable liberality had rendered extremely neediul.
In 1777 he added other two volumes to his English views,
which included the islands of Guernsey and Jersey,
finished in 177^* All his expectations were fully gra¬
tified by the publication of this work, and during the
remainder of his life he continued to publish others,
which in general increased his reputation as an author,
and always tended to augment his wealth. In the
summer of 1789 he paid a visit to Scotland, and in
G R 0 [ i
•c 6C 1790 began to publish in numbers, his views taken in
that country. He next proceeded to Ireland, with a
•Ci iu«. view to give a similar description of that country j but
on the 6th of May 1791, while at Dublin in the house
of Mr Horne, he was suddenly seized at table with an
Apoplectic fit, and immediately expired. He was buried
in Drumcondra churchyard near Dublin.
Although his literature was very respectable, it was
even exceeded by his good humour, by his convivial
and friendly turn of mind. As both at home and
abroad he was always in the best company, his know¬
ledge of the world was so extensive, that his conversa¬
tion was always useful and entertaining. He was free
from the malignity and pride of some authors, for as he
felt the independence of his own talents, he scorned to
degrade others. Of the most careless, open, and art¬
less disposition, he was often the prey of the designing,
and has more than once embarrassed himself by too
implicit confidence in the probity of others. A tale of
distress never failed to touch his heart, and make the
tear of commiseration glide down his cheek.
Besides the works formerly mentioned, he publish¬
ed a treatise on ancient armour and weapons ; a clas¬
sical dictionary of the vulgar tongue, military antiqui¬
ties, &c.
GllOSS, a foreign money, in divers countries, an¬
swering to our groat.
Gross is used among us for the quantity of twelve
dozen.
Gross Weight, is the weight of merchandises and
goods, with their dust and dross, as also of the bag,
cask, chest, &c. wherein they are contained ; out of
which gross weight, allowance is to be made of tare
and tret.
Gross, or Grossus, in our ancient law-writers, de¬
notes a thing absolute, and not depending on another.
Thus, villain in gross, villanus in grosso, was a servant,
who did not belong to the land, but immediately to the
person of the lord *, or a servile person not appendant,
or annexed to the lord or manor, and to go along with
the tenures as appurtenant to it •, but like other per¬
sonal goods and chattels of his lord, at his lord’s plea¬
sure and disposal.
Gross, Advowson in. See Advowson.
Gross-beak, the trivial name of ihe cocothraustes,
or haw-finch, which is the i.oxia cocothraustes. See
Ornithology Index.
GROSSULARIA, the Gooseberry. See Ribes,
Botany Index.
GROTESQUE, or Grotesk, in sculpture and
painting, somewhat whimsical, extravagant, and mon¬
strous; consisting either of things that are merely ima¬
ginary, and have no existence in nature; or of things
so distorted, as to raise surprise and ridicule. The
names arise hence, that figures of this kind were an¬
ciently much used to adorn the grottoes wherein the
tombs of eminent persons or families w^ere inclosed.
Such was that of Ovid, whose grotto was discovered
near Rome about one hundred years ago.
GROT. IUS, Hugo, or more properly Hugo de
Groot, one of the greatest men in Europe, was born at
Delft in 1583. He made so rapid a progress in his stu¬
dies, that at the age of 15 he had attained a great know¬
ledge in philosophy, divinity, and civil law; and a
yet greater proficiency in polite literature, as appeared
Vol. X. Part I. .
13] G B O
by the commentary he had made at that age on Mar-
tianus Capella. In 1598, he accompanied the Dutch
ambassador into France, and was honoured with several
marks of esteem by Henry V. He took his degree
of doctor of laws in that kingdom ; and at his return
to his native country, devoted himself to the bar, and
pleaded before he was 17 years of age. He was not
24 when he was appointed attorney-general. In 1613
he settled in Rotterdam, and was nominated syndic of
that city ; but did not accept of the office till a pro¬
mise ivas made him that he should not be removed
from it. This prudent precaution he took from his
foreseeing, that the quarrels of the divines on the doc¬
trine of grace, which had alieady given rise to many
factions in the state, would occasion revolutions in the
chief cities. The same year he was sent into England
on account of the divisions that reigned between the
traders of the two nations, on the right of fishing in
the northern seas; but he could obtain no satisfaction.
He was afterwards sent to England, as it is thought,
to persuade the king and the principal divines to
favour the Arminians ; and he had several con¬
ferences with King James on that subject. On his
return to Holland, his attachment to Barnevelt in¬
volved him in great trouble ; for he was seized, and
sentenced to perpetual imprisonment in 1619, and to
forfeit all his goods and chattels. But after having been
treated with great rigour for above a year and a half
in his confinement, he was delivered by the advice and
artifice of his wife, who having observed that his keepers
had often fatigued themselves with searching and exa¬
mining a great trunk full of foul linen which used to
be washed at Gorkum, but now let to pass without open¬
ing it, she advised him to bore holes in it to prevent his
being stilled, and then to get into it. He complied
with this advice, and was carried to a friend’s house
in Gorkum ; where dressing himself like a mason, and
taking a rule and trowel, he passed through the market¬
place, and stepping into a boat went to Valvet in
Brabant. Here he made himself known to some Ar¬
minians, and hired a carriage to Antwerp. At first
there was a design of prosecuting his wife, who staid
in the prison; and some judges were of opinion that
she ought to be kept there in her husband’s stead : how¬
ever, she was released by a plurality of voices, and uni¬
versally applauded for her behaviour. He now retired
into I ranee, where he met with a gracious recep¬
tion fiom that court, and Eouis settled a pen¬
sion upon him. Having resided there eleven years,
he returned to Holland, on his receiving a very kind
letter from Frederic Henry prince of Orange: but
his enemies renewing their persecution, he went to
Hamburgh; where, in 1634, Queen Christina of
Sweden made him her counsellor, and sent him ambas¬
sador into France. After having discharged the du¬
ties ot this office above eleven years, he returned in
order to give an account to Queen Christina of his
embassy ; when he took Holland in his way, and re¬
ceived many honours at Amsterdam. He was intro¬
duced to her Swedish majesty at Stockholm; and
there begged that she would grant his dismission, in
order that he might return to Holland. This he ob¬
tained with difficulty ; and the queen gave him many
marks of her esteem, though he had many enemies
at this court. As he was returning, the ship in
which
Grotins.
Grotius
Giotto.
G R O [ii
which he embarked was cast away on the coast of Po¬
merania $ and being now sick, he continued his jour¬
ney by land 5 but was forced to stop at Rostock, wlieie
he died, on the 28th of August 1645. His body
was carried to Delft, to be interred in the sepulchre
of his ancestors. Notwithstanding the embassies in
which he was employed, he composed a great num¬
ber of excellent works ; the principal of which are,
1. A treatise De jure belli et pads, which is esteem¬
ed a master-piece. 2. A Treatise on the Truth of the
Christian Religion. 3. Commentaries on the Holy
Scriptures. 4. The History and Annals of Holland.
3, A great number of letters. All which are written
in Latin.
GROTSCAW, a town of Turkey in Europe, in
the province of Servia, where a battle was fought be¬
tween the Germans and Turks, in the year 1739, in
which the Germans were forced to retreat. It is 15
miles S. from Belgrade. E. Long. 21. O. N. Lat. 45. O.
GROTSKAW, a strong town of Germany, capital
of a province of the same name in Silesia. It is very
agreeably seated in a fruitful plain. E. Long. 17* 35*
N. Lat. 50. 42.
GROTTO, or Grotta, a large deep cavern or den
in a mountain or rock. T-he word is Italian, grotta,
formed, according to Menage, &c. from the Latin
crypta. Du Cange observes, that grotta was used in
the same sense in the corrupt Latin.
The ancient anchorites retired into dens and grot¬
toes, to apply themselves the more attentively to medi¬
tation.
Okey-hole, Eldtn-hole, Peak’s-hole, and Pool’s-hole,
are famous among the natural caverns or grottoes of
our country.
The entrance to Okey-hole, on the south side of
Mendip-hills, is in the fall of those hills, which is be¬
set all about with rocks, and has near it a precipitate
descent of near twelve fathoms deep, at the bottom of
which there continually issues from the rocks a consi¬
derable current of water. The naked rocks above the
entrance show themselves about 30 fathoms high, and
the whole ascent of the hill above is about a mile, and
is very steep. As you pass into this vault, you go at
first upon a level, but advancing farther, the way is
found to be rocky and uneven, sometimes ascending and
sometimes descending. The roof of this cavern, in the
highest parts, is about eight fathoms from the ground,
but in many particular places it is so low, that a man
must stoop to get along. The breadth is not less vari¬
ous than the height, for in some places it is five or six
fathoms wide, and in others not more than one or two.
It extends itself in length about two hundred yards.
People talk much of certain stones in it, resembling
men and women, and other things ; but there is little
matter of curiosity in these, being only shapeless lumps
of a common spar. At the farthest part of the cavern
there is a good stream of water, large enough to drive
a mill, which passes all along one side of the cavern,
and at length slides down about six or eight fathoms
among the rocks, and then pressing through the clefts
of them, discharges itself into the valley. The river
within the cavern is well stored with eels, and has some
trouts in it ; and these cannot have come from with¬
out, there being so great a fall near the entrance. In
dry summers, a great number of frogs are seen all along
2
4 ] G R O
this cavern, even to the farther part of it; and on the c
roof of it, at certain places, hang vast numbers of bats, w
as they do in almost all caverns, the entrance of which
is either level, or but slightly ascending or descending ;
and even in the more perpendicular ones they are some¬
times found, provided they are not too nanow, and are
sufficiently high. The cattle that feed in the pastures
through which this river runs, have been known to die
suddenly sometimes after a flood j this is probably ow¬
ing to the waters having been impregnated, either na¬
turally or accidentally, with lead ore.
Elden-hole is a huge profound perpendicular chasm,
three miles from Buxton, ranked among the natural
wonders of the Peak. Its depth is unknown, and is
pretended to be unfathomable. Cotton tells us he
sounded 884 yards j yet the plummet still drew. But
he might easily be deceived, unless his plummet was
very heavy •, the weight of a rope of that length might
well make the landing of the plummet scarce percei-
vable.
Peak’s-hole and PooTs-hole are two very remarkable
horizontal caverns under mountains \ the one is situated
near Castleton, and the other is just by Buxton. They
seem to have owed their origin to the springs which
have their current through them ; when the water
had forced its way through the horizontal fissures
of the strata, and had carried the loose earth away
with it, the loose stones must fall down of course :
and where the strata had few or no fissures, they re¬
mained entire 5 and so formed these very irregular
arches, which are now so much wondered at. I he
water which passes through PooTs-hole is impregnated
with particles of limestone, and has incrusted the whole
cavern in such a manner that it appears as one solid
rock.
In grottoes are frequently found crystals of the rock,
stalactites, and other natural conglaciations, and those
often of an amazing beauty. M. Homberg conjectures,
from several circumstances, that the marble pillars in
the grotto of Antiparos vegetate or grow. That author
looks on this grotto as a garden, whereof the pieces of
marble are the plants ; and endeavours to show, that
they could only be produced by some vegetative prin¬
ciple. See. Antiparos.
At Foligno in Italy is another grotto, consisting of
pillars and orders of architecture of marble, with their
ornaments, &c. scarcely inferior to those of art} but
they all grow downwards : so that if this too be a gar¬
den, the plants are turned upside down.
Grotto del Cani, a little cavern near Pozzuoli, four
leagues from Naples, the air of which is of a mephitical
or noxious quality j whence also it is called bocca ve-
nenosa, the poisonous mouth.
“ Two miles from Naples (says Dr Mead), just by the
Lago de Agnano, is a celebrated mofeta, commonly call¬
ed la Grotto del Cant, and equally destructive to all with¬
in the reach of its vapours. It is a small grotto about
eight feet high, twelve long, and six broad \ from the
ground arises a thin, subtile, warm fume, visible enough
to a discerning eye, which does not spring up in little
parcels here and there, but in one continued stream,
covering the whole surface of the bottom of the cave j
having this remarkable difference from common va¬
pours, that it does not like smoke disperse itself into
the air, but quickly after its rise falls back again, and
returns
G R O [ii
returns to the earth ; the colour of the sides of the
grotto being the measure of its ascent: for so far it is
of a darkish-green, but higher only common earth.
And as I myself found no inconvenience by standing in
it, so no animal, if its head be above this mark, is the
least injured. But when, as the manner is, a dog, or
any other creature, is forcibly kept below it, or, by
reason of its smallness, cannot hold its head above it, it
presently loses all motion, falls down as dead or in a
swoon, the limbs convulsed and trembling j till at last
no more signs of life appear than a very weak and al¬
most insensible beating of the heart and arteries ; which,
if the animal be left a little longer, quickly ceases too,
and then the case is irrecoverable ; but if it be snatched
out, and laid in the open air, it soon comes to life again,
and sooner if thrown into the adjacent lake.” The
fumes of the grotto, the same author argues, are no
real poison, but act chiefly by their gravity j else the
creatures could not recover so soon, or if they did,
some symptoms, as faintness, &c. would be the conse¬
quence of it. He adds, “ that in creatures killed there¬
with, when dissected, no marks of infection appear j
and that the attack proceeds from a want of air, by
which the circulation tends to an entire stoppage ; and
this so much the more, as the animal inspires a fluid of
a quite different nature from the air, and so in no re¬
spect fit to supply its place. Taking the animal out,
while yet alive, and throwing it into the neighbouring
lake, it recovers: this is owing to the coldness of the
water, which promotes the contraction of the fibres,
and so assists the retarded circulation ; the small portion
of air which remains in the vesiculse, after every expi¬
ration, may be sufficient to drive out the noxious fluid.
After the same manner, cold water acts in a deliquium
ctnimi: the lake of Agnano has no greater virtue in it
than others.”
The air in this grotto was for a long time reckon¬
ed to be of a poisonous nature, and thought to suffocate
the animals which breathed it. Dr Hales imagined
that it destroyed the elasticity of the air, caused the
vesicles of the lungs to collapse, and thus occasioned
sudden death.—It is now, however, found that this air
is nothing else than fixed air, or carbonic acid gas,
which issues from the earth in that place in great
quantity.
Grotto del Serpi, is a subterraneous cavern near
the village of Sassa, eight miles from the city of Brac-
cano in Italy, described byJCircher thus : “ The ^roMo
del scrpi is big enough to hold two persons. It is per¬
forated with several fistular apertures, somewhat in
manner of a sieve j out of which, at the beginning of
the spring season, issues a numerous brood of young
snakes of divers colours, but all free from any particu¬
lar poisonous quality. In this cave they expose their
lepers, paralytics, arthritics, and elephantine patients,
quite naked ; where, the warmth of the subterraneous
steams resolving them into a sweat, and the serpents
clinging variously all around, licking and sucking
them, they become so thoroughly freed of all their
vicious humours, that, upon repeating the operation
for some time, they become perfectly restored.”
I his cave Kircher visited himself; and found it
warm, and every way agreeable to the description
given of it. He saw the holes, and heard a mur¬
muring hissing noise in them. Though he missed see-
5 ] G It O
ing the serpents, it not being the season of their creep- Giotto,
ing out ; yet he saw a great number of their exuviae, Grove,
or sloughs, and an elm growing hard by laden with 1 *
them.
The discovery of this cave was by the cure of nMmevm
leper going from Rome to some baths near this place. W °rm-
Losing his ivay, and being benighted, he happened
upon this cave. Finding it very warm, he pulled off
his clothes ; and being weary and sleepy, had the good
fortune not to feel the serpents about him till they had
wrought his cure.
Milky Grotto, Crypta Lactca, a mile distant from
the ancient village of Bethlehem, is said to have been
thus denominated on occasion of the blessed Virgin,
who let fall some drops of milk in giving suck to Je¬
sus in this grotto. And hence it has been commonly
supposed, that the earth of this cavern has the virtue
of restoring milk to women that are grown dry, and
even of curing fevers. Accordingly, they are always
digging in it, and the earth is sold at a good rate to
such as have faith enough to give credit to the fable.
An altar has been built on the place, and a church just
by it.
Grotto, is also used for a little artificial edifice
made in a garden, in imitation of a natural grotto.
The outsides of these grottoes are usually adorned with
rustic architecture, and their inside with shell-work,
fossils, &c. finished likewise with jets d’eau or foun¬
tains, &c.
A cement for artificial grottoes may be made thus
Take two parts of white rosin, melt it clear, and add
to it four parts of bees wax: when melted together,
add two or three parts of the powder of the stone you
design to cement, or so much as will give the cement
the colour of the stone: to this add one part of
flower of sulphur: incorporate all together over a
gentle fire, and afterwards knead them with your
hands in warm water. With this cement the stones,
shells, &c. after being well dried before the fire, may
be cemented.
Artificial red coral branches, for the embellishment
of grottoes, may be made in the following manner:
Take clear rosin, dissolve it in a brass-pan ; to every
ounce of which add two drams of the finest vermilion :
when you have stirred them well together, and have
chosen your twigs and branches, peeled and dried, take
a pencil and paint the branches all over whilst the
composition is warm ; afterwards shape them in imita¬
tion of natural coral. This done, hold the branches
over a gentle coal fire, till all is smooth and even as if
polished. In the same manner white coral may be
prepared with white lead, and black coral with lamp-
black.
A grotto may be built with little expence, of glass,
cinders, pebbles, pieces of large flint, shells, moss,
stones, counterfeit coral, pieces of chalk, &c. all
bound or cemented together with the above-described
cement.
GROVE, in Gardening, a small wood impervious
to the rays of the sun.
Groves have been in all ages held in great venera¬
tion. The proseuchce, and high-places of the Jews,
whither they resorted for the purposes of devotion,
were probably situated in groves : See Joshua xxiv. 26.
The proseuchae ia Alexandria, mentioned by Philo
I* 2 had
G R O [ii
had groves about them, because he complains that the
Alexandrians, in a tumult against the Jews, cut down
the trees of their proseuchoe.
The ancient Romans had a sort of groves near seve¬
ral of their temples, which were consecrated to some
god, and called luci, by antiphrasis, a nun lucendo, as
being shady and dark. T he veneration which the an¬
cient druids had for groves is well known.
Modern groves are not only great ornaments to
gardens : but are also the greatest relief against the
violent heat of the sun, affording shade to walk under
in the hottest parts of the day, when the other parts
of the garden are useless ; so that every garden is de¬
fective which has not shade.
Groves are of two sorts, viz. either open or close.
Open groves are such as have large shady trees, which
stand at such distances, as that their branches ap¬
proach so near to each other as to prevent the rays
of the sun from penetrating through them.
Close groves have frequently large trees standing in
them ; but the ground under these is filled with
.shrubs or underwood ; so that the walks which are in
them are private, and screened from winds : hy which
means they are rendered agreeable for walking, at
those times when the air is either too hot or too cold
in the more exposed parts of the garden. I hese are
often contrived so as to bound the open groves, and
frequently to hide the walls or other inclosures of the
garden: and when they are properly laid out, with
dry walks winding through them, and on the sides of
these sw'eet-smellingshrubs and flowers irregularly plant¬
ed, they have a charming effect.
Grove, Henry, a learned and ingenious Preshy-
terian divine, was born at Taunton in Somersetshire, in
1683. Hav ing obtained a sufficient stock of classical li¬
terature, be went through a course of academical learn¬
ing, under the reverend Mr Warren ol Taunton, who
had a flourishing academy. He then removed to Lon¬
don, and studied some time under the reverend Mr
Rowe, to whom he was nearly related. Here he
contracted a friendship with several persons of merit,
and particularly with Hr Watts, which continued till
his death, though they were of different opinions in
several points warmly controverted among divines. Af¬
ter two years spent under Mr Rowe, he returned into
the country, and began to preach with great reputa¬
tion •, when an exact judgment, a lively imagination,
and a rational and amiable representation of Christia¬
nity, delivered in a sweet and well-governed voice,
rendered him generally admired •, and the spirit of de¬
votion which prevailed in his sermons procured him
the esteem and friendship of Mrs Singer, afterwards
M rs Rowe, which she expressed in a fine ode on death,
addressed to Mr Grove. Soon after his beginning to
preach, he married j and on the death of Mr Warren,
was chosen to succeed him in the academy at Taunton.
This obliging him to reside there, he preached for
18 years to two small congregations in the neigh¬
bourhood ; and though his salary from both was less
than twenty pounds a-year, and he had a growing
family, he went through it cheerfully. In 1708, he
published a piece, entitled, The Regulations of Hiver-
sions, drawn up for the use of his pupils. About the same
time, he entered into a private dispute by letter with
Hr Samuel Clarke: but they not being able to con-
5 ] G R O
vince each other, the debate was dropped with expres¬
sions of great mutual esteem. He next wrote several
papers printed in the Spectator, viz. [Numbers 588.
601. 626. 635. The last was republished, by the di¬
rection of Hr Gibson bishop ol London, in the Evi¬
dences of the Christian Religion, by Joseph Addison,
Esq. In 1725, Mr James, his partner in the aca¬
demy, dying, he succeeded him in his pastoral charge
at Fulwood, near Taunton, and engaged his nephew
to undertake the other parts of Mr James’s work as
tutor $ and in this situation Mr Grove continued till
his death, which happened in 1738. Elis great con¬
cern with his pupils, was to inspire and cherish in
them a prevailing love of truth, virtue, liberty, and
genuine religion, without violent attachments or pre¬
judices in favour of any party of Christians. He re¬
presented truth and virtue in a most engaging light 5
and though his income, both as a tutor and a minister,
was insufficient to support his family without break¬
ing into his paternal estate, he knew not how to refuse
the call of charity. Besides the above pieces, he wrote,
X. An Essay towards a demonstration of the Soul’s
Immortality. 2. An Essay on the Terms of Christian
Communion. 3. The Evidence of our Saviour’s Re¬
surrection considered. 4. Some Thoughts concerning
the Proof of a Future State from Reason. 5. A His-
course concerning the Nature and Hesign of the Lord’s
Supper. 6. Wisdom the first spring of Action in the
Heity. 7. A Hiscourse on Saving Faith. 8. Miscel¬
lanies in prose and verse. 9. Many Sermons, &c. Af¬
ter his decease, his posthumous works were published
hy subscription, in four volumes octavo, with the
names of near 700 subscribers, among whom were
some of the best judges of merit in the established
church.
GROUNH, in painting, the surface upon which
the figures and other objects are represented.
The ground is properly understood of such parts of
the piece as have nothing painted on them, but retain
the original colour upon which the other colours ars
applied to make the representations.
A building is said to serve as a ground to a figure
when the figure is painted on the building.
The ground behind a picture in miniature is com¬
monly blue or crimson, imitating a curtain of satin or
velvet.
Ground, in etching, denotes a gummy composi¬
tion smeared over the surface of the metal to be etched,
to prevent the aquafortis from eating, except in such
places where this ground is cut through with the point
of a needle. See Etching.
Ground-Angling, fishing under water without a float,
only with a plumb of lead, or a bullet, placed about
nine inches from the hook $ which is better, because
it will roll on the ground. This method of fishing
is most proper in cold weather, when the fish swim
very low.
The morning and evening are the chief seasons for
the ground line in fishing for trout; but if the day
prove cloudy, or the water muddy, you may fish at
ground all day.
GROUND-Tacklc, a ship’s anchors, cables,. &c. and
in general whatever is necessary to make her ride safe
at anchor.
GRouND-Ivy. See Glechoma, Botany Index.
GrouxO'
G R O
ro1 Gro d GiiOUND-Pine. See Teucrium, Botany Index.
1 | GROUNDSEL. See Senecio, Botany
Ill3*ut ad. GROUP, in painting and sculpture, is an assemblage
^ of two or more figures of men, beasts, fruits, or the like,
which have some apparent relation to each other. See
Painting. The word is formed of the Italian groppo,
a knot.
The Groups, a cluster of islands lately discovered
in the South sea. They lie in about S. Lat. 18. 12.
and W. Long. 142. 42. They are long narrow slips
of land, ranging in all directions, some of them ten
miles or upwards in length, but not more than a quar¬
ter of a mile broad. They abound in trees, particu¬
larly those of the cocoa nut. They are inhabited by
well made people, of a brown complexion. Most of
them carried in their hands a slender pole about 14
feet in length, pointed like a spear •, they had likewise
something shaped like a paddle, about four feet long.
Their canoes were of different sizes, carrying from
three to six or seven people, and some of them hoisted
a sail.
GROUSE, or Growse, Moor-fowl, or Moor-game.
See Tetrad, Ornithology Index.
GROUTHEAD, or Greathed, Robert, a learn¬
ed and famous bishop of Lincoln, was born at Stow in
Lincolnshire, or (according to others) at Stradbrook
in Suffolk, in the latter part of the twelfth century.
H is parents were so poor, that when a boy he was re¬
duced to do the meanest offices, and even to beg his
bread j till the mayor of Lincoln, struck with his ap¬
pearance and the quickness of his answers to certain
questions, took him into his family, and put him to
school. Here his ardent love of learning, and admi¬
rable capacity for acquiring it, soon appeared, and
procured him many patrons, by whose assistance he
was enabled to prosecute his studies, first at Cambridge,
afterwards at Oxford, and at last at Paris. In these
three famous seats of learning, he spent many years in
the most indefatigable pursuit of knowledge, and be¬
came one of the best and most universal scholars of the
age. He was a great master not only of the French
and Latin, but also of the Greek and Hebrew lan¬
guages, which was a very rare accomplishment in those
times. We are assured by Roger Bacon, who was inti¬
mately acquainted with him, that he spent much of his
time for almost forty years in the study of geometry,
astronomy, optics, and other branches of physical and
mathematical learning, in all which he very much ex¬
celled. Theology was his favourite study, in which lie
read lectures at Oxford with great applause. In the
mean time, he obtained several preferments in the
church, and was at length elected and consecrated bi¬
shop of Lincoln, A. D. 1235. In this station he soon
became very famous, by the purity of his manners, the
popularity of his preaching, the vigour of his discipline,
and the boldness with which he reproved the vices and
opposed the arbitrary mandates of the court of Rome ;
of this last it may be proper to give one example. Pope
Innocent IV. had granted to one of his own nephews
named Frederick, who was but a child, a provision to
the first canon’s place in the church of Lincoln that
should become vacant j and sent a bull to the arch¬
bishop of Canterbury, and Innocent, then papal legate
in England, commanding them to see the provision
GRO
made effectual j which they transmitted to the bishop Groutbead.
of Lincoln. But that brave and virtous prelate » '^
boldly refused to obey this unreasonable mandate, and
sent an answer to the papal bull containing the follow¬
ing severe reproaches against his holiness for abusing
his power : “ If we except the sins of Lucifer and
Antichrist, there neither is nor can be a greater crime,
nor any thing more contrary to the doctrine of the
gospel, or more odious and abominable in the sight of
Jesus Christ, than to ruin and destroy the souls of men,
by depriving them of the spiritual aid and ministry of
their pastors. This crime is committed by those who
command the benefices intended for the support of able
pastors, to be bestowed on those who are incapable of
performing the duties of the pastoral office. It is im¬
possible therefore that the holy apostolic see, which
received its authority from the Lord Jesus Christ, tor
edification, and not for destruction, can be guilty of
such a crime, or any thing approaching to such a
crime, so hateful to God and so hurtful to men. For
this would be a most manifest corruption and abuse of-
its authority, which would forfeit all its glory, and
plunge it into the pains of hell.” Upon hearing this
letter, his holiness became frantic with rage, poured
forth a torrent of abuse against the good bishop, and
threatened to make him an object of terror and asto¬
nishment to the whole world. “ How dare (said he)
this old, deaf, doating fool, disobey my commands ?
Is not his master the king of England my subject, or
rather my slave ? Cannot he cast him into prison, and
crush him in a moment ?” But the cardinals by degrees
brought the pope to think more calmly, and to take
no notice of this letter. “ Let us not (said they)
raise a tumult in the church without necessity, and
precipitate that revolt and separation from us, which
we know must one day take place.” Remarkable
words, when we reflect when and by whom they wei«
spoken 1 The bishop did not long survive this noble
stand against the gross corruptions and tyranny of the
church of Rome P for*he fell sick at his castle of Bug-
den that same year ; and when he became sensible that
his death was drawing near, he called his clergy into
his apartment, and made a long discourse to them, to
prove that the reigning pope Innocent IV. was An¬
tichrist. With this exertion his strength and spirits
were so much exhausted, that he expired soon after,
October 9. 1253. A contemporary historian, who
was perfectly well acquainted with him, hath drawn
his character in the following manner. “ He was a
free and bold reprimander of the pope and the king ;
an admonisher of the prelates; a corrector of the
monks ; an instructor of the clergy j a supporter of the
studious *, a censurer of the incontinent} a scourge and
terror to the court of Rome; a diligent searcher of
the scripture ; and a frequent preacher to the people.
At his table he was hospitable, polite, and cheerful.
In the church he was contrite, devout, and solemn ;
and in performing all the duties of his office he was
venerable, active, and indefatigable.” The illustrious
Roger Bacon, who was most capable, and had the best
opportunities of forming a true judgment of the ex¬
tent of his. learning, by perusing his works, and by
frequently conversing with him, hath given this ho¬
nourable testimony in his favour. “ Robert Grouthead
bishop?
[ 117 ]
G R O [ 118 ] G R U
Groutliead, bishop of Xincoln, and his friend Friar Adam de Ma-
Giowth. ' risco, are the two most learned men in the world, and
— v   * excel all the rest of mankind both in divine and human
knowledge.” This most excellent and learned prelate
was a very voluminous writer, and composed a prodi¬
gious number of treatises on a great variety ol sub¬
jects in philosophy and divinity, a catalogue of which
is given by Bale.
GROWTH, the gradual increase of bulk and sta¬
ture that takes place in animals or vegetables, to a cer¬
tain period.—The increase of bulk in such bodies as
have no life, owing to fermentations excited in their
substance, or to other causes, is called EXPANSION,
Swelling, &c.
The growth of animals, nay even of the human spe¬
cies, is subject to great variations. A remarkable in¬
stance in the last was observed in France in the year
1729. At this time the Academy of Sciences examined
a boy who was then only seven years old, and who
measured four feet eight inches and four lines high
without his shoes. His mother observed the signs of
puberty on him at two years old, which continued
to increase very quick, and soon arrived at the usual
standard. At four years old he was able to lift and
toss the common bundles of hay in stables into the horses
racks j and at six years old could lift as much as a stur¬
dy fellow of twenty. But though he thus increased in
bodily strength, his understanding was no greater than
is usual with children of his age, and their play-things
were also his favourite amusements.
Another boy, a native of the hamlet of Bouzanquet,
in the diocese of Alais, though of a strong constitution,
appeared to be knit and stiff in his joints till he rvas
about four years and a half old. During this time
nothing farther was remarkable of him than an extra¬
ordinary appetite, which was satisfied no otherwise
than by giving him plenty of the common aliments
of the inhabitants of the country, consisting of rye-
bread, chesnuts, bacon, and water } but his limbs soon
becoming supple and pliable, afnd his body beginning
to expand itself, he grew up in so extraordinary a
manner, that at the age of five years he measured four
feet three inches j some months after, he was four
feet eleven inches j and at six, five feet, and bulky in
proportion. His growth was so rapid, that one might
fancy he saw him grow : every month his clothes re¬
quired to be made longer and wider j and what was
^till very extraordinary in his growth, it was not
preceded by any sickness, nor accompanied with any
pain -In the groin or elsewhere. At the age of five
years his'svoice changed, his beard began to appear, and
at six he had as much as a man of thirty; in short, all
the unquestionable marks of puberty were visible in
him. It was not doubted in the country but this child
was, at five years old, or five and a half, in a condition
of begetting other children 5 which induced the rector
of the parish to recommend to his mother that she
would keep him from too familiar a conversation with
children of the other sex. Though his wit was riper
than is commonly observable at the age of five or six
years, yet its progress was not in proportion to that of
his body. His air and manner still retained something
childish, though by his bulk and stature he resembled
a complete man, which at first sight produced a very
singular contrast. His voice was strong and manly, Gr0|
and his great strength rendered him already fit for the | ^
labours of the country. At the age of five years, heGr“bti[ g
could carry to a good distance three measures of rye, r^d
weighing 84 pounds j when turned of six, he could lift 1
up easily on his shoulders and carry loads of 150 —’
pounds weight a good way oft: and these exercises
were exhibited by him as often as the curious engaged
him thereto by some liberality. Such beginnings made
people think that he would soon shoot up into a giant.
A mountebank was alreading soliciting his parents for
him, and flattering them with hopes of putting him
in a way of making a great fortune. But all these
hopes suddenly vanished. His legs became crooked,
his body shrunk, his strength diminished, his voice
grew sensibly weaker, and he at last sunk into a total
imbecility.
In the Paris Memoirs also there is an account of a
girl who had her menses at three months of age.
When four years old, she was four feet six inches in
height, and had her limbs well proportioned to that
height, her breasts large and plump, and the parts
of generation like those of a girl of eighteen j so that
there is no doubt but that she was marriageable at that
time, and capable of being a mother of children.
These things are more singular and marvellous in the
northern than in the southern climates, where the fe¬
males come sooner to maturity. In some places of the
East Indies, the girls have children at nine years of age.
Many other instances of extraordinary growth might
be brought, but the particulars are not remarkably
different from those already related.—It is at first sight
astonishing that children of such early and prodigious
growth do not become giants: but when we consider,
that the signs of puberty appear so much sooner than
they ought, it seems evident that the whole is only a
more than usually rapid expansion of the parts, as in
hot climates $ and accordingly it is observed, that such
children, instead of becoming giants, always decay and
die apparently of old age, long before the natural term
of human life.
GRUB, in Zoology, the English name of the hexapode
worms, produced from the eggs of beetles, and which at
length are transformed into winged insects of the same
species with their parents.
GRUBBING, in Agriculture, the digging or pulling
up of the stubs and roots of trees. When the roots are
large, this is a laborious task: but Mr Mortimer hath
shown how it may be accomplished in such a manner
as to save great expence by a very simple and easy
method. He proposes a strong iron hook to be made
about two feet four inches long, with a large iron
ring fastened to the upper part of it. This hook
must be fastened in a hole in the side of the root; and
a lever being put into the ring, three men, by means of
this lever, may wring out the root, and twist the sap-
roots asunder. Stubs of trees may also be taken up with
the same hook, in which work it will save a great deal
of labour, though not so much as in the other j because
the stubs must be first cleft with wedges, before the
hook can enter their sides, to wrench them out by
pieces.
GRUBENHAGEN, a town and castle of West¬
phalia, situated in the principality of the same name.
Grubenhagek,
ier;n.be
II K
^ a ad a
; -
G U A [ i
a. Grubenhagen, a principality in the duchy of Bruns-
wic, in Lower Saxony, remarkable for its mines of sil¬
ver, copper, iron, and lead. The Hartz forest, the an-
a' cient Hercynian, is a mountain covered with trees and
abounding with mines.
GRUINALES (from grws, “ a crane,r), the name
of the fourteenth order in Linnaeus’s Fragments of a
Natural Method, consisting of geranium, and other ge¬
nera allied to it in habit and structure.
GRUME, in Medicine, denotes a concreted clot of
blood, milk, or other substance. Hence grumous blood
is that which approaches to the nature of grume.
GRUPPO, or Turned Shake, a musical grace, de¬
fined by Playford to consist in the alternate prolation of
two tones in juxtaposition to each other, with a close on
the note immediately beneath the lower of them. See
Shake.
GRUS, in antiquity, a dance performed yearly by
the young Athenians around the temple of Apollo, on
the day of the Delia. The motions and figures of this
dance were very intricate, and variously interwoven ;
some of them being intended to express the windings
of the labyrinth wherein the minotaur was killed by
Theseus.
Grus, in Astronomy, a southern constellation, not
visible in our latitude. The number of stars in this
constellation, according to Mr Sharp’s Catalogue, is
*3-
Grus. See Ardea, Ornithology Index.
GRUTER, James, a learned philologer, and one
of the most laborious writers of his time, was born at
Antwerp in 1560. He was but a child when his fa¬
ther and mother, being persecuted for the Protestant
religion by the duchess of Parma, governess of the Ne¬
therlands, carried him into England. He imbibed the
elements of learning from his mother, who was one of
the most learned women of the age, and besides French,
Italian, and English, was a complete mistress of Latin,
and well skilled in Greek. He spent some years in the
university of Cambridge ; after which he went to that
of Leyden to study the civil law j but at last applied
himself wholly to polite literature. After travelling
much, he became professor in the university of Heidel-
hurgh; near which city he died in 1627. He wrote
many works; the most considerable of which are, 1. A
large collection of ancient inscriptions. 2. Thesaurus
cnticus. 3. Deliciee poetarum Gallorum, Italorum, et
JBclgarum, Sfc.
GRUYERES, a town of Swisserland, in the canton
of Friburgh, with a castle. It is famous for its cheese,
which bears the same name. E. Long. 6. 53. N. Lat.
46. 35*
GRY, a measure containing one-tenth of a line.
A line is one-tenth of a digit, and a digit one-tenth
of a foot, and a philosophical foot one-third of a pendu-
kim, whose diadromes, or vibrations, in the latitude of
45 degrees, are each equal to one-second of time, or
one-sixtieth of a minute.
GRYLLUS, a genus of insects belonging to the
order Hcmiptera. See Entomology Index.
GRA PHITES, Crow’s Stone, an old name for a
mineral found in clay and gravel pits.
or Guadalaxara, a town
of Spain, in New Castile, seated on the river Henares.
19 ] QUA
It has a linen manufacture, and contains 12,000 inha¬
bitants. W. Long. 2. 47. N. Lat. 40. 36.
Guadalajara, a considerable town of Mexico, and
capital of a rich and fertile province of the same name,
with a bishop’s see. W. Long. 104. 16. N. Lat. 21.
10.
GUADALAVIAR, a river of Spain, which rises
on the confines of Arragon and New Castile, and, run¬
ning by Turvel in Arragon, crosses the kingdom of
Valencia, passes by the town of the same name, and
soon after falls into the Mediterranean sea, a little be¬
low Valencia.
GUADALQUIVER, one of the most famous rivers
of Spain, rises in Andalusia, near the confines of Gra¬
nada, and running quite through Andalusia, by the
towns of Baiza, Andaxar, Cordova, Seville, and St
Lucar, falls at last into the bay of Cadiz.
GUADALUPE, a handsome town in Spain, in
Estramadura, with a celebrated convent, whose struc¬
ture is magnificent, and is immensely rich. It is seated
on a rivulet of the same name; 45 miles south-west from
Toledo. W. Long. 4. 45. N. Lat. 39. 12.
Guadalupe, one of the Caribbee islands, belonging
to the French, the middle of which is in seated about
N. Lat. 16. 30. W. Long. 61. 50.
This island, which is ot an irregular figure, may be
about 80 leagues in circumference. It is divided into
two parts by a small arm of the sea, which is not above
two leagues long, and from 15 to 40 fathoms broad.
This canal, known by the name of the Salt River,
is navigable, but will only carry vessels of 50 tons bur¬
den.
That part of the island which gives its name to the
whole colony is, towards the centre, full of craggy
rocks, where the cold is so intense, that nothing will
grow upon them but fern, and some useless shrubs co¬
vered with moss. On the top ol these rocks, a moun¬
tain called la Souphriere, or the Brimstone Mountain, ri¬
ses to an immense height. It exhales, through various
openings, a thick black smoke, intermixed with sparks
that are visible by night. From all these hills flow
numberless springs, which fertilize the plains below,
and moderate the burning heat of the climate by a re¬
freshing stream, so celebrated that the galleons which
formerly used to touch at the Windward islands, had
orders to renew their provision with this pure and salu¬
brious water. Such is that part of the island properly
called Guadalupe. That which is commonly called
Gt and lerre, has not been so much favoured by nature.
It is indeed less rugged; but it wants springs and rivers.
The soil is not so fertile, or the climate so wholesome or
so pleasant.
No European nation had yet taken possession of this
island, when 55® Frenchmen, led on by two gentlemen
named Lohne and Duplessis, arrived there from Dieppe
on the 28th of June 1635* I hey had been very im¬
prudent in their preparations. Their provisions were
so ill chosen, that they were spoiled in the passage, and
they had shipped so few, that they were exhausted in
two months. They were supplied with more from the
mother-country. St Christopher’s, whether from scar¬
city or design, refused to spare them any; and the first
attempts in husbandry they made in the country could
not as yet afford any thing. No resource was left for
the
Guadalaja¬
ra
fi
Guadalupe.
V——»
G U A [
the colony but from the savages •, but tbe superfluities
of a people, who cultivate but little, and therefore had
never laid up any stores, could not be very considerable.
The new comers, not content with what the savages
might freely and voluntarily bring, came to a resolution
to plunder them ; and hostilities commenced on the 16th
of January 1636.
The Caribs, not thinking themselves in a condition
openly to resist an enemy who had so much the advan¬
tage from the superiority of their arms, destroyed their
own provisions and plantations, and retired to Grande
Terre, or to the neighbouring islands. From thence
the most desperate came over to the island from which
they had been driven, and concealed themselves in the
thickest parts of the forests. In the day-time, they
shot with their poisoned arrows, or knocked down with
their clubs, all the Frenchmen who were scattered about
for hunting or fishing. In the night, they burned
the houses and destroyed the plantations of their unjust
spoilers.
A dreadful famine was the consequence of this kind
of war. The colonists were reduced to graze in the
Helds, to eat their own excrements, and to dig up dead
bodies for their subsistence. Many who had been
slaves at Algiers, held in abhorrence the hands that had
broken their fetters : and all of them cursed their exist¬
ence. It was in this manner that they atoned for the
crime of their invasion, till the government of Aubert
brought a peace with the savages at the end of the year
1640. The remembrance, however, of hardships en¬
dured in an invaded island, proved a powerful incite¬
ment to the cultivation of all articles of immediate ne¬
cessity j which afterwards induced an attention to those
of luxury consumed in the mother-country. The few
inhabitants who had escaped the calamities they had
drawn upon themselves, were soon joined by some dis¬
contented colonists from St Christopher’s, by Europeans
fond of novelty, by sailors tired of navigation, and by
some sea-captains, who prudently chose to commit to the
care of a grateful soil the treasures they had saved from
the dangers of the sea. But still the prosperity of Gua¬
dalupe was stopped or impeded by obstacles arising from
its situation.
The facility with which the pirates from the neigh¬
bouring islands could carry off their cattle, their slaves,
their very crops, frequently brought them into a despe¬
rate situation. Intestine broils, arising from jealousies
of authority, often disturbed the quiet of the planters.
The adventurers who went over to the Windward
islands, disdaining a land that was fitter for agriculture
than for naval expeditions, were easily drawn toMarti-
nico by the convenient roads it abounds with. The
protection of those intrepid pirates brought to that island
all the traders who flattered themselves that they might
buy up the spoils of the enemy at a low price, and all
the planters who thought they might safely give them¬
selves up to peaceful labours. This quick population
could not fail of introducing the civil and military go¬
vernment of the'Caribbee islands into Martinico. From
that time the French ministry attended more seriously
to this than to the other colonies, which were not so
immediately under their direction ; and hearing chiefly
of this island, they turned all their encouragements that
way.
It was in consequence of this preference, that in
5
120 ] G U A
1700 the number of inhabitants in Guadalupe amount-Gua^
ed only to 3825 white people, 325 savages, free ne-^y,
groes, mulattoes, and 6725 slaves, many of whom were
Caribs.
At the end of the year 1755, the colony was peopled
with 9643 whites, 41,140 slaves of all ages and of both
sexes. Her saleable commodities were the produce of
330 sugar-plantations, and 15 plots of indigo j besides
cocoa, coffee, and cotton. Such was the state of Gua¬
dalupe when it was conquered by the British in the
month of April 1759*
France lamented this loss; but the colony had rea¬
son to comfort themselves for this disgrace. During a
siege of three months, they had seen their plantations
destroyed, the buildings that served to carry on their
works burnt down, and some of their slaves carried off.
Had the enemy been forced to retreat after all these de¬
vastations, the island was ruined. Deprived of all as¬
sistance from the mother-country, which was not able
to send her any succours j and expecting nothing from
the Dutch (who, on account of their neutrality, came
into her roads), because she had nothing to offer them
in exchange j she could never have subsisted till the en-
suing harvest.
The conquerors delivered them from these apprehen¬
sions. The British, indeed, are no merchants in their
colonies. The proprietors of lands, who mostly reside
in Europe, send to their representatives whatever they
want, and draw the whole produce of the estate by the
return of their ship. An agent settled in some sea-port
of Great Britain is intrusted with the furnishing the
plantation and receiving the produce. This was im¬
practicable at Guadalupe j and the conquerors in this
respect were obliged to adopt the custom of the con¬
quered. The-British, informed of the advantage the
French made of their trade with the colonies, hastened,
in imitation of them, to send their ships to the conquer¬
ed island*, and so multiplied their expeditions, that they
overstocked the market, and sunk the price of all Eu¬
ropean commodities. The colonists bought them at a
very low price *, and, in consequence of this plenty, ob¬
tained long delays for the payment.
To this credit, which was necessary, was soon added
another arising from speculation, which enabled the co¬
lony to fulfil its engagements. A great number of ne¬
groes were carried thither, to hasten the growth and
enhance the value of the plantations. It has been said
in various memorials, all copied from each other, that
the English had stocked Guadalupe with 30,000 du¬
ring the four years and three months that they remain¬
ed masters of the island. The registers of the custom¬
houses, which may be depended on, as there could he
no inducement for an imposition, attest that the number
was no more than 18,721. This was sufficient to give
the nation well-grounded hopes of reaping great advan*
tages from their new conquest. But their hopes were
frustrated } and the colony, with its dependencies, was
restored to its former possessors by the treaty of peace
in July 1763.
By the survey taken in 1767, this island, including
the smaller islands, Deseada, St Bartholomew, Mari-
galante, and the Saints, dependent upon it, contains
11,863 white people of all ages and of both sexes, 752
free blacks and mulattoes, 72,761 slaves j which makes
in all a population of 85,376 souls.
The
G U A [ i
'Jj’jUari. pe Guadalupe was taken by the British in I794« hut
,|( N retaken by the French the following year. It was
v Ul^ i again reduced by the British in 1810, and remained in
their possession till the general peace in 1814, when
it was restored to France. In 1812, according to an
official return, the population consisted of 12,747
whites, 94,328 slaves, and 7764 free negroes. Guada¬
lupe exported 8,216,249 pounds of sugar in 1811, with
I;6oi,686 pounds of cotfee, besides oilier articles.
GUADIANA, a large river in Spain, having its
source in New Castile, and crossing the high moun¬
tains, falls down to the lakes called Ojos of Guadiana ;
from whence it runs to Calatrava, Medelin, Merida, and
Badajoz in Estremadura of Spain •, and after having
run for some time in Alentejo in Portugal, it passes on
to separate the kingdom of Algarve from Andalusia,
and falls into the bay or gulf of Cadiz, between Castro
Marino and Agramonte. W. Long. 7. 26. N. Lat.
37- I0* „ . .
GUADIX, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of
Granada, with a bishop’s see. It was taken from the
Moors in 1253, who afterwards retook it, but the
Spaniards again got possession of it in 1489. It is
seated in a fertile country, in W. Long. 3. 9. N. Lat.
57- 24-
GUAJACUM, Lignum Vit^e, or Pockwood; a ge¬
nus of plants belonging to thedecandria class j and in the
natural method ranking under the 14th order, Gruinales.
See Botany and Materia Medica Index.
GUALEOR, Gualior, or Gowalier, a large town
of Indostan in Asia, and capital of a province of the
same name, with an ancient and celebrated fortress of
great strength. It is situated in the very heart of Hin-
dostan Proper, being about 80 miles to the south of
Agra, the ancient capital of the empire, and 130 from
the nearest part of the Ganges. From Calcutta it is,
by the nearest route, upwards of 800 miles, and 910 by
the ordinary one; and about 280 from the British fron¬
tiers. Its latitude is 26. 14. and longitude 78. 26.
from Greenwich.
In the ancient division of the empire it is classed in
the soubah ot Agra, and is often mentioned in history.
In the year 1008, and during the two following centu¬
ries, it was thrice reduced by famine. It is probable
that it must in all ages have been deemed a military
post ot the utmost consequence, both from its situation
m respect to the capital, and Irom the peculiarity of its
site, which was generally deemed impregnable. With
respect to its relative position, it must be considered that
it stands on the principal road leading from Agra to
Mulwa, Guzerat, and the Decan : and that too, near
the place where it enters the hilly tract which advances
from Bundelcund, Malwa, and Agimere, to a parallel
with the river Jumnah, throughout the greatest part of
its course. And from all these circumstances of gene¬
ral and particular situation, together with its natural
and acquired advantages as a fortress, the possession of
it was deemed as necessary to the ruling emperors of
xiindostan as Dover castle might have been to the Sax¬
on and Norman kings of England.—Its palace was
used as a state prison as early as 1317, and continued
to be such until the downfal of the empire On the
final dismemberment of the empire, Gualeor appears to
have fa leu to the lot of a rajah of the Jat tribe : who
turned the government of the district in which it is
Vol. X. Part I. I
21 ] G U A
immediately situated, under the title of Rana of Go- Gimleor.
hud or Gohd. Since that period it has changed mas- V| ~
ters more than once ; the Mahrattas, whose dominions
extend to the neighbourhood of it, having some¬
times possessed it, and at other times the Rana : but
the means of transfer were always either famine or
treachery, nothing like a siege having ever been at¬
tempted.
Gualeor was in the possession of Madajee Scindia, a
Mahratta chief, in I779» ^ ^ie close of which year
the council-general of Bengal concluded an alliance
with the Rana; in consequence of which four batta¬
lions of sepoys of 500 men each, and some pieces of
artillery, were sent to his assistance, bis district being
overrun by the Mahrattas, and himself almost shut up
in his fort ot Gohud. The grand object of this alliance
was to penetrate into Scindia’s country, and finally to
draw Scindia himself from the western side of India,
where he was attending the motions of General God¬
dard, who was then employed in the reduction of Gu¬
zerat ; it being Mr Hastings’s idea, that when Scindia
found his own dominions in danger, he would detach
himself from the confederacy, of which he was the
principal member, and thus leave matters open for an
accommodation with the court of Poonah. It fell out
exactly as Mr Hastings predicted. Major William
Popham was appointed to the command of the little
army sent to the liana’s assistance ; and was very suc¬
cessful, as well in clearing his country of the enemy,
as in driving them out ol one of their own most valu¬
able districts, and keeping possession of it : and Mr Ha¬
stings, who justly concluded that the capture of Gua¬
leor, if practicable, would not only open the way into
Scindia’s country, but would also add to the reputa¬
tion of our arms in a degree much beyond the risk and
expence of the undertaking, repeatedly expressed his
opinion to Major Popham, together with a wish that
it might be attempted ; and founding bis hopes of
success on the confidence that the garrison would pro¬
bably have in the natural strength of the place. It
was accordingly undertaken ; and the following account
of the place, and the manner of our getting possession
of it, was written by Captain Jonathan Scott, at that
time Persian interpreter to Major Popham, to his bro¬
ther Major John Scott.
“ I he fortress of Gualeor stands on a vast rock of
about four miles in length, but narrow, and of unequal
breadth, and nearly flat at the top. Jbe sides are so
steep as to appear almost perpendicular in every part ;
for where it was not naturally so, it has been scraped
away ; and the height from the plain below is from
200 to 300 feet. The rampart conforms to the edge
of the precipice all round ; and the only entrance to it
is by steps running up the side of the rock, defended
on the side next the country by a wall and bastions,
and farther guarded by seven stone gateways, at certain
distances from each other. The area within is full of
noble buildings, reservoirs of water, wells, and culti¬
vated land ; so that it is really a little district in it¬
self. At the north-west foot of the mountain is the
town, pretty large, and well built; the houses all of
stone. To have besieged this place would be vain, for
nothing but a surprise or blockade could have carried
it.
“ A tribe of banditti from the district of the Rana
Q had
tlualeor.
G U A [12:
IkwJ been accustomed to rob about this town, and once
in the dead of night bad climbed up the rock and got
into the fort. This intelligence they bad communica¬
ted to the Rana, who often thought of availing himself
of it, but was fearful of undertaking an enterprise of
such moment with his own troops. At length he in¬
formed Major Popham of it, who sent a party of the
robbers to conduct some of his own spies to the spot.
They accordingly climbed up in the night, and found
that the guards generally went to sleep after their
rounds. Popham now ordered ladders to be made j but
with so much secrecy, that until the night of surprise
only myself and a few others knew it. On the 3d of
August, in the evening, a party was ordered to he in
readiness to march under the command of Captain Wil¬
liam Bruce 5 and Popham put himself at the head of
two battalions, which were immediately to follow the
storming party. To prevent as much as possible any
noise in approaching or ascending the rock, a kind of
shoes of woollen cloth were made for the sepoys, and
stuffed with cotton. At II o’clock the whole detach¬
ment marched from the camp at Reypour, eight miles
from Gualeor, through unfrequented paths, and reach¬
ed it at a little before day-break. Just as Captain Bruce
arrived at the foot of the rock, he saw the lights which
accompanied the rounds moving along the ramparts, and
heard the sentinels cough (the mode of signifying that
all is well in an Indian camp or garrison), which might
have damped the spirit of many men, but served only
to inspire him with more confidence, as the moment
for action, that is, the interval between the passing the
rounds was now ascertained. Accordingly when the
lights were gone, the wooden ladders were placed a-
gainst the rock, and one of the robbers first mounted,
and returned with an account that the guard was retir¬
ed to sleep. Lieutenant Cameron, our engineer, next
mounted, and tied a rope-ladder to the battlements of
the wall $ this kind of ladder being the only one adapt¬
ed to the purpose of scaling the wall in a body (the
wooden ones only serving to ascend from crag to crag
of the rock, and to assist in fixing the rope-ladders).
When all was ready, Captain Bruce with 20 sepoys,
grenadiers, ascended without being discovered, and
squatted down under the parapet $ but before a rein¬
forcement arrived, three of the party had so little re¬
collection as to fire on some of the garrison who hap¬
pened to be lying asleep near them. This had nearly
ruined the whole plan : the garrison were of course
alarmed, and ran in great numbers towards the place $
but ignorant of the strength of the assailants (as the
men fired on had been killed outright), they suffered
themselves to be stopped by the warm fire kept up by
the small party of the grenadiers, until Major Popham
himself, with a considerable reinforcement, came to
their aid. The garrison then retreated to the inner
buildings, and discharged a few rockets, but soon af¬
terwards retreated precipitately through the gate j
whilst the principal officers, thus deserted, assembled
together in one house, and hung out a flag. Major
Popham sent an officer to give them assurance of quar¬
ter and protection ; and thus, in the space of two
hours, this important and astonishing fortress was com¬
pletely in our possession. We had only 20 men wound¬
ed and one killed. On the side of the enemy, Bapogee
]
G U A
the governor was killed, and most of the principal offi-
cers wounded.” _ Guam
Thus fell the strongest fortress in Hindostan, garri-'—y.
soned by a chosen body of 1200 men, on August 4.
1780*, and which, before the capture of it by the
British, was pronounced by the princes of Hindostan,
as far as their knowledge in the military art extended,
to be impregnable. In 1783 Madajee Scindia besieged
this fortress, then possessed by the Rana of Gohud,
with an army of 70,000 men, and effected the reduc¬
tion by the treachery of one of the Rana’s officers.
During the war in 1804, it surrendered to the British
by capitulation after a short siege, but was restored
to the Mahrattas at the peace by Lord Cornwallis.
GUAM, the largest of the Ladrone islands in the
South sea, being about 40 leagues in circumference.
It is the only one among the innumerable islands that
lie scattered in the immense South sea which has a
town built in the European style, with a regular fort,
a church, and civilized inhabitants. The air is excel¬
lent, the water good, the garden stufls and fruits are
exquisite, the flocks of buffaloes innumerable, as are
those of goats and hogs, and all kinds of poultry
abound in an astonishing degree. There is no port in
which worn-out sailors can be more speedily restored,
or find better or more plentiful refreshments, than in
this.
But Guam did not formerly enjoy this state of
abundance. When it was first discovered by Ma¬
gellan in 1521, with the other eight principal
islands that lie north of it, which, with a multi¬
tude of smaller ones, form together that archipe¬
lago known by the name of the Ladrones, they
were all crowded with inhabitants, but aftorded no
refreshments to navigators except fish, bananas, co¬
coa nuts, and bread fruit j and even these could
not be procured but by force, amidst showers of
the arrows and lances of the natives. The Spaniards
carried thither from America the first stock of cattle,
of fowls, of plants, and seeds, and fruits, as well as
garden stuffs, which are all now found in such abun¬
dance.
The Ladrone islands, and Guam in particular, were
covered with inhabitants when they were discover¬
ed. It is said that Guam alone contained upon its
coast more than 30,000 people. These men were fe¬
rocious savages and bold thieves, as all the islanders in
the South seas are, undoubtedly because they were un¬
acquainted with the rights of property ; but they were
so savage, so incapable of supporting the yoke or ci¬
vilization, that the Spaniards, who undertook to bring
them under the regulations of law and order, have
seen their numbers almost annihilated within the space
of two centuries. Under the government of their
missionaries, these fierce islanders, after having long
defended, by cruel wars, the right of living like wild
beasts under the guidance of instinct, being at last ob¬
liged to yield to the superiority of the Spanish arms,
gave themselves up to despair : they took the resolu¬
tion of administering potions to their women, in order
to procure abortions, and to render them sterile, that
they might not bring into the world, and leave behind
them, beings that were not free, according to the
ideas that they had of liberty. A resolution so vio¬
lent,
G U A [ 123 ] G U A
1. lent, and so contrary to the views and intentions of
—' nature, was persisted in with so much obstinacy in the
nine Ladrone islands, that their population, which at
the time of the discovery consisted of more than 60,000
souls, does not now exceed 800 or 900 in the whole
extent of the archipelago. About 20 or 30 years ago,
the scattered fragments of the original natives were
collected and established in the island of Guam, where
they now begin to recover by the wise precautions, and
prudent, though tardy, exertions of a government more
adapted to the climate of these islands and to the genius
of their inhabitants.
The principal settlement, which the Spaniards call
the town of Agana, is situated about four leagues
north-east of the landing-place, on the sea-shore, and
at the foot of some hills, not very high, in a beautiful
well-watered country. Besides this, there are 21
smaller settlements of Indians round the island, all on
the sea-shore, composed of five or six families, who
cultivate fruits and grain, and employ themselves in
fishing.
The centre of the island is still uncleared. The
trees are not very tall, but they are fit for the building
of houses and of boats. The forests are in general
very thick. The Spaniards at first cleared certain
portions of land to turn them into savannahs for the
feeding of cattle. The formation of savannahs consists
in multiplying within the forests small cleared spots
separated only by thickets and rows of trees, and
kept clean from shrubs of every kind. The Spaniards
sow these spots with grass seeds, and other indigenous
plants that are fit for pasturage. These meadows, be¬
ing effectually shaded on every quarter, preserve their
freshness, and afford the flocks and herds a shelter
from the sun and the great heat of noon. The cattle
that were formerly brought to the savannahs of Guam
from America have multiplied astonishingly : they are
become wild, and must be shot when wanted, or taken
by stratagem.
The woods are likewise full of goats, of hogs, and
fowls, which were all originally brought thither by the
Spaniards, and are now wild. The flesh of all these
animals is excellent. In the savannahs, and even in
the heart of the forests, there is a vast multitude of
pigeons, of parroquets, of thrushes, and of black¬
birds.
Among the indigenous trees of the country, the most
remarkable are, the cocoa-nut tr<^ and the bread-fruit
tree. The woods are also filled with guavas, bananas,
or plantains of many varieties, citrons, lemons, and
oranges' both sweet and bitter, and the small dwarf
thorny china-orange with red fruit. The caper-bush
abounds in all the Ladrone islands ; and as it is con¬
stantly in flower, as well as the citron and orange shrubs,
with many other of the indigenous plants, they perfume
the air with the most agreeable smells, and delight the
eye with the richest colours.
The rivers of Guam, which are either rivulets or
torrents, abound in fish of an excellent quality : the
Indians, however, eat none of them, but prcfer'the in¬
habitants of the sea. The turtle, which grow here as
large as those in the island of Ascension, are not eaten
either by the Indians or Spaniards.
The cultivated crops lately introduced are, the rice,
the maize, the indigo, the cotton, the cocoa, the su¬
gar-cane, which have all succeeded. That of the Guam
maize, especially, is of astonishing fertility : it is com- II
mon to find in the fields where this grain is cultivated Guaiautet
plants of twelve feet high, bearing eight or ten spikes
from nine to ten inches in length, set round with well-
filled seeds. The gardens are stored with mangoes and
pine-apples. The former is one of the finest fruits ima¬
ginable : it was brought from Manilla, and may be eaten
in great quantity without any bad consequences.—
Horses have been brought to Guam from Manilla, and
asses and mules from Acapulco. The Indians have been
taught to tame and domesticate the ox, and to employ
him in the draught.
This island, the land of which rises gradually from
the sea-shore towards the centre by a gentle acclivity,
is not very mountainous. The inhabitants say, that its
soil is equally rich and fertile over the whole island,
except in the northern part, which forms a peninsula
almost destitute of water. But in the rest, you cannot
go a league without meeting a rivulet. Upon pene¬
trating a little way into the interior part of the coun¬
try, to the east and the south of Agana, many springs
of fine water are found, forming, at little distances,
basons of pure water, which, being shaded by thick
trees, preserve a most agreeable coolness in spite of the
heat of the climate.
The indigenous inhabitants are such as they were
described by Magellan ; of small stature, sufficiently
ugly, black, and in general dirty, though they are
continually in the water. The women are for the
most part handsome, well made, and of a reddish co¬
lour. Both sexes have long hair. This scanty people
have become by civilization, gentle, honest, and hospi¬
table. They have, however, at the same time acqui¬
red a vice that was unknown to their savage ancestors.
The men are a little addicted to drurikenness, for they
drink freely of the wine of the cocoa-nut. They love
music and dancing much, but labour little. They are
passionately fond of cock-fighting. On Sundays and
holidays they gather together in crowds after the ser¬
vice, at the door of the church ; where each Indian
brings his cock to match him with that of his neigh¬
bour, and each bets upon his own.—The mission of
Guam is now in the hands of the Augustine friars, who
have supplanted the Jesuits. E. Long. 155. 10. N.
Lat. 13. 25.
GUAMANGA, a considerable town of South A-
merica, and capital of a province of the same name in
Peru, and in the audience of Lima, with a bishop’s see.
It is remarkable for its sweetmeats, manufactures, and
mines of gold, silver, iron, and quicksilver. W. Long.
74. 56. S. Lat. 12. 50.
GUANUGO, a rich and handsome town of South
America, and capital of a district of the same name in
the audience of Lima. W. Long. 75. 56. S. Lat. 9.
55- ,
GUAiS;ZA\'ELCA, a district of South America,
in Peru, and in the audience of Lima. It abounds
in mines of quicksilver. W. Long. 74. 39. S. Lat.
12. 36.
GUARANTEE, or Warrantee, in Law, a term
relative to warrant or warranter, properly signifying
him whom the warranter undertakes to indemnify or
secure from damage.
Guarantee is more frequently used for a warranter,
a or
G U A [ 124 ] QUA
Guarantee or a person who undertakes and obliges himself to see
U a second person perform what he has stipulated to the
Guard, third. See WARRANTY.
GUARANTY, in matters of polity, the engage¬
ment of mediatorial or neutral states, whereby they
plight their faith that certain treaties shall be inviolably
observed, or that they will make war against the ag¬
gressor.
GUARD, in a general sense, signifies the defence
or preservation of any thing', the act of observing what
passes, in order to prevent surprise j or the care, pre¬
caution, and attention w'e make use of to prevent any
thing from happening contrary to our intentions or in¬
clinations.
Guard, in fencing, implies a proper posture to de¬
fend the body from the sword of the antagonist.
Guard, in the military art, is a duty performed
by a body of men, to secure an army or place from
being surprised by an enemy. In garrison the guards
are relieved every day : hence it comes that every sol¬
dier mounts guard once every three or four days in
time of peace, and much oftener in time of war. See
Honours.
Advanced Guard, is a party of either horse or foot,
that marches before a more considerable body, to give
notice of any approaching danger. These guards are
either made stronger or weaker, according to situation,
the danger to be apprehended from the enemy, or the
nature of the country.
Van Guard. See Advanced Guard.
Artillery Guard, is a detachment from the army
to secure the artillery when in the field. Their corps
de garde is in the front of the artillery park, and their
sentries dispersed round the same. This is generally
a 48 hours guard ; and, upon a march, this guard
marches in the Front and rear of the artillery, and
must be sure to leave nothing behind : if a gun or
waggon breaks down, the officer that commands
the guard is to leave a sufficient number of men
to assist the gunners and matrosses in getting it up
again.
Artillery Qnarier-GuARD, is frequently a non-com¬
missioned officer’s guard from the royal regiment of ar¬
tillery, whose cotps de garde is always in the front of
their encampment.
Artillery Rear-Guard, consists in a corporal and six
men, posted in the rear of the park.
Corps de Garde, are soldiers entrusted with the
guard of a post, under the command of one or more
officers. This word also signifies the place where the
guard mounts.
Grand Guard ; three or four squadrons of horse,
commanded by a field-officer, posted at about a mile or
a mile and a half from the camp, on the right and left
wings, towards the enemy, for the better security of the
camp.
Forage Guard, a detachment sent out to secure
the foragers, and who are posted at all places, where
either the enemy’s party may come to disturb the fo¬
ragers, or where they may be spread too near the
enemy, so as to be in danger of being taken. This
guard consists both of horse and foot, and must re¬
main on their posts till the foragers are all come off
the ground.
Main Guard, is that from which all other guards Cimj
are detached. Those who are for mounting guard as- '-"V'
semble at their respective captain’s quarters, and march
from thence to the parade in good order $ where, after
the whole guard is drawn up, the small guards are de¬
tached to their respective posts : then the subalterns
throw lots for their guards, who are all under the com¬
mand of the captain of the main guard. This guard
mounts in garrison at difl’erent hours, according as the
governor pleases.
Piquet Guard, a good number of horse and foot,
always in readiness in case of an alarm : the horses
are generally saddled all the time, and the riders
booted.
The foot draw up at the head of the battalion, fre¬
quently at the beating of the tat-too ; but afterwards
return to their tents, where they hold themselves in
readiness to march upon any sudden alarm. This guard
is to make resistance in case of an attack, until the
army can get ready.
Baggage Guard, is always an officer’s guard, who
has the care of the baggage on a march. The waggons
should be numbered by companies, and follow one ano¬
ther regularly : vigilance and attention in the passage
of hollow ways, woods, and thickets, must be strictly
observed by this guard.
Quarter Guard, is a small guard commanded by a
subaltern officer, posted in the front of each battalion,
at 222 feet before the front of the regiment.
Rear Guard, that party of the army which brings
up the rear on a march, generally composed of all the
old grand guards of the camp. The rear-guard of
a party is frequently eight or ten horse, about 500
paces behind the party. Hence the advance-guard
going out upon a party, form the rear-guard in their
retreat.
Rear-GuARD, is also a corporal’s guard placed in
the rear of a regiment, to keep good order in that part
of the camp.
Standard Guard, a small guard under a corporal,
out of each regiment of horse, who mount on foot in
the front of each regiment, at the distance of 20 feet
from the streets, opposite the main street.
Trench Guard, only mounts in the time of a siege,
and sometimes consists of three, four, or six battalions,
according to the importance of the siege. This guard
must oppose the besieged when they sally out, protect
the workmen, &c. *
Provost Guard, is always an officer’s guard that at¬
tends the provost in his rounds, either to prevent deser¬
tion, marauding, rioting, &c. See Provost.
Ordinary Guards, such as are fixed during the cam¬
paign, and relieved daily.
Extraordinary Guards, or detachments, which are
only commanded on particular occasions, either for the
further security of the camp, to cover the foragers, or
for convoys, escorts, or expeditions.
Guards, also imply the troops kept to guard the
king’s person, and consist both of horse and foot.
Horse Guards, in England, are gentlemen chosen
for their bravery, to be entrusted with the guard of
the king’s person $ and were divided into four troops,
called the 1st, 2d, ^d, and ^th troop of horse-guards.
The first troop was raised in the year 1660, and the
G U A
command given to Lord Gerard; the second in 1661,
and the command given to Sir Philip Howard ; the
third in 1693, and the command given to Earl Fever-
sham ; the fourth in 1702, and the command given to
Earl Newburgh. Each troop had one colonel, two
lieutenant-colonels, one cornet and major, one guidon
and major, four exempts and captains, four brigadiers
and lieutenants, one adjutant, four sub-brigadiers and
cornets, and 60 private men. But the four troops are
now turned into two regiments of life-guards.
Horse- Grenadier Guards, are divided into two troops
called t/ie 1st and 2d troops of horse-grenadier guards.
The first troop was raised in 1693, and the command
given to Lieutenant-general Cholmondeley ; the second
in 1702, and the command given to Lord Forbes.
Each troop has one colonel, lieutenant-colonel, one
guidon or major, three exempts and captains, three
lieutenants, one adjutant, three cornets, and 60 pri¬
vate men.
Yeomen of the Guard, first raised by Henry VII.
in the year 1485. They are a kind of pompous foot-
guards to the king’s person ; and are generally called
by a nickname the BeeJ-Eaters. They were anciently
250 men of the first rank, under gentry ; and of larger
stature than ordinary, each being required to be six
feet high. At present there are but 100 in constant
duty, and 70 more not on duty ; and when any one
of the 100 dies, his place is supplied out of the 70.
They go dressed after the manner ol'King Henry VIII.’s
time. Their first commander or captain was the earl
of Oxford, and their pay is 2s. 6d. per day.
Foot Guards, are regiments of foot appointed for
the guard of his majesty and his palace. There are
three regiments of them, called the \st, id, and 3d,
regiments of foot-guards. They were raised in the \ ear
1660 ; and the command of the first given to Colonel
Ilussel, that of the second to General Monk, and the
third to the earl of Linlithgow. The first regiment
is at present commanded by one colonel, one lieutenant-
colonel, three majors, 23 captains, one captain-lieu¬
tenant, 31 lieutenants, and 24 ensigns ; and contains
three battalions. The second regiment has one colonel,
one lieutenant-colonel, two majors, 14 captains, one
captain-lieutenant, 18 lieutenants, 16 ensigns, and con¬
tains only two battalions. I he third regiment is the
same as the second.
Fhe French Guards are divided into those within,
and those without the palace.—The first are the gardes
du corps, or body guards ; which consist of four com¬
panies, the first of which companies was anciently Scots.
See Scots Guards, infra.
The guards without are the Gens d'Armes, light
horse, musqueteers, and two other regiments, the one
of which is French and the other Swiss.
.New arrangements, however, have taken place in
this department as well as others since the late revolu¬
tion.
Scots Guards, a celebrated band, which formed
the first company of the ancient gardes du corps of
X ranee.
It happened from the ancient intercourse between
I1 ranee and Scotland, that the natives of the latter king-
dom had often distinguished themselves in the service of
the former. On this foundation the company of Scots
guards, and the company of Scots gendarmes, were in-
G U A
stituted.—Both of them owed their institution to Guard.
Charles \ II. of France, by whom the first standing
army in Europe was formed, anno 1454; an^ their
fates cannot but be interesting to Scotsmen. See Gen¬
darmes.
Valour, honour, and fidelity, must have been very
conspicuous features of the national character of the
Scots, when so great and civilized a people as the
French could be induced to choose a body of them,
foreigners as they were, for guarding the persons of
their sovereigns.—Of the particular occasion and rea¬
sons of this predilection we have a recital by Louis XII.
a succeeding monarch. After setting forth the services
which the Scots had performed for Charles VII. in
expelling the English out of France, and reducing the
kingdom to his obedience, he adds—“Since which Mit. of
reduction, and for the service of the Scots upon that
occasion, and for the great loyalty and virtue which he Seysil^ma-
found in them, he selected 200 of them for the guard ster of re-
of his person, of whom he made an hundred men at quests to
arms, and an hundred life-guards : And the hundred tllat Jjrince“
men at arms are the hundred lances of our ancient or¬
dinances ; and the life-guard men are those of our
guard who still are near and about our person.”—As
to their fidelity in this honourable station, the histo¬
rian, speaking of Scotland, says, “ The French have
so ancient a friendship and alliance with the Scots, that
of 400 men appointed for the king’s life-guard, there
are an hundred of the said nation who are the nearest
to his person, and in the night keep the keys of the
apartment where he sleeps. There are, moreover, an
hundred complete lances and two hundred yeomen of
the said nation, besides several that are dispersed through
the companies : And for so long a time as they have
served in France, never hath there been one of them
found that hath committed or done any fault against
the kings or their estate ; and they make use of them as
of their own subjects.”
The ancient rights and privileges of the Scottish
life-guards were very honourable; especially of the
twenty-four first. The author of the Ancient Alliance
says, “ On high holidays, at the ceremony of the royal
touch, the erection of knights of the king’s order, the
reception of extraordinary ambassadors, and the public
entries of cities, there must be six of their number-
next to the king’s person, three on each side; and the
body of the king must be carried by these only, where¬
soever ceremony requires. They have the keeping of
the keys of the king’s lodging at night, the keeping of
the choir of the chapel, the keeping the boats where
the king passes the rivers; and they have the honour
of bearing the white silk fringe in their arms, which
in Fiance is the coronne coleur. The keys of all the
cities where the king makes his entry are given to their
captain in waiting or out of waiting.—He has the
privilege, in waiting or out of waiting, at ceremonies,
such as coronations, marriages, and funerals of the
kings, and at the baptism and marriage of their chil¬
dren, to take duty upon him. The coronation robe
belongs to him ; and this company, by the death or
change of a captain, never changes its rank, as do the
three others.”
This company’s first commander, who is recorded
as a person of great valour and military accomplish¬
ments, was Robert Patillock, a native of Dundee ;
andu
[ 125 ]
G U A [ 126 ] G U A
Cuanl, an« tiie 1)an(5» ever ar(3ent t0 distinguish itself, conti-
Guardian. nued in great reputation till the year 1578. From that
-v—--' period, the Scots guards were less attended to, and their
privileges came to be invaded. In the year 1612, they
remonstrated to Louis XIII. on the subject ol the
injustice they had suffered, and set before him the
services they had rendered to the crown of France.
Attempts were made to re-establish them on their
ancient foundation ; but no negotiation for this purpose
was effectual. The troops of France grew jealous of
the honours paid them : the death of Francis II. and
the return of Mary to Scotland, at a time when they
had much to hope, were unfortunate circumstances to
them : the change of religion in Scotland was an addi¬
tional blow ; and the accession of James VI. to the
throne of England disunited altogether the interests of
France and Scotland. The Scots guards of France had
therefore, latterly, no connection with Scotland but the
name.
Guard-Boat} a boat appointed to row the rounds
amongst the ships of war which are laid up in any
harbour, &c. to observe that their officers keep a good
looking-out, calling to the guard-boat as she passes, and
not suffering her crew to come on board, without hav¬
ing previously communicated the watch-word of the
night.
GuARD-Skip, a vessel of war appointed to superin¬
tend the marine affairs in a harbour or river, and
to see that the ships which are not commissioned
have their proper watch-word kept duly, by send¬
ing her guard-boats around them every night. She
is also to receive seamen who are impressed in the time
of war.
GUARDIAN, in Law, a person who has the charge
of any thing $ but more commonly it signifies one who
has the custody and education of such persons as have
not sufficient discretion to take care of themselves and
their own affairs, as children and idiots.
Their business is to take the profits of the minor’s
lands to his use, and to account for the same: they
ought to sell all moveables within a reasonable time,
and to convert them into land or money, except the
minor is near of age, and may want such things him¬
self} and they are to pay interest for the money in their
hands that might have been so placed out} in which
case it will be presumed that the guardians made use of
it themselves. They are to sustain the lands of the heir,
without making destruction of any thing thereon, and
to keep it safely for him : if they commit waste on the
lands, it is a forfeiture of the guardianship, 3 Edw. I.
And where persons, as guardians, hold over any land,
without the consent of the person who is next entitled,
they shall be adjudged trespassers, and shall be account¬
able } 6 Ann. cap. xviii.
Guardian, or Warden, of the Cinque ports, is an
officer who has the jurisdiction of the cinque-ports, with
all the power that the admiral of England has in other
places.
Camden relates, that the Romans, after they had
settled themselves and their empire in our island, ap¬
pointed a magistrate, or governor, over the east parts
where the. Cinque-ports lie, with the title of comes litto-
ris Saxonici per Britanniam ; having another, who bore
the like title, on the opposite side of the sea. Their
basiness was to strengthen the sea coast with munition,
3
against the outrages and roberries of the barbarians; Gu^ ^
and that antiquary takes our warden of the Cinque- |
ports to have been erected in imitation thereof. TheGuali* f,i
wardenship is a place of value, supposed worth 7000I. W —
per annum.
Guardian of the Spiritualities, the person to whom
the spiritual jurisdiction of any diocese is committed,
during the time the see is vacant. A guardian of the
spiritualities may likewise be either such in law, as the
archbishop is of any diocese within his province; or
by delegation, as he whom the archbishop or vicar
general for the time appoints. Any such guardian
has power to hold courts, grant licenses, dispensations,
probates of wills, &.c.
GUAREA, a genus of plants belonging to the oc-
tandria class. See Botany Index.
GUARINI, Battista, a celebrated Italian poet,
born at Ferrara in 1538. He was great grandson to
Guarino of VeronaJ and was secretary to Alphonso
duke of Ferrara, who intrusted him with several im¬
portant commissions. After the death of that prince,
he was successively secretary to Vincensio de Gonz.a-
ga, to Ferdinand de Medicis grand duke of Tusca¬
ny, and to Francis Maria de Feltri duke of Urbino.
But the only advantages he reaped under these various
masters were great encomiums on his wit and composi¬
tions. He was well acquainted with polite literature}
and acquired immortal reputation by his Italian poems;
especially by his Pastor Fido, the riiost known and ad¬
mired of all his works, and of which there have been
innumerable editions and translations. He died in
1612.
GUARDIA, or Guarda, a town of Portugal, in
the province of Beira, with a bishop’s see. It contains
about 2300 inhabitants, is fortified both by art and
nature, and has a stately cathedral. W. Long. 6. 55.
N. Lat. 40. 20.
Guardia-Alfei'e%, a town of Italy, in the kingdom
of Napl es, and in the Contado di Molise, with a bishop’s
see. E. Long. 14. 56. N. Lat. 41. 39.
GUARGALA, or Guerguela, a town of Africa,
and capital of a small kingdom of the same name, in
Biledulgerid, to the south of Mount Atlas. E. Long.
9. 55. N. Lat. 28. o.
GUARIBA, the name of a species of monkey. See
Simia, Mammalia Index.
GUASTALLA, a strong town of Italy, with the
title of a duchy, remarkable for a battle between the
French and Imperialists in 1734. It was ceded to
the duke of Parma in 1748, and now belongs to the
late empress of France, Maria Louisa. It is seated
near the river Po, in E. Long. 10. 38. N. Lat. 44. 55*
GUATIMALA, the audience and province of, in
New Spain, is above 750 miles in length, and 450 in
breadth. It is bounded on the west bv Soconjusco, on
the north by Verapax and Honduras, on the east by j I
Nicaragua, and on the south by the South sea. R
abounds in chocolate, which they make use of instead of
money. It has 12 provinces under it: and the native
Americans, under the dominions of Spain, profess
Christianity, mixed indeed with many of their own su¬
perstitions. There is a great chain of high mountains,
which run across it from east to west, and it is sub¬
ject to earthquakes and storms. It is, however, very
fertile } and produces, besides chocolate, great quanti-
G U D [i
jjj.j ties of cochineal and cotton, indigo, vvoad, &c. See
Guatimala, Supplement.
>n. Guatimala, St Jago de, is the capital of the above
audience, with a bishop’s see, and an university. It car¬
ries on a great trade, especially in chocolate. W. Long.
92. 40. N. Lat. 14. 28.
St Jago de Guatimala was almost ruined in 1541, by
a storm and an eruption from the volcanic mountain
Guatimala. It was afterwards rebuilt at a good di¬
stance from this mountain. But in 1773, it was again
destroyed by a terrible earthquake. The town then
contained 40,000 inhabitants j but no traces of it now
remain 5 8000 persons perished by this earthquake, and
the loss has been estimated at 15 millions sterling.
GUAVA. See Psidium, Botany Index.
GUAXACA, a province in the audience of Mexi¬
co, in New Spain, which is very fertile in wheat, In¬
dian corn, cochineal, and cassia. It is bounded by the
gulf of Mexico on the north, and by the South sea on
the south. It contains mines of gold and silver. Guax-
aca is the capital town.
Guaxaca, the capital town of the above province,
with a bishop’s see. It is without walls, and does not
contain above 2oco inhabitants j but it is rich, and
they make very fine sweet-meats and chocolates. It
has several rich convents, both for men and women.
W, Long. 97. 40. N. Lat. 17. IO.
GUAYRA, a district of the province of La Plata,
in South America, having Brasil on the east, and Pa¬
raguay on the west.
GUBEN, a handsome town of Germany, in Lower
Lusatia, seated on the river Neisse, and now belong¬
ing to the king of Prussia. E. Long. 14. 59. N. Lat.
51- 51-
GUBER, a kingdom of Africa, in Negroland. It
is surrounded with high mountains j and the villages,
which are many, are inhabited by people who are em¬
ployed in taking care of their cattle and sheep. There
are also abundance of artificers, and linen-weavers, who
send their commodities to Tombuto. The whole roun-
try is overflowed every year by the inundations of the
Niger, and at that time the inhabitants sow their rice.
There is one town which contains almost 6000 families,
among whom are many merchants.
GUBIO, a town of Italy, in the territory of the
church, and in the duchy of Urbino, with a bishop’s see.
E. Long. 12. 38. N. Lat. 43. 18.
GUDGEON, a species of cyprinus. See Cyprinus,
Ichthyology Index.
This fish, though small, is of so pleasant a taste,
that it is very little interior to smelt. They spawn
twice in the summer season j and their feeding is much
like the barbels in streams and on gravel, slighting all
manner of flies: but they are easily taken with a small
red worm, fishing near the ground j and being a lea¬
ther-mouthed fish, will not easily get off the hook when
struck.—.The gudgeon may be fished for with float,
the hook being on the ground j or by hand, with a
running line on the ground, without cork or float.
But although the small red worm above mentioned is
the best bait for this fish, yet wasps, gentles, and cad-
baits will do very well. You may also fish for gudgeons
with two or three hooks at once, and find very plea¬
sant sport, where they rise any thing large. When
you angle for them, stir up the sand or gravel with a
27 ] G U E
long pole ; this will make them gather to that place, Gudgeon
bite faster, and with more eagerness. |J
Sea Gudgeon, Rock fish, or Black Goby. See Go- Guencke.
Bius, Ichthyology Index. ' v
GUEBRES, or Gabres. See Gabres.
GUELPHS, or Cuelfs, a celebrated faction in
Italy, antagonists of the Gibelins. See GlBELINS.
The Gueiphs and Gibelins filled Italy with blood
and carnage for many years. The Gueiphs stood for
the Pope, against the emperor. Their rise is referred
by some to the time of Conrad III. in the twelfth cen¬
tury 5 by others to that of Frederick I. ; and by others
to that of his successor Frederick II. in the thirteenth
century.
The name of Guelph is commonly said to have been
formed from Welfe, or Wclfo, on the following occasion:
the emperor Conrad III. having taken the duchy of
Bavaria from Welfe VI. brother of Henry duke of Ba¬
varia, Welfe, assisted by the forces of Roger king of
Sicily, made war on Conrad, and thus gave birth to
the faction of the Guelfs.
Others derive the name Guelfs from the German
Wilff, on account of the grievous evils committed by
that cruel faction : others deduce the denomination from
that of a German called Guelfe, who lived at Pistoye j
adding, that his brother, named Gibel, gave his name
to the Gibelins. See the article GlBELINS.
GUELDERLAND, one of the united provinces,
bounded on the west by Utrecht and Holland, on the
east by the Prussian Rhenish territories, on the north
by the Zuyder sea and Overyssel, and on the south it
is separated from Brabant by the Maese. Its greatest
extent from north to south is about 47 miles, and from
west to east near as much. It comprises about 2020
square miles, and contains 243,000 inhabitants. The
air here is much healthier and clearer than in the mari¬
time provinces, the land lying higher. It is watered
bv the Rhine, and its three branches, the Wahal, the
Yssel, and the Leek, besides lesser streams. The soil
is in many parts heavy, and in others sandy, and upon
the whole not very fertile. The principal productions
are corn, potatoes, fruit, tobacco, and hops. There are
some manufactures in the province of linen, paper, and
leather. A considerable part of the trade consists of
the transit of goods from the coast to the interior of
Germany. The greater part of ‘the inhabitants are
Protestants. In 1079? R was raised to a county by the
emperor Henry IV. and in 1339 to a duchy by the em¬
peror Louis of Bavaria. It had dukes of its own till
1528, when it was yielded up to the emperor Charles
V. In 1376, it acceded to the union of Utrecht. The
places of most note are Nimeguen, Zutphen, Arnheim,
Harderwyst, Loo, &c.
GUELDRES, a strong town of the Netherlands,
in the duchy of the same name. It was ceded to the
king of Prussia, by the peace of Utrecht. It surren¬
dered to the French in I794» but was restored to Prus¬
sia in 1814. E. Long. 6. 10. N. Lat. ci. 30.
GUERCINO. See Barbieri,
GUERICKE, Otto or Otho, a German philoso¬
pher ol considerable eminence, was born in 1602, and
died at Hamburg in 1686. In conjunction with Tor¬
ricelli, Paschal, and Boyle, he contributed much to
the farther explanation of the properties of air. He
was counsellor to the elector of Brandenburg, and bur¬
gomaster
Gncricke
.n
Guiana.
G U I
gomaster of Magtleburg, but bis greatest celebrity was
derived from his philosophical discoveries, in a particu¬
lar manner the invention of the air-pump. Mr Boyle
indeed made approaches towards the discovery ot it
much about the same time, but with that candour
which is ever the characteristic of great and enlighten¬
ed minds, he confessed that the merit of it belonged
exclusively to Guericke, the account of whose experi¬
ments Rrst enabled him to bring his design to any
thing like maturity. Our author has also the merit of
inventing the two brass hemispheres, by which the
pressure of the air is illustrated, and an instrument for
determining the changes in the state of the atmosphere,
which fell into disuse on the invention of the barometer.
By consulting his tube he predicted approaching storms,
on which account he was deemed a sorcerer by the ig¬
norant multitude. It is worthy of observation, that
when his brass hemispheres were applied to each other,
and the air exhausted, it resisted the efforts of sixteen
horses to draw them asunder. He composed several
treatises in natural philosophy, the principal of which
is entitled Experimenta Magdeburgica, 1672, folio,
which contains his experiments on a vacuum.
GUERNSEY, an island in the English channel
on the coast of Normandy, subject to Britain j but (as
well as the adjacent islands) governed by its own laws.
See Jersey. It extends from east to west in the form
of a harp, and is thirteen miles and a half from the
south-west to north-east, and twelve and a half, where
broadest, from east to west. The air is very healthy,
and the soil naturally more rich and fertile than that
of Jersey *, but the inhabitants neglect the cultivation
of the land for the sake of commerce : they are, how¬
ever, sufficiently supplied with corn and cattle, both
for their own use and that of their ships. The island
is well fortified by nature with a ridge of rocks, one
of which, it was said, afforded emery 5 but from late
inquiries this appears to be a mistake, no such sub¬
stance being found in the island. Here is a better
liarbour than any in Jersey, which occasions its being
more resorted to by merchants j and on the south side
the shore bends in the form of a crescent, enclosing a
"bay capable of receiving very large ships. The island
is full of gardens and orchards. The population is
21,293, including 2000 sailors or persons not per¬
manently settled in the country.
GUETTARDA, a genus of plants belonging to the
moncecia class, and in the natural method ranking under
the 38th order, Triqoccce. See Botany Index.
GUIANA, a large country of South America, is
bounded on the east and north by the Atlantic ocean,
and the river Oroonoko }' on the south, by the river
of the Amazons •, and on the west, by the provinces
of Grenada and New Andalusia in Terra Tirma, from
which it is separated both on the west and north by
the river Oroonoko. It extends above 1200 miles
from the north-east to the south-west, that is, from
the mouth of the river Oroonoko to the mouth of the
river of the Amazons, and near 600 in the contrary
direction,
Most geographers divide it into two parts, calling
the country along the coast Cai-ibbeona Proper, and
tilie interior country Guiana Proper : The last is also
styled El Dot'ado by the Spaniards, on account of the
immense quantity of gold it is supposed to contain.
GUI
The Portuguese, French, and Dutch, have all set- Gam
tlements along the coast. What lies south of Cape
North belongs to the first of these nations j the coast be¬
tween Cape North and Cape Orange is possessed by
the natives j French Guiana, Old Cayenne, or Equi¬
noctial France, extends from Cape Orange, about 240
miles along the coast, to the river Marani ; where the
Dutch territory begins, and extends to the mouth of
the Oroonoko.
Along the coast, the land is low, marshy, and sub-
ject to inundations in the rainy season, from a multi¬
tude of rivers which descend from the inland moun¬
tains. Hence it is, that the atmosphere is suffocating,
hot, moist, and unhealthy, especially where the woods
have not been cleared away. Indeed, the Europeans
are forced to live in the most disagreeable situa¬
tions, and fix their colonies at the mouths of the rivers,
amidst stinking marshes, and the putrid ooze of salt
morasses, for the conveniency of exportation and impor¬
tation.
“ Dutch Guiana (according to the account of a phy¬
sician who resided several years at Surinam) was first
discovered by Columbus in 1498. It lies between the
70 of north and the 50 of south latitude, and between
the 53* and 6o° of longitude, west from London. It
is bounded on the north and east, by the Atlantic; on
the west, by the rivers Oroonoko and Negroe ; and on
the south, by the river of the Amazons.
“ It was formerly divided among the Spaniards,
Dutch, French, and Portuguese ; but, except its sea
coast, and lands adjacent to its rivers, it bas hitherto
remained unknown to all but its original natives ; and
even of these, it is only what were the Dutch territo¬
ries that foreigners have any knowledge of; for those
of the Spaniards, French, and Portuguese, are inacces¬
sible to them.
“ This country, on account of the diversity and fer¬
tility of its soil, and of its vicinity to the equator, which
passes through it, affords almost all the productions of
the different American countries between the tropics,
besides a variety peculiar to itself.”
Dutch Guiana was formerly the property of the
English, who made settlements at Surinam, where a
kind of corrupt English is still spoken by the negroes.
The Dutch took it in the reign of Charles the Second;
and it was ceded to them by a treaty in 1674, in ex¬
change for what they had possessed in the province now
called New York.
The land for 50 miles up the country from the sea-
coast is flat ; and, during the rainy seasons, covered
two feet high with water. This renders it inconceiv¬
ably fertile, the earth, for 12 indies deep, being a
stratum of perfect manure. An attempt was once made
to carry some of it to Barbadoes ; but the wood-ants
so much injured the vessel, that it was never repeated.
The excessive richness of the soil is a disadvantage, for
the canes are too luxuriant to make good sugar ; and
therefore, during the first and second crops, are con¬
verted into rum.
There are some trees on this part ; hut they are
small and low, consisting chiefly of a small species of
palm, intermixed with a leaf near 30 feet long and
three feet wide, which grows in clusters, called a.
Iroerhe, and at the edges of running-water, with
mangroves.
[ 128 ]
Farther
GUI [ 129 ] GUI
'a Gou u Farther inward the country rises j and the soil,
’y’—' though still fertile, is less durable. It is covered with
forests of valuable timber, that are always green ; and
there are some sandy hills, though no mountains j in
the French territories, however, there are mountains,
according to the report of the Indians, for they have
never been visited by any other people.
In this country the heat is seldom disagreeable ;
the trade-winds by day, the land breezes in the even¬
ing, and the invariable length of the nights, with
gentle dews, refresh the air, and render it temperate
and salubrious. There are two wet seasons and two
dry, of three months each, in every year: and, du¬
ring more than a month in each wet season, the rain
is incessant. The dry seasons commence six weeks
before the equinoxes, and continue six weeks after.
The wet seasons are more wholesome than the dry,
because the rains keep the waters that cover the low
lands, next the sea, fresh and in motion j but during
tiie dry season it stagnates, and, as it wastes, becomes
putrid, sending up very unwholesome exhalations.
Blossoms, green and ripe fruit, are to be found upon
the same tree in every part of the year. There are
some fine white and red agates in Guiana, which re¬
main untouched 5 and mines of gold and silver, which
the Dutch will not suffer to be wrought.
The inhabitants of Guiana are either natives, who
are of a reddish brown j or negroes and Europeans ; or
a mixed progeny of these in various combinations.
The natives are divided into different tribes, more or
less enlightened and polished, as they are more or less
remote from the settlements of the Europeans. They
allow polygamy, and have no divison of lands. The
men go to war, hunt, and fish j and the women look
after domestic concerns, spin, weave in their fashion,
and manage the planting of cassava and manioc, the
only things which in this country are cultivated by the
natives. Their arms are bows and arrows ; sharp poi¬
soned arrows, blown through a reed, which they use
in hunting j and clubs made of a heavy wood called
Iron-wood. They eat the dead bodies of those that
are slain in war*, and sell for slaves those they take pri¬
soners ; their wars being chiefly undertaken to furnish
the European plantations. All the different tribes go
naked. lOn particulur occasions they wear caps of
feathers j but, as cold is wholly unknown, they cover
no part but that which distinguishes the sex. They
are cheerful, humane, and friendly; but timid, except
when heated by liquor, and drunkenness is a very com¬
mon vice among men.
Their houses consist of four stakes set up in a qua¬
drangular form, with cross poles, bound together by
I slit nibbees, and covered with the large leaves called
trocelies. Their life is ambulatory *, and their house,
which is put up and taken down in a few hours, is
all they have to carry with them. When they remove
from place to place, which, as they inhabit the banks
of rivers, they do by water in small canoes, a few
vessels of clay made by the women, a flat stone on
which they bake their bread, and a rough stone on
which they grate the roots of the cassava, a hammock
and a hatchet, are all their furniture and utensils j
most of them, however, have a bit of looking-glass
framed in paper, and a comb.
Vol. X. Part I.
Their poisoned arrows are made of splinters of a Guiana
hard heavy wood, called cacario ; they are about I 2 11
inches long, and somewhat thicker than a coarse knit- ^U1^es*
ting needle : one end is formed into a sharp point j
round the other is wound some cotton to make it fit
the bore of the reed through which it is to be blown.
They will blow these arrows 40 yards with absolute
certainty of hitting the mark, and with force enough
to draw blood, which is certain and immediate death.
Against this poison no antidote is known. The Bri¬
tish, Dutch, French, Spaniards, and Portuguese, have
each settlements in this country. See an account of
each, and of the climate, soil, and population of the
country, in the article Guiana, Supplement.
GUIAQUIL, also denominated by some Guaiaquil,
a city, bay, harbour, and river, in Peru, South Ameri¬
ca. The city is the second of Spanish origin, being as
old as the year 1J34« It lies on the west side of the
river of the same name, in 2° 12' S. Lat. and 790 6'
W. Long. It is divided into the old and new towns,
between which there is a communication by means of a
wooden bridge. It is two miles in extent, and defend¬
ed by two forts. The churches, convents, and houses,
are of wood, and it contains about 20,000 inhabitants.
This place is noted for a shell-fish no larger than a nut,
which produces a beautiful purple dye. The commerce
here is very considerable, the productions of the coun¬
try alone forming the greatest part of it, which consist
of timber, salt, horned cattle, mules and colts, pepper,
drugs, and fine wool.
Guiaquil, a jurisdiction of South America, in the
audience of Quito, near the Pacific ocean, a country
subject to heavy rains and frequent storms, and abound¬
ing with troublesome insects.
GUIARA, a sea-port town of South America, and
on the Caracca coast. It has a considerable trade, with
a population amounting to 6000. W. Long. 67. o.
N. Lat. 10. 35.
GUICCIARDINI, Francisco, a celebrated histo¬
rian, born at Florence in 1482. He professed the civil
law with reputation, and was employed in several em¬
bassies. Leo X. gave him the government of Modena
and Reggio, and Clement VII. that of Romagna and Bo¬
logna. Guicciardini was also lieutenant-general of the
pope’s army, and distinguished himself by his bravery on
several occasions ; but Paul III. having taken from him
the government of Bologna, he retired to Florence,
where he was made counsellor of state, and was of great
service to the house of Medicis. He at length retired
into the country to write his history of Italy, which he
composed in Italian, and which comprehends what pas¬
sed from the year 1494 to 1532. This history is great¬
ly esteemed ; and was continued by John Baptist Adri¬
an!, his friend. He died in 1540.
Guicciardini, Leivis, his nephew, composed a
history of the Low Countries, and memoirs of the af¬
fairs of Europe, from iJd® I5^0. He wrote with
great spirit against the persecution of the duke d’Alva,
for which he imprisoned him. He died in 1583.
GUIDES, in military language, are usually the
country people in the neighbourhood of an encamp¬
ment ; who give the army intelligence concerning the
country, the roads by which they are to march, and the
probable route of the enemy.
R
f
GUIDI,
GUI [ i;
GUIDT, Alexander, an eminent Italian poet, born
at Pavia in 1650. Having a desire to see Rome, he
there attracted the notice o( Queen Christina cl Swe¬
den, who retained him at her court j he also obtain¬
ed a considerable benefice from Pope Innocent XI. and
a pension from the duke of Parma. For a good office
he did the state of Milan with Prince Eugene, he was
enrolled among the nobles and decurions of that town ;
and died in 1712. Nature had been kinder to his in¬
tellects than to his exterior form ; his body was small,
and crooked, his head was large, and he was blind of
his right eye. A collection of his works was published
at Verona in 1 726.-
GUIDO Aketin. See Aretin.
Guido Reni, an illustrious Italian painter, born at
Bologna in 1595. In his early age he was the dis¬
ciple of Denis Calvert, a Flemish master of good re¬
putation •, but afterwards entered himself in the school
of the Caracci. He first imitated Ludovico Caracci;
but fixed at last in a peculiar style of his own, that
secured him the applause of his own time and the ad¬
miration of posterity. He was much honoured, and
lived in splendor : but an unhappy attachment to gam¬
ing ruined his circumstances j the reflection of which
brought on a languishing disorder, that put an end to
his life in 1642. There are several designs of this great
master in print, etched by himself.
GUIDON, a sort of flag or standard borne by the
king’s life-guard ; being broad at one extreme, and al¬
most pointed at the other, and slit or divided into two.
The guidon is the ensign or flag of a troop of horse-
guards. See Guard.
Guidon, also denotes the officer who bears the gui¬
don. The guidon is that in the horse-guards which the
ensign is in the loot. The guidon of a troop of horse
takes place next below the cornet.
Guidons, Guidones, or ScJwla Guidonum^ was a com¬
pany of priests established by Charlemagne, at Rome,
to conduct and guide pilgrims to Jerusalem, to visit
the holy places : they were also to assist them in case
they fell sick, and to perform the last offices to them in
case they died.
GUIENNE, a large province of France, now form¬
ing the department of Gironde and that of Lot and Ga¬
ronne, bounded on the north by Saintogne, Angoumois,
and Limosin ; on the east by Limosin, Auvergne, and
Languedoc ; on the south by the Pyrenees, Lower
Navarre, and Bearn ; and on the west by the ocean.
It is about 225 miles in length, and 200 in breadth.
It is divided into the Upper and Lower. The Upper
comprehends Querci, Rouergue, Armagnac, the terri¬
tory of Comminges, and the county of Bigorre. The
Lou'ef contains Bourdelois, Perigord, Agenois, Con-
domois, Bazadois, the Lander, Proper Gascony, and
the district of Labour. The principal rivers are, the
Garonne, the Adour, the Tarn, the Aveiron, and the
Lot. Bourdeaux is the capital town.
GUILANDINA, the Nickar Tree, a genus of
plants belonging to the decandria class, and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 33d order, Lomerdaccce.
See Botany Index.
GUILD, (from the Saxon guildane, to “ pay”), sig¬
nifies a fraternity or company, because every one was
gildare, i. e. to pay something towards the charge
and support of the company. As to the original of
£
O ] GUI
these guilds or companies : It was a law among the
Saxons, that every freeman of fourteen years of age Guilds
should find sureties to keep the peace, or be commit-'—
ted : upon which certain neighbours, consisting of ten
families, enter into an association, and become bound
for each other, either to produce him who committed
an oflence, or to make satisfaction to the injured par¬
ty' ; that they might the better do this, they raised a
sum of money among themselves, which they put into
a common stock-, and when one of their pledges had
committed an offence, and was fled, then the other nine
made satisfaction out of this stock, by payment of mo¬
ney, according to the offence. Because tins association
consisted ol ten families, it was called a dccennung . and
from hence came out later kinds of fraternities.. But
as to the precise time when these guilds had their ori¬
gin in England, there is nothing of certainty to be
found ; since they were in use long before any formal
licence was granted to them for such meetings. It
seems to have been about the close of the eleventh cen¬
tury, says Anderson, in his History of Commerce, vol. i.
p. 70. that merchant-guilds, or fraternities, which
were afterwards styled corporations, came first into ge¬
neral use in many parts of Europe. Mr Madox, in his
Firma Burgi, chap. i. $ 9. thinks, they were hardly
known to our Saxon progenitors, and that they might
he probably brought into England by the Normans j
although they do not seem to have been very nume¬
rous in those days. The French and Normans might
probably borrow them from the free cities of Italy,
where trade and manufactures were much earlier pro¬
pagated, and where possibly such Communities were
first in use. These guilds are now companies joined
together, with laws and orders made by themselves, by
the licence of the prince.
Guild, in the royal boroughs of Scotland, is still
used for a company of merchants, who are freemen of
the borodgh. See Borough.
Every royal borough has a dean of guild, who is
the next magistrate below the bailie. He judges of
controversies among men concerning trade j disputes
between inhabitants touching buildings, lights, water¬
courses, and other nuisances ; calls courts, at which
his brethren of the guild are bound to attend j ma¬
nages the common stock of the guild; and amerces and
collects fines.
Guild, Gild or Geld, is also used among our an¬
cient writers, for a compensation or mulct, for a fault
committed.
GuiLD-IIall, or Gild-Hall, the great court of judi¬
cature for the city of London. In it are kept the
mayor’s court, the sheriff’s court, the court of hust¬
ings, court of conscience, court of common council,
chamberlain’s court, &c. Here also the judges sit
upon nisi prius, &c.
GUILDFORD, or Guldeford, a borough-town
of Surrey, situated on the river Wey, 31 miles south¬
west of London. Near it are the ruinous walls of an
old castle, this having been in the Saxon times a royal
villa, where many of our kings used to pass the
festivals. Here is a corporation consisting of a mayor,
recorder, aldermen, &c. which sent members to parlia¬
ment ever since parliament had a being. The gi^
road from Londoiv to Chichester and Portsmouth hes
through this town, which has always bees famous for
GUI [i
>r<! good inns, the cleanest of linen, and other excellent
accommodations ; and the assizes are often held here.
ie' Its manufactory formerly was cloth, oi which there are
still some small remains. Here is a school founded by
King Edward VI. also an alms-house endowed with
lands worth 300I. a-year, of which 100I. to he em¬
ployed in setting the poor at work, and the other 200I.
for’the maintenance of a master, 12 brethren, and 8
sisters, who are to have 2s. 6d. a week. There are,
besides, two charity schools for 33 boys and 20 girls.
There were three churches in this town, but one of
them fell down in April 1740. There is a fine circu¬
lar course for horse-matches, which begin when the
Newmarket races are ended. King William III. found¬
ed a plate of 100 guineas to be run for here every May,
and used to honour the race with his presence, as did
once King George I. The river Wey is made navigable
to the town, and by it a great quantity of timber is
carried to London, not only from this neighbourhood,
but from Sussex and Hampshire woods, above 33 miles
off, from whence it is brought hither in the summer by
land carriage. This navigation is also of great support
to Farnham market, corn bought there being brought
to the mills on this river within seven miles distance,
and, after being ground and dressed, is sent down in
barges to London. The road from lienee to Farnham
is very remarkable, for it runs along upon the ridge of
a high chalky hill, called St Catharine's, no wider than
the road itself, from whence there is an extensive pro¬
spect, viz. to the north and north-west, over Bagshot
heath, and the other way into Sussex. Population
2974 in 1811. The town sends two members to par¬
liament ; and gives title of earl to the North family.
GUILLEMOT. See Colymbus, Ornithology
Index.
GUILLIM, John, ofWelsh extraction, was born in
Herefordshire about the year 1 1565. Having completed
his education at Brazen-nose college, Oxford, he became
a member of the college of arms in London ; and he
was made rouge crc.ix pursuivant, in which post he died
in 1621. He published, in 1610, a celebrated work,
entitled the Display of Heraldry, folio, which has gone
through many editions. To the fifth, which came out
in 1679, was added A Treatise of Honour Civil and
Military, by Captain John Loggan.
GUILLOTINE, the name of an instrument intro¬
duced by the authors of the French revolution, for
beheading those who were condemned to death. The
decree for using it passed on the 2oth of March 1792,
by order of the national assembly. It was not a new
invention, properly speaking, but the revival of an
instrument known before. It seems to have been first
used under the name of maiden, in the barony of Halifax
in Yorkshire, and it was likewise set up in Scotland, but
we have no good authority for asserting that it was ever
used, although some are of opinion that Regent Morton,
who brought a model of it from England, suffered by
it himself. See Maiden.
Guillotine, the supposed inventor, a physician of
Lyons, and a member of the national assembly, thought
it an honour conferred upon his name, by having it
united with this instrument of death. His invention
was expensive, and it received the most unqualified ap¬
plause, both from the members and from the galleries.
The propriety of using it was referred to a committee,
[i J GUI
with instructions to take the opinion of the most able G„i]]ot;nej
surgeons respecting it. M. Louis, an eminent surgeon Guinea.
of Paris, declared it well fitted for the task, and com-  v
mended the judgment of M. Guillotine in the contri¬
vance. His discovery upon this occasion was rewarded
by the legislature with a donation of 2000 livres *, and
it was ordered to be printed in the Paris Journals.
As far as this instrument diminishes the duration of
the dreadful conflict with death, it.may be deemed mer¬
ciful, and is, in this respect, preferable to the hanging
of malefactors by the neck ; but the agitation of the
mind is probably augmented by the long series of pre¬
paratory operations. The bands of the criminal are
tied behind bis back; he is stretched on his face on a
strong plank. He is then fastened to the plank, his
neck is adjusted to the block, and a basket placed be¬
fore him to receive his head, which in the speediest
manner must take up some time, although we recollect
to have read of 21 (viz. Brissot and his party) who
were all decapitated in the course of 36 minutes.
The construction of the guillotine has been variously
modified, and was at length made so portable as to
constitute part of the travelling equipage of a commis¬
sioner from the national assembly; and a representation
of it was put upon the coins, as an ornament. On a
piece of ten sous value, which was struck at Mentz in
the year 1793, there was for the device, the fasces and
axe of ancient Rome, crowned with a red cap, and sur¬
rounded by a laurel wreath, having for an inscription,
Kepuhlique Franfoise, 1793, (an 2).
GUINEA, a large tract of country lying oil the
west side of the continent of Africa, extends along the
coast three or four thousand miles, beginning at the
river Senegal, situated about the 17th degree of north
latitude (being the nearest part of Guinea as well to
Europe as to North America). From that river to the
river Gambia, and in the southerly course to Cape Sierra
Leona, is comprehended a coast of about 700 miles ;
being the same tract for which Queen Elizabeth grant¬
ed charters to the first traders to that coast. From
Sierra Leona, the land of Guinea takes a turn to the
eastward, extending that course about 1500 miles, in¬
cluding those several divisions known by the names of
the Grain Coast, the Ivory Coast, the Gold Coast, and
the Slave Coast, with the large kingdom of Tienin.
From thence the land runs southward along the coast
about 1200 miles, which contains the kingdoms of Congo
and Angola ; where the trade for slaves ends. From
which to the southermost cape of Africa, called the
Cape of Good Hope, the country is settled by Caflres
and Hottentots, who have never been concerned in the
making or selling slaves.
!• Of the parts which are above mentioned, the first
is that situated on the great river Senegal, which is
said to be navigable more than 1000 miles, and is by
travellers described to he very agreeable and fruitful.
Air Brue, principal factor for the French African
company, who lived 16 years in that country, after
describing its fruitfulness and plenty near the sea,
adds*, “ The farther you go from the sea, the
try on the river seems the more fruitful and well im- Collect.
proved, abounding with Indian corn, pulse, fruit, 8tc. vol. ii.
Here are vast meadows, which feed large herds of P* 4(5-
great and small cattle, and poultry numerous : the
villages that lie thick on the river, show the country
R 3 is
9 u i [ i;
GUj„ea is well peopled.” The same author, in the account of
v~~— a voyage he made up the river Gambia, the mouth of
which lies about 300 miles south of the Senegal, and
is navigable about 600 miles up the country, says,
“ that he was surprised to see the laud so well culti¬
vated *, scarce a spot lay unimproved ; the low lands
divided by small canals were all sowed with rice, &c.
th.e higher ground planted with millet, Indian corn,
and pease of different sorts j their beef excellent j
poultry plenty and very cheap, as well as all other
necessaries of life.” Mr Moore, who was sent from
England about the year 1735, in the service of the
African company, and resided at Janies Fort on the
river Gambia, or in other factories on that river, about
five years, confirms the above account of the fruitful¬
ness of the country. Captain Smith, who was sent in
the year 1726 by the African company to survey their
settlements throughout the whole coast of Guinea,
* Voyage says *> “ th0 country about the Gambia is pleasant and
to Guinea, fruitful j provisions of all kinds being plenty and ex-
p. 31, 34. ceeding cheap.” The country on and between the
two above-mentioned rivers is large and extensive, in¬
habited principally by those three Negro nations known
by the name of Jalqfs, Fulis, and Mandingos. The
Jalofs possess the middle of the country. The Fulis
principal settlement is on both sides of the Senegal :
great numbers of these people are also mixed with the
Mandingos j which last are mostly settled on both
sides the Gambia. The government of the Jalofs is
represented as under a better regulation than can be
expected from the common opinion we entertain of
the negroes. We are told in Astley’s Collection,
“That the king has under him several ministers of
state, who assist him in the exercise of justice. The
grand jerafo is the chief justice through all the king’s
dominions, and goes in circuit from time to time to
hear complaints and determine controversies. The
king’s treasurer exercises the same employment, and
has under him alkairs, who are governors of towns or
villages. That the kondi, or viceroy, goes the cir¬
cuit with the chief justice, both to hear causes and in¬
spect into the behaviour of the alkadi, or chief ma¬
gistrate of every village in their several districts.” Vas-
concelas, an author mentioned in the Collection, says,
“ the ancientest are preferred to be the prince’s coun¬
sellors, who keep always about his person ; and the
men of most judgment and experience are the judges.”
The Fulis are settled on both sides of the river Senegal:
their country, which is very fruitful and populous,
extends near 400 miles from east to west. They are
generally of a deep tawney complexion, appearing to bear
some affinity to the Moors, whose country they join on
the north : they are good farmers, and make great
harvest of corn, cotton, tobacco, &c. and breed great
numbers of cattle of all kinds. But the most particu¬
lar account we have of these people is from Moore,
+ Travels who saysf, “ Some of these Full blacks, who dwell on
into distant both sides the river Gambia, are in subjection to the
parts of Mandingos, amongst whom they dwell, having been
Africa, prohably driven out of their country by war or famine.
P- 19 * They have chiefs of their own, who rule with much
moderation. Few of them will drink brandy, or any
thing stronger than water and sugar, being strict Maho¬
metans. Their form of government goes on easy, be¬
cause the people are of a good quiet disposition, and so
52 ] GUI
well instructed in what is right, that a man who does Gwnti 6"
ill is the abomination of all, and none will support him'—-~
against the chief. In these countries the natives are
not covetous of land, desiring no more than what they
use y and as they do not plough with horses and cattle,
they can use but very little ; therefore the kings are
willing to give the I ulis leave to live 111 their country,
and cultivate their lands. If any of their people are
known to be made slaves, all the Fulis will join to re¬
deem them j they also support the old, the blind, the
lame, amongst themselves j and as far as their abilities
go, they supply the necessities of the Mandingos, great
numbers of whom they have maintained in famine.”
The author, from his own observations, sajs, “ Ihey
were rarely angry, and that he never heard them abuse
one another.”
The Mandingos are said by Mr Brue before men¬
tioned, “ to be the most numerous nation on the
Gambia, besides which, numbers of them are dispersed
over all these countries j being the most rigid Maho- ^
metans amongst the negroes, they drink neither wine ^
nor brandy, and are politer than the other negroes.
The chief of the trade goes through their hands.
Many are industrious and laborious, keeping their
grounds well cultivated, and breeding a good stock of
cattle f. Every town has an alkadi, or governor,!!*
who has great power j for most of them having twoc*
common fields of clear ground, one for corn, and thep,li
other for rice, the alkadi appoints the labour of all
the people. The men work the corn ground, and
the women and girls the rice ground ; and as they all
equally labour, so he equally divides the corn amongst
them 5 and in case any are in want, the others supply
them. This alkadi decides all quarrels, and has the
first voice in all conferences in town affairs.” Some
of these Mandingos, who are settled at Galem, far up
the river Senegal, can read and write Arabic tolerably j
and are a good hospitable people, who carry on a
trade with the inland nations. “ They are extremely
populous in those parts, their women being fruitful,
and they not suffering any person amongst them, but
such as are guilty of crimes, to be made slaves.” We
are told from Jobson, “ That the Mahometan negroes
say their prayers thrice a-day. Each village has a
priest who calls them to their duty. It is surprising
(says the author), as well as commendable, to see the
modesty, attention, and reverence they observe during
their worship.” He asked some of their priests the
purport of their prayers and ceremonies j their answer
always was, “ that they adored God by prostrating
themselves before him ; that by humbling themselves
they acknowledged their own insignificancy, and
farther intreated him to forgive their faults, and to
grant them all good and necessary things, as well as
deliverance from evil.” Jobson takes notice of se¬
veral good qualities in these negro priests, particular¬
ly their great sobriety. They gain their livelihood by
keeping school for the education of the children. The
boys are taught to read and write. They not only
teach school, but rove about the country, teaching
and instructing, for which the whole country is open
to them ; and they have a free course through ad
places, though the kings may be at war with one
another.
The three fore-mentioned nations practise several
trades,
GUI [ 133 ] GUI
trades, as smiths, potters, saddlers, and weavers, llieir
—' smiths.work particularly neat in gold and silver, and
make knives, hatchets, reaping hooks, spades, and shears
to cut iron, &c. Ilieir potters make neat tobacco
pipes, and pots to boil their food. Some authors say,
that weaving is their principal trade : this is done by
the women and girls, who spin and weave very fine cot¬
ton cloth, which they dye blue or black. Moore says,
the Jalofs particularly make great quantities ot the cot¬
ton cloth 5 their pieces are generally 27 yards long, and
about nine inches broad, their looms being very narrow j
these they sew neatly together, so as to supply the use
of broad cloth.
It was in these parts of Guinea that M. Adanson,
correspondent of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris, was employed from the year 1749 to the year
1753, wholly in making natural and philosophical ob¬
servations on the country about the rivers Senegal and
Gambia. Speaking of the great heats in Senegal, he
essays*, “ it is to them that they are partly indebted for
the fertility of their lands •, which is so great, that, with
oS‘little labour and care, there is no fruit nor grain but
grows in great plenty.”
Of the soil on the Gambia, he says, “ it is rich and
deep, and amazingly fertile ; it produces spontaneous¬
ly, and almost without cultivation, all the necessaries
of life, grain, fruit, herbs, and roots. Every thing
matures to perfection, and is excellent in its kind.”
One thing which always surprised him, was the pro¬
digious rapidity with which the sap of trees repairs
any loss they may happen to sustain in that country j
“ Arid I was never (says he) more astonished, than
when landing four days after the locusts had devoured
all the fruits and leaves, and even the buds of the trees,
to find the trees covered, with new leaves, and they
did not seem to me to have suffered much.”—“ It was
then (says the same author) the fish season ; you
might see them in shoals approaching towards land.
Some of these shoals were 50 fathoms square, and the
fish crowded together in such a manner, as to roll up¬
on one another, without being able to swim. As soon
as the negroes perceive them coming towards land,
they jump into the water with a basket in one hand,
and swim with the other. They need only to plunge
and to lift up their basket, and they are sure to return
loaded with fish.” Speaking of the appearance of the
country, and of the disposition of the people, he says,
4‘ which way soever I turned mine eyes on this plea¬
sant spot, I beheld a perfect image of pure nature ;
an agreeable solitude, hounded on every side by charm¬
ing landscapes ; the rural situation of cottages in the
midst of trees j the ease and indolence of the negroes,
reclined under the shade of their spreading foliage ;
the simplicity of their dress and manners j the whole
revived in my mind the idea of our first parents, and I
seemed to contemplate the world in its primitive state.
They are, generally speaking, very good-natured, soci¬
able, and obliging. I was not a little pleased with this
my first reception j it convinced me, that there ought
to be a considerable abatement made in the accounts I
had read and heard everywhere of the savage character
of the Africans. I observed, both in the negroes and
Moors great humanity and sociableness, which gave me
strong hopes that I should be very safe amongst them,
and meet with the success I desired in my inquiries af¬
ter the curiosities of the country.” He was agreeably
amused with the conversation of the negroes, their fa¬
bles, dialogue q and witty stories with which they enter¬
tain each other alternately, according to their custom.
Speaking of the remarks which the natives made to him
with relation to the stars and planets, he says, “ it is
Guinea.
amazing that such a rude and illiterate people should
reason so pertinently in regard to those heavenly bodies^
there is no manner of doubt, but that with proper in¬
struments, and a good will, they would become excel¬
lent astronomers.”
2. That part of Guinea known by the name of the
Grain and Ivory Coast extends about 500 miles. The
soil is said to be in general fertile, producing abun¬
dance of rice and roots ; indigo and cotton thrive with¬
out cultivation, and tobacco would be excellent if
carefully manufactured; they have fish in plenty;
their flocks greatly increase ; and their trees are load¬
ed with fruit. They make a cotton cloth, which sells
well on the coast. In a word, the country is rich, and
the commerce advantageous, and might he greatly aug¬
mented by such as would cultivate the friendship of the
natives. These are represented by some writers as a
rude, treacherous people ; whilst several other authors
of credit give them a very different character, de¬
scribing them as sensible, courteous, and the fairest
traders on the coast of Guinea. In the Collection,
they are said f to be averse to drinking to excess, and>t '*•
such as do are severely punished by the king’s order. ^ ^ '
On inquiry why there is such a .disagreement in the
character given of these people, it appears, that though
they are naturally inclined to he kind to strangers,
with whom they are fond of trading, yet the frequent
injuries done them by Europeans have occasioned their
being suspicious and shy : the same cause has been
the occasion of the ill treatment they have sometimes
given to innocent strangers, who have attempted to
trade with them. As the Europeans have no settle¬
ment on this part of Guinea, the trade is carried on by
signals from the ships, on the appearance of which the
natives usually come on hoard in their canoes, bring¬
ing their gold-dust, ivory, &c. which has given oppor¬
tunity to some villanous Europeans to carry them oft’
with their effects, or retain them on board till a ran¬
som is paid. It is noted by some, that since the En-.
ropean voyagers have carried away several of these
people, their mistrust is so great, that it is very difficult
to prevail on them to come on board. Smith remarks,.
“ As we passed along this coast, we very often lay be¬
fore a town, and fired a gun for the natives to come
off; but no soul came near us : at length we learnt by.
some ships that were trading down the coast, that the
natives came seldom on board an English ship, for fear
of being detained or carried off: yet at last some ven¬
tured on hoard ; but if these chanced to spy any arms,
they would all immediately take to their canoes, and
make the b^st of their way home. They had then in
their possession one Benjamin Cross, the mate of an
English vessel, who was detained by them to make re¬
prisals for some of their men, who had formerly been
carried away by some English vessel.” In the Collec¬
tion we are told, “ This villanous custom is too often
practised, chiefly by the Bristol and Liverpool ships,} Beterip-
and is a great detriment to the slave-trade on the windrow of
ward coast.” John Snock, mentioned in Bosman J,
whenp'
G U I
[ >34 ]
G U I
Cjuinea.
* Descrip¬
tion of
Guinea,
V- 44 >•
f Astley's
Collection,
vol. ii.
P- 565-
| Smith's
Voyage to
Guinea,
p. 512.
when on the coast, wrote, “ ^ e cast anchor, hut not
one negro coming on board, I went on shore j and aite*
having staid a while on the strand, some negroes came
to me 5 and being desirous to be informed why they
did not come on board, I was answered, that about
two months before, the English had been there with
two large vessels, and had ravaged the country, de¬
stroyed all their canoes, plundered their houses, and car¬
ried off some of their people, upon which the remain¬
der fled to the inland country, where most of them
were at that time •, so that there being not much to be
done by us, we were obliged to return on hoard. When
I inquired after their wars with other countries, they
told me they wqre not often troubled with them 5 hut
if any difference happened, they chose rather to end
the dispute amicably than to come to arms He
found the inhabitants civil and good-natured. Speak¬
ing of the king of Eio Sestro, lower down the coast,
he says, “ He was a very agreeable, obliging man ;
and all his subjects are civil, as well as very labori¬
ous in agriculture and the pursuits of trade.Mar-
chais f says, “ That though the country is very popu¬
lous, yet none of the natives (except criminals) are
sold for slaves.” Vaillant never heard of any settle¬
ment being made by the Europeans on this part of
Guinea 5 and Smith remarks J, “ That these coasts
which are divided into several little kingdoms, and
have seldom any wars, is the reason the slave-trade is
not so good here as on the Gold and Slave Coast, where
the Europeans have several forts and factories.” A
plain evidence this, that it is the intercourse with the
Europeans, and their settlements on the coast, which
gives life to the slave-trade.
3. Next adjoining to the Ivory Coast are those called
the Gold Coast and i\\e Slave Coast; authors are not
agreed about their bounds, hut their extent together
along the coast may be about 500 miles. And as the
policy, produce, and economy of these two kingdoms
ot Guinea are much the same, they shall be described
together.
Here the Europeans have the greatest number of
forts and factories ; from whence, by means of the ne¬
gro factors, a trade is carried on above 700 miles back
in the inland country *, whereby great numbers of slaves
are procured, as well by means of the Avars which arise
amongst the negroes, or are fomented by the Euro¬
peans, as those brought from the back country. Here
we find the natives more reconciled to the Euro¬
pean manners and trade 5 but, at the same time, much
more inured to war, and ready to assist the European
traders in procuring loadings for the great number
of vessels which come yearly on those coasts for slaves.
This part of Guinea is agreed by historians to be, in
general, extraordinary fruitful and agreeable •, pro¬
ducing (according to the difference of the soil) vast
quantities of rice and other grain, plenty of fruit and
roots, palm wine and oil, and fish in great abundance,
with much tame and wild cattle. Bosnian, princi¬
pal factor for the Dutch at D’Elmina, speaking of
the country of Axim, which is situated towards the
beginning of the Gold Coast, says, “ The negro inha¬
bitants are generally very rich, driving a great trade
with the Europeans for gold : That they are industri¬
ously employed either in trade, fishing, or agriculture 5
but chiefly in the culture of rice, which grows here
Guinea,
in an incredible abundance, and is transported hence
all over the Gold Coast: the inhabitants, in lieu, re¬
turning full fraught with millet, jamms, potatoes, and
palm oik” The same author, speaking of the country
of Ante, says, “ This country, as well as the Gold
Coast, abounds with hills, enriched with extraordinary
high and beautiful trees 5 its valleys, betwixt the lulls,
are wide and extensive, producing in great abundance
very good rice, millet, jamms, potatoes, and other
fruits, all good in their kind.” He adds, “ In short,
it is a land that yields its manurers as plentiful a crop
as they can wish, with great quantities of palm wine
and oil, besides being well furnished with all sorts of
tame as well as wild beasts 5 but that the last fatal wars
had reduced it to a miserable condition, and stripped it
of most of its inhabitants.” The adjoining country
of Fetu, he says, “ was formerly so powerful and po¬
pulous, that it struck terror into all the neighbouring
nations ; but it is at present so drained by continual
wars, that it is entirely ruined j there does not remain
inhabitants sufficient to till the country, though it is
so fruitful and pleasant that it may he compared to the
country of Ante just before described j frequently (says
our author), when walking through it before the last
war, I have seen it abound with fine well built and po¬
pulous towns, agreeably enriched with vast quantities
of corn, cattle, palm wine, and oil. The inhabitants
all apply themselves without any distinction to agri¬
culture 5 some soav corn •, others press oil, and draw
wine from palm trees, with both which it is plentifully
stored.”
Smith gives much the same account of the before-
mentioned parts of the Gold Coast ; and adds, “ the
country about D’Elmina and Cape Coast is much the
same for beauty and goodness, but more populous 5 and
the nearer we come towards the Slave Coast, the more
delightful and rich all the countries are, producing all
sorts of trees, fruits, roots, and herbs, that grow with¬
in the torrid zone.” Barbot also remarks*, rvith re-*
spect to the countries of Ante and Adorn, “ That theDficflft
soil is very good and fruitful in corn and other pro-°J
duce ; which it affords in such plenty, that besides whatP'1^'
serves for their own use, they always export great
quantities for sale : they have a competent number of
cattle, both tame and Avild, and the rivers are abundantly
stored with fish ; so that nothing is Avanting for the sup¬
port of life and to make it easy.” In the Collection
it is said, “ That the inland people on that part of the
coast employ themselves in tillage and trade, and sup¬
ply the market with corn, fruit, and palm wine ; the
country producing such vast plenty of Indian corn,
that abundance is daily exported as Avell by Euro¬
peans as blacks resorting thither from other parts.”
These inland people are said to live in great union
and friendship, being generally well tempered, civil,
and tractable j not apt to shed human blood, except
Avhen much provoked ; and ready to assist one ano¬
ther. In the Collection it is said, “ That the fish¬
ing business is esteemed on the Gold Coast next to tra¬
ding $ that those who profess it are more numerous
than those of other employments. That the greatest
number of these are at Kommendo, Mina, and Kor-
mantin 5 from each of which places there go out every
morning (Tuesday excepted, which is the Fetish day
or day of rest), five, six, and sometimes eight hundred
canoes,
CG
G U I
[
a. canoes, from 13 to 14 feet long, which spread them-
selves two leagues at sea, each fisherman carrying in his
canoe a sword, with bread, water, and a little fire on
a large stone to roast fish. Thus they labour till noon,
when the sea breeze blowing fresh, they return on the
shore, generally laden with fish j a quantity of which
the inland inhabitants come down to buy, which they
sell again at the country markets.”
Smith says, “ The country about Acra, where the
English and Dutch have each a strong fort, is very de¬
lightful, and the natives courteous and civil to stran¬
gers.” He adds, “ That this place seldom fails of an
extraordinary good trade from the inland country,
especially for slaves, whereof several are supposed to
come from very remote parts, because it is not un¬
common to find a Malayan or two amongst a parcel of
other slaves. The Malay people are generally natives
of Malacca, in the East Indies, situated several thousand
miles from the Gold Coast.” They differ very much
from the Guinea negroes, being of a tawney complexion
with long black hair.
Most parts of the Slave Coast are represented as
equally fertile and pleasant with the Gold Coast. The
kingdom of Whidah has been particularly noted by
travellers. Smith and Bosman agree “ That it is one
of the most delightful countries in the world. The
great number and variety of tall, beautiful, and shady
trees, which seem planted in groves; the verdant fields
everywhere cultivated, and no otherwise divided than
by those groves, and in some places a small foot-path,
together with a great number of villages, contribute
to afford the most delightful prospect; the whole coun¬
try being a fine, easy, and almost imperceptible ascent
for the space of 40 or 50 miles from the sea. That the
farther you go from the sea, the more beautiful and po¬
pulous the country appears; That the natives were
kind and obliging, and so industrious, that no place
which was thought fertile could escape being planted,
even within the hedges which inclose their villages.
And that the next day after they had reaped, they sow¬
ed again.”
Snelgrave also says, “ The country appears full of
towns and villages ; and being a rich soil, and well
cultivated, looks like an entire garden.” In the Col¬
lection, the husbandry of the negroes is described to
he carried on with great regularity. “ The rainy sea¬
son approaching, they go into the fields and woods, to
fix on a proper place for sowing ; and as here is no
property in ground, the king’s licence being obtained,
the people go out in troops, and first clear the ground
from bushes and weeds, which they burn. The field
thus cleared, they dig it up a foot deep, and so let it
remain for eight or ten days, till the rest of their
neighbours have disposed their ground in the same
manner. They then consult about sowing, and for
that end assemble at the king’s court the Fetish
day. The king’s grain must be sown first. They then
go again to the field, and give the ground a second
digg*ng» end sow their seed. Whilst “ the king
or governor’s land is sowing, he sends out wine and
flesh, ready dressed, enough to serve the labourers.
Afterwards, they in like manner sow the ground al-
otted for their neighbours as diligently as that of the
,ing s» b7 vvb<M11 they are also feasted ; and so con¬
tinue to work in a body for the public benefit till
35 ] GUI
every man’s ground is tilled and sov/cd. None but Guinea,
the king, and a few great men, are exempted from y~~
this labour. Their grain soon sprouts out of the
ground. When it is about a man’s height, and be¬
gins to ear, they raise a wooden house in the centre
of the field, covered with straw, in which they set
their childx-en to watch their corn, and iright away the
birds.”
Bosman speaks in commendation of the civility,
kindness, and great industry of the natives of Whi¬
dah. This is confirmed by Smith, who says, “ The
natives here seem to be the most gentleman-like ne¬
groes in Guinea, abounding with good manners and
ceremony to each other. The inferior pay the utmost
deference and respect to the superior, as do wives to
their husbands, and children to their parents. All
here are naturally industrious, and find constant em¬
ployment ; the men in agriculture, and the women in
spinning and weaving cotton. The men, whose chief
talent lies in husbandry, are unacquainted with arms;
otherwise, being a numerous people, they could have
made a better defence against the king of Dahomy,
who subdued them without much trouble.” Accord¬
ing to tbe Collection, there are, throughout the Gold
Coast, regular markets in all villages, furnished with
provisions and merchandise, held every day in the week
except Tuesday, whence they supply, not only the in¬
habitants, but. the European ships. The negro wo¬
men are very expert in buying and selling, and ex¬
tremely industrious; for they will repair daily to mar¬
ket from a considerable distance, loaded like pack-
horseS, with a child perhaps at their hack, and a heavy
burden on their heads. After selling their wares,
they buy fish and other necessaries, and return home
loaded as they came. There is a market held at Sabi
every fourth day, also a weekly one in the province
of Apologua, which is so resorted to, that there are
usually 5000 or 6000 merchants. Their markets are so
well regulated and governed, that seldom any disorder
happens ; each species of merchandise and merchants
have a separate place allotted them by themselves.
The buyers may haggle as much as they will, hut it
must he without noise or fraud. To keep order, the
king appoints a judge; who, with four officers well
armed, inspects the markets, hears all complaints, and
in a summary way decides all difierences ; he ha«
power to seize and sell as slaves, all who are catch-
ed in stealing or disturbing the peace. In these mar¬
kets are to he sold men, women, children, oxen, sheep,
goats, and fowls of all kinds; European cloths, linen
and woollen ;. printed calicoes, silk, grocery ware,
china, gold-dust, iron in bars, &c. in a word, most
sorts of European goods, as well as the produce of
Africa and Asia. They have other markets, resem¬
bling our fairs, once or twice a-year, to which all the
country repair; for they take care to order the day so
in different governments as not to interfere with each
other.”1
With respect to government, Smith says “ that # Smith]
the Gold Coast and Slave Coast are divided into differ-p. 193.
ent districts, some of which are governed by their
chiefs or kings : the others, being more of the na¬
ture of a commonwealth, are governed by some of
the principal men, called Cabocerns ; who Bosman
says, are properly denominated civilfathers^ whose pro¬
vince
G U I
[ I36 1
G U I
(Juinea. vince is to take care of the welfare of the. city or vil-
——v~ lage, and to appease tumults.” But this order of go¬
vernment has been much broken since the coming of
the Europeans. Both Bosnian and Barbot mention
murder and adultery to be severely punished on the
coast, frequently by death j and robbery by a fine pro¬
portionable to the goods stolen.
The income of some of the kings is large. Bosman
says, “ that the king of Whidah’s revenues and duties
on things bought and sold are considerable ; he having
the tithe of all things sold in the market, or imported
into the country.” Both the above-mentioned authors
say, the tax on slaves shipped off in this king’s domi¬
nions, in some years, amounts to near 20,000).
Bosman tells us, “ the Whidah negroes have a faint
idea of a true God, ascribing to him the attributes of
almighty power and omnipresence : but God, they
say, is too high to condescend to think of mankind }
wherefore he commits the government of the world to
those inferior deities which they worship.” Some au¬
thors say, the wisest of these negroes are sensible of
their mistake in this opinion ; but dare not forsake
their own religion, for fear of the populace rising and
killing them. This is confirmed by Smith, who says,
“ that all the natives of this coast believe there is one
true God, the author of them and all things j that they
have some apprehension of a future state 5 and that al¬
most every village has a grove, or public place of wor¬
ship, to which the principal inhabitants, on a set day,
resort to make their offerings.”
In the Collection it is remarked as an excellency in
the Guinea government, “ that however poor they
may be in general, yet there are no beggars to be found
amongst them $ which is owing to the care of their
chief men, whose province it is to take care of the wel¬
fare of the city or village, it being part of their of¬
fice to see that such people may earn their bread by
their labour ; some are set to blow the smith’s bel¬
lows, others to press palm oil, or grind colours for
their mats, and sell provision in the markets. The
young men are listed to serve as soldiers, so that they
suffer no common beggar.” Bosman ascribes a fur-
* Bosman, ther reason for this good order *, viz. “ that when a
p.119. negro finds he cannot subsist, he binds himself for a
certain sum of money, and the master to whom he is
bound is obliged to find him necessaries; that the ma¬
ster sets him a sort of task, which is not in the least
slavish, being chiefly to defend his master on occa¬
sions, or in sowing time to work as much as himself
pleases.”
Adjoining to the kingdom of Whidah are several
small governments, as Goto, great and small Popo,
Ardrah, &c. all situated on the Slave Coast, where the
chief trade for slaves is carried on. These are govern¬
ed by their respective kings, and follow much the same
customs with those of Whidah, except that their prin¬
cipal living is on plunder and the slave-trade.
4. Next adjoining to the Slave Coast, is the king¬
dom of Benin, which, though it extends but about
170 miles on the sea, yet spreads so far inland as to lie
esteemed the most potent kingdom in Guinea. By
accounts, the soil and produce appear to be in a great
f Collect, measure like those before described, and the natives
vob iii. are represented as a reasonable good-natured people.
P- Avtua says f, “ they are a sincere, inoffensive people,
$
and do no injustice either to one another or to stran- Quines,
gers.” Smith confirms this account, and says, “ that«—,
the inhabitants are generally very good-natured, and
exceeding courteous and civil. W hen the Europeans
make them presents, which in their coming thither to
trade they always do, they endeavour to return them
doubly.” Bosman tells us, “ that his countrymen the
Dutch, who were often obliged to trust them till they
returned the next year, were sure to be honestly paid
their whole debts.”
There is in Benin a considerable order in govern¬
ment ; theft, murder, and adultery, being severely
punished. Smith says, “ their towns are governed
by officers appointed by the king, who have power
to decide in civil cases, and to raise the public taxes :
but in criminal cases, they must send to the king’s
court, which is held at the town of Oedo or Great
Benin. This town, which covers a large extent of
ground, is about 60 miles from the sea.” Barbot
tells us, “ that it contains 30 streets, 20 fathoms wide,
and almost two miles long, commonly extending in a
straight line from one gate to another j that the gates
are guarded by soldiers j that in these streets markets
are held every day, for cattle, ivory, cotton, and many
sorts of European goods. This large town is divided
into several wards or districts, each governed by its
respective king of a street, as they call them, to admi¬
nister justice, and to keep good order. The inhabi¬
tants are very civil and good-natured, condescending to
what the Europeans require of them in ,a civil way.”
The same author confirms what has been said by others
of their justice in the payment of their debts j and adds,
“ that they, above all other Guineans, are very ho¬
nest and just in their dealings *, and they have such an
aversion for theft, that by the law of the country it is
punished with death.” We are told by the same au¬
thor, “ that the king of Benin is able upon occasion
to maintain an army of 100,000 men j but that, for
the most part, he does not keep 30,000.” See the ar¬
ticle Benin.
5. The last division of Guinea from which slaves are
imported, are the kingdoms of Congo and Angola: these
lie to the south of Benin, extending with the interme¬
diate land about 1200 miles on the coast. Great num¬
bers of the natives of both these kingdoms profess the
Christian religion, which was long since introduced by
the Portuguese, who made early settlements in that
country. See Congo and Angola.
In the Collection it is said, that both in Congo and
Angola, the soil is in general fruitful, producing great
plenty of grain, Indian corn, and such quantities of
rice, that it hardly bears any price, with fruits, roots,
and palm oil in plenty. The natives are generally a
quiet people, who discover a good understanding,
and behave in a friendly manner to strangers, being of
a mild conversation, affable, and easily overcome with
reason. In the government of Congo, the king ap¬
points a judge in every particular division, to hear ami
determine disputes and civil causes ; the judges im¬
prison and release, or impose fines, according to the
rule of custom ; but in weighty matters, every one
may appeal to the king, before whom all criminal
causes are brought, in which he giveth sentence •, bat
seldom condemneth to death. The town of Leanga
stands in the midst of four lordships, which abound ia
corn,
G U I [
corn, fruit, &c. Here they make great quantities of
cloth of divers kinds, very fine and curious ; the in¬
habitants are seldom idle; they even make needle-work
caps as they walk in the streets. The slave-trade is
here principally managed by the Portuguese, who carry
it far up into the inland countries. They are said to
send off from these parts 15,000 slaves each year. At
Angola, about the tenth degree of south latitude, ends
the trade for slaves.
As all these countries lie between the tropics, the air
is excessively hot, especially from the beginning of Sep¬
tember to the end of March ; which, with the coolness
of the nights, the frequent thick, stinking, sulphu¬
reous mists, and the periodical rains, when the flat
country is overflowed, makes it very unhealthy, espe¬
cially to Europeans. The natives, however, are little
affected with the unwholesome air. According to Bar-
bot, they keep much within doors in tempestuous
times ; and when exposed to the weather, their skins
being suppled and pores closed by daily anointing
with palm oil, the weather can make but little im¬
pression on them. They generally, therefore, enjoy a
good state of health, and are able to procure to them¬
selves a comfortable subsistence, with much less care and
toil than is necessary in our more northern climate :
which last advantage arises not only from the warmth
of the climate, but also from the overflowing of the
rivers, whereby the land is regularly moistened and
rendered extremely fertile ; and being in many places
improved by culture, abounds with grain and fruits,
cattle, poultry, &c. The earth yields all the year a
fresh supply of food: Few clothes are requisite, and
little art necessary in making them, or in the construc¬
tion of their houses, which are very simple, principally
calculated to defend them from the tempestuous sea¬
sons and wild beasts; a few dry reeds covered with
mats serve for their beds. The other furniture, ex¬
cept what belongs to cookery, gives the women but
little trouble ; the moveables of the greatest among
them amounting only to a few earthen pots, some
wooden utensils, and gourds or calabashes; from these
last, which grow almost naturally over their huts, to
which they afford an agreeable shade, they are abun¬
dantly stocked with good clean vessels for most house¬
hold uses, being of different sizes, from half a pint to
several gallons.
The distempers the Europeans are subject to on
this coast, are fevers, fluxes, and colics, which are
occasioned by indifferent water and bad air; their
settlements^ lying near the coast, where the fogs and
steams arising from the ooze and salt-marshes, and the
stinking fish the natives dry on the beach, corrupt the
air, and render it fatal to foreigners. The most tem¬
perate men find it difficult to preserve their health ;
hut a great many hasten their death by their intempe¬
rance, or negligence, exposing themselves to the cold
air m the evening, after a very hot day. This sudden
change, from one extreme to the other, has often very
bad efleets in hot climates.
1 ^ mountains in Guinea, the most remarkable are
tuose o 1 err a Leon. The principal capes are those
of Cape Blanco Cape Verd, Cape Leon, Cape St
Ann s, Cape Palmas, and Cape Three Points, Cape
iormosa Cape Monte, Cape St John, Cape Lopas,
^OL Xe,pan t ICaPe ^e2ro* ^ie bays are
137 ] GUI
the Cyprian or Cintra bay, and the Bite of Guinea. Guinea,
Of the rivers, the most considerable are /hose of Co- —v~—‘“J
anzo and Ambrisi, the Zaara, the Lunde, the Came¬
ron, the Formosa, the Volta, the Sierra Leon, and the
Sherbro. All these run from east to west (except the
Volta, which runs from north to south), and fall into
the Atlantic.
Besides gold, ivory, and slaves, Guinea affords indi¬
go, wax, gum-senega, gum-tragacanth, and a variety of
other gums and drugs.
J he most ancient account we have of the country History of
of the negroes, particularly that part situated on and t^ie ^u^Ilea
between the two great rivers of Senegal and Gambia,tra(,e'
is from the writings of two ancient authors, one an
Arabian, and the other a Moor. The first wrote in
Arabic about the 12th century. His works, printed
in that language at Rome, were afterwards translated
into Latin, and printed at Paris under the patronage of
the famous Thuanus chancellor of France, with the
title of Geographia Nuhtensis, containing an account of
all the nations lying on the Senegal and Gambia. The
other was written by John Leo, a Moor, born at Grana¬
da in Spain, before the Moors were totally expelled from
that kingdom. He resided in Afi ica ; but being on a
voyage from Tripoli to Tunis, was taken by some Ita¬
lian corsairs, who finding him possessed of several
Arabian books, besides his own manuscripts, appre¬
hended him to be a man of learning, and as such pre¬
sented him to Pope Leo X. This pope encouraging
him, he embraced the Romish religion, and his de¬
scription of Africa was published in Italian. From
these writings we gather, that after the Mahometan
religion had extended to the kingdom of Morocco,
some of the promoters of it crossing the sandy deserts
of Numidia, which separate that country from Gui¬
nea, found it inhabited by men, who, though under
no regular government, and destitute of that know¬
ledge the Arabians were favoured with, lived in con¬
tent and peace. The first author particularly remarks,
“ that they never made war, or travelled abroad, but
employed themselves in tending their herds, or labour¬
ing in the ground.” J. Leo says, p. 65. “ That
they lived in common, having no property in land, no
tyrant nor superior lord, but supported themselves in
an equal state, upon the natural produce of the coun¬
try, which afforded plenty of roots, game, and honey.
That ambition or avarice never drove them into foreign
countries to subdue or cheat their neighbours. Thus
they lived without toil or superfluities.”—“ The an¬
cient inhabitants of Morocco, who wore coats of mail,
and used swords and spears beaded with iron, coming
amongst these harmless and naked people, soon brought
them under subjection, and divided that part of Guinea
which lies on the rivers Senegal and Gambia into 15
parts ; those were the 15 kingdoms of the negroes,
over which the Moors presided, and the common peo¬
ple were negroes. These Moors taught the negroes
the Mahometan religion, and arts of life; particularly
the use of iron, before unknown to them. About
the 14th century, a native negro, called Heli Isc/iia,
expelled the Moorish conquerors ; but though the ne¬
groes threw off the yoke of a foreign nation, they only
changed a Libyan for a negro master. Heli Ischia
himself becoming king, led the negroes on to foreign
wars, a.id established himself in power over a very large
S extent
G
U I [ 138 ] GUI
Since Leo’s time, the Europe- night, would surprise some fishermen’s villages: that
entered into the country, and carried off
Guinea, extent of country.”
—-vr——’ ans have had very little knowledge ot those parts ot
Africa, nor do they know what became of his great
empire. It is highly probable that it broke into pieces,
and that the natives again resumed many of their an¬
cient customs j for in the account published by Moore,
in his travels on the river Gambia, we find a mixture
of the Moorish and Mahometan customs, joined with
the original simplicity of the negroes. It appears by
accounts of ancient voyages, collected by Hackluit,
Purchas, and others, that it was about 50 years before
the discovery of America, that the Portuguese at¬
tempted to sail round Cape Bojador, which lies be¬
tween their country and Guinea : this, after divers
repulses occasioned by the violent currents, they
effected ; when landing on the western coasts of
Africa, they soon began to make incursions into the
country, and to seize and carry off the native inha¬
bitants. As early as the year 1434, Alonzo Gon¬
zales, the first who is recorded to have met with
the natives, being on that coast, pursued and attacked
a number of them, when some were wounded, as
was also one of the Portuguese *, which the author re¬
cords as the first blood spilt by Christians in those
parts. Six years after, the same Gonzales again at¬
tacked the natives and took 12 prisoners, with whom
he returned to his vessels : he afterwards put a woman
on shore, in order to induce the natives to redeem the
prisoners j but the next day 150 of the inhabitants ap¬
peared on horses and camels, provoking the Portu¬
guese to land *, which they not daring to venture, the
natives discharged a volley of stones at them, and went
off. After this, the Portuguese still continued to send
vessels on the coast of Africa : particularly we read of
their falling on a village, whence the inhabitants fled,
and, being pursued, 25 were taken ; “ he that ran
best (says the author), taking the most.” In their
way home they killed some of the natives, and took
55 more prisoners. Afterwards Dinisanes Dagrama,
with two other vessels, landed on the island Arguin,
where they took 54 Moors*, then running along the
coast 80 leagues farther, they at several times took 50
slaves ; but here seven of the Portuguese were killed.
Then being joined by several other vessels, Dinisanes
proposed to destroy the island, to revenge the loss of the
seven Portuguese j of which the Moors being apprised,
fled, so that no more than 12 were found, whereof
only four could be taken, the rest being killed, as
also one of the Portuguese.” Many more captures of
this kind on the coast of Barbary and Guinea are re¬
corded to have been made in those early times by the
Portuguese 5 who, in the year 1481, erected their first
fort at D’Elmina on that coast, from whence they
soon opened a trade for slaves with the inland parts of
Guinea.
From the foregoing accounts, it is undoubted, that
the practice of making slaves of the negroes owes its
origin to the early incursions of the Portuguese on the
coast of Africa, solely from an inordinate desire of gain.
This is clearly evidenced from their own historians,
particularly Cada Mosto, about the year 1455, who
* Colke- writes*, “ That before the trade was settled for pur-
tion, vol. i. chasing slaves from the Moors at Arguin, sometimes
p. four, and sometimes more Portuguese vessels, were used
to come to that gulf, well armed ^ and landing by
2
Guinei,
they even entered into
Arabs of both sexes, whom they sold in Portugal.”
And also, “ That the Portuguese and Spaniards, set¬
tled on four of the Canary islands, would go to the
other island by night, and seize some ot the natives of
both sexes, whom they sent to be sold in Spain.”
After the settlement of America, those devastations,
and the captivating the miserable Africans, greatly in¬
creased.
Anderson, in his History of Trade and Commerce,
p. 336. speaking of what passed in the year 1308,
writes, “ That the Spaniards had by this time found
that the miserable Indian natives, whom they had
made to work in their mines and fields, were not so ro¬
bust and proper for those purposes as negroes brought
from Africa: wherefore they, about that time, began
to import negroes for that end into Hispaniola, from
the Portuguese settlements on the Guinea coasts j and
also afterwards for their sugar-works.”
It was about the year 1551, towards the latter end
of the reign of Edward VI. when some London mer¬
chants sent out the first English ship on a trading voy¬
age to the coast of Guinea. This was soon followed by
several others to the same parts $ but the English not
having then any plantations in the West Indies, and
consequently no occasion for negroes, such ships tra¬
ded only for gold, elephants teeth, and Guinea pepper.
This trade was carried on at the hazard ot losing their
ships and cargoes, if they had fallen into the hands of
the Portuguese, who claimed an exclusive right of
trade, on account of the several settlements they had
made there. In 1553, we find Captain Thomas Wind¬
ham trading along the coast with 140 men, in three
ships, and sailing as far as Benin, which lies about
3000 miles down the coast, to take in a load of pep¬
per. Next year John Eoke traded along the coast of
Guinea, as far as D’Elmina, when he brought away
considerable quantities of gold and ivory. He speaks
well of the natives, and says, “ That whoever will deal
with them must behave civilly, for they will not traffic
if ill used.” In 1555, William Towerson traded in a
peaceable manner with the natives, who made com¬
plaint to him of the Portuguese, who were then settled
in their castle at D’Elmina $ saying, “ Jhey were bad
men who made them slaves if they could take them,
putting irons on their legs.”
This bad example of the Portuguese was soon fol¬
lowed by some evil-disposed Englishmen : for the same
Captain Towerson relates *, “ That in the course of* Cell
his voyage, he perceived the natives near D’Elmina un-fcc»>’
willing to come to him, and that he was at last attack-P'5
ed by them j which he understood was done in revenge
for the wrong done them the year before by one Cap¬
tain Gains!), who had taken away the negro captain’s
son and three others, with their gold, &c. Tins
caused them to join the Portuguese, notwithstanding
their hatred of them, against the English.” The next
year Captain Towerson brought these men back again;
whereupon the negroes showed him much kindness.
Quickly after this, another instance of the same kind
occurred in the case of Captain George Fenner, who
being on the coast with three vessels, was also attacked
by the negroes, who wounded several of his people,
and violently carried three of his men to their town.
7 Tha
GUI [ 139 ] GUI
ea. The captain sent a messenger, ofFering any thing they
desired for the ransom of his men : bnt they refused to
deliver them ; letting him know, “ That three weeks
before, an English ship, which came into the road, had
carried off three of their people ; and that till they
were brought again, they would not restore his men,
even though they should give their three ships to re¬
lease them.” It was probably the evil conduct of
these and some other Englishmen which rvas the occa¬
sion of what is mentioned in Hill’s Naval History, viz.
“ That when Captain Hawkins returned from his first
voyage to Africa, Queen Elizabeth sent for him, when
she expressed her concern, lest any of the African ne¬
groes should be carried off without their free consent ;
which she declared would be detestable, and would call
down the vengeance of heaven upon the undertakers.”
Hawkins made great promises, which nevertheless he
did not perform ; for his next voyage to the coast ap¬
pears to have been principally calculated to procure
negro slaves, in order to sell them to the Spaniards in
the West Indies 5 which occasioned the same author to
use these remarkable words: “ Here began the horrid
practice of forcing the Africans into slavery ; an in¬
justice and barbarity which, so sure as there is ven¬
geance in heaven for the worst of crimes, will some
time be the destruction of all who act or who encou¬
rage it.” This Captain Hawkins, afterwards Sir John
Hawkins, seems to have been the first Englishman who
gave public countenance to this wicked traffic : for
Anderson, before mentioned, at p. 401. says, “ That
in the year 1562, Captain Hawkins, assisted by sub¬
scription of sundry gentlemen, now fitted out three
ships ; and having learnt that negroes were a very good
commodity in Hispaniola, he sailed to the coast of
Guinea, took in negroes, and sailed with them for
Hispaniola, where he sold them, and his English com¬
modities, and loaded his three vessels with hides, sugar,
ginger, See. with which he returned home anno 1563,
making a prosperous voyage.” As it proved a lucra¬
tive business, the trade was continued both by Haw¬
kins and others, as appears from the Naval Chronicle,
p. 55.: where it is said, “ That on the 18th of Octo¬
ber 1564, Captain John Hawkins, with two ships of
700 and 140 tons, sailed for Africa ; that on the 8th
of December they anchored to the south of Cape
Verd, where the captain manned the boat, and sent 80
men in armour into the country, to see if they could
take some negroes ; but the natives flying from them,
they returned to their ships, and proceeded farther
down the coast. Here they staid certain days, send¬
ing their meii. ashore, in order (as the author says) to
burn and spoil their towns and take the inhabitants.
The land they observed to be well cultivated, there
being plenty of grain and fruit of several sorts, and
the tawns prettily laid out. On the 25th, being in-
ffirmed by the Portuguese of a town of negroes called
Bytnba, where there was not only a quantity of gold,
but 140 inhabitants, they resolved to attack it, ha¬
ving the Portuguese for their guide j but by misma¬
nagement they took but ten negroes, having seven of
their own men killed and 27 wounded. They then
went farther down the coast; when having procured a
number ot negroes, they proceeded to the West In-
ies, w lere they sold them to the Spaniards.” And in
the same Naval Chronicle, at p. 76. it is said, “ That
in the year I5^7» Francis Drake, before performing Guinea..
his voyage round the world, went with Sir John Haw- v J
kins in his expedition to the coast of Guinea, where
taking in a cargo of slaves, they determined to steer
for the Caribbee islands.” How Queen Elizabeth suf¬
fered so grievous an infringement of the rights of man¬
kind to be perpetrated by her subjects, and how she
was persuaded, about the 30th year of her reign, to
grant patents for carrying on a trade from the north
part of the river Senegal to 100 leagues beyond Sierra
Leona, which gave rise to the African Company See Cowi-
is hard to account for, any otherwise than that it?;<wi/> vol.
arose from the misrepresentation made to her of thev*^’225»
situation of the negroes, and of the advantages it was'
pretended they would reap from being made acquaint¬
ed with the Christian religion. This was the case of
Louis XIII. of France : who, Labat, in his account of
the isles of America, tells us, “ was extremely uneasy
at a law by which the negroes of his colonies were to
be made slaves $ but it being strongly urged to him as
the readiest means of their conversion to Christianity,
he acquiesced therewith.” Nevertheless, some of the
Christian powers did not so easily give way in this mat¬
ter : for we find f, “ That Cardinal Cibo, one of the iCollection,
pope’s principal ministers of state, wrote a letter on v°h *'i.
behalf of the college of cardinals, or great council at^'
Home, to the missionaries in Congo, complaining that
the pernicious and abominable abuse of selling slaves
was yet continued ; requiring them to remedy the same
if possible *, but this the missionaries saw little hopes of
accomplishing, by reason that the trade of the country
lay wholly in slaves and ivory.”
It has been rw ged in justification of this trade, that
by purchasing the captives taken in battle, they save
the lives of so many human creatures, who otherwise
would be sacrificed to the implacable revenge of the
victors. But this pretence has been refuted by an ap¬
peal to reason and fact. For if the negroes appre¬
hended they should be cruelly put to death if they
yvere not sent away ; why, it is asked, do they mani¬
fest such reluctance and dread as they generally do, at
being brought from their native country ? Smith, in
his Account, p. 28. says, “ The Gambians abhor
slavery, and will attempt any thing, though ever so
desperate, to avoid it.” And Thomas Philips, in his
account of a voyage he performed to the coast of
Guinea, writes, “ They (the negroes) are so loth to
leave their own country, that they have often leaped
out of the canoe, boat, or ship, into the sea, and kept
under water till they were drowned, to avoid being
taken up.” But had the fact even been otherwise,
the above plea is urged with an extreme bad grace,
when it is notorious that the very wars said to be pro¬
ductive of such cruelty were fomented by the infamous
arts of the Europeans. From the foregoing accounts,
as well as other authentic publications of this kind, it
appears, that it was the unwarrantable lust of gain
which first stimulated the Portuguese, and afterwards
other Europeans, to engage in this horrid traffic. By
the most unquestionable relations of those early times,
the natives were an inoffensive people, who, when civil¬
ly used, traded amicably with the Europeans. It is
recorded of those of Benin, the largest kingdom in
Guinea, that they were a gentle, loving people ; and
Reynold says, “ They found more sincere proofs of
S 2 love
GUI [ 140 ] GUI
Guinea, love ami good will from tlie natives, tlian they ctuld
find from the Spaniards and Portuguese, even though
they had relieved them from the greatest misery.”
And from the same relations there is no reason to
think otherwise, but that they generally lived in peace
amongst themselves : there occurring no accounts of
any wars at that early period, nor of any sale of cap¬
tives taken in battle.
In fact, it was long after the Portuguese had made
a practice of violently forcing the natives of Africa
into slavery, that we read of the diQerent negro nations
making war upon each other, and selling their cap¬
tives. And probably this was not the case, till those
bordering on the coast, who had been used to supply
the vessels with necessaries, had become corrupted by
their intercourse with the Europeans, and were excited
by drunkenness and avarice to join them in carrying
on those wicked schemes, by which those unnatural
wars were perpetrated, the inhabitants kept in con¬
tinual alarms, the country laid waste, and, as Moore
expresses it, “ infinite numbers sold into slavery.” But
that the Europeans are the principal cause of these de¬
vastations, is particularly evidenced by one whose con¬
nection with the trade would rather induce him to
represent it in the fairest colours, viz. Captain Smith,
the person sent in the year 1726, by the African com¬
pany, to survey their settlements j who, from the in¬
formation he received of one of the factors who had re¬
sided ten years in that country, says, “ That the dis¬
cerning natives account it their greatest unhappiness,
* Smith, that they were ever visited by tbe Europeans*.—That
p. z66, we Christians introduced the traffic of slaves; and that
before our coming they lived in peace.”
In the accounts relating to the African trade, w'e
find this melancholy truth farther asserted by some of
the principal directors in the different factories: par-
f Cn/iection, ticularly A. Brue says f, “ That the Europeans were
far from desiring to act as peace-makers amongst the
p. 9S, negroes ; which would be acting contrary to their in¬
terest, since tbe greater the wars, the more slaves were
. procured.” And William Bosman also remarksJ, “ That
J'- ^ ' one of the former commanders gave large sums of
money to the negroes of one nation, to induce them
to attack some of the neighbouring nations; which oc¬
casioned a battle which was more bloody than the
wars of the negroes usually are.” This is confirmed
by J. Barbot, who says, “ That the country of D’El-
mina, which was formerly very powerful and populous,
was in his time so much drained of its Inhabitants by
the intestine wars fomented among tbe negroes by
tbe Dutch, that there did not remain inhabitants
enough to till the country.”
It has also been advanced as an argument in favour
of keeping the negroes in bondage, that there are slaves
in Guinea, and that those amongst us might be so in
their own country. Not to dwell upon the incon¬
sistency of our giving any countenance to slavery, be¬
cause the Africans, whom we esteem a barbarous and
savage people, allow of it, and perhaps the more from
our example ; the very circumstance stated, when in¬
quired into, must afford cause of blushing, rather than
serve as a palliation of such iniquitous conduct: for it
will appear, that the slavery endured in Guinea is by
no means so grievous as that in the colonies. Captain
Moore, speaking of the natives living on the river Gam¬
bia, says, “ That some of the negroes have many house r .
slaves, which are their greatest glory ; that those slaves - '
live so well and easy, that it is sometimes a hard mat¬
ter to know the slaves from their masters or mistresses.
And that though in some parts of Africa they sell
their slaves born in the family, yet on the river Gam¬
bia they think it a very wficked thing.” The author
adds, “ He never heard of but one that ever sold a
family slave, except for such crimes as they would
have been sold for if they had been free.” And in
Astley’s Collection, speaking of the customs of the
negroes in that large extent of country farther down
the coast, particularly denominated the Coast of Guinea,
it is said, “ They have not many slaves on the coast:
none but the king or nobles are permitted to buv or
sell any; so that they are allowed only what are ne¬
cessary for their families or tilling the ground.”'' The
same author adds, “ That they generally use their slaves
well, and seldom conect them.”
From the foregoing accounts of the natural disposi¬
tion of the negroes, and the fruitfulness of most parts
of Guinea, which are confirmed by authors of candour,
who have written from their own knowledge, it may
well be concluded, that the negroes acquaintance with
the Europeans might have been a happiness to them:
but these, forgetful of their duty as men and Chri¬
stians, have conducted themselves in so iniquitous a
manner, as must necessarily raise in the minds of the
thoughtful and well-disposed negroes the utmost scorn
and detestation of the very name of Christians. All
other considerations have given way to an insatiable
desire of gain, which has beefi the principal and mo¬
ving cause of the most detestable and barbarous scene
that was perhaps ever acted upon the face of the earth *,
instead of making use of that superior knowledge with
which the Almighty, the common Parent of mankind,
had favoured them, to strengthen the principle of
peace and good will in the breasts of the incautious
negroes, the Europeans have, by their bad example,
led them into excess of drunkenness, debauchery, and
avarice: whereby every passion of corrupt nature be¬
ing inflamed, they have been easily prevailed upon to
make war and captivate one another, as well to fur¬
nish means for the excesses they had been habituated
to, as to satisfy the greedy desire of gain in their pro¬
fligate employers; who to this intent have furnished
them with prodigious quantities of arms and ammuni¬
tion. I bus they have been hurried into confusion,
distress, and all the extremities of temporal misery ;
every thing, even the power of their kings, has been
made subservient to this wicked purpose ; for instead
of being protectors of their subjects, some of those ru¬
lers, corrupted by the excessive love of spirituous li¬
quors, and the tempting baits laid before them by the
factors, have invaded the liberties.of their unhappy sub¬
jects, and are become their oppressors.
Here it may be necessary to observe, that the ac¬
counts we have of the inhabitants of Guinea are
chiefly given by persons engaged in the trade, who,
from self-interested views, have described them in such
colours as were least likely to excite compassion and
respect, and endeavoured to reconcile so manifest a
violation of the rights of mankind to the minds of the
purchasers; yet they cannot but allow the negroes to
be possessed of some good qualities,, though they con.*
trive
GUI [ i
j&i >a trive as much as possible to cast a shade over them. A
Ju particular instance of this appears in Astley’s Collec¬
tion, vol. ii. p. 73. where the author, speaking of the
Mandingos settled at Galem, which is situated 900
miles np the Senegal, after saying that they carry on
a commerce to all the neighbouring kingdoms, and
amass riches, adds, “ That excepting the vices pecu¬
liar to the blacks, they are a good sort of people, ho¬
nest, hospitable, just to their word, laborious, industri¬
ous, and very ready to learn arts and sciences.” Here
it is difficult to imagine what vices can be peculiarly
attendant on a people so well disposed as the author de¬
scribes these to be. With respect to the charge some
authors have brought against them, as being void of all
natural affection, it is frequently contradicted by
others. In vol. ii. of the Collection, p. 275. and 629.
the negroes of North Guinea and the Gold Coast are
said to be fond of their children, whom they love with
tenderness. And Bosman says, p. 340. “ Not a few
in his country (viz. Holland) fondly imagine, that pa¬
rents here sell their children, men their wives, and one
brother the other: but those who think so, deceive
themselves 5 for this never happens on any other ac¬
count but that of necessity, or some great crime.”
The same is repeated by J. Barbot, p. 326. and also
confirmed by Sir Hans Sloane in the introduction to
his natural history of Jamaica ; where, speaking of the
negroes, he says, “ they are usually thought to be ha¬
ters of their own children ; and therefore it is believed
that they sell and dispose of them to strangers for mo¬
ney : but this is not true •, for the negroes of Guinea
being divided into several captainships, as well as the
Indians of America, have wars ; and besides those slain
in battle, many prisoners are taken, who are sold as
slaves, and brought thither : but the parents here, al¬
though their children are slaves for ever, yet have so
great love for them, that no masters dare sell or give
away one of their little ones unless they care not whe¬
ther their parents hang themselves or not.” J. Bar¬
bot, speaking of the occasion of the natives of Guinea
being represented as a treacherous people, ascribes it to
the Hollanders (and doubtless other Europeans) usurp¬
ing authority, and fomenting divisions between the ne¬
groes. At p. no. he says, “ It is well known that
many of the European nations, trading amongst these
people, have very unjustly and inhumanly, without any
provocation, stolen away, from time to time, abundance
of the people, not only on this coast, but almost every¬
where in Guinea, who have come on board their ships
in a harmless and confiding manner : these they have in
great numbers carried away, and sold in the plantations,
with other slaves which they had purchased.” And al¬
though some of the negroes may he justly charged with
indolence and supineness, yet many others are frequent¬
ly mentioned by authors as a careful, industrious, and
even laborious people.
By an inquiry into the laws and customs formerly in
use, and still in force among the negroes, particularly
on the Gold Coast, it will be found, that provision was
made for the general peace, and for the safety of indi¬
viduals j even in W. Bosman’s time, long after the
Europeans had established the slave-trade, the natives
were not publicly enslaved, any otherwise than in pu¬
nishment for crimes, when prisoners of war, or by a
M J GUI
violent exertion of the power of their corrupted kings. Guinea.
W here any of the natives were stolen in order to be v—->
sold to the Europeans, it was done secretly, or at least
only connived at by those in power j this appears from
Barbot and Bosman’s account of the matter, both a-
greeing that man-stealing was not allowed on the Gold
Coast. The first says, “ Kidnapping or stealing of
human creatures is punished there, and even sometimes
with death.” And Bosman, whose long residence on
the coast enabled him to speak with certainty, says,
“ That the laws were severe against murder, thievery,
and adultery $” and adds, “ That man-stealing was pu¬
nished on the Gold Coast with rigid severity, and some¬
times with death itself.” Hence it may be concluded,
that the sale of the greatest part of the negroes to the
Europeans is supported by violence, in defiance of the
laws, though the knavery of their principal men, who
(as is too often the case with those in European coun¬
tries), under pretence of encouraging trade, and in¬
creasing the public revenue, disregard the dictates of
justice, and trample upon those liberties which they are
appointed to preserve.
Moore also mentions man-stealing as being discounte¬
nanced by the negro governments on the river Gambia ;
and speaks of the enslaving the peaceable inhabitants,
as a violence which only happens under a corrupt admi¬
nistration of justice. He says, “ The kings of that
country generally advise with their head men, scarcely-
doing any thing of consequence without consulting
them first, except the king of Barsailay, who being
subject to hard drinking, is very absolute. It is to this
king’s insatiable thirst for brandy, that his subjects
freedoms and families are in so precarious a situation.
W henever this king wants goods or brandy, he sends a
messenger to the English governor at James Fort, to
desire he would send a sloop there with a cargo : this
news bcuig not at all unwelcome, the governor sends ac¬
cordingly 5 against the arrival of the sloop, the king
goes and ransacks some of his enemies towns, seizing
the people, and selling them for such commodities as
he is in want of, which commonly are brandy, guns,
powder, balls, pistols, and cutlasses, for his attendants
and soldiers 5 and coral and silver for bis wives and
concubines. In case he is not at war with any neigh¬
bouring king, he then falls upon one of his own towns,
which are numerous, and uses them in the same man¬
ner. He often goes with some of his troops by a town
in the day time, and returning in the night, sets fire to
three parts of it, and putting guards at the fourth,
there seizes the people as they run out from the fire j
he ties their arms behind them, and marches them ei¬
ther to Joar or Cohone, where he sells them to the Eu¬
ropeans.”
M. Brue, the French director, gives much the same
account, and says*, “That, having received goods, *
he wrote to the king, that if he had a sufficient num-vol. iL
ber of slaves, he was ready to trade with him. ThisP'96,
prince, as well as the other negro monarchs, has always
a sure way of supplying his deficiencies, by selling his
own subjects, for which they seldom want a pretence.
The king had recourse to this method, by seizing 300
of h is own people, and sent word to the director that
he had the slaves ready to deliver for the goods.” It
seems the king wanted double the quantity of goods
whick
gui [m
Guinea, which the factor would give him for these 300 slaves j
'w-v " "> but the factor refusing to trust him as be was already
in the company’s debt, and perceiving that this refusal
had put the king much out ol temper, he proposed
that he should give him a licence lor taking so many
more of bis people as the goods he still wanted were
worth: but this the king refused, saying, “ It might
occasion a disturbance among his subjects.” Except
in the above instance, and some others, where the
power of the negro kings is unlawfully exerted over
their subjects, the slave-trade is carried on in Guinea
with some regard to the laws of the country, which al¬
low of none to be sold but prisoners taken in their
national wars, or people adjudged to slavery in punish¬
ment for crimes •, but the largeness of the country, the
number of kingdoms or commonwealths, and the great
encouragement given by the Europeans, afford frequent
pretences and.opportunities to the bold designing profli¬
gates of one kingdom, to surprise and seize upon not
only those of a neighbouring government, but also the
weak and helpless of their own j and the unhappy peo¬
ple taken on those occasions, are, with impunity, sold
to the Europeans. These practices are doubtless disap¬
proved of by the most considerate amongst the negroes $
for Bosnian acquaints us, that even their rational wars
are not agreeable to such. He says, “ If the person
who occasioned the beginning of the war be taken, they
will not easily admit him to ransom, though his weight
of gold should be offered, for fear he should in future
form some new design against their repose.”
We shall conclude this article with the following ac¬
count of the shocking methods used in the carrying on
of the slave-trade, as described by factors of different
nations,
* AtUey, Mr Moore *, factor for the English African Com-
vol.ii p. sS. pany on the river Gambia, writes, “ That there are a
number of negro traders, called /o/zcoes, or merchants,
who follow the slave-trade as a business j their place of
residence is so high up the country as to be six weeks
travel from James Fort, which is situated at the mouth
of that river. These merchants bring down elephants
teeth, and in some years 2000 slaves, most of which,
they say, are prisoners taken in war. They buy them
from the different princes who take them ; many of
them are Bumbrongs and Petcharies ; nations who
each of them have different languages, and are brought
from a vast way inland. Their way of bringing them
is tying them by the neck with leather thongs, at about
a yard distant from each other, 30 or 40 in a string,
having generally a bundle of corn or elephants teeth
upon each of their heads. In their way from the
mountains, they travel through very great woods,
where they cannot for some days get water $ so they
carry in skin bags enough to support them for a time.
I cannot (adds Moore) be certain of the number of
merchants who follow this trade, but there may, per¬
haps, be about 100, who go up into the inland
country with the goods which they buy from the
white men, and with them purchase, in various coun¬
tries, gold, slaves, and elephants teeth. Besides the
slaves which the merchants bring down, there are many
bought along the river: These are either taken in war,
as the former are, or men condemned for crimes j ot'
else people stolen, which is very frequent.—Smcz the
2 ] GUI
slave-trade has been used, all punishments are changed Gab*
into slavery ; there being an advantage on such con-
demnation, they strain for crimes very hard, in order
to get the benefit of selling the criminal.’1''
John Barbot, the French factor, in bis account of
the manner by which the slaves are procured, says,
“ The slaves sold by the negroes are for the most part
prisoners of war, or taken in the incursions they make
into their enemies territories j others are stolen away by
their neighbours, when found abroad on the road, or
in the woods’, or else in the corn-fields, at the time of
the year when their parents keep them there all the day
to scare away the devouring small birds.” Speaking
of the transactions on that part of Guinea called the
Slave Coast, where the Europeans have the most facto¬
ries, and from whence they bring away much the
greatest number of slaves, the same author says, “The
inhabitants of Goto do much mischief in stealing those
slaves they sell to the Europeans from the upland
country.———That the inhabitants of Popo excel the
former $ being endowed with a much larger share of
courage, they rob more successfully, by which means
they increase their riches and trade.” The author par¬
ticularly remarks, “ That they are encouraged in this
practice by the Europeans: sometimes it happens, ac¬
cording to the success of their inland excursions, that
they are able to furnish 200 slaves or more in a few
days.” And he says, “ The blacks of Fida, or Whi-
dah, are so expeditious in trading for slaves, that they
can deliver 1000 every month.”—“ If there happens
to be no stock of slaves there, the factor must trust the
blacks with his goods, to the value of 150I. or 200I.
which goods they carry up into the inland country to
buy slaves, at all markets for above 600 miles up the
country, where they are kept like cattle in Europe j
the slaves sold there being generally prisoners of war,
taken from their enemies like other booty, and perhaps
some few sold by their own countrymen, in extreme
want, or upon a famine, as also some as a punishment
of heinous crimes.” So far Barbot’s account. That
given by Bosman is as follows : “ When the slaves
which are brought from the inland countries come to
Whidah, they are put in prison together } when we
treat concerning buying them, they are all brought out
together in a large plain, where, by our surgeons, they
are thoroughly examined, and that naked, both men
and women, without the least distinction or modesty.
Those which are approved as good, are set ononesidej
in the meanwhile a burning iron, with the arms or
name of the company, lies in the fire, with which ours
are marked on the breast. When we have agreed with
the owners of the slaves, they are returned to their
prisons j where, from that time forward, they are kept
at our charge, and cost us twopence a-day each slave,
which serves to subsist them like criminals on bread and
water; so that to save charges, we send them on board
our ships the very first opportunity j before which,
their masters strip them of all they have on their backs,
so that they come on board stark naked, as well wo¬
men as men. In which condition they are obliged to
continue, if the master of the ship is not so charitable
(which he commonly is) as to bestow something on
them to cover their nakedness. Six or seven hundred
are sometimes put on board a vessel, where they lie as
close
GUI [ 143 ] GUI
a. close together as it is possible for them to be crowd-
—ed (a).”
When the great income which arises to the negro
kings on the Slave Coast, from the slaves brought
through their several governments to be shipped on
board the European vessels, is considered, we have no
cause to wonder that they give so great a countenance
to that trade. Bosman says, “ That each ship which
comes to Whidab to trade, reckoning one with another,
either by toll, trade, or custom, pays about 400I. and
sometimes 50 ships come hither in a year.” Barbot
confirms the same, and adds, “ That in the neighbour¬
ing kingdom of Ardah the duty to the king is the va¬
lue of 70 or 80 slaves for each trading shipwhich is
near half as much more as at Whidah. Nor can the
Europeans concerned in the trade, with any degree of
propriety, blame the African kings for countenancing
it, while they continue to send vessels on purpose to
take in the slaves which are thus stolen, and that they
are permitted, under the sanction of national laws, to
sell them to the colonies.
The slave-trade, indeed, was long considered as
disgraceful to an enlightened age •, and in this country
a spirit arose which seemed bent on annihilating it al¬
together, or so changing the nature of it as to blend
humanity with policy. During the session 1788, the
philanthropy of parliament, supported by that of the
nation, paid a very particular attention to this odious
branch of traffic. It was, however, a subject of too
comprehensive a nature, and too materially connected
with our African commerce at large and our West In¬
dian colonies, to come to an immediate decision upon
it. Parliament, therefore, was obliged to content it¬
self for that time with a temporary bill to regulate the
shipping and carrying slaves in British vessels from
those coasts. The public attention was afterwards
kept awake by a great variety of publications on both
sides of the question j and the final arrangement of this
important business, in which the honour of the British
commerce and the British character, as well as the hap¬
piness of millions of our sable African brethren, is in¬
volved, was expected to take place during the session
1791. This humane measure was then unsuccessful ;
but having been repeatedly brought forward and dis¬
cussed, the final abolition was agreed to by the legisla¬
ture in the year 1806.
After the abolition was carried in parliament (in
1807), a number of gentlemen who had been most ac¬
tive in promoting that measure, formed themselves into
a society under the name of the African Institution.
Their intention was to follow up the abolition by plans
for diffusing civilization among the inhabitants of
Western Africa. In the prosecution of this object,
warned by the fate of the Sierra Leon Company, they
kept clear of all commercial enterprises. They sent
agents, however, to Sierra Leon to supply them with
information. They have encouraged individuals to
study the Arabic and other languages spoken in Guinea,
as a means of spreading more accurate ideas here re¬
garding the inhabitants, and the productions of the Guinea,
country. They have sent out African youths, previous-
ly trained in Britain, to instruct their countrymen in
the more simple and useful branches of elementary
knowledge, and in some of the common arts. They
have also sent out cotton seed and other useful plants,
with instructions as to the mode of culture $ and what
was of no less importance, they were sedulously active
in detecting all violations of the acts for the abolition
of the slave trade, which they justly considered as
the greatest obstruction to the civilization of Western
Africa. It appears, that under their auspices some
progress has been made in introducing peaceful habits
and useful arts at Sierra Leon, and in some part of
the neighbouring country ; but the continuance of the
slave trade, by Spain and Portugal, has presented a for¬
midable obstacle to their benevolent attempts j and at
present we believe the supporters of the institution are
less sanguine in their hopes than they were at the com¬
mencement. See Africa, Supplement.
Netu Guinea, or Papua, a long and narrow island
of the East Indies, which is yet but imperfectly known.
It was supposed to be connected with New Holland,
until Captain Cook discovered the strait which separates
them. New Guinea, including Papua, its north-west¬
ern part (which according to Bougainville’s conjecture
is separated from it by a strait), reaches from the equa¬
tor to the J2th degree of south latitude, and from 131
to 150 degrees east longitude j in one part it does not
appear to be above 50 miles broad. It was first visited
by an European ship in 1529. Saavedra, a Portuguese,
who made the discovery of the north-west part of this
country, called it Terra de Papuas, or Papts. Van
Schouten, a Dutch discoverer, afterwards gave the
name of New Guinea to its south-western part. Admi¬
ral Ifoggewain also touched here} and before him Dam-
pier, 1st January 1700. Captain Cook made the coast
of New Guinea, in latitude 6 degrees 15 minutes, lon¬
gitude 138 east, on the 3d of September, and landed
in the pinnace, accompanied by Mr Banks, Dr Solan-
der, nine of the ship’s crew, and servants well armed,
and leaving two seamen to take care of the boat, ad¬
vanced some little way up the country} but coming to
the skirts of a thick wood, they judged it prudent to
proceed no farther, lest they should fall into an ambus¬
cade of the natives, and their retreat to the boat be cut
oft. Having advanced about a quarter of a mile from
the boat, three Indians rushed out of the wood with a
hideous shout j they threw their darts, and showed such
a hostile disposition, that the party, to prevent the de¬
struction of these people, returned to the boat, as they
had no intention forcibly to invade their country, either
to gratify their appetites or curiosity, and it was evident
nothing could be done upon friendly terms. When
they got on board the boat, they rowed along the shore,
and the number of Indians assembled seemed to be be¬
tween 60 and 100. They made much the same appear¬
ance as the New Hollanders, being stark naked, and
their hair cropped short. All the while they were
shouting
(a) Here it is
lated by law, for
necessary to observe, that the number of slaves to be taken on board British ships was regti-
sorae before the final abolition.
GUI . [ 144 ] G U L
shouting defiance, and throwing something out of their
hand which burnt exactly like gunpowder, but made
no report j what these fires were, or for what purpose
intended, could not be guessed at; those who discharged
them had in their hands a short piece of stick, possibly
a hollow caue, which they swung sidewise from them,
and immediately fire and smoke issued, exactly resem¬
bling the discharge of a musket, and of no longer dura¬
tion. This wonderful phenomenon was observed from the
ship ; and the deception was so great, that the people on
board thought they had fire-arms ; and even in the boat,
if they had not been so near as that they must have
heard the report, if there had been any, they should have
thought they had been firing volleys. After looking at
them attentively for some time, without taking any no¬
tice of their flashing and vociferation, the sailors fired
some muskets over their heads. Upon hearing the balls
rattle among the trees, they walked leisurely away, and
the boat returned to the ship. Upon examining some
weapons which the natives had thrown, they were found
to be light darts, about four feet long, very ill made, of
a reed or bamboo cane, and pointed with hard wood in
which there were many barbs. They were discharged
with great force, for at 60 yards distance they went
beyond the party ; but in what manner they were
thrown could not be exactly seen. But the general
opinion was, that they were thrown with a stick in thg
manner practised by the New Hollanders.
The land here is very low, as is every other part of
the coast; but it is covered with a luxuriance of wood
and herbage that can scarcely be conceived. Here the
cocoa-nut, plantain, and bread-fruit, flourish in the
highest perfection.
We are very little acquainted with the natural his¬
tory of this country ; but its zoology is worthy of atten¬
tion, from its striking and romantic nature. It seems
to be the peculiar residence of the beautiful and singu¬
lar birds of Paradise, of which Mr Pennant has enume¬
rated about 12 species. They are conjectured to breed
here, but are generally taken in the neighbouring
islands of Arroo, to which they retire during the wet
monsoon, in flocks of 30 or 40. Their >cry, during
their flight, has a strong resemblance to that of a star¬
ling; but when surprised with a strong gale, they croak
like ravens, and mount into the superior regions of the
air. Their food seems to be berries, or, as some think,
nutmegs and butterflies. They are shot with blunt ar¬
rows, or taken with viscus or bird-lime. Here likewise
are most elegant parrots and lories ; and the crowned
pigeon is said to be equal in size to a turkey.
Added to these are the islands of Waijoo and Sal-
watti, Arroo and Timorland, the first of which is of
considerable magnitude, containing about 100,coo inha¬
bitants ; the second is also populous, but they are more
ferocious than the people of Waijoo ; the production
of the third is chiefly sago, and the inhabitants sell
captives at Banda, which they seize on the main land.
Timorland is of considerable extent, but so very little
known to geographers, that no particular account can
be given of it.
Guinea, a gold coin, struck and current in Britain.
The value or rate of guineas has varied : it was first
struck on the footing of 20 s.; by the scarcity of gold was
afterwards advanced to 21s. 6<1. but it is now sunk to 2is.
The pound weight troy of gold is cut into 44 parts
5
and a half; each part makes a guinea. This coin took GuilJEj
its denomination guinea, because the gold, of which the j
first was struck, was brought from that part of Africa Gulden,
called Guinea ; for this reason it likewise bore the im-, ttaeii1'
pression of an elephant. ^
GuiNEA-Company. See Company, African,
GuiNEA-Hen. See Numida, Ornithology
G vine a -Pig, See Mus, Mammalia Index.
G vine a- Wheat. See Zea, Botany Index.
GUIPUSCOA, the north-east division of the pro¬
vince of Biscay in Spain, abounding with wood, fruit-
trees, and containing numerous forges for the manu¬
facture of iron.
GUISE, a small town of France, in the department
of Aisne, and in Tierache, with a very strong castle,
and the title of a duchy. It is seated on the river Oise,
in E. Long. 3. 42. N. Lat. 49. 54.
Guise, Henry, of Lorrain, duke of Guise, eldest son
of Francois of Lorrain duke of Guise, memorable in
the history of France as a gallant officer; but an impe¬
rious, turbulent, seditious subject, who placed himself
at the head of an armed force, and called his rebel
band The League. The plan was formed by the car¬
dinal, his younger brother ; and under the pretext
of defending the Roman Catholic religion, the king
Henry III. and the freedom of the state, against the
design of the Huguenots, or French Protestants, they
carried on a civil war, massacred the Huguenots, and
governed the king, who forbid his appearance at Pa¬
ris ; but Guise now became an open rebel, entered the
city against the king’s express order, and put to the
sword all who opposed him ; the streets being barrica¬
ded to prevent bis progress, this fatal day is called in
the French history, The day of the barricades. Masters
of Paris, the policy of the Guises failed them : for they
suffered the king to escape to Blois, though he was de¬
serted in his palace at Paris by his very guards. At
Blois, Henry convened an assembly of the states of
France ; the duke of Guise had the boldness to appear
to a summons sent him for that purpose : a forced re¬
conciliation took place between him and the king, by
the advice of this assembly; but it being accidentally
discovered, that Guise bad formed a design to dethrone
the king, that weak monarch, instead of resolutely
bringing him to justice, had him privately assassi¬
nated, December 23. 1558, in the 38th year of his
age. His brother the cardinal shared the same fate the
next day.
GUITTAR, Guitarra, a musical instrument of
the stringed kind, with five double rows of strings;
of which those that are brass are in the middle, except
it be for the burden, an octave lower than the fourth.
 This instrument was first used in Spain and by
the Italians. In the former country it is still greatly
in vogue. There are few of that nation who cannot
play on the guittar; and with this instrument they se¬
renade their mistresses at night. At Madrid, and other
cities in that country, it is common to meet in the
streets young men equipped with a guittar and a dark
lanthorn, who, taking their station under the windows,
sing, and accompany their voices with this instrument}
and there is scarce an artificer or day-labourer in any
of the cities or principal towns who does not entertain
himself with his guittar.
GULDENSTAEDT, John Anthony, physician
and
G U L
cii- and naturalist, was born at Riga, April 26. 1745 5 re*
It. ceived the rudiments of his education in that town ; and
' in 1763 was admitted into the medical college of Ber¬
lin. He completed his studies at Frankfort upon the
Oder, and in 1767 received the degree of M. D. in
that university. On account of his knowledge of fo¬
reign languages, and the considerable progress he had
made in natural history, he was considered as a fit
person to engage in the expeditions which were planned
bv the Imperial academy. Being invited to St Peters¬
burg, he arrived in that city in 1768, was created ad¬
junct of the academy, and afterwards, in 1770, mem¬
ber of that society, and professor of natural history.
In June 1768 he set out upon his travels, and was ab¬
sent seven years. From Moscow, where he continued
till March 1769, he passed to Voronetz, Tzaritzin,
Astracan, and Kislar, a fortress upon the western shore
of the Caspian, and close to the confines of Persia. In
1770 he examined the districts watered by the rivers
Terek, Sunsha, and Alksai, in the eastern extremity of
Caucasus j and in the course of the ensuing year pene¬
trated into Ossetia, in the highest part of the same
mountain ; where he collected vocabularies of the lan¬
guages spoken in those regions, made inquiries into the
history of the people, and discovered some traces of
Christianity among them. Having visited Cabarda and
the northern chain of the Caucasus, he proceeded to
Georgia, and was admitted to an audience of Prince He-
raclius, who was encamped about ten miles from Teflis.
Having passed the winter here, and in examining the
adjacent country, he followed in spring the prince to
the province of Kaketia, and explored the southern di¬
stricts inhabited by the Turcoman Tartars in the com¬
pany of a Georgian magnate, whom he had cured of a
dangerous disorder. In July he passed into Imeretia,
a country which lies between the Caspian and Black
seas, and is bounded on the east by Georgia, on the
north by Ossetia, on the west by Mingrelia, and on the
south by the Turkish dominions. He penetrated into
the middle chain of Mount Caucasus, visited the con¬
fines of Mingrelia, Middle Georgia, and Eastern and
Lower Imeretia 5 and, after escaping many imminent
dangers from the banditti of those parts, fortunately re¬
turned to Kislar on the 18th of November, where he
passed the winter, collecting various information con¬
cerning the neighbouring Tartar tribes of the Cauca¬
sus, and particularly the Lesgees. In the following
summer he journeyed to Cabarda Major, continued his
course to Mount Beshton, the highest point of the first
ridge of the Caucasus 5 inspected the mines of Madshar,
and went to Tcherkask upon the Don. From thence
he made expeditions to Azof and Taganrog, and then,
along the new limits to the Dnieper. He finished this
year’s route at Krementshuk, in the government of
New Russia. In the ensuing spring he was proceed¬
ing to Crim Tartary $ but receiving an order of recal,
he returned through the Ukraine to Moscow and St
Petersburg, where he arrived in the month of March
I775> Upon his return, he was employed in arranging
his papers ; but before he could finish them for the
press, was seized with a violent fever, which carried
him to the grave in March 1781. His writings which
have been hitherto published consist of a number of cu-
lious treatises, of which a list is given in Coxe’s Tra¬
vels, vol. i. p. 162.
Vol. X. Part I, +
GUM
GULA, in Anatomy, the oesophagus or gullet j that
conduit by which animals take down food into the sto¬
mach. See Anatomy, N° 92.
GULE of August, the day of St Peter ad vincula,
which is celebrated on the first of August. It is called
the gule of August, from the Latin gula, “ a throat,”
for this reason, that one Quirinus, a tribune, having
a daughter that had a disease in her throat, went to
Pope Alexander, the sixth from St Peter, and desired
of him to see the chains that St Peter was chained
with under Nero 5 which request being granted, and
she, kissing the chains, was cured of her disease ;
whereupon the Pope instituted this feast in honour of
St Peter ; and, as before, this day was termed only
the kalends of August, it was on this occasion called
indifferently either the day of St Peter ad vincula,
from what wrought the miracle ; or the gide of Au¬
gust, from that part of the virgin whereon it was
wrought.
GULES, in Heraldry, a corruption of the French
word geules, which in this science signifies “ red,” and
is represented in engraving by perpendicular lines. It
may serve of itself to denote martial prowess, boldness,
and hardiness : for the ancients used this colour to make
themselves terrible to their enemies, to stir up magna¬
nimity, and to prevent the seeing of blood, by the like¬
ness of the colours j for which reason perhaps it is used
by the English. But, according to G. Leigh, if this
tincture is compounded with
Or. "I f Desire.
Arg* J I Envy-
Azu. ! -5 J Ardour.
Ver. ['I0 j Strength.
Pur. J « I Justice.
Sab. J Weariness.
This colour is by the generality of the English heralds
ranked before azure •, but French heralds, N. Upton
and his followers, prefer azure to it.
GULF, a broad and capacious bay comprehended
between two promontories, and sometimes taking the
name of a sea when it is very extensive j but particu¬
larly when it only communicates with the sea by means
of a strait. Such are the Euxine or Black sea, other¬
wise called the Girif of Constantinople ; the Adriatic
sea, called also the Gulf of Venice; the gulf of Si¬
dra near Barbary j and the gulf of Lyons near France.
All these gulfs are in the Mediterranean. There are,
besides, the gulf of Mexico, the gulf of St Lawrence,
and the gulf of California, which are in North Ame¬
rica. There are also the gulf of Persia, otherwise
called the Tied sea, between Persia and Arabia j the
gulf of Bengal in India j and the gulfs of Cochin-
china and Kamtschatka, near the countries of the same
name.
The word comes from the French golfe, and that
from the Italian golfo, which signify the same. Some
deduce these further from the Greek ; which
Guishart again derives from the Hebrew 2N3 gob. Du
Cange derives them from the barbai'ous Latin gulfum,
ox gulf us, which signifies the same thing.
GULL. See Larus, Ornithology Index.
GULLET. See Gula, Anatomy, N° 92.
GUM {Gummi), is a concrete vegetable juice, of no
particular smell or taste, becoming viscous and tena-
T clous
[ 145 ]
GUM
[ H6 ]
G U' N
Gum
clous when moistened with water 5 totally dissolving in
water into a liquid, more or less glutinous in propor¬
tion to the quantity of the gum } not dissolving in vi¬
nous spirits or in oils j burning in the fire to a black,
coal, without melting or catching flame j suflering no
dissipation in the heat of boiling water.
The true gums are gum arabic, gum tragacanth, gum
senega), the gum of cherry and plum trees, and such
like. All else have more or less of resin in them.
Gum Arabic is the produce of a species of MlMOSA J
which see in Chemistry and Materia Medica In¬
dex.
Gum Senegal, is a gum resembling gum arabic,
which is brought from the country through which the
river Senegal runs, in loose or single drops: but these
are much larger than those of the gum arabic usually
are ; sometimes it is of the bigness of an egg, and
sometimes much larger : the surface is very rough or
wrinkled, and appears much less bright than the in¬
ner substance where the masses are broken. It has no
smell, and scarce any taste. It is probably produced
from a tree of the same kind with the former. The
virtues of it are the same with the gum arabic j but it
is rarely used in medicine, unless as mixed with the
gum arabic j the dyers and calico printers consume
the great quantities of it that are annually imported.
The negroes dissolve it in milk, and in that state make
it a principal ingredient in many of their dishes, and
often feed on it thus alone.
Gum Tragacanth, the gum of the tragacanth, a thorny
bush growing in Crete, Asia, and Greece. See A-
stragalus, Botany Index.
Other substances known by the name of gums are as
follows :
Gum Ammoniac* See Ammoniac.
Gum Elemi. See Amyris.
Gum Kino. See Kino.
GuMGvaiacum. SeeGuAlACUM.
Gum Lacca. See Coccus and
Lacca.
Gum, among gardeners, a kind of gangrene incident
to fruit trees of the stone kind, arising from a corrup¬
tion of the sap j which, by its viscidity, not being able
to make its way through the fibres of the tree, is, by
the protrusion of other juice, made to extravasate and
ooze out upon the bark.
When the distemper surrounds the branch, it admits
of no remedy 5 but when only on one part of a bough,
it should be taken off to the quick, and some cow-
dung clapped on the wound, covered over with a linen
cloth, and tied down. M. Quintinie directs to cut off
the morbid branch two or three inches below the part
affected.
j See Chemistry
^ and Materia
} Medica i«r/dvr.
GUMMA, a sort of venereal excrescence on the
periosteum of the bones.
GUMS, in Anatomy, the hard fleshy substance in
either jaw, through which the teeth spring from the
jaw-bone. See Anatomy, N° 105.
The gums are apt to become spongy, and to sepa¬
rate from the teeth j hut the cause is frequently a stony
kind of crust, which forms itself therein, which, when
separated, the gums soon return to their former state j
especially if rubbed with a mixture of the infusion of
roses four parts, and the tincture of myrrh one part.—
The scurvy is another disorder which affects the gums.
This disorder, when not manifest in any other part, Gums
sometimes appears in this : indeed, when a scorbutic Gun.
disorder invades the whole habit, its first symptom is a
putrid state of the gums.
GUN, in the military art, a fire arm, or weapon of
offence, which forcibly discharges a ball or other hard
and solid matter through a cylindrical tube, by means
of inflamed gun-powder. See Gun-Powdes.
The word gun now includes most of the species of
fire-arms j pistols and mortars being almost the only
ones excepted from this denomination. They are di¬
vided into great and small guns: the former including
all that we also call cannon, ordnance or artillery j
the latter includes musquets, carabines, musquetoons,
blunderbusses, fowling-pieces, &c.
It is not known at what time these weapons were
first invented. Though, comparatively speaking, the
introduction of guns into the western part of the world
is but of a modern date $ yet it is certain that in some
parts of Asia they have been used, though in a very
rude and imperfect manner for many ages.—Philo-
stratus speaks of a city near the river Hyphasis in the
Indies, which was said to be impregnable, and that its
inhabitants were relations of the gods, because they
threw thunder and lightning upon their enemies. Hence
some imagine that guns were used by the eastern na¬
tions even in the time of Alexander the Great : but
however this may be, many of our modern travellers
assert that they were used in China as far back as the
year of Christ 85, and have continued in use ever since.
The first hint of the invention of guns in Europe is
in the works of Roger Bacon, who flourished in the
13th century. In a treatise written by him about the
year 1280, he proposes to apply the violent explosive
force of gun-powder for the destruction of armies. In
1320, Bartholomew Schwartz, a German monk, is
commonly said to have invented gun-powder, though
it is certainly known that this composition is described
by Bacon in some of his treatises long before the time
of Schwartz. T he following is said to have been the
manner in which Schwartz invented gun-powder. Ha¬
ving pounded the materials for it in a mortar, which
he afterwards covered with a stone, a spark of fire ac¬
cidentally fell into the mortar and set the mixture on
fire •, upon which the explosion blew the stone to a con¬
siderable distance. Hence it is probable that Schwartz
might be taught the simplest method of applying it in
war j for Bacon seems rather to have conceived the
manner of using it to be by the violent effort of the
flame unconfined, and which is indeed capable ®f pro¬
ducing astonishing effects *. The figure and name of*SesGl
mortars given to a species of old artillery, and their^1^'
employment (which was throwing great stone bullets at
an elevation), very much corroborates this conjecture.
Soon after the time of Schwartz, we find guns
commonly made use of as instruments of war. Great
guns were first used. They were originally made of
iron bars soldered together, and fortified with strong
iron hoops; some of which are still to be seen, viz. one
in the Tower of London, two at Woolwich, and one
in the royal arsenal at Lisbon. Others were made of
thin sheets of iron rolled up together and hooped j and
on emergencies they were made of leather, with plates
of iron or copper. These pieces were made in a rude
and imperfect manner, like the first essays of many new
inventions.
GUN [ 147
Inventions. Stone balls were thrown out of them, and
a small quantity of powJer used on account of then*
weakness. These pieces had no ornaments, were placed
on their carriages by rings, and were of a cylindrical
form. When or by whom they were made is uncer¬
tain : the Venetians, however, used cannon at the siege
of Claudia Jessa, now called Chioggia, in 1366, which
were brought thither by two Germans, with some
powder and leaden balls ; as likewise in their wars with
the Genoese in 1379. King Edward III. made use of
cannon at the battle of Cressy in 1346, and at the siege
of Calais in 1347- Cannon were made use of by the
Turks at the siege of Constantinople, then in posses¬
sion of the Christians, in 1394, and in that of 1452,
that threw a weight of loolb. but they generally burst
either the first, second, or third shot. Louis XII. had
one cast at Tours, of the same size, which threw a
ball from the Bastile to Charenton. One of those fa¬
mous cannon was taken at the siege of Dieu in 1546,
by Don John de Castro ; and is in the castle of St Jui-
liao da Barra, 10 miles from Lisbon: its length is 20
feet 7 inches, diameter at the centre 6 feet 3 inches,
and it discharges a ball of loolb. It has neither dolphin^
rings, nor button 5 is of a curious kind of metal j and
has a large Indostan inscription upon it, which says it
was cast in 1400.
Formerly the cannon were dignified with uncommon
names; for in I503» -k01”8 XII. had 12 brass cannon
cast, of an extraordinary size, called after the names of
the 12 peers of I ranee. The Spanish and Portuguese
called them after their saints. The emperor Charles V.
when he marched before Tunis, founded the 12 apos¬
tles. At Milan there is a 70 pounder, called the Pi-
montelle; and one at Bois-le-duc, called the Devil. A
60 pounder at Dover-castle, called Queen Elizabeth''s
pocket-pistol. An 80 pounder in the Tower of London
(formerly in Edinburgh-castle), called Mounts-meg.
An 80 pounder in the royal arsenal at Berlin, called
the Thunderer. An 80 pounder at Malaga, called the
Terrible. Two curious 60 pounders in the arsenal at
Bremen, called the Messengers of bad news. And,
lastly, an uncommon 70 pounder in the castle of St
Angelo at Rome, made of the nails that fastened the
copper plates which covered the ancient Pantheon,
with this inscription upon it: Ex clavis trabalibus por¬
tions Agrippce.
In the beginning of the 15th century these uncom¬
mon names were generally abolished, and the following
more universal ones took place, viz.
]
Cannon royal, or
carthoun
Bastard cannon,
or % carthoun
4 Carthoun
M hole culver ins
Demi culverins
Falcon
{lowest sort
ordinary
largest size
Basilisk
Serpentine
Aspic
Pounders.
3=48
3 =36
=24
=18
= 9
= 6
= 5
= 6
= 8
=48
= 4
= 2
Cwt.
about 90
79
60
So
30
25
I3
*5
18
>8.5
8
7
G U
Pounders.
= 6
=60
N
Dragon
Syren
Falconet = 3,
Moyens, which carried a
Rabinet, which carried a ball of l6 ounces.
2, & 1 15
ball ot 10 or 12 ounces.
Cwt.
12
81
IC, 5
These curious names of beasts and birds of prey
were adopted on account of their swiftness in motion
or of their cruelty as the falconet, falcon, sacker,
and culverin, &c. for their swiftness in flying; the ba¬
silisk, serpentine, aspic, dragon, syren, &c. for their
cruelty.
At present cannon take their names from the weight
of the ball they discharge. Thus a piece that dis¬
charges a ball of 24 pounds is called a 24 pounder ; one
that carries a ball of 12 pounds is called a 12 poun¬
der; and so of the rest, divided into the following
sorts, viz.
Ship guns, consisting in 42, 36, 32, 24, 18, 12, 9,
6, and 3 pounders.
Garrison guns, in 42, 32, 24, 18, 12, 9, and 6
pounders,
Battering guns, in 24, 18, and 12 pounders.
m
12, 9, 6, 3, 2, i-g-, i, and
Field-pieces,
pounders.
Mortars are thought to have been fully as ancient
as cannon. They were employed in the wars of Ita¬
ly, to throw balls of red-hot iron, stones, &c. long
before the invention of shells. These last are thought
to be of German invention, and the use of them in war
to have been taught by the following accident. A citi¬
zen of Venlo, at a certain festival celebrated in honour
of the duke of Cleves, threw a number of shells, one
of which fell on a house and set fire to it, by which
misfortune the greatest part of the town was reduced
to ashes. The first account of shells used for military
purposes is in 1435, when Naples was besieged by
Charles VIII. History informs us with more certain¬
ty, that shells were thrown out of mortars at the siege
of Wachtendonk in Guelderland, in 1588, by the earl
of Mansfeld. Mr Malter, an English engineer, first
taught the French the art of throwing shells, which
they practised at the siege of Motte in 1634. The
method of throwing red-hot balls out of mortars was
first certainly put in practice at the siege of Stralsund
in 1675 by the elector of Brandenburgh ; though some
say in 1653 at f*16 siege of Bremen. For the proper
dimensions of guns, their weight, the metal of which
they are formed, &c. see the article Gunnery.
Muskets were first used at the siege of Rhege in the
year 1521. The Spaniards were the first who armed
part of their foot with these weapons. At first they
were very heavy, and could not be used without a rest.
They had match-locks, and did execution at a great
distance. On their march the soldiers carried only
the rests and ammunition, and had boys to bear their
muskets after them. They were very slow in loading,
not only by reason of the unwieldiness of their pieces,
and because they carried the powder and ball separate,
but from the time it took to prepare and adjust the
match; so that their fire was not near so brisk as
ours is now. Afterwards a lighter matchlock-musket
came in use; and they carried their ammunition in
bandeliers, to which were hung several little cases of
T 2 wood
GUN [i
Can wood covered with leather, each containing a charge
|| of powder. The balls were carried loose in a pouch,
Gunner. and a priming-horn hanging by their side. The mus-
kets with rests were used as late as the beginning of
the civil wars in the time of Charles I. T-he lighter
kind succeeded them, and continued till the beginning
of the present century, when they also were disused,
and the troops throughout Europe armed with fire¬
locks.
GUNDELIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
syngenesia class j and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 49th order, Compositce. See Botany
Index.
GUNELLUS. See Blennius, Ichthyology
Index.
GUNNER, an officer appointed for the service of
the cannon, or one skilled to fire the guns.
48 ] GUN
In the Tower of London, and other garrisons, as Gunnw,
well as in the field, this officer carries a field-staff, and Gunnera.
a large powder-horn in a string over his left shoulder:
he marches by the guns *, and when there is any appre¬
hension of danger, his field-staff is armed with match.
His business is to lay the gun to pass, and to help to
load and traverse her.
Master Gunner, a patent-officer of the ordnance,
who is appointed to teach all such as learn the art of
gunnery, and to certify to the master-general the abi¬
lity of any person recommended to be one of the king’s
gunners. To every scholar he administers an oath not
to serve, without leave, any other prince or state $ or
teach any one the art of gunnery but such as have ta¬
ken the said oath.
GUNNERA, a genus of plants belonging to the
gynandria class. See Botany Index.
GUNNERY,
TS the art of charging, directing, and exploding fire-
arms, as cannons, mortars, muskets, &c. to the best
advantage.—As this art depends greatly on having the
guns and shot of a proper size and figure, and well
adapted to each other, it hence follows that the proper
dimensions, &c. of cannon and small arms come pro¬
perly to be considered under the present article.
Sect. I. History of Gunnery.
History. The ancients, who knew not the use of gunpowder
and fire-arms, had notwithstanding machines which
were capable of discharging stones, darts, and arrows,
with great force. These were actuated chiefly by the
elastic force of ropes, or of strong springs, and re¬
quired a great number of men to work them j for
which reason, the explosion of gunpowder, as acting
instantaneously, and seemingly with irresistible force,
seemed to be a most proper succedaneum for all the
powers by which the military engines in former times
were actuated. It soon appeared, however, that this
force was not very easily applied. Though the expe¬
riment of Bartholomew Schwartz, mentioned under the
article Gun, had given a good hint towards this ap¬
plication in a successful manner, yet the violent re¬
action of the inflamed powder on the containing vessels
rendered them very apt to burst, to the great danger
of those who stood near them. The gunpowder in
those days, therefore, was much weaker than it is now
made ; though this proved a very insufficient remedy for
the inconvenience above mentioned. It was also soon
discovered, that iron bullets of much less weight than
stone ones would be more efficacious if impelled by
greater quantities of stronger powder. This occasioned
an alteration in the matter and form of the cannon,
which were now cast of brass. These were lighter and
more manageable than the former, at the same time
that they were stronger in proportion to their bore.
Thus they were capable of enduring greater charges
of a better powder than what had been formerly used j
and their iron bullets (which were from 40 to 60
pounds weight) being impelled with greater velocities,
were more effectual than the heaviest stones could ever
prove. This change took place about the latter end of
the 15th century.
By this means powder compounded in the manner
now practised over all Europe came first in use. But
the change of the proportion of materials was not the
only improvement it received. The method of grain¬
ing it is undoubtedly a considerable advantage. At
first the powder was always in the form of fine meal,
such as it was reduced to by grinding the materials
together. It is doubtful whether the first graining
of powder was intended to increase its strength, or
only to render it more convenient for filling into small
charges and the charging of small arms, to which
alone it was applied for many years, whilst meal-powder
was still made use of for cannon. But at last the ad¬
ditional strength which the grained powder was found
to acquire from the free passage of the air between the
grains, occasioned the meal-powder to be entirely laid
aside.
For the last two hundred years, the formation of
cannon hath been very little improved $ the best pieces
of modern artillery differing little in their proportions
from those used in the time of Charles V. Indeed
lighter and shorter pieces have been often proposed
and essayed $ but though they have their advantages
in particular cases, yet it seems now to be agreed
that they are altogetherdnsufficient for general service.
But though the proportions of the pieces have not
been much varied within that period, yet their use and
application have undergone considerable alterations 5
the same ends being now accomplished by smaller
pieces than what were formerly thought necessary.
Thus the battering cannon now universally approved
of are those formerly called demi-cannons, carrying a
ball of 24 pounds weight •, it being found by experi¬
ence, that their stroke, though less violent than that
of larger pieces, is yet sufficiently adapted to the
strength of the usual profiles of fortification ; and that
the facility of their carriage and management, and the
ammunition they spare, give them great advantages
beyond the whole cannons formerly employed in fna-
^ec
!rhe
II. GUNN
y. king breaches. The method also of making a breach,
—'by first cutting oft’ the whole wall as low as possible
before its upper part is attempted to be beat down,
seems also to be a considerable modern improvement
in the practical part of gunnery. But the most con¬
siderable improvement in the practice is the method
of firing with small quantities of powder, and eleva¬
ting the piece so that the bullet may just go clear of
the parapet of the enemy, and drop into their works.
By this means the bullet, coming to the ground at a
small angle, and with a small velocity, does not bury
itself, but bounds or rolls along in the direction in
which it was fired : and therefore, if the piece be pla¬
ced in a line with the battery it is intended to silence,
or the front it is to sweep, each shot rakes the whole
length of that battery or front $ and has thereby a
much greater chance of disabling the defendants, and
dismounting their cannon, than it would have if fired
in the common manner. This method was invented
by Vauban, and was by him styled Battej'ie a Ricochet.
It was first put in practice in the year 1692 at the siege
of Aeth.—Something similar to this was put in practice
by the king of Prussia at the battle of Rosbach in 1757*
He had several six-inch mortars, made with trunnions
and mounted on travelling carriages, which fired ob¬
liquely on the enemy’s lines, and amongst their horse.
They were charged with eight ounces of powder, and
elevated at an angle of one degree fifteen minutes, and
did great execution ; for the shells rolling along the
line with burning fuses made the stoutest of the enemy
not wait for their bursting.
E R Y.
eor
'mi
:yW< by
■ta
Sect. II. Theory of Gunnery.
The use of fire-arms had been known for a long
time before any theory concerning them was attempted.
The first author who wrote professedly on the flight of
cannon-shot was Tartalea. In 1537 he published a
book, at Venice, entitled Nova Scientia; and after¬
wards another, entitled Qiussiti et Inventioni diver
printed at the same place in 1546, in which he treats
professedly on these motions. His discoveries were but
few, on account of the imperfect state of mechanical
knowledge at that time. However, he determined,
that the greatest range of cannon was with an elevation
of 45 degrees. He likewise determined, (contrary to
the opinion of practitioners), that no part of the track
described by a bullet was a right line ; although the
curvature was in some cases so little, that it was not
attended to. He compared it to the surface of the
sea ; which, though it appears to be a plane, is yet un¬
doubtedly incurvated round the centre of the earth.
He also assumes to himself the invention of the gun¬
ner’s quadrant, and often gave shrewd guesses at the
event of some untried methods. But as he had not
opportunities of being conversant in the practice, and
founded his opinions only on speculation, he was con¬
demned by most of the succeeding writers, though often
without any sufficient reason. The philosophers of
those times also intermeddled in the questions hence
arising •, and many disputes on motion were set on foot
(especially in Italy^) which continued till the time of
Galileo, and probably gave rise to his celebrated Dia-
ogues on motion, Ihese were published in the year
1638 > but ia this interval, and before Galileo’s doc¬
trine was thoroughly established, many theories of the
motion of military projectiles, and many tables of their
comparative ranges at different elevations, were pu¬
blished ; all of them egregiously fallacious, and utter¬
ly irreconcileable with the motions of these bodies.
Very few of the ancients indeed refrained from in¬
dulging themselves in speculations concerning the dif¬
ference betwixt natural, violent, and mixed motions *,
although scarce any two of them could agree in their
theories.
It is strange, however, that, during all these con-Experi-
tests, so few of those who were intrusted with theKle|Usl)y
charge of artillery thought it worth while to bringdlfiercnt
these theories to the test of experiment. Mr Robins ^^ange*
informs us, in his Preface to the New Principles of of artillery.
Gunnery, that he had met with no more than four
authors who had treated on this subject. The first
of these is Collado, who has given the ranges of a fal¬
conet carrying a three-pound shot to each point of the
gunner’s quadrant. But from his numbers it is ma¬
nifest, that the piece was not charged with its custo-.
mary allotment of gunpowder. The results of his
trials were, that the point-blank shot, or that in which
the path of the ball did not sensibly deviate from a
right line, extended 268 paces. At an elevation of
one point (or of the gunner’s quadrant) the range
was 594 paces 5 at an elevation of two points, 794
paces j at three points, 954 paces; at four, 1010 ;
at five, 1040; and at six, 1053 paces. At the se¬
venth point, the range fell between those of the third
and fourth ; at the eighth point, it fell between the
ranges of the second and third ; at the ninth point,
it fell between the ranges of the first and second ; at
the tenth point, it fell between the point-blank di¬
stance and that of the first point; and at the eleventh
point, it fell very near the piece.—The paces spokft
of by this author are not geometrical ones, but com¬
mon steps.
The year after Collado’s treatise, another appeared
on the same subject by one Bourne an Englishman.
His elevations were not regulated by the points of
the gunner’s quadrant, but by degrees : and he ascer¬
tains the proportions between the ranges at different
elevations and the extent of point-blank shot. Ac¬
cording to him, if the extent of the point-blank shot
be represented by I, the range at 50 elevation will be
2^, at 10° it will be 3^, at 150 it will be 4^, at
20° it will be 4^, and the greatest random will be.
Si- This last, he tells us, is in a calm day when the
piece is elevated to 420 ; but according to the strength
of the wind, and as it favours or opposes the flight
of the shot, it may be from 450 to 36°.—He hath not
informed us with what piece he made his trials;
though by his proportions it seems to have been a
small one. This however ought to have been attended
to, as the relation between the extent of different
ranges varies extremely according to the velocity and
density of the bullet.
After him Eldred and Anderson, both Englishmen,
published treatises on this subject. The first publish¬
ed his treatise in 1646, and has given the actual ranges
of different pieces of artillery at small elevations, all
under ten degrees. His principles were not rigorously
true, though not liable to very considerable errors ;
yet, in consequence of their deviation from the truth,
he
(
150
Theory, he found It impossible to make some of his experiments
> ■ — mj agree with his principles.
4 In 1638, Galileo printed his dialogues on motion.
Galileo s jn |.|iese pointed out the general laws observed by
nature in the production and composition of motion ;
and was the first who described the action and effects
of gravity on falling bodies. On these principles he
determined, that the flight of a cannon shot, or any
other projectile, would be in the curve of a parabola,
except in as far as it was diverted from that track by
the resistance of the air. He has also proposed the
means of examining the inequalities which arise from
thence, and of discovering what sensible effects that
resistance would produce in the motion of a bullet at
some given distance from the piece.
Though Galileo had thus shown, that, independent
of the resistance of the air, all projectiles would, in
their flight, describe the curve of a parabola; yet
those who came after him, seem never to have ima¬
gined that it was necessary to consider how far the
operations of gunnery were affected by this resistance.
The subsequent writers indeed boldly asserted, without
making the experiment, that no considerable variation
could arise from the resistance of the air in the flight
of shells or cannon shot. In this persuasion they sup¬
ported themselves chiefly by considering the extreme
rarity of the air, compared with those dense and pon¬
derous bodies : and at last it became an almost generally
established maxim, that the flight of these bodies was
nearly in the curve of a parabola.
Vew^theo- I^74> Anderson above mentioned published
ryby An- h's treatise on the nature and effects of the gun ; in
derson. which he proceeds on the principles of Galileo, and
strenuously asserts, that the flight of all bullets is in
the curve of a parabola ; undertaking to answer all
objections that could be brought to the contrary. The
same thing was also undertaken by Mr Blondel, in a
treatise published at Paris in 1683 ; where, after long
discussion, the author concludes, that the variations
from the air’s resistance are so slight as scarce to merit
notice. The same subject is treated of in the Philoso¬
phical Transactions, N° 216. p. 68. by Dr Halley;
and he also, swayed by the very great disproportion be¬
tween the density of the air and that of iron or lead,
thinks it reasonable to believe, that the opposition of
the air to large metal-shot is scarcely discernible; al¬
though in small and light shot he owns that it must be
accounted for.
But though this hypothesis went on smoothly in
speculation ; yet Anderson, who made a great number
of trials, found it impossible to support it without some
new modification. For though it does not appear
that he ever examined the comparative ranges of either
cannon or musket shot when fired with their usual
velocities, yet his experiments on the ranges of shells
thrown with small velocities (in comparison of those
above mentioned), convinced him that their whole
track was not parabolical. But instead of making
the proper inferences from hence, and concluding the
resistance of the air to be of considerable efficacy, he
framed a new hypothesis ; which was, that the shell or
bullet, at its first discharge, flew to a certain distance
in a right line, from the end of which line only it be¬
gan to describe a parabola. And this right line,
which he calls the line of the impulse of the fire^ he
Sect, [,
supposes to be the same in all elevations. Thus, by Tj,e
assigning a proper length to this line of impulse, it was 4
always in his power to reconcile any two shots made
at different angles, let them differ as widely as we
please to suppose. But this he could not have done
with three shots ; nor indeed doth he ever tell us the *
event of his experiments when three ranges were tried j
at one time. 6 f,
When Sir Isaac Newton’s Principia was published,Lawi g
he particularly considered the resistance of the air to the ai j. d
projectiles which moved with small velocities ; but
he never had an opportunity of making experiments^1^
on those which move with such prodigious swiftness,
he did not imagine that a difference in velocity could
make such difl’erences in the resistance as are now found
to take place. Sir Isaac found, that, in small velocities,
the resistance was increased in the duplicate proportion
of the swiftness with which the body moved ; that is,
a body moving with twice the velocity of another of
equal magnitude, would meet with four times as much
resistance as the first, with thrice the velocity it would
meet with nine times the resistance, &c.—This prin- j^J
ciple itself is now found to be erroneous with regard toinraj]i ^
military projectiles; though, if it had been properlyprojet. |
attended to, the resistance of the air might even from
thence have been reckoned much more considerable
than was commonly done. So far, however, were
those who treated this subject scientifically, from giving
a proper allowance for the resistance of the atmosphere,
that their theories differed most egregiously from the
truth. Huygens alone seems to have attended to
this principle : for, in the year 1690, he published a
Treatise on Gravity, in which he gave an account of
some experiments tending to prove, that the track of
all projectiles moving with very swift motions was
widely different from that of a parabola. All the rest
of the learned acquiesced in the justness of Galileo’s
doctrine, and very erroneous calculations concerning
the ranges of cannon were accordingly given. Nor
was any notice taken of these errors till the year 1716. ;
At that time M. Bessons, a French officer of artillery,Alltl
distinguished by the number of sieges at which he hadikori
served, by his high military rank, and by his abilities'^1'
in his profession, gave in a memoir to the Royal Aca-^|
demy, of which he was a member, importing, that,
“ although it was agreed, that theory joined with
practice did constitute the perfection of every art; yet
experience had taught him, that theory was of very
little service in the use of mortars : That the works of
M. Blondel had justly enough described the several
parabolic lines, according to the different degrees of
the elevation of the piece ; but that practice had con¬
vinced him, there was no theory in the effect of gun¬
powder ; for having endeavoured, with the greatest pre¬
cision, to point a mortar agreeably to these calqulations,
he had never been able to establish any solid foundation
upon them.”
From the history of the academy, it doth not appear
that the sentiments of M. Bessons were at any time
controverted, or any reason offered for the failure of
the theory of projectiles when applied to use. No¬
thing fai'ther, however, was done till the time of Ben¬
jamin Robins, who in 1742 published a treatise, en*Mr1^
titled, New Principles of Gunnery, in which he hathfi”1 ^
treated particularly not only of the resistance of tfie^*
atmosphere,
GUNNERY.
II. GUNNERY.
.oryi atmosphere, but almost every thing else relating to the
- flight of military projectiles, and indeed advanced the
theory of gunnery much nearer perfection than ever it
0 was before.
iethod The first thing considered by Mr Robins, and which
ermi- is indeed the foundation of all other particulars rela-
^ie tive to gunnery, is the explosive force of gunpowder.
This he determined to be owing to an elastic fluid-
similar to our atmosphere, having its elastic force great¬
ly increased by the heat. “ If a red-hot iron (says he)
be included in a receiver, and the receiver be exhaust¬
ed, and gunpowder be then let fall on the iron, the
powder will take fire, and the mercurial gage will sud¬
denly descend upon the explosion 5 and though it im¬
mediately ascends again, it will never rise to the height
it first stood at, but will continue depressed by a space
proportioned to the quantity of powder which was let
fall on the iron. The same production likewise takes
place when gunpowder is fired in the air : for if a small
quantity of powder is placed in the upper part of a
glass tube, the lower part of which is immersed in wa¬
ter, and the fluid be made to rise so near the top, that
only a small portion of air is left in that part where
the gunpowder is placed j if in this situation the com¬
munication of the upper part of the tube with the ex¬
ternal air is closed, and the gunpowder fired, which
may be easily done by means of a burning-glass, the
water will in this experiment descend on the explosion,
as the quicksilver did in the last j and will always con¬
tinue depressed below the place at which it stood be¬
fore the explosion. The quantity of this depression
will be greater if the quantity of powder be increased,
or the diameter of the tube be diminished.
“ When any considerable quantity of gunpowder
is fired in an exhausted receiver, by being let fall on
a red-hot iron, the mercurial gage instantly descends
upon the explosion, and as suddenly ascends again.
After a few vibrations, none of which except the first
are of any great extent, it seemingly fixes at a point
lower than where it stood before the explosion. But
even when the gage has acquired this point of appa¬
rent rest, it still continues rising for a considerable
time, although by such imperceptible degrees, that it
can only be discovered by comparing its place at di¬
stant intervals: however, it will not always continue
to ascend •, but will rise slower and slower, till at last it
will be absolutely fixed at a point lower than where the
mercury stood before the explosion. The same cir¬
cumstances nearly happen, when powder is fired in the
upper part of an unexhausted tube, whose lower part
is immersed in water.
“That the elasticity or pressure of the fluid produ¬
ced by the firing of gunpowder is, cceteris paribus, di-
rectly as its density, may be proved from hence, that
if in the same receiver a double quantity of powder be
let fall, the mercury will subside twice as much as in
the firing of a single quantity. Also the descents of
the mercury, when equal quantities of powder are fired
in different receivers, are reciprocally as the capacities
ol those receivers, and consequently as the density of
produced fluid in each. But as, in the usual method of
rying this experiment, the quantities of powder are
so very small that it is difficult to ascertain these pro¬
per 10ns with the requisite degree of exactness, I took
a »rge receiver, containing about 520 inches, and let-
2
ting fall at once on the red-hot iron one dram, or the Theory
sixteenth part of an ounce avoirdupois of powder, the 1
receiver being first nearly exhausted $ the mercury, after
the explosion, was subsided two inches exactly, and all
the powder had taken fire. Then heating the iron a
second time, and exhausting the receiver as before, two
drams were let down at once, which sunk the mer¬
cury three inches and three quarters ; and a small part
of the powder had fallen beside the iron, which (the
bottom of the receiver being wet) did not fire, and the
quantity which thus escaped did appear to be nearly
sufficient, had it fallen on the iron, to have sunk the
mercury a quarter of an inch more j in which case the
two descents, viz. two inches and four inches, would
have been accurately in the proportion of the respec¬
tive quantities of powder; from which proportion, as
it was, they very little varied.
“ As different kinds of gunpowder produce diffe¬
rent quantities of this fluid, in proportion to their dif¬
ferent degrees of goodness, before any definite deter¬
mination of this kind can take place, it is necessary to
ascertain the particular species of powder that is pro¬
posed to be used. (Here Mr Robins determines in
all his experiments to make use of government-powder,
as consisting of a certain and invariable proportion of
materials, and therefore preferable to such kinds as are
made according to the fancy of private persons).
“ This being settled, we must farther premise these
two principles : I. That the elasticity of this fluid in¬
creases by heat and diminishes by cold, in the same
manner as that of the air : 2. That the density of
this fluid, and consequently its weight, is the same
with the weight of an equal bulk of air, having the
same elasticity and the same temperature. Now from
the last experiment it appears, that of an ounce
avoirdupois, or about 27 grains troy of powder, sunk
the gage, on its explosion, two inches j and the mercury
in the barometer standing at near 30 inches, -^Iths of
an ounce avoirdupois, or 410 grains troy, would have
filled the receiver with a fluid whose elasticity would
have been equal to the whole pressure of the atmo¬
sphere, or the same with the elasticity of the air we
breathe j and the contents of the receiver being about
520 cubic inches, it follows, that T^ths of an ounce of
powder will produce 520 cubic inches of a fluid posses¬
sing the same degree of elasticity with the common air}
whence an ounce of powder will produce near 575 cu¬
bic inches of snch a fluid.
“ But in order to ascertain the density of this fluid,
we must consider what part of its elasticity, at the time
of this determination, was owing to the heat it recei¬
ved frem the included hot iron and the warm receiver.
Now the general heat of the receiver being manifestly
less than that of boiling w’ater, which is known to in¬
crease the elasticity of the air to somewhat more than
^ of its augmented quantity } I collect from hence and
other circumstances, that the augmentation of elastici¬
ty from this cause was about f of the whole : that is,
it the fluid arising from the explosion had been reduced
to the temperature of the external air, the descent of
the mercurial gage, instead of two inches, would have
been only ij. inch } whence 575, reduced in the propor¬
tion of five to four, becomes 460 } and this last number
represents the cubic inches of an elastic fluid equal in
density and elasticity with common air, which are produ¬
ced
152
Theory, eed from the explosion of I ounce avoirdupois of gun-
v-*—v"—1 '' powder *, the weight of which quantity of fluid, accord¬
ing to the usual estimation of the weight ot air, is 131
grains ; whence the weight of this fluid is or -j^ths
nearly of the weight of the generating powder. T-he
ratio of the bulk of gunpowder to the bulk of this fluid
may be determined from considering that 17 drams
avoii’dupois of powder fill two cubic inches, if the
powder be well shaken together : therefore, augmenting
the number last found in the proportion of 16 to 17,
the resulting term 488^ is the number of cubic inches
of an elastic fluid, equal in density with the air produced
from two cubic inches of powder : whence the ratio of
the respective bulk of the powder, and of the fluid pro¬
duced from it, is in round numbers as I to 244.”—
This calculation was afterwards justified by experi¬
ments.
“ If this fluid, instead of expanding when the pow¬
der was fired, had been confined in the same space which
the powder filled before the explosion j then it would
have had, in that confined state, a degree of elasticity
244 times greater than that of common air} and this
independent of the great augmentation which this elasti¬
city would receive from the action of the fire in that
instant.
“ Hence, then, we are certain, that any quantity of
powder, fired in a confined space, which it adequately
fills, exerts, at the instant of its explosion, against the
sides of the vessel containing it, and the bodies it im¬
pels before it, a force at least 244 times greater than
the elasticity of the common air, or which is the same
thing, than the pressure of the atmosphere } and this
without considering the great addition which this force
will receive from the violent degree of heat with which
it is affected at that time.
“ To determine how far the elasticity of air is aug¬
mented when heated to the extremest degree of red-
hot iron, I took a piece of a musket-barrel about six
inches in length, and ordered one end to be closed up
entirely ; but the other end was drawn out conically,
and finished in an aperture of about of an inch in
diameter. The tube thus fitted, was heated to the ex¬
tremity of a red heat in a smith’s forge} and was then
immersed with its aperture downwards in a bucket of
water, and kept there till it was cool ; after which it
was taken out carefully, and the water which had en¬
tered it in cooling was exactly weighed. The heat gi¬
ven to the tube at each time, was the beginning of
what workmen call a white heat ; and to prevent the
rushing in of the aqueous vapour at the immersion
which would otherwise drive out great part of the air,
asnd render the experiment fallacious, I had an iron wire
filed tapering, so as to fit the aperture of the tube, and
with this I always stopped it up before it was taken
from the fire, letting the wire remain in till the whole
was cool, when, removing it, the due quantity of wa¬
ter would enter. The weight of the water thus taken
in at three different trials, was 610 grains, 595 grains,
and 600 grains, respectively. The content of the whole
cavity of the tube was 796 grains of water } whence
the spaces remaining unfilled in these three experi¬
ments were 186, 20i, and 196 grains respectively.
These spaces undoubtedly contained all the air which,
when the tube was red hot, extended through its whole
concavity } consequently the elasticity of the air, when
Sect. I]
heated to the extreme heat of red-hot iron, was to the T||Cf|f
elasticity of the same air, when reduced to the tempe- —
rature of the ambient atmosphere, as the whole capacity
of the tube to the respective spaces taken up by the
cooled air: that is, as 796 to 186, 2CI, t96; or
taking the medium of these three trials, as 796 to
i94t«
“ As air and this fluid appear to be equally affected
by heat and cold, and consequently have their elastic!-
ties equally augmented by the addition of equal degrees
of heat to each } if we suppose the heat with which
the flame of fired powder is endowed to be the same
with that of the extreme heat of red-hot iron, then
the elasticity of the generated fluid will be greater at the
time of the explosion than afterwards, when it is re¬
duced to the temperature of the ambient air, in the
ratio of 796 to 194-f nearly. It being allowed then,
(which surely is very reasonable), that the flame of
gunpowder is not less hot than red-hot iron, and the
elasticity of the air, and consequently of the fluid
generated by the explosion, being augmented in the
extremity of this heat in the ratio of 194-7 79^'
it follows, that if 244 be augmented in this ratio, the
resulting number, which is 999^, will determine how
many times the elasticity of the flame of fired powder
exceeds the elasticity of common air, supposing it to
he confined in the same space which the powder filled
before it was fired. Hence then the absolute quanti¬
ty of the pressure exerted by gunpowder at the mo¬
ment of its explosion may be assigned } for, since the
fluid then generated has an elasticity of 9997-* or i'1
round numbers 1000 times greater than that of the
atmosphere, and since common air by its elasticity ex¬
erts a pressure on any given surface equal to the weight
of the incumbent atmosphere with which it is in equili-
brio, the pressure exerted by fired powder before it di¬
lated itself is 1000 times greater than the pressure of ,,
the atmosphere ; and consequently the quantity ofprodigion
this force, on a surface of an inch square, amounts topoweil)f
above six tons weight} which force, however, diminishes^ P0*
as the fluid dilates itself.
“ But though we have here supposed that the heat
of gunpowder, when fired in any considerable quanti¬
ty, is the same with iron heated to the extremity of
red heat, or to the beginning of a white heat, yet it
cannot be doubted but that the fire produced in the
explosion is somewhat varied (like all other fires) by
a greater or less quantity of fuel } and it may be
presumed, that, according to the quantity of powder
fired together, the flame may have all the different de¬
grees, from a languid red heat to that sufficient for
the vitrification of metals. But as the quantity of
powder requisite for the production of this last-men¬
tioned heat, is certainly greater than what is ever fired
together for any military purpose, we cannot be far from
our scope, if we suppose the heat of such quantities as
are usually fired to be nearly the same with that of red-
hot iron } allowing a gradual augmentation to this
heat in larger quantities, and diminishing it when the
quantities are very small. u
Plaving thus determined the force of the gunpow-MiRoljl"|
der, Mr Robins next proceeds to determine the veloei-
ty with which the ball is discharged. The solution of^'^e
this problem depends on the two following principles.
1. That the action of the powder on the bullet ceases of Wl>
as
gunnery.
ige ;• II. GUN
.fl ry. as soon a9 ^,e bullet is got out of the piece. 2. That
l>^ —»all the powder of the charge is fired and converted in¬
to elastic fluid before the bullet is sensibly moved from
its place.
“ The first of these (says Mr Robins) will appear
manifest when it is considered how suddenly the flame
will extend itself on every side, by its own elasticity,
when it is once got out ol the mouth of the piece 5 for
by this means its force will then be dissipated, and the
bullet no longer sensibly affected by it.
“ The second principle is indeed less obvious, be¬
ing contrary to the general opinion of almost all writers
^irta ane-on this subject. It might, however, be sufficient for
s |s •' '£ the proof of this position, to observe the prodigious
f pc ler. compress;on 0f the flame in the chamber of the piece.
Those who attend to this circumstance, and to the
easy passage of the flame through the intervals of the
grains, may soon satisfy themselves, that no one grain
contained in that chamber can continue for any time
uninflamed, when thus surrounded and pressed by such
an active fire. However, not to rely on mere specu¬
lation in a matter of so much consequence, I consi¬
dered, that if part only of the powder is fired, and
that successively j then by laying a greater weight be¬
fore the charge (suppose two or three bullets instead
of one), a greater quantity of powder would necessarily
be fired, since a heavier weight would be a longer time
in passing through the barrel. Whence it should fol¬
low, that two or three bullets would be impelled by a
much greater force than one only. But the contrary
to this appears by experiment j for, firing one, two,
and three bullets laid contiguous to each other with
the same charge respectively, I have found that their
velocities were not much different from the reciprocal
of their subduplicate quantities of matter j that is, if a
given charge would communicate to one bullet a ve¬
locity of lyoo feet in a second, the same charge would
communicate to two bullets a velocity from 1250 to
1300 feet in a second, and to three bullets a velocity
from 1050 to 1110 feet in the same time. From
hence it appears, that, whether a piece is loaded with
a greater or less weight of bullet, the action is nearly
the same ; since all mathematicians know, that if bo¬
dies, containing different quantities of matter, are suc¬
cessively impelled through the same space by the same
power acting with a determined force at each point of
that space ; then the velocities given to these differ¬
ent bodies will be reciprocally in the subduplicate
ratio of their quantities of matter. The excess of the
velocities of the two and three bullets above what
they ought to have been by this rule (which are
that of 1200 and 980 feet in a second), undoubtedly
arises from the flame, which, escaping by the side of
the first bullet, acts on the surface of the second and
third.
. Now, this excess has in many experiments been
imperceptible, and the velocities have been recipro¬
cally in the subduplicate ratios of the number of bul¬
lets, to sufficient exactness ; and where this error has
een greater, it has never arisen to an eighth part of
t e whole ; but if the common opinion was true, that
a small part only of the powder fires at first, and other
parts of it successively as the bullet passes through the
barrel, and that a considerable part of it is often blown
VOL X'PaVt-110Ut firlng ^ aU J thCn the Vd°city
t
N E n Y. J53
which three bullets received from the explosion ought Theory
to have been much greater than we have found it to 1 v--.'y
be.—But the truth of the second postulate more fully
appears from those experiments, by which it is shown,
that the velocities of bullets may be ascertained to the
same exactness when they are acted on through a bar¬
rel of four inches in length only, as when they are dis¬
charged from one of four feet.
“ With respect to the grains of powder which are why tome
often blown out unfired, and which are always urged powder is
as a proof of the gradual firing of the charge, I be-*,*own ont
lieve Diego Uffano, a person of great experience inof l,ie
the art of gunnery, has given the “true reason for this"1 taunoii
accident 5 which is, that some small part of the charge withoit be-
is often not rammed up with the rest, but is left in the big fired,
piece before the wad, and is by this means expelled by
the blast of air before the fire can reach it. I must
add, that in the charging of cannon and small arms,
especially after the first time, this is scarcely to be
avoided by any method I have yet seen practised. Per¬
haps, too, there may be some few grains in the best
powder, of such an heterogeneous composition as to be
less susceptible of firing j which, I think, I have my-
selt observed : and these, though they are surrounded
by the flame, may be driven out unfired.
“ These postulates being now allowed to be just, let Demon-
AB (fig. I.) represent the axis of any piece of artillery stration of
A the breech, and B the muzzle ; DC the diameter oflhe fo,'ce
its bore, and DEGCa part of its cavity filled with pow-of
der. Suppose the ball that is to be impelled to liefhebafl.011
with its hinder surface at the line GE j then the pres- Plate
sure exerted at the explosion on the circle of which CCXLiVIIl
GE is the diameter, or, which is the same thing, the
pressure exerted in the direction FB on the surface of
the ball, is easily known from the known dimensions of
that circle. Draw any line FH perpendicular to FB,
and AI parallel to IH : and through the point H,
to the asymptotes IA and AB, describe the hyperbola
KHNQ: then, if FH represents the force impelling
the ball at the point F, the force impelling the ball at
any other point as at M, will be represented by the
line MN, the ordinate to the hyperbola at that point.
For when the fluid impelling the body along has di¬
lated itself to M, its density will be then to its origi¬
nal density in the space DEGC reciprocally as the
spaces through which it is extended ; that is, as FA
to MA, or as MN to FH ; but it has been shown,
that the impelling force or elasticity of this fluid is di¬
rectly as its density : therefore, if FH represents the
force at the point F, MN will represent the like force
at the point M.
“ Since the absolute quantity of the force impelling
the ball at the point F is known, and the weight of the
ball is also known, the proportion between the force
with which the ball is impelle-d and its own gravity
is known. In this proportion take FH to FL, and
draw LP parallel to FB ; then, MN the ordi nate to
the hyperbola in any point will be to its part MR, cut
off by the line LP, as the impelling force of the pow¬
der in that point M to the gravity of the ball ; and
consequently the line LP will determine a line propor¬
tional to the uniform force of gravity in every point;
whilst the hyperbola HNQ determines in like manner
such ordinates as are proportional to the impelling
force of the powder in every point j whence by the
U 39th
154
Theory.
GUNN
39th Prop, of lib. I. of Sir Isaac Newton’s Principia,
the areas FLPB and FHQB are in the duplicate pro¬
portion of the velocities which the ball would acquire
when acted upon by its own gravity through the space
FB, and when impelled through the same space by the
force of the powder. But since the ratio ot AI to
AB and the ratio of FH to 1* L are known, the ratio
of the area FLPB to the area FHQB is known •, and
thence its subduplicate. And since the line FB is gi¬
ven in magnitude, the velocity which a heavy body
would acquire when impelled through this line by its
own gravity is known ; being no other than the velo¬
city it would acquire by falling through a space equal
to "that line : find then another velocity to which this
last mentioned velocity bears the given ratio of the sub¬
duplicate of the area FLPB to the area FHQB j and
this velocity thus found is the velocity the ball will ac¬
quire when impelled through the space FB by the ac¬
tion of the inflamed powder.
“ Now to give an example of this : Let us suppose
AB, the length of the cylinder, to be 45 inches, its
diameter DC, or rather the diameter of the ball, to be
|ths of an inch ; and AF, the extent of the powder,
to be 2g-th inches 5 to determine the velocity which
will be communicated to a leaden bullet by. the explo¬
sion, supposing the bullet to be laid at first with its
surface contiguous to the powder.
“ By the theory we have laid down, it appears,
that at the first instant of the explosion the flame will
exert, on the bullet lying close to it, a force 1000
times greater than the pressure of the atmosphere. The
medium pressure of the atmosphere is reckoned equal
to a column of water 33 feet in height whence, lead
being to water as 11,345 to 1, this pressure will be
equal to that of a column of lead 34,9 inches in height.
Multiplying this by 1000, therefore, a column of lead
34,900 inches (upwards of half a mile) in height,
would produce a pressure on the bullet equal to what
is exerted by the powder in the first instant of the ex¬
plosion 5 and the leaden ball being -^ths of an inch in
diameter, and consequently equal to a cylinder of lead
of the same base half an inch in height, the pressure at
first acting on it will be equal to 34900x2, or 69800
times its weight: whence FL to iH is as 1 to 69800 5
and FB to FA as 45—2^, or 42! to 2|, that is, as
339 to 21 ; whence the rectangle FLPB is to the rect¬
angle AFHS as 339 to 21x69800, that is, as I to
4324.—And from the known application of the loga¬
rithms to the mensuration of the hyperbolic spaces, it
follows that the rectangle AFHS is to the area FHQB
AB
as 43,429, &c. is to the tabular logarithm of —^ j that
is, of ’aV5 which is 1,2340579 ; whence the ratio of
the rectangle FLPB to the hyperbolic area FHQB is
compounded of the ratios of I to 4324— and of
,43429, &c. to 1,23405795 which together make up
the ratio of 1 to 12263, ^ie subduplicate of which is
the ratio of 1 to 110,75 and in this ratio is the velo¬
city which the bullet would acquire by gravity in fall¬
ing through a space equal to FB, to the velocity the
bullet will acquire from the action of the powder im¬
pelling it through FB. But the space FB being 421-
inches, the velocity a heavy body will acquire in fall¬
ing through such a space is known to be what would
E B Y. Sect. II
carry it nearly at the rate of I5'°7 *n a second ; x),ecr?
whence the velocity to which this has the ratio of 1 to u
110,7 is a velocity which would carry the ball at the
rate of 1668 feet in one second. And this is the ve¬
locity which, according to the theory, the bullet in the
present circumstances would acquire from the action of
the powder during the time of its dilatation.
“ Now this velocity being once computed for one
case, is easily applied to any other ; for if the cavity
DEGC left behind the bullet be only in part filled
with powder, then the line FIF, and consequently the
area FHQB will be diminished in the proportion of
the whole cavity to the part filled. If the diameter of
the bore be varied, the lengths AB and AF remaining
the same, then the quantity of powder and the surface
of the bullet which it acts on, will be varied in the
duplicate proportion of the diameter, but the weight
of the bullet will vary in the triplicate proportion of
the diameter 5 wherefore the line FH, which is directly
as the absolute impelling force of the powder, and re¬
ciprocally as the gravity of the bullet, will change in
the reciprocal proportion of the diameter of the bul¬
let. If AF, the height of the cavity left behind the
bullet, be increased or diminished, the rectangle of the
hyperbola, and consequently the area corresponding to
ordinates in any given ratio, will be increased or dimi¬
nished in the same proportion. From all wdiich it
follows, that the area FHQB, which is in the dupli¬
cate proportion of the velocity of the impelled body,
AB
will be directly as the logarithm —j-, (where AB re¬
presents the length of the barrel, and AF the length
of the cavity left behind the bullet) ; also directly as
the part of that cavity filled with powder 5 and in¬
versely, as the diameter of the bore, or rather of the
bullet, likewise directly as AF, the height of the cavity
left behind the bullet. Consequently the velocity be¬
ing computed as above, for a bullet of a determined
diameter, placed in a piece of a given length, and im¬
pelled by a given quantity of powder, occupying a gi¬
ven cavity behind that bullet^ it follows, that by means
of these ratios, the velocity of any other bullet may
be thence deduced 5 the necessary circumstances of its
position, quantity of powder, &c. being given. Where
note, That in the instance of this supposition, we have
supposed the diameter of the ball to be -^ths of an inch;
whence the diameter of the bore will be something
more, and the quantity of powder contained in the
space DEGC will amount exactly to 12 pennyweights,
a small wad of tow included.
“ In order to compare the velocities communicated
to bullets by the explosion, with the velocities result¬
ing from the theory by computation, it is necessary
that the actual velocities with which bullets move
should be discovered. The only methods hitherto prac¬
tised for this purpose, have been either by observing
the time of the flight of a shot through a given space,
or by measuring the range of a shot at a given eleva¬
tion 5 and thence computing, on the parabolic hypo¬
thesis, what degx'ee of velocity would produce this
range.—The first method labours under this insurmount¬
able difficulty, that the velocities of these bodies are
often so swift, and consequently the time observed is
so short, that an imperceptible error in that time may
occasion
$)€<
' Tli
®,Sco
it
“ ie ^
s es i
ts.
if-
1
etij
.II. GUN
ry. occasion an error in the velocity thus found of 2, 3,
“w4>5> or 600 feet, in a second. The other method
is so fallacious, by reason of the resistance of the at¬
mosphere (to which inequality the first is also liable),
that the velocities thus assigned may not perhaps be
the tenth part of the actual velocities sought.
“ The simplest method of determining this veloci¬
ty is by means of the instrument represented fig. 2.
ie where ABCD represents the body of the machine
ringcomposed of the three poles B, C, D, spreading at
bottom, and joining together at the top A ; being
,u" the same with what is vulgarly used'in lifting and
weighing very heavy bodies, and is called by workmen
the triangles. On two of these poles, towards their
tops, are screwed on the sockets RS j and on these
sockets the pendulum EFGHIK is hung by means
of its cross-piece EF, which becomes its axis of sus¬
pension, and on which it must be made to vibrate
with great freedom. The body of this pendulum is
made of iron, having a broad part at bottom, and its
lower part is covered with a thick piece of wood
GKIH, which is fastened to the iron by screws. Some¬
thing lower than the bottom of the pendulum there is
a brace OP, joining the two poles from which the pen¬
dulum is suspended ; and to this brace there is fasten¬
ed a contrivance MNU, made with two edges of steel,
bearing on each other in the line UN, something in
the manner of a drawing-pen ; the strength with
which these edges press on each other being diminish¬
ed or increased at pleasure by means of a screw Z
going through the upper piece. There is fastened to
the bottom of the pendulum a narrow ribbon EN,
which passes between these steel edges, and which af¬
terwards by means of an opening cut in the lower
piece of steel, hangs loosely down, as at W.
0f “ This instrument thus fitted, if the weiuht of the
e pendulum be known, and likewise the respective di-
stances of its centre of gravity, and of its centre of
oscillation from its axis of suspension, it will thence be
known what motion will be communicated to this
pendulum by the percussion of a body of a known
Weight moving with a known degree of celerity, and
striking it in a given point j that is, if the pendulum
be supposed at rest before the percussion, it will be
known what vibration it ought to make in consequence
of such a determined blow j and, on the contrary, if
the pendulum, being at rest, is struck by a body of a
known weight, and the vibration which the pendulum
makes after the blow is known, the velocity of the
striking body may from thence be determined.
“ Hence then, if a bullet of a known weight strikes
the pendulum, and the vibration, which the pendulum
makes iu consequence of the stroke, be ascertained j
the velocity with which the ball moved is thence to be
known.
“ Novy the extent of the vibration made by the pen¬
dulum after the blow, may he measured to great ac¬
curacy by the ribbon LN. For let the pressure of the
edges UN on the ribbon be so regulated by the screw
Z, that the motion of the ribbon between them may
be nee and easy, though with some minute resistance 5
then settling the pendulum at rest, let the part LN be¬
tween the pendulum and the edges be drawn strait,
but not strained, and fix a pin in that part of the rib¬
bon which is then contiguous to the edges : let now a
N E R Y.
ball impinge on the pendulum; then the pendulum
swinging back will draw out the ribbon to the just ex¬
tent of its vibration, which will consequently be deter¬
mined by the interval on the ribbon between the edges
UN and the place of the pin.
“ The weight of the whole pendulum, wood and all,
was 56 lb. 3. oz.j its centre of gravity was 52 inches
distant from its axis of suspension, and 200 of its small
swings were performed in the time of 253 seconds:
whence its centre of oscillation (determined from hence)
in 62|d inches distant from that axis. The centre of
the piece of wood GKIII is distant from the same axis
66 inches.
“ In the compound ratio of 66 to 624, and 66 to 52,
take the quantity of matter of the pendulum to a 4th
quantity, which will be 42 lb. 4 oz. Now geometers
well know, that if the blow be struck on the centre of
the piece of wood GKIH, the pendulum will resist to
the stroke in the same manner as if this last quantity of
matter only (421b. 4 07-) was concentrated in that
point, and the rest of the pendulum was taken away :
whence, supposing the weight of the bullet impin¬
ging in that point to be the 7Vth of a pound, or the
T-^j-th of this quantity of matter nearly, the velocity of
the point of oscillation after the stroke will, by the
laws observed in the congress of such bodies as rebound
not from each other, be the of the velocity the
bullet moved with before the stroke j whence the ve¬
locity of this point of oscillation after the stroke being
ascertained, that multiplied by 505 will give the velo¬
city with which the hall impinged.
“ But the velocity of the point of oscillation after
the stroke is easily deduced from the chord of the arch,
through which it ascends by the blow 5 for it is a well-
known proposition, that all pendulous bodies ascend
to the same height by their vibratory motion as they
would do, if they were projected directly upwards
from their lowest point, with the. same velocity they
have in that point; wherefore, if the versed sine of
the ascending arch be found (which is easily deter¬
mined from the chord and radius being given), this
versed sine is the perpendicular height to which a
body projected upwards with the velocity of the point
of oscillation would arise ; and consequently what that
velocity is, can be easily computed by the common
theory of falling bodies.
“ For instance, the chord of the arch, described by
the ascent of the pendulum after the stroke measured
on the ribbon, has been sometimes ty^h inches; the
distance ol the ribbon from the axis of suspension is
714th inches; whence reducing 174th in the ratio
ol 714th to 66, the resulting number, which is nearly
16 inches, will be the chord of the arch through which
the centre of the board GKIH ascended after the
stroke ; now the viarsed sine of the arch, whose chord
is 16 inches, and its radius 66, is 1.93939 J and the
velocity which would carry a body to this height, or,
which is the same thing, the velocity which a body
would acquire by descending through this space, is
nearly that of 34th feet in 1".
“ To determine then the velocity with which the
bullet impinged on the centre of the wood, when the
chord of the arch described by the ascent of the pen¬
dulum, in consequence of the blow, was 174th inches
measured on the ribbon, no more is necessary than to
U 2 multiply
155
Theory.
' v '
156
Theory.
-—y~—
GUNN
multiply 3^tli by 505, and the resulting number 1641
will be the feet which the bullet would describe in l",
if it moved with the velocity it had at the moment of
its percussion : for the velocity of the point of the pen¬
dulum, on which the bullet struck, we have just now
determined to be that of 35th feet in i" $ and we have
before shown, that this is the ^,e °f
the bullet. If then a bullet weighing TVth of a pound
strikes the pendulum in the centre of the wood GKIH,
and the ribbon be drawn out ly^th inches by the blow;
the velocity of the bullet is that of 1641 feet in 1".
And since the length the ribbon is drawn is always
nearly the chord of the arch described by the ascent,
(it being placed so as to differ insensibly from those
chords which most frequently occur), and these chords
are known to be in the proportion of the velocities of
the pendulum acquired from the stroke ; it follows, that
the proportion between the lengths of ribbon drawn
out at different times, will be the same with that of
the velocities of the impinging bullets y and conse¬
quently, by the proportion of these lengths of ribbon
to 174th, the proportion of the velocity with which
the bullets impinge, to the known velocity of 1641
18 feet in l", will be determined.
Cautions to “ Hence then is shown in general how the velocities
ia makini^ °f lou^ets kinds may be found out by means of
these ex- instrument; but that those who may be-, disposed
perimenis. to try these experiments may not have unforeseen dif¬
ficulties to struggle with, we shall here subjoin a few
observations, which it will be necessary for them to at¬
tend to, both to secure success to their trials and safety
to their persons.
“ And first, that they may not conceive the piece of
wood GKIH to be an unnecessary part of the ma¬
chine, we must inform them, that if a bullet impelled
by a full charge of powder should strike directly on the
iron, the bullet would be beaten into shivers by the
stroke, and these shivers would rebound back with such
violence, as to bury themselves in any wood they
chanced to light on, as I have found by hazardous ex¬
perience ; and besides the danger, the pendulum will
not in this instance ascertain the velocity of the bullet,
because the velocity with which the parts of it re¬
bound is unknown.
“ The weight of the pendulum, and the thickness of
the wood, must be in some measure proportioned to the
size of the bullets which are used. A pendulum of the
weight here described will do very well for all bullets
under three or four ounces, if the thickness of the board
be increased to seven or eight inches for the heaviest
bullets ; beech is the toughest and properest wood for
this purpose.
“ It is hazardous standing on the side of the pendu¬
lum, unless the board be so thick, that the greatest
part of the bullet’s force is lost before it comes at the
iron ; for if it strikes the iron with violence, the shivers
0/ lead, which cannot return back through the wood,
will force themselves out between the wood and iron,
and will ily to a considerable distance.
“ As there is no effectual way of fastening the wood
to the iron but by screws, the heads of which must
come through the board ; the bullets will sometimes
light on those screws, from whence the shivers will dis¬
perse themselves on every side.
“ Wbea in these experiments so small a quantity of
E R Y. • Sect II
powder is used, as will not give to the bullet a velocity Theorj,
of more than 400 or JOO feet in 1" ; the bullet will
not stick in the wood, but will rebound from it entire,
and (if the wood be of a very hard texture) with a very
considerable velocity. Indeed I have never examined
any of the bullets which have thus rebounded, but I
have found them indented by the bodies they have
struck against in their rebound.
“ To avoid then these dangers, to the braving of
which in philosophical researches no honour is annex¬
ed ; it will be convenient to fix whatsoever barrel is
used, on a strong heavy carriage, and to fire it with a
little slow match. Let the barrel too be very well for¬
tified in all its length ; for no barrel (1 speak of mus¬
ket barrels) forged with the usual dimensions will bear
many of the experiments without bursting. The bar¬
rel I have most relied on, and which I procured to be
made on purpose, is nearly as thick at the muzzle as
at the breech ; that is, it has in each place nearly the
diameter of its bore in thickness of metal.
“ The powder used in these experiments should be
exactly weighed : and that'no part of it be scattered
in the barrel, the piece, must be charged with a ladle
in the same manner as is practised with cannon ; the
wad should be of tow, of the same weight each time,
and no more than is just necessary to confine the pow¬
der in its proper place : the length of the cavity left
behind the ball should be determined each time with
exactness ; for the increasing or diminishing that space
will vary the velocity of the shot, although the bullet
and quantity of powder be not changed. The distance
ol the mouth of the piece from the pendulum ought to
be such, that the impulse of the flame may not act on
the pendulum ; this will be prevented in a common
barrel charged with half an ounce of powder, if it be at
the distance of 16 or 18 feet : in large charges the im¬
pulse is sensible farther ofl ; I have found it to extend
to above 25 feet; however, between 25 and 18 feet is
the distance I have usually chosen.” ^
With this instrument, or others similar to it, Mr Account
Robins made a great number of experiments on bar-^1^0’
rels of different lengths, and with different charges of*)“'?,{e*(
powder. He hath given us the results of 6r of these ;**n
and having compared the actual velocities with the
computed ones, his theory appears to have come as
near the truth as could well be expected. In seven of
the experiments there was a perfect coincidence ; the
charges ot powder being six to twelve pennyweights;
the barrels 45, 24.312, and 7.06 inches in length.
I he diameter of the first (marked A) was ^tl18 of an
inch ; of the second (B) was the same ; and of D, 83
of an inch. In the first of these experiments, another
barrel (C) was used, whose length was 12.373 i*lcho-s»
and the diameter of its bore ^th inch.—In 14 more
of the experiments, the difference between the length
of the chord of the pendulum’s arch shown by the
theory and the actual experiment was -/^th of an inch
over or under. Tdiis showed an error in the theory
varying according to the different lengths of the chord
from i4t to °f the whole ; the charges of powder
were the same as in the last.—In 16 other experiments
the error was V^ths of an inch, varying from -/y to
of the whole ; the charges of powder were 6, 8,
. .
9> or 12 pennyweights.—In seven other experiments,
the error was y^ths of an inch, varying from yV 10
Jr.ot
!ec n. - GUN
*£ y rrT of the whole j the charges of powder six or twelve
^pennyweights. In eight experiments, the difference
was T^ths of an inch, radicating an error from to
/T of the whole ; the charges being 6, 9, 12, and 24
pennyweights of powder. In three experiments, the
error was Toths, varying from -j-^th to T^th of the
whole j the charges 8 and 12 pennyweights of powder.
In two experiments the error was TVhs, in one case
amounting to something less than TV, in the other to
of the whole ; the charges 12 and 36 pennyweights
of powder. By one experiment the error was seven,
and by another eight, tenths; the first amounting to
T^-th nearly, the latter to almost ^th of the whole : the
charges of powder 6 or 12 pennyweights. The last er¬
ror, however, Mr Robins ascribes to the wind. The
two remaining experiments varied from theory by 1.3
inches, somewhat more than ^-th of the whole : the
charges of powder were 12 pennyweights in each ;
and Mr Robins ascribes the error to the dampness of
the powder. In another case, he ascribes an error of
: 2c r^ths to the blast of the powder on the pendulum.
Jisci !u- From these experiments Mr Robins deduces the fol-
gf * u lowing conclusions. “ The variety of these experi¬
ments, and the accuracy with which they correspond
to the theory, leave us no room to doubt of its certain¬
ty. This theory, as here established, supposes, that, in
the firing of gunpowder, about T^ths of its substance is
converted by the sudden inflammation into a perma¬
nently elastic fluid, whose elasticity, in proportion to
its heat and density, is the same with that of common
air in the like circumstances ; it farther supposes, that
all the force exerted by gunpowder in its most violent
operations, is no more than the action of the elastici¬
ty of the fluid thus generated j and these principles
enable us to determine the velocities of bullets impel¬
led from fire-arms of all kinds } and are fully sufficient
for all purposes where the force of gunpowder is to be
estimated.
“ From this theory many deductions may be made
of the greatest consequence to the practical part of
gunnery. From hence the thickness of a piece, which
will enable it to confine, without bursting, any given
charge of powder, is easily determined, since the effort
of the powder is known. From hence appears the in¬
conclusiveness of what some modern authors have ad¬
vanced, relating to the advantages of particular forms
of chambers for mortars and cannon 5 for all their la¬
boured speculations on this head are evidently founded
on very erroneous opinions about the action of fired
powder. From this theory too we are taught the ne¬
cessity of leaving the same space behind the bullet,
when we would, by the same quantity of powder,
communicate to it an equal degree of velocity j since,
on the principles already laid down, it follows, that the
same powder has a greater or less degree of elasticity,
according to the diflerent spaces it occupies. The me¬
thod which I have always practised for this purpose has
been by marking the rammer $ and this is a maxim
which ought not to be dispensed with when cannon are
fired at an elevation, particularly in those called by the
French Lotteries a ricochet.
From the continued action of the powder, and its
manner of expanding described in this theory, and the
length and weight of the piece, cue of the most esse n-
N E R Y. 157
tial circumstances in the well directing of artillery may Theory,
be easily ascertained. All practitioners are agreed, v-" *
that no shot can be depended on, unless the piece be
placed on a solid platform : for if the platform shakes
with the first impulse of the powder, it is impossible
but the piece must also shake : which will alter its di¬
rection, and render the shot uncertain. To prevent
this accident, the platform is usually made extremely
firm to a considerable depth backwards ; so that the
piece is not only well supported in the beginning of
its motion, but likewise through a great part of its re¬
coil. However, it is sufficiently obvious, that when the
ballet is separated from the piece, it can be no longer
affected by the trembling of the piece or platform ;
and, by a very easy computation, it will be found, that
the bullet will be out of the piece before the latter hath
recoiled half an inch : whence, if the platform be suf¬
ficiently solid at the beginning of the recoil, the re¬
maining part of it may be much slighter ; and hence a
more compendious method of constructing platforms
may be found out.
“ From this theory also it appears bow greatly these
authors have been mistaken, who have attributed the
force of gunpowder, or at least a considerable part of it,
to the action of the air contained either in the powder
or between the intervals of the grains : for they have
supposed that air to exist in its natural elastic state,
and to receive all its addition of force from the beat of
the explosion. But from what hath been already deli¬
vered concerning the increase of the air’s elasticity by
heat, we may conclude that the heat of the explosion
cannot augment this elasticity to five times its common
quantity \ consequently the force arising from this cause
only cannot amount to more than the 200th part of the
real force exerted on the occasion.
“ If the whole substance of the powder was convert¬
ed into an elastic fluid at the instant of the explosion,
then from the known elasticity of this fluid assigned by
our theory, and its known density, we could easily deter¬
mine the velocity with which it would begin to expand,
and could thence trace out its future augmentations in
its progress through the barrel : but as we have shown
that the elastic fluid, in which the activity of the gun¬
powder consists, is only T3oths of the substance of the
powder, the remaining T^ths will, in the explosion, be
mixed with the elastic part, and will by its weight re¬
tard the activity of the explosion ; and yet they will
not be so completely united as to move with one com¬
mon motion ; but the unelastic part will he less acce¬
lerated than the rest, and some will not even be carried
out of the barrel, as appears by the considerable quan¬
tity of unctuous matter which adheres to the inside of
all fire-arms after they have been used. These inequa¬
lities Jn the expansive motion of the flame oblige us to
recur to experiments for its accurate determination. 2I
“ I he experiments made use of for this purpose wereExperi-
of two kinds. Tdie first was made by charging the01611 ts for
barrel A with 12 pennyweights of powder, and a small
wad of tow only j and then placing its mouth 19 vekcit^of
inches from the centre of the pendulum. On firing itfireeTgim-
in this situation, the impulse of the flame made it powder,
ascend through an arch whose chord was 13.7 inches j
whence, if the whole substance of the powder was sup¬
posed to strike against the pendulum, and each part to
strike
158
GUNN
Theory, strike with the same velocity, that common velocity
   1 must have been at the rate of about 2650 feet in a se¬
cond.—But as some part of the velocity of the flame
was lost in passing through 19 inches of air j I made
the remaining experiments in a manner not liable to
this inconvenience.
“ I fixed the barrel A on the pendulum, so that its
axis might be both horizontal and also perpendicular
to the plane HK j or, which is the same thing, that
it might be in the plane of the pendulum’s vibration :
the height of the axis of the piece above the centre of
the pendulum was six inches $ and the weight of the
piece, and of the iron that fastened it, &c. was 1231b.
The barrel in this situation being charged with 12
pennyweights of powder, without either ball or wad,
only put together with the rammer j on the discharge
the pendulum ascended through an arch whose chord
was 10 inches, or reduced to an equivalent blow in the
centre of the pendulum, supposing the barrel away,
it would be 14.4 inches nearly.—The same experi¬
ment being repeated, the chord of the ascending arch
was 10.1 inches, which, reduced to the centre, is 14.6
inches.
“ To determine what difference of velocity there was
in the different parts of the vapour, I loaded the piece
again with 12 pennyweights of powder, and rammed it
down with a wad of tow, weighing one pennyweight.
Now, I conceived that this wad being very light,
would presently acquire that velocity with which the
elastic part of the fluid would expand itself when un¬
compressed j and I accordingly found, that the chord
of the ascending arch was by this means increased to
12 inches, or at the centre to 17.3 : whence, as the
medium of the other two experiments is 14.5, the pen¬
dulum ascended through an arch 2.8 inches longer, by
the additional motion of one pennyweight of matter,
moving with the velocity of the swiftest part of the va¬
pour 5 and consequently the velocity with which this
pennyweight of matter moved, was that of about 7000
feet in a second.
“ It will perhaps be objected to this determination,
that the augmentation of the arch through which the
pendulum vibrated in this case was not all of it owing
to the quantity of motion given to the wad, but part of
it was produced by the confinement of the powder,
and the greater quantity thereby fired. But if it were
true that a part only of the powder fired when there
was no wad, it would not happen that in firing differ¬
ent quantities of powder without a wad, the chord
would increase and decrease nearly in the ratio of
these quantities j which yet I have found it to do : for
with nine pennyweights that chord was 7 3 inches,
which with 12 pennyweights we have seen was only
10, and 10.1 inches', and even with three penny¬
weights the chord was two inches 5 deficient from this
proportion by .5 only } for which defect two other va¬
lid reasons are to be assigned.
“ And there is still a more convincing proof that all
the powder is fired, although no wad be placed before
the charge, which is, that the part of the recoil arising
from the expansion of powder alone is found to be no
greater when it impels a leaden bullet before it, than
when the same quantity is fired without any wad to
confine it. We have seen that the chord of the arch
5
E R, Y. Sect. I]
through which the pendulum rose from the expansive
force of the powder alone is 10, or 10.1 j and the-y,
chord of that arch, when the piece was charged in the
customary manner with a bullet and wad, I found to
be the first time 22^, and the second 22^, or at a me¬
dium 22.56. Now the impulse of the ball and wad, if
they were supposed to strike the pendulum in the same
place in which the barrel was suspended, with the ve¬
locity they had acquired at the mouth of the piece,
would drive it through an arch whose chord would be
about 12.3 j as is known from the weight of the pen¬
dulum, the weight and position of the barrel, and the
velocity of the bullet determined by our former expe¬
riments ; whence, subtracting this number 12.3 from
22.56, the remainder 10.26 is nearly the chord of the
arch which the pendulum would have ascended through
from the expansion of the powder alone with a bullet
laid before it. And this number, 10.26, differs but
little from 10.1, which we have above found to he the
chord of the ascending arch, when the same quantity of
powder expanded itself freely without either bullet or
wad before it.
“ Again, that this velocity of 7000 feet in a second
is not much beyond what the most active part of the
flame acquires in expanding, is evinced from hence,
that in some experiments a ball has been found to be
discharged with a velocity of 2400 feet in a second 5
and yet it appeared not that the action of the powder
was at all diminished on account of this immense cele¬
rity: consequently the degree of swiftness with which,
in this instance, the powder followed the ball without
losing any part of its pressure, must have been much
short of what the powder alone would have expanded
with, had not the ball been there.
“ From these determinations may be deduced the
force of petards j since their action depends entirely on
the impulse of the flame ; and it appears that a quan¬
tity of powder properly disposed in such a machine,
may produce as violent an effort as a bullet of twice its
weight, moving with a velocity of 1400 or 1500 feet
in a second. j!
“ In many of the experiments already recited, the £
ball was not laid immediately contiguous to the P0W'wjti1tlu
der, but at a small distance, amounting, at the ntmost,g[eat0t«
only to an inch and a half. In these cases the theorylocitj'*
agreed very well with the experiments. But if a bul-Iai(l8t 1
let is placed at a greater distance from the powder,
suppose at 12, 18, or 24 inches, we cannot then apply w^r,
to this ball the same principles which may be applied
to those laid in contact, or nearly so, with the powder j
for when the surface of the fired powder is not confined
by a heavy body, the flame dilates itself with a veloci¬
ty far exceeding that which it can communicate to a
bullet by its continued pressure : consequently, as at
the distance of 12, 18, or 24 inches, the powder will
have acquired a considerable degree of this velocity of
expansion, the first motion of the ball will not be pro¬
duced by the continued pressure of the powder, but by
the actual percussion of the flame j and it will therefore
begin to move with a quantity of motion proportioned
to the quantity of this flame, and the velocities of Us
respective parts.
“ From hence then it follows, that the velocity of
the bullet, laid at a considerable distance before the
charge,
IStL IT. GUN
charge, ought to be greater than what would be coni'
■ municated to it by the pressure of the powder acting
in the manner already mentioned : and this deduction
from our theory we have confirmed by manifold expe¬
rience $ by which we have found, that a ball laid in
the barrel A, with its hinder part n£ inches from its
breech, and impelled by 12 pennyweights of powder,
has acquired a velocity of about 1400 feet in a se¬
cond ; when if it had been acted on by the pressure
of the flame only, it would not have acquired a velocity
of 1200 feet in a second. The same we have found
to hold true in all other greater distances (and also
in lesser, though not in the same degree), and in all
quantities of powder: and we have likewise found,
that these effects nearly correspond with what has been
already laid down about the velocity of expansion and
the elastic and unelastic parts of the flame.
“ From hence too arises another consideration of
great consequence in the practice of gunnery j which
is, that no bullet should at any time be placed at a con¬
siderable distance from the charge, unless the piece is
extremely well fortified : for a moderate charge of pow¬
der, when it has expanded itself through the vacant
space, and reaches the ball, will, by the velocity each
part has acquired, accumulate itself behind the ball,
and thereby be condensed prodigiously *, whence, if the
barrel be not extremely firm in that part, it must, by
means of this reinforced elasticity, infallibly burst. The
truth of this reasoning I have experienced in an exceed¬
ing good Tower-musket, forged of very tough iron j
for charging it with 12 pennyweights of powder, and
placing the ball 16 inches from the breech, on firing it,
the part of the barrel just behind the bullet was swelled
out to double its diameter like a blown bladder, and two
large pieces of two inches long were burst out of it.
“ Having seen that the entire motion of a bullet
laid at a considerable distance from the charge, is ac¬
quired by two different methods in which the powder
acts on it; the first being the percussion of the parts
ot the flame with the velocity they had respectively
acquired by expanding, the second the continued pres¬
sure of the flame through the remaining part of the bar¬
rel ; I. endeavoured to separate these different actions,
and to retain that only which arose from the continued
pressure of the flame. For this purpose 1 no longer
placed the powder at the breech, from whence it would
have full scope for its expansion 5 but I scattered it as
uniformly as I could through the whole cavity left be¬
hind the bullet-, imagining that by this means the pro¬
gressive velocity of the flame in each part would be pre¬
vented by the expansion of the neighbouring parts ; and
I found, that the ball being laid ii-J inches from the
breech, its velocity, instead of 1400 feet in a second,
which it acquired in the last experiments, was now no
more than 1100 feet in the second, which is 100 feet
short of what according to the theory should arise from
the continued pressure of the powder only.
. “ f h® reason of this deficiency was, doubtless, the
intestine motion of the flame: for the ascension of the
powder thus distributed through so much larger a space
than it could fill, must have produced many reverbera¬
tions and pulsations of the flame j and from these in¬
ternal agitations of the fluid, its pressure on the con¬
taining surface will (as is the case of all other fluids)
be considerably diminished and in order to avoid this
N E K Y. 15
irregularity, in all other experiments I took care to Theory,
have the powder closely confined in as small a space as —v——
possible, even when the bullet lay at some little distance
from it.
“ With regard to the resistance of the air, which so of ^ .
remarkably affects all military projectiles, it is necessary gistanceof
to premise, that the greatest part of authors have esta-the air to
blished it as a certain rule, that while the same body the motion
moves in the same medium, it is always resisted in theot bulleU‘
duplicate proportion of its velocity ; that is, if the re¬
sisted body move in one part of its track with three times
the velocity with which it moved in some other part,
then its resistance to the greater velocity will be nine
times the resistance to the lesser. If the velocity in
one place be four times greater than in another, the re¬
sistance of the fluid will be 16 times greater in the ffrst
than in the second, &c. dhis rule, however, though
pretty near the truth when the velocities are confined
within certain limits, is excessively erroneous when ap¬
plied to military projectiles, where such resistances often
occur as could scarcely be effected, on the commonly
received principles, even by a treble augmentation of
its density.
“ By means of the machine already described, I have
it in my power to determine the velocity with which a
ball moves in any part of its track, provided I can di¬
rect the piece in such a manner as to cause the bullet
to impinge on the pendulum placed in that part: and
therefore, charging a musket barrel three times succes¬
sively with a leaden ball three-fourths of an inch in dia¬
meter, and about hall its weight of powder; and tak¬
ing such precaution in weighing of the powder and pla¬
cing it, that I was assured, by many previous trials, that
the velocity of the ball could not differ by 20 feet in
a second from its medium quantity; I fired it against
the pendulum placed at 25, 75, and 125 feet distance
from the mouth of the piece respectively ; and I found
that it impinged against the pendulum, in the first case,
with a velocity of 1670 feet in a second ; in the second
case, with a velocity of 1550 feet in a second ; and in
the third case, with a velocity of 1425 feet in a se¬
cond ; so that, in passing through 50 feet of air, the
bullet lost a velocity of 120 or 125 feet in a second;
and the time of its passing through that space being
about TV or of a second, the medium quantity of
resistance must, in these instances, have been about 120
times the weight of the ball ; which (as the ball was
nearly TV of a pound) amounts to about lolb. avoirdu¬
pois.
Now, if a computation be made according to the
method laid down for compressed fluids in the 38th pro¬
position of Newton’s. Principia, supposing the weight
of water to that of air as 850 to 1, it will be found,
that the resistance to a globe of three-fourths of an inch
diameter, moving with a velocity of about 1600 feet in
a second, will not, on these principles, amount to any
more than 4^1b. avoirdupois ; whence, as we know that
the rules contained in that proposition are very accurate
with jegard to slow motions, we may hence conclude,
that the resistance of the air in slow motions is less than
that in swift motions, in the ratio of 4^ to 10; a pro¬
portion between that of 1 to 2, and 1 to 3.
“ Again, I charged the same piece a number of
times with equal quantities of powder, and balls of
the same weight, taking all possible care to give to
every v
i6o GUNN
Theory, every shot an equal velocity ; and firing three times
—-~vagainst the pendulum placed only 25 feet from the
mouth of the piece, the medium of the. velocities with
which the ball impinged was nearly that of 1690 feet
in a second : then removing the piece 175 feet from the
pendulum, I found, taking the medium of five shots,
that the velocity with which the ball impinged at this
distance was 1300 feet in a second j whence the ball,
in passing through 150 feet of air, lost a velocity of
about 390 feet in a second ; and the resistance comput¬
ed from these numbers comes out something more than
in the preceding instance, it amounting here to between
11 and 12 pounds avoirdupois j whence, according to
these experiments, the resisting power of the air to swift
motions is greater than to slow ones, in a ratio which
approaches nearer to that of 3 to I than in the preced¬
ing experiments.
“ Having thus examined the resistance to a velocity
of 1700 feet in a second, I next examined the resistance
to smaller velocities : and for this purpose I. charged
the same barrel with balls of the same diameter, but
with less powder, and placing the pendulum at 25 feet
distance from the piece, I fired against it five times with
an equal charge each time: the medium velocity with
which the ball impinged, was that of 1180 feet in a
second ; then, removing the pendulum to the distance
, of 250 feet, the medium velocity of five shots, made
at this distance, was that of 950 feet in a second :
whence the ball, in passing through 225 feet of air, lost
a velocity of 230 feet in a second : and as it passed
through that interval in about TJT of a second, the re¬
sistance to the middle velocity will come out to be near
33!- times the gravity of the ball, or 2 lb. iooz. avoir¬
dupois. Now, the resistance to the same velocity, ac¬
cording to the laws observed in slower motions, a-
mounts to TV of the same quantity ; whence, in a velo¬
city of 1065 feet in a second, the. resisting power of
the air is augmented in no greater a proportion than
that of 7 to 11 *, whereas we have seen in the former
experiments, that to still greater degrees of velocity the
augmentation approached very near the ratio of one to
three.
“ But farther, I fired three shot, of the same size
and weight with those already mentioned, over a large
piece of water ; so that their dropping into the water
being very discernible, both the distance and time of
their flight might be accurately ascertained. Each
shot was discharged with a velocity of 400 feet in a
second ; and I had satisfied myself by many previous
trials of the same charge with the pendulum, that I
could rely on this velocity to ten feet in a second. The
first shot flew 313 yards in four seconds and a quarter,
the second flew 319 yards in four seconds, and the
third 373 yards in five seconds and a half. According
to the theory of resistance established for slow motions,
the first shot ought to have spent no more than 3.2
seconds in its flight, the second 3.28, and the third
4 seconds $ whence it is evident, that every shot was
retarded considerably more than it ought to have been
had that theory taken place in its motion *, consequent¬
ly the resistance of the air is very sensibly increased,
even in such a small velocity as that of 400 feet in a
second.
“ As no large shot are ever projected in practice
with velocities exceeding that of 1700 feet in a second,
2
E R Y. Sect]
it will be sufficient for the purposes of a practical gun. ThMn
ner to determine the resistance to all lesser velocities;
which may be thus exhibited. Let AB (fig. 3.) be Plate
taken to AC, in the ratio of 1700 feet in a second to^Jp'V
the given velocity to which the resisting power of the
air is required. Continue the line AB to D, so that
BD may be to AD, as the resisting power of the air
to slow motions is to its resisting power to a velocity
of 1700 feet in a second ; then shall CD be to AD
as the resisting power of the air to slow motions is to
its resisting power to the given velocity represented by
AC.
“ From the computations and experiments already
mentioned, it plainly appears, that a leaden ball of
three-fourths of an inch diameter, and weighing nearly
ly oz. avoirdupois, if it be fired from a barrel of 45
inches in length, with half its weight of powder, will
issue from that piece with a velocity which, if it were
uniformly continued, would carry it near 1700 feet in
a second.—If, instead of the leaden ball, an iron one, of
an equal diameter, was placed in the same situation in
the same piece, and was impelled by an equal quantity
of powder, the velocity of such an iron bullet would
be greater than that of a leaden one in the subdupli-
cate ratio of the specificate gravities of lead and iron ;
and supposing that ratio to be as three to two, and
computing on the principles already laid down, it will
appear, that an iron bullet of 241b. weight, shot from
a piece of 10 feet in length, with i61b. of powder, will
acquire from the explosion a velocity which, if uni¬
formly continued, would carry it nearly 1650 feet in a
second.
“ This is the velocity which, according to our theory,
a cannon ball of 241b. weight is discharged with when
it is impelled by a full charge of powder ; but if, in¬
stead of a quantity of powder weighing two-thirds of
the ball, we suppose the charge to be only half the
weight of it, then its velocity will on the same princi¬
ples he no more than 1490 feet in a second. The same
would be the velocities of every lesser bullet fired with
the same proportions of powder, if the lengths of all
pieces were constantly in the same ratio with the diame¬
ters of their bore ; and although, according to the usual
dimensions of the smaller pieces of artillery, this pro¬
portion does not always hold, yet the difference is not
great enough to occasion a very great variation from
the velocities here assigned ; as will he obvious to any
one who shall make a computation thereon. But in
these determinations we suppose the windage to be no
more than is just sufficient for putting down the bullet
easily ; whereas in real service, either through negli¬
gence or unskilfulness, it often happens, that the dia¬
meter of the bore so much exceeds the diameter of the
bullet, that great part of the inflamed fluid escapes by
its side ; whence the velocity of the shot in this case
may be considerably less than what we have assigned.
However, this perhaps may be compensated by the
greater heat which in all probability attends the firing
of these large quantities of powder. 14
“From this great velocity of cannon shot we maySolu^
clear up the difficulty concerning the point-blank shot of
which occasioned the invention of Anderson’s strange
hypothesis '*. Here our author was deceived by hbpoinl.bl
not knowing how greatly the primitive velocity of tbe6hot.
heaviest shot is diminished in the course of its flight by * See¬
the
Sie
Th< y
Bknt
^<5*.
oci
: Si
'Jhjn
‘.tin
'*rea
"• 3
*5
:ed
:t r
\c
an
II. GUNN
the resistance of the air. And the received opinion of
—'practical gunners is not more difficult to account for;
since, when they agree that every shot flies in a straight
line to a certain distance from the piece, which imagi¬
nary distance they have called the extent of the point-
blank shot, we need only suppose, that, within that di¬
stance which they thus determine, the deviation of the
path of the shot from a straight line is not very per¬
ceptible in their method of pointing. Now, as a shot
of 241b. fired with two thirds of its weight of pow¬
der, will, at the distance of 500 yards from the piece,
be separated from the line of its original direction by
an angle ot little more than half a degree; those who
are acquainted with the inaccurate methods often used
in the directing of cannon will easily allow, that so
small an aberration may not he attended to by the ge¬
nerality of practitioners, and the path of the shot may
consequently be deemed a straight line; especially as
other causes of error will often intervene much greater
than what arises from the incurvation of this line by
gravity.
a- “ We have now determined the velocity of the shot
both when fired with two-thirds of its weight and
the weight of potvder respectively; and on
o£ this occasion I must remark, that on the principles of
our theory, the increasing the charge of powder will
increase the velocity of the shot till the powder arrives
,!y at a certain quantity; after which, if the powder
be increased, the velocity of the shot will diminish.
Hie quantity producing the greatest velocity and the
proportion between that greatest velocity and the velo¬
city communicated by greater and lesser charges, may
be thus assigned. Let AB represent the axis of the
piece; draw AC perpendicular to it, and to the asymp¬
totes AC and AB draw any hyperbola LF, and draw
Bh parallel to AC ; find out now the point I), where
the rectangle ADEG is equal to the hyperbolic area
-DEFB ; then will AD represent that height of the
cnarge which communicates the greatest velocity to the
shot: whence AD being to AB‘ as 1 to 2.71828, as
appears from the table of logarithms, from the length
of the hue AD thus determined, and the diameter of
the bore, the quantity of powder contained in this
charge is easily known. If, instead of this charge, any
other filling the cylinder to the height AI, be used,
draw IH parallel to AC, and through the point H to
the sanm asymptotes AC and AB describe the hyper¬
bola HK; then the greatest velocity will be to the
velocity communicated by the charge AI, in the subdu¬
plicate proportion of the rectangle ADEG to the same
rectangle diminished by the trilinear space KHE.
? “ It hath been already shown, that the resistance of
the air on the surface of a bullet of three-fourths of an
inch diameter, moving with a velocity of 1670 feet in
a second, amounted to about lolb. It hath also been
shown that an iron bullet weighing 24II,. if fired with
1 bib. of powder (which is usually esteemed its proper
a ering charge), acquires a velocity of about 16 co
ce in a second, scarcely differing from the other :
whence, as the surface of this last bullet is more than
j,4 times greater than the surface of a bullet of three-
nearliTu ^ lnC^ ^.lameter» and their velocities are
I ^ , ’f. lt ^0^ows» that the resistance on the
Z Lf am0unl.l° more ,,'an «olb. which i,
near 23 times its own weight.
Vol. X. Part I. s
l6 I
Theory.
E R Y.
‘‘ The two last propositions are principally aimed
against those theorists who have generally agreed in
supposing the flight of shot and shells to be nearly in
the curve of a parabola. The reason given by those
authors for their opinion is the supposed inconsiderable
resistance of the air; since as it is agreed on all sides
that the track of projectiles would be a perfect parabola
if there was no resistance, it has from thence been too
rashly concluded, that the interruption which the pon¬
derous bodies of shells and bullets would receive from
such a rare medium as air would be scarcely sensible,
and consequently that their parabolic flight would be
hereby scarcely affected.
“ Now the prodigious resistance of the air to a bullet
of 241b. weight, such as we have here established it,
sufficiently confutes this reasoning; for how erroneous
must that hypothesis be, which neglects as inconsider¬
able a force amounting to more than 20 times the
weight of the moving body ?” But here it is necessary
to assume a few particulars, the demonstrations of which,
on the commonly received principles, may be seen un¬
der the article Projectiles.
“ I. If the resistance of the air be so small that the Common
motion of a projected body is in the curve of a parabo-
la, then the axis of that parabola will be perpendicular conce,njns
to the horizon, and consequently the part of the curve ^ ni?tIoa
in which the body ascends will be equal and similar to tilePsr0jeC
that in which it descends.
2. If the parabola in which the body moves be
terminated on a horizontal plane, then the vertex of
the parabola will be equally distant from its own extre¬
mities.
“ 3* Also the moving body will fall on that hori¬
zontal plane in the same angle, and with the same velo¬
city with which it was first projected.
4- a body be projected in difi'erent angles but
with the same velocity, then its greatest horizontal
range will be when it is projected in an angle of 4c0
with the horizon.
“ 5* If tbe velocity with which the body is projected
be known, then this greatest horizontal range may be
thus found. Compute, according to the common
theory of gravity, what space the projected body
ought to fall through to acquire the velocity with
which it is projected : then twice that space will be
the greatest horizontal range, or the horizontal range
when the body is projected in an angle of 4 c0 with
the horizon.
6. The hoiizontal ranges of a body, when pro¬
jected with the same velocity at different angles, will
be between themselves as the sines of twice the angle
in which the line of projection is inclined to the hori¬
zon.
7->If a body is projected in the same angle with
the horizon, but with different velocities, the horizontal
ranges will be in the duplicate proportion of those ve¬
locities.
These postulates, which contain the principles off’rodigious
the modern art of gunnery, are all of them false; for itoprorsoftlie
hath been already shown, that a musket ball of three-C,0ram°n
fourths of an inch in diameter, fired with half its weight11COr?*
of powder, from a piece 45 inches long, moves with a
velocity of near 1700 feet in a second. Now, if this
ball flew in the curve of a parabola, its horizontal
range at 45° would be found by the fifth postulate to
1 ^ be
19
Rotatory
motion of
VuUcts a
treat source t
mdeflec- t0
tiou.
GUN
be about 17 miles. But all the practical writers assure
us, that this range is really short of half a mile. .Diego
Ufano assigns to an arquebuss, four leet in length, and
carrying a leaden ball of 14ox. weight (which is very
near our dimensions), a horizontal range of 797 com¬
mon paces, when it is elevated between 40 and 50 de¬
grees, and charged with a quantity ot fine powder
equal in weight to the ball. IVlersennus also tells us,
that he found the horizontal range of an arquebuss at
450 to be less than 400 fathoms, or 800 yards ; whence,
as either of these ranges are short of half an English
mile, it follows, that a musket shot, when fired with a
reasonable charge of powder at the elevation of 45 >
flies not one-thirty-fourth part of the distance it ought
to do if it moved in a parabola. Nor is this great con¬
traction of the horizontal range to he wondered at,
when it is considered that the resistance of this bullet
when it first issues from the piece amounts to 120 times
its gravity, as hath been experimentally demonstrated,
N° 23.
“ To prevent objections, our next instance shall be
in an iron bullet of 241b. weight, which is the heaviest
in common use for land-service. Such a bullet fired
from a piece of the common dimensions with its great¬
est allotment of powder hath a velocity of 1650 feet in
a second, as already shown. Now, it the horizontal
range of this shot at 450 be computed on the parabolic
hypothesis by the fifth postulate, it will come out to be
about 16 miles, which is between five and six times its
real quantity ; for the practical writers all agree in
making ife less than three miles.
“ But farther, it is not only when projectiles move
with these very great velocities that their flight sen¬
sibly varies from the curve of a parabola •, the same
aberration often takes place in such as move slow
enough to have their motion traced out by the eye ;
for there are few projectiles that can be thus exami¬
ned, which do not visibly disagree with the first, second,
and third postulates j obviously descending through
a curve, which is shorter and less inclined to the ho¬
rizon than that in which they ascended. Also the
highest point of their flight, or the vertex of the
curve, is much nearer the place where they fall to the
ground than to that from whence they were at first
discharged.
“ I have found too by experience, that the fifth,
sixth, and seventh postulates are excessively erroneous
when applied to the motions of bullets moving with
small velocities. A leaden bullet three-fourths of an
inch in diameter, discharged with a velocity of about
400 feet in a second, and in an angle of 190 5' with
the horizon, ranged on the horizontal plane no more
than 448 yards : whereas its greatest horizontal range
being found by the fifth postulate to be at least 1700
yards, the range at 190 3' ought by the sixth postulate
to have been 1050 yards: whence, in this experiment,
the range was not three-sevenths of what it must have
been, had the commonly received theory been true.”
From this and other experiments it is clearly pro¬
ved, that the track described by the flight even of the
heaviest shot, is neither a parabola, nor approaching
a parabola, except when they are projected with
very small velocities. The nature of the curve really
described by them is explained under the article T'ro-
jectiles. But as a specimen of the great complies-
N E R Y. Sect. II
tion of that subject, we shall here insert an account of xheotj,
a very extraordinary circumstance which frequently
takes place therein.
“ As gravity acts perpendicularly to the horizon,
it is evident, that if no other power but gravity deflect¬
ed a projected body from its course, its motion would
be constantly performed in a plane perpendicular to the
horizon, passing through the line of its original direc¬
tion *, but we have found, that the body in its motion
often deviates from this plane, sometimes to the right
hand and at other times to the left: and this in an in-
curvated line, which is convex towards that plane, so
that the motion of a bullet is frequently in a line hav¬
ing a double curvature, it being bent towards the ho¬
rizon by the force of gravity, and again bent out of
its original direction to the right or left by some other
force : in this case no part of the motion of the bullet
is performed in the same plane, but its track will lie in
the surface of a kind of cylinder, whose axis is perpen¬
dicular to the horizon.
“ This proposition may be indisputably proved by tbs
experience of every one in the least conversant with the
practice of gunnery. The same piece which will carry
its bullet within an inch of the intended mark at 10
yards distance, cannot be relied on to 10 inches in 100
yards, much less to 30 inches in 300 yards. Now this
inequality can only arise from the track of the bullet
being meurvated sidewise as well as downwards: for
by this means the distance between that incurvated lin«
and the line of direction will increase in a much greater
ratio than that of the distance *, these lines being coin^
cident at the mouth of the piece, and afterwards sepa¬
rating in the manner of a curve and its tangent, if the
mouth of the piece he considered as the point of contact.
To put this matter out of all doubt, however, I took a
barrel carrying a ball three-fourths of an inch diameter*
and fixing it on a heavy carriage, I satisfied myself of the
steadiness and truth of its direction, by firing at a hoard
1^ feet square, which was placed at 180 feet distance j
for I found that in 16 successive shots I missed the mark
hut once. Now, the same barrel being fixed on the same
carriage, and fired with a smaller quantity of powder,
so that the shock on the discharge would be much less,
and consequently the direction less changed, I found,
that at 760 yards distance the ball flew sometimes 100
yards to the right of the line it was pointed on, and
sometimes as much to the left. I found too, that
its direction in the perpendicular line was not less un¬
certain, it falling one time above 200 yards short of
what it did at another } although, by the nicest exami¬
nation of the piece after the discharge, it did not appear
to have started in the least from the position it was pla¬
ced in.
“ The reality of this doubly curvated track being
thus demonstrated, it may perhaps be asked, What can
be the cause of a motion so different from what has been
hitherto supposed ? And to this I answer, That the de¬
flection in question must be owing to some power acting
obliquely to the progressive motion of the body ;
which power can be no other than the resistance of the
air. If it be farther asked, how the resistance of the
air can ever come to he oblique to the progressive mo¬
tion of the body ? I farther reply, that it may some¬
times arise from inequalities in the resisted surfacej
hut that its general cause is doubtless a whirling n10*
tion
.II, GUNNERY, 163
.[•y, tlon acquired by the bullet about its axis : for by this
—> motion of rotation, combined with the progressive mo¬
tion, each part of the bullet’s surface will strike the
air very differently from what it would do if there was
no such whirl ; and the obliquity of the action of the
air arising from this cause will be greater, as the mo¬
tion of the bullet is greater in proportion to its progres¬
sive one,
“ This whirling motion undoubtedly arises from the
friction of the bullet against the sides of the piece ;
and as the rotatory motion will in some part of its re¬
volution conspire with the progressive one, and in ano¬
ther part be equally opposed to it, the resistance of the
air on the fore part of the bullet will be hereby affect¬
ed, and will be increased in that part where the whirl¬
ing motion conspires with the progressive one, and di¬
minished where it is opposed to it j and by this means
the whole effort of the resistance, instead of being op¬
posite to the direction of the body, will become oblique
thereto, and will produce those effects already mention¬
ed. If it was possible to predict the position of the axis
round which the bullet should whirl, and if that axis
was unchangeable during the whole flight of the bullet,
then the aberration of the bullet by this oblique force
would be in a given direction ; and the incurvation
produced thereby would regularly extend the same way
from one end of its track to the other. For instance,
if the axis of the whirl was perpendicular to the hori¬
zon, then the incurvation would be to the right or left.
If that axis was horizontal, and perpendicular to the
direction of the bullet, then the incurvation would be
upwards or downwards. But as the first position of this
axis is uncertain, and as it may perpetually shift in
the course of the bullet’s flight; the deviation of the
bullet is not necessarily either in one certain direction,
or tending to the same side in one part of its track more
than it does in another, but more usually is continn iliv
changing the tendency of its deflection, as the axis
round which it whirls must frequently shift its posi¬
tion to the progressive motion by many inevitable ac¬
cidents.
“ That a bullet generally acquires such a rotatory
motion, as here described, is, 1 think, demonstrable :
however, to leave no room for doubt or dispute, I con¬
firmed it, as well as some other parts of my theory, by
the following experiments.
'e “ I caused the machine to he made represented
asUF; fig. 4. BCDE is a brass barrel, moveable on its axis,
m.c>sand so adjusted by means of friction-wheels, not repre-
. sented in the figure, as to have no friction worth at¬
tending to. The frame in which this barrel is fixed is
so placed that its axis may be perpendicular to the ho¬
rizon. The axis itself is continued above the upper
plate of the frame, and has fastened on it a light hol¬
low cone, AFG. From the lower part of this cone
there is extended a long arm of wood, GH, which is
very thin, and cut feather edged. At its extremity
there is a contrivance for fixing on the body, whose re¬
sistance is to be investigated (as here the globe P) j
and to prevent the arm GH from swaying out of its
horizontal position by the weight of the annexed body
P, there is a brace, AH, of fine wire, fastened to the
top of the cone which supports the end of the arm.
Round the barrel BCDE, there is wound a fine
silk line, the turns of which appear in the figure ; and
after this line hath taken a sufficient number of turns, Theory,
it is conducted nearly in a horizontal direction to the "
pulley L, over which it is passed, and then a proper
weight M is hung to its extremity. If this weight be
left at liberty, it is obvious that it will descend by
its own gravity, and will, by its descent, turn round
the barrel BCDE, together with the arm GH, and the
body P fastened to it. And whilst the resistance on
the arm GH and on the body P is less than the weight
M, that weight will accelerate its motion} and there¬
by the motion of GH and P will increase, and conse¬
quently their resistance will increase, till at last this re¬
sistance and the weight M become nearly equal to each
other. The motion with which M descends, and with
which P revolves, will not then sensibly differ from an
equable one. Whence it is not difficult to conceive,
that, by proper observations made with this machine,
the resistance of the body P may be determined. Tbs'
most natural method of proceeding in this investigation
is as follows: Eet the machine first have acquired its
equable motion, which it will usually do in about five
or six turns from the beginning ; and then let it be ob¬
served, by counting a number of turns, what time is
taken up by one revolution of the body P : then tak¬
ing off the body P and the weight M, let it be exami¬
ned what smaller weight will make the arm GH re¬
volve in the same time as when P was fixed to it : this
smaller weight being taken from M, the remainder is
obviously equal in effort to the resistance of the revolv¬
ing body P ; and this remainder being reduced in the
ratio of the length of the arm to the semidiameter of
the barrel, will then become equal to the absolute
quantity of the resistance. And as the time of one re¬
volution is known, and consequently the velocity of the
revolving body, there is hereby discovered the absolute
quantity of the resistance to the given body P moving
with a given degree of celerity,
“ Here, to avoid all objections, I have generally
chosen, when the body P was removed, to fix in its
stead a thin piece of lead of the same weight, placed
horizontally : so that the weight which was to turn
round the arm GH, without the body P, did also
carry round this piece of lead. But mathematicians will
easily allow that there was no necessity for this precau¬
tion. The diameter of the barrel BCDE, and of the
silk string wound round it, was 2.06 inches. The
length of the arm GH, measured from the axis to the
surface of the globe P, was 49.5 inches. The body
P, the globe made use of, was of pasteboard } its sur¬
face very neatly coated with marbled paper. It was
not much distant from the size of a 12 lb. shot, being
in diameter 4.5 inches, so that the radius of the circle
described by the centre of the globe was 51.75 inches.
"When this globe was fixed at the end of the arm, and
a weight of half a pound was hung at the end of the
string at M, it was examined how soon the motion of
the descending weight M, and of the revolving body
P, would become equable as to sense. With this
view, three revolutions being suffered to elapse, it was
found that the next 10 were performed in 27^", 20 in
less than 55", and 30 in 82^"} so that the first 10 were
performed in 27^", the second in 274", and the third
in 27 J".
“ These experiments sufficiently evince, that even
with half a pound, the smallest weight made use of
X a the
164
Theory, the motion of the machine was sufficiently equable af-
 v  '' ter the first three revolutions.
“ The globe above mentioned being now fixed at
the end of the arm, there was hung on at M a weight
of 3^1b.; and ten revolutions being suffered to elapse,
the succeeding 20 were performed in 21^". Then the
globe being taken off, and a thin plate of lead, equal
to it in weight, placed in its room ; it was found, that
instead of 3-grlb. a weight of one pound would make it
revolve in less time than it did before j performing
now 20 revolutions after 10 were elapsed in the space
of 19".
“ Hence then it follows, that from the 3^1b. first
hung on, there is less than I lb. to be deducted for
the resistance on the arm 5 and consequently the re¬
sistance on the globe itself is not less than the effort of
2^1b. in the situation M ; and it appearing from the
former measures, that the radius of the barrel is nearly
3^- of the radius of the circle described by the centre
of the globe ; it follows, that the absolute resistance
of the globe, when it revolves 20 times in 2iV,»
(about 25 feet in a second), is not less than the 50th
part of two pounds and a quarter, or of 36 ounces j
and this being considerably more than half an ounce,
and the globe nearly the size of a 12-pound shot, it
irrefragably confirms a proposition I had formerly laid
down from theory, that the resistance of the air to a
12 lb. iron shot, moving with a velocity of 25 feet in
a second, is not less than half an ounce.
“ The rest of the experiments were made in order
to confirm another proposition, namely, that the re¬
sistance of the air within certain limits is nearly in the
duplicate proportion of the velocity of the resisted
body. To investigate this point, there were succes¬
sively hung on at M, weights in the proportion of the
numbers 1, 4, 9, 16 ; and letting 10 revolutions first
elapse, the following observations were made on the
rest.—With § lb. the globe went 20 turns in 544,/,
with 2lb. it went 20 turns in 27^", with 4^ lb. it
went 30 turns in and with 8 lb. it went 40 turns
in 27^".—Hence it appears, that to resistances propor¬
tioned to the numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, there correspond
velocities of the resisted body in the proportion of the
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4; which proves, with great nicety,
the proposition above mentioned.
“ With regard to the rotatory motion, the first ex¬
periment was to evince, that the whirling motion of a
ball combining with its progressive motion would pro¬
duce such an oblique resistance and deflective power
as already mentioned. For this purpose a wooden ball
of 4^ inches diameter was suspended by a double
string, about eight or nine feet long. Now, by turn¬
ing round the ball and twisting the double string, the
ball when left to itself would have a revolving motion
given it from the untwisting of the string again. And
if, when the string was twisted, the ball was drawn to
a considerable distance from the perpendicular, and
there let go 5 it would at first, before it had acquired
its revolving motion, vibrate steadily enough in the
same vertical plane in which it first began to move :
but when, by the untwisting of the string, it had ac¬
quired a sufficient degree of its whirling motionv it
constantly deflected to the right or left of its first
track j and sometimes proceeded so far as to have its
Sect. 1
direction at right angles to that in which it began its
motion ; and this deviation w'as not produced by the1
string itself, but appeared to be entirely owing to the
resistance being greater on the one part of the leading
surface of the globe than the other. ' For the deviation
continued when the string was totally untwisted ; and
even during the time that the string, by the motion the
globe had received, was twisting the contrary way.
And it was always easy to predict, before the ball was
let go, which way it would deflect, only by considering
on which side the whirl would be combined with the
progressive motion ; for on that side always the deflec¬
tive power acted, as the resistance was greater here than
on the side where the whirl and progressive motion
were opposed to one another.”
Though Mr Robins considered this experiment as
an incontestable proof of the truth of his theory, he
undertook to give ocular demonstration of this de¬
flection of musket-bullets even in the short space of
100 yards.
“ As all projectiles (says he), in their flight, are
acted upon by the power of gravity, the deflection of a
bullet from its primary direction, supposes that deflec¬
tion to be upwards or downwards in a vertical plane ;
because, in the vertical plane, the action of gravity is
compounded and entangled with the deflective force.
And for this reason my experiments have been princi¬
pally directed to the examination of that deflection
which carries the bullet to the right or left of that
plane in which it began to move. For if it appears at
any time that the bullet has shifted from that vertical
plane in which the motion began, this will be an in¬
contestable proof of what we have advanced. Now,
by means of screens of exceeding thin paper, placed
parallel to each other at proper distances, this deflection
in question may be many ways investigated. For by
firing bullets which shall traverse the screens, the
flight of the bullet may be traced ; and it may easily
appear whether they do or do not keep invariably to
one vertical plane. This examination may proceed on
three different principles, which I shall here separately
explain.
“ For first, an exactly vertical plane may be traced
out upon all these screens, by which the deviation of
any single bullet may be more readily investigated,
only by measuring the horizontal distance of its trace
from the vertical plane thus delineated j and by this
means the absolute quantity of its aberration may be
known. Or if the description of such a vertical plane
should be esteemed a matter of difficulty and nicety, a
second method may be followed ; which is that of rest¬
ing the piece in some fixed notch or socket, so that
though the piece may have some little play to the
right and left, yet all the lines in which the bullet can
be directed shall intersect each other in the centre of
that fixed socket: by this means, if two different shots
are fired from the piece thus situated, the horizontal
distances made by the two bullets on any two screens
ought to be in the same proportion to each other as the
respective distances of the screens from the socket in
which the piece was laid. And if these horizontal
distances differ from that proportion, then it is certain
that one of the shots at least hath deviated from a ver¬
tical plane, although the absolute quantity of that de¬
viation
GUNNERY,
:!ec II. GUNN E
|^li ^ viation cannot hence be assigned ; because it cannot be
—J known what part of it is to be imputed to one bullet,
and what to the dtber.
“ But if the constant and invariable position of the
notch or socket in which the piece was placed, be
thought too hard an hypothesis in this very nice affair;
the third method, and which is the simplest of ail,
requires no more than that two shot be fired through
three screens without any regard to the position of the
piece each time : for in this case, if the shots diverge
from each other, and both keep to a vertical plane,
then if the horizontal distances of their traces on the
first screen be taken from the like horizontal distances
on the second and third, the two remainders will be
ns
let
nr ri,
:ill le
R Y.
•65
portion ; the horizontal distance of the first and third, Theory,
lor instance, on the wall being above nine inches more ' ■
than it should be by this analogy.
“ If, without supposing the invariable position of
the socket, we examine the comparative horizontal di¬
stances according to the third method described above,
we shall in this case discover divarications still more
extraordinary ; for by the numbers set down, it ap¬
pears, that the horizontal distances of the second and
third shot on the two screens, and on the wall, are as
under.
in the same proportion with the distances of the second
and third screen from the first. And if they are not in
this proportion, then it will be certain that one of them
at least hath been deflected from the vertical plane j
though here, as in the last case, the quantity of that
deflection in each will not be known.
“ All these three methods I have myself made use
ed ia- 0f at different times, and have ever found the success
agreeable to my expectation. But the most eligible
method seemed to be a compound of the two last. The
apparatus was as follows.—Two screens were set up
in the larger walk in the Charter-house garden $ the
first of them at 250 feet distance from the wall, which
was to serve for a third screen ; and the second 200
feet from the same wall. At 50 feet before the first
screen, or at 300 feet from the wall, there was placed
a large block weighing about 20olb. weight, and ha¬
ving fixed into it an iron bar with a socket at its ex¬
tremity, in which the piece was to be laid. The piece
itself was of a common length, and bored for an ounce
ball. It was each time loaded with a ball of 17 to the
pound, so that the windage was extremely small, and
with a quarter of an ounce of good powder. The
screens were made of the thinnest issue paper; and the
resistance they gave to the bullet (and consequently
their probability of deflecting it) was so small, that a
bullet lighting one time near the extremity of one of
the screens, left a fine thin fragment of it towards the
edge entire, which was so very weak that it was diffi¬
cult to handle it without breaking. These things thus
prepared, five shots were made with the piece rested in
the notch above mentioned ; and the horizontal distan¬
ces between the first shot, which was taken as a stand¬
ard, and the four succeeding ones, both on the first
and second screen and on the wall, measured in inches,
were as follows :
I to
1st Screen.
1.75 R.
10 L.
1.2c L.
2.15 L.
2d Screen.
3-l5 R-
15.6 L.
4.5 L.
5.1 L.
Wall.
16.7 R.
69.25 L.
1 o L.
19.0 L.
“ Here the letters R and L denote that the shot in
question went either to the right or left of the first.
“ If the position of the socket in which the piece
was placed be supposed fixed, then the horizontal di¬
stances measured above on the first and second screen,
and on the wall, ought to be in proportion to the di¬
stances of the first screen, the second screen, and the
wall, from the socket. But by only looking over these
numbers, it appears, that none of them are in that pro-
ist Screen. 2d Screen. Wall.
n.75 18.75 83.95
“ Here, if, according to the rule given above, the di¬
stance on the first screen be taken from the distances on
the other two, the remainder will be 7, and 72.2 : and
these numbers, if each shot kept to a vertical plane*
ought to be in the proportion of 1 to 5; that beiiifr the
proportion of the distances of the second screen, and
of the wall, from the first: but the last number 72.2
exceeds what it ought to be by this analogy by 37.2 ;
so that between them there is a deviation from the ver¬
tical plane of above 37 inches, and this too in a transit
of little more than 80 yards.
“ But farther, to show that these irregularities do
not depend on any accidental circumstance of the balls
fitting or not fitting the piece, there were five shots
more made with the same quantity of powder as be¬
fore ; but with smaller bullets, which ran much
looser in the piece. And the horizontal distances be¬
ing measured in inches from the trace of the first bul¬
let to each of the succeeding ones, the numbers were as
under.
to 2
3
4
5
1st Screen.
15.6 R.
6.4 L.
4.7 R.
12.6 R.
2d Screen.
31.1 R.
12.75 L.
8.5 R.
24.0 R.
Wall.
94.0 R.
23.0 L.
i5-5 R.
63.5 R-
“ Here, again, on the supposed fixed position of the
piece, the horizontal distance on the wall between the
first and third will be found above 15 inches less than
it should be if each kept to a vertical plane ; and like
irregularities, though smaller, occur in every other ex¬
periment. And if they are examined according to
the third method set down above, and the horizontal
distances of the third and fourth, for instance, are com¬
pared, those on the first and second screen, and on the
wall, appear to be thus.
1st Screen.
11.1
2d Screen.
21.25
Wall.
38-5
“ And if the horizontal distance on the first screen
be taken from the other two, the remainders will be
10.15, and 27.4; where the least of them, instead of
being five times the first, as it ought to be, is 45.35
short of it ; so that here is a deviation of 45 inches.
“ From all these experiments, the deflection in que¬
stion seems to be incontestably evinced. But to give
some farther light to this subject, I took a barrel of
the same bore with that hitherto used, and bent it at
about three or four inches from its muzzle to the left,
the bend making an angle of three or four degrees,
with
GUNN
with the axis of the piece. This piece thus bent was
fired with a loose ball, and the same quantity of pow¬
der hitherto used, the screens of the last experiment
being still continued. It was natural to expect, that
if this piece was pointed by the general direction of its
axis, the ball would be canted to the left of that di¬
rection by the bend near its mouth. But as the bul¬
let, in passing through that bent part would, as I
conceived, be forced to roll upon the right-hand side
of the barrel, and thereby its left side would turn up
against the air, and would increase the resistance on
that side ; 1 predicted to the company then present,
that if the axis on which the bullet whirled, did not
shift its position after it was separated from the piece j
then, notwithstanding the bent of the piece to the
left, the bullet itself might be expected to incurvate
towards the right j and this, upon trial, did most re¬
markably happen. lor one of the bullets fired fiom
this bent piece passed through the first screen about
If inch distant from the trace of one of the shots fired
from the straight piece in the last set of experiments.
On the second screen, the traces of the same bullets
were about three inches distant j the bullet from the
crooked piece passing on both screens to the lelt of the
other: but comparing the places of these bullets on the
wall, it appeared that the bullet from the crooked
piece, though k diverged from the track on the two
gcreens, had now crossed that track, and was deflected
considerably to the right of it-: so that it was obvious,
that though the bullet from the crooked piece might
first be canted to the left, and had diverged from the
track of the other bullet with which it was compared,
vet by degrees it deviated again to the right, and a
little beyond the second screen crossed that track
from which it before diverged, and on the wall was
deflected 14 inches, as I remember, on the contrary
side. And this experiment is not only the most con¬
vincing proof of the reality of this deflection hete
contended for *, hut is likewise the strongest confir¬
mation that it is brought about in the very manner and
by the very circumstances which we have all along de¬
scribed.
44 I lu!V.e now only to add, that as I suspected the
consideration of the revolving motion of the bullet,
compounded with its progressive one, might he consi¬
dered as a subject of mathematical speculation, and
that the reality of any deflecting force thence arising
might perhaps be denied by some computists upon the
principles hitherto received of the action of fluids ; I
thought proper to annex a few experiments, with a
view of evincing the strange deficiency of all theories
of this sort hitherto established, aiid the unexpected
and wonderful varieties which occur in these matters :
The proposition which I advanced for this purpose be-
ine, That two equal surfaces meeting the air with tie
saTne degree of obliquity, may be so differently resist¬
ed that though in one of them the resistance is less
than that of a perpendicular sui'face meeting the same
quantity of air, yet in another it shall be considerably
greater.
“ To make out this proposition, I made use of the
anomaly in machine already described : and having prepared a
tUe resist- pasteboard pyramid, whose base was four indies square,
suise wliose pjanes ma(je angles of 450 with the plane of
its base j and also a parallelogram four inches in
E R Y. Sect.]]
breadth, and 5! in length, which was equal to the sur- Theory,
face of the pyramid, the globe P was taken off from
the machine, and the pyramid was fiijst fixed on j and
2lb. being hung at M, and the pyramid so fitted as
to move with its vertex forwards, it performed 20 re¬
volutions after the first ten were elapsed in 33". Then
the pyramid being turned, so that its base, which was
a plane of four inches square, went foremost, it now
performed 20 revolutions with the same weight in
—After this, taking off the pyramid, and fix¬
ing on the parallelogram with its longer side perpendi¬
cular to the arm, and placing its surface in an angle
of 450 with the horizon by a quadrant, the parade*
Ingram with the same weight, performed 20 revolu¬
tions in 43-t".
“ Now here this parallelogram and the surface of
the pyramid are equal to each other, and each of them
met the air in an angle of 450; and yet one of them
made 20 revolutions in 33", whilst the other took up
43f". And at the same time it appears, that a flat
surface, such as the base of a pyramid, which meets
the same quantity of air perpendicularly, makes 20 re¬
volutions in 384;", which is the medium between the
other two.
“ But to give another and still more simple proof
of this principle : there was taken a parallelogram four
inches broad and 84; long. This being fixed at the
end of the arm, with its long side perpendicular there¬
to, and being placed in an angle of 450 with the hori¬
zon, there was a weight hung on at M of 3flb. with
which the parallelogram made 20 revolutions in 40|".
But after this, the position of the parallelogram was
shifted, and it was placed with its shorter side perpen¬
dicular to the arm, though its surface was still inclined
to an angle of 450 with the horizon j and now, instead
of going slower, as might have been expected from the
greater extent of part of its surface from the axis of the
machine, it went round much faster : for in this last
situation it made 20 revolutions in 35?", so that there
were 5" difference in the time of 20 revolutions ; and
this from no other change of circumstance than as the
•larger or shorter side of the oblique plane was perpen¬
dicular to the line of its direction.”
In the 73d volume of the Philosophical Transac-
31
Slrange
    # -- -"   —  I   
tions, several experiments on this subject, but upon a
larger scale, are related by Lovell Edgeworth, Esq.
They confirm the truth of what Mr Robins advances,
but nothing is said to explain the reason of it.
These are the principal experiments made by
Robins in confirmation of his theory, and which nota,t‘J^
only far exceed every thing that had been formerly
done, but even bid fair for advancing the art of gun-^ct.
nery to its ne plus ultra. It must be observed, how¬
ever, that in this art it is impossible we should everar-
rive at absolute perfection; that is, it can never be ex¬
pected that a gunner, by any method of calculation
whatever, can be enabled to point his guns in such a
manner, that the shot shall hit the mark if placed any
■where within its range. Aberrations, which can by no
means be either foreseen or prevented, will take plat®
from a great number of difl'erent causes. A variation
in the density of the atmosphere, in the dampness of
the powder, or in the figure of the shot, will cause
variations in the range of the bullet, which cannot
by any means be reduced to rules, and consequently
must
II. GUNNERY. 167
ry must render the event of each shot very precarious,
w The resistance of the atmosphere simply considered,
without any of those anomalies arising from its density
at different times, is a problem, which, notwithstanding
the labours of Mr Robins and others, hath not been
completely solved : and indeed if we consider the mat¬
ter in a physical light, we shall find, that without some
other data than those which are yet obtained, an exact
solution of it is impossible.
r It is an objection that hath been made to the mathe-
a matical philosophy, and to which in many cases it is
most certainly liable, that it considers the resistance of
as matter more than its capacity of giving motion to other
,r matter. Hence, if in any case matter acts both as a
resisting and a moving power, and the mathematician
overlooks its effort towards motion, founding his de¬
monstrations only upon its property of resisting, these
demonstrations will certainly be false, though they should
be supported by all the powers of geometry. It is to an
error of this kind that we are to attribute the great dif¬
ferences already taken notice of between the calcula¬
tions of Sir Isaac Newton, with regard to the resisting
force of fluids, and what actually takes place upon trial.
These calculations were made upon the supposition that
the fluid through which a body moved could do nothing
else but resist it ; yet it is certain that the air (the
fluid with which we have to do at present) proves a
source of motion, as well as resistance, to all bodies
which move in K.
To understand this matter fully, let ABC (fig. 5.) re¬
present a crooked tube made of any solid matter, and
«, b, two pistons which exactly fill the cavity. If the
space between these pistons is full of air, it is plain they
cannot come into contact with each other on account of
the elasticity of the included air, but will remain at some
certain distance as represented in the figure. If the pi¬
ston b is drawn up, the air which presses in the direc¬
tion C b acts as a resisting power, and the piston will
not be drawn up with such ease as if the whole was in
vacuo. But though the column of air pressing in the
direction C b acts as a resisting power on the piston b,
the column pressing in the direction A a will act as a
moving power upon the piston a. It is therefore plain,
that if b is moved upwards til! it comes to the place
marked d, the other will descend to that marked c.
Now, if we suppose the piston a to be removed, it is
plain, that when b is pulled upwards to d, the air de¬
scending through the leg A«CB will press on the under
side of the piston b, as strongly as it would have done
upon the upper side of the piston a, had it been pre¬
sent. Therefore, though the air passing down through
the legCB resists the motion of the piston b when drawn
upwards, the air pressing down through the leg AB for¬
wards it as much j and accordingly the piston b may be
drawn up or pushed down at pleasure, and with very
little trouble. But if the orifice at A is stopped, so that
the air can only exert its resisting power on the piston
b, it will require a considerable degree of strength to
move the piston from b to d.
If now we suppose the tube to be entirely removed
(which indeed answers no other purpose than to render
the action of the air more evident), it is plain, that if
the piston is moved either up or down, or in any other
direction we can imagine, the air presses as much upon
ilic back part of it as it resists it on the lore part j and
of consequence a ball moving through the air with Theory,
any degree of velocity, ought to be as much accelera- —nt—
ted by the action of the air behind, as it is retarded by
the action of that before.——Here then it is natural to
ask, If the air accelerates a moving body as much as it
retards it, how comes it to make any resistance at all ?
yet certain it is, that this fluid doth resist, and that
very considerably. To this it may be answered, that
the air is always kept in some certain state or constitu¬
tion by another power which rules all its motions, and
it is this power undoubtedly which gives the resistance.
It is not to our purpose at present to inquire what that
power is j but we see that the air is often in very dif¬
ferent states j one day, for instance, its parts are vio¬
lently agitated by a storm j and another, perhaps, they
are comparatively at rest in a calm. In the first case,
nobody hesitates to own, that the storm is occasioned
by some cause or other, which violently resists any
other power that would prevent the agitation of the air.
In a calm the case is the same ; for it would require
the same exertion of power to excite a tempest in a
calm day, as to allay a tempest in a stormy one. Now
it is evident, that all projectiles, by their motion, agi¬
tate the atmosphere in an unnatural manner and con¬
sequently are resisted by that power, whatever it is,
which tends to restore the equilibrium, or bring back
the atmosphere to its former state.
If no other power besides that above mentioned act¬
ed upon projectiles, it is probable, that all resistance
to their motion would be in the duplicate proportion
of their velocities ; and accordingly, as long as the ve¬
locity is small, we find it generally is so. But when
the velocity comes to be exceedingly great, other sour¬
ces of resistance arise. One of these is a subtraction
of part of the moving power *, which though not pro¬
perly a resistance, or opposing another power to it, is
an equivalent thereto. This subtraction arises from
the following cause. The air, as we have already ob¬
served, presses upon the hinder part of the moving bo¬
dy by its gravity, as much as it resists the fore part
of it by the same property. Nevertheless the velocity
with which the air presses upon any body by means of
its gravity, is limited ; and it is possible that a body
may change its place with so great velocity that the
air hath not time to rush in upon the back part of it
in order to assist its progressive motion. When thi*
happens to be the case, there is in the first place a de¬
ficiency of the moving power equivalent to 15 pounds
on every square inch of surface j at the same time that
there is a positive resistance of as much more on the
fore part, owing to the gravity of the atmosphere,
which must be overcome before the body can mov*
forward.
This deficiency of moving power, and increase of re¬
sistance, do not only take place when the body moves
with a very great degree of velocity, but in all motions
whatever. It is not in all cases perceptible, because
the velocity with which the body moves, frequently
bears but a very small proportion to the velocity with
which the air presses in behind it. Thus, supposing
the velocity with which the air rushes into a vacuum to
he 1200 feet in a second, if a body moves with a velo¬
city of 40, or 50 feet in a second, the force with
which the air presses on the back part is but -jy at the
utmost less than that which resists on the fore part of it,
5 which-.
31
i68
Theory, which will not be perceptible: but if, as in the case of
—y—' bullets, the velocity of the projectile comes to have a
considerable proportion to the velocity wherewith the
air rushes in behind it ; then a very perceptible and
otherwise unaccountable resistance is observed, as we
have seen in the experiments already related by Mr
liobins. Thus, if the air presses in with a velocity of
j200 feet in a second, if the body changes its place
with a velocity of 600 feet in the same time, there is
a resistance of 15 pounds on the fore part, and a pres¬
sure of only 7I- on the back part. The resistance
therefore not only overcomes the moving power of the
air by 7^ pounds, but there is a deficiency of other
7^- pounds owing to the want of half the pressure of the
atmosphere on the back part, and thus the whole loss of
the moving power is equivalent to 15 pounds $ and
hence the exceeding great increase of resistance obser¬
ved by Mr Robins beyond what it ought to be accord¬
ing to the common computations.—The velocity with
which the air rushes into a vacuum is therefore a desi¬
deratum in gunnery. Mr Robins supposes that it is
the same with the velocity of sound ; and that when a
bullet moves with a velocity greater than that of 1200
feet in a second, it leaves a perfect vacuum behind it.
Hence he accounts for the great increase of resistance
to bullets moving with such velocities ; but as he doth
not take notice of the loss of the air’s moving power,
the anomalies of all lesser velocities are inexplicable on
his principles. Nay, he even tells us, that Sir Isaac
Newton’s rule for computing resistances may be applied
in all velocities less than 1100 or 1200 feet in a second,
though this is expressly contradicted by his own expe¬
riments mentioned N° 23.
It resists by Though for these reasons it is evident how great dif-
iu elasti- ficulties must occur in attempting to calculate the re-
siity as yvell sistance of the air to military projectiles, we have not
as gravity. yet even discovered all the sources of resistance to these
bodies when moving with immense velocities. Another
power by which they are opposed (and which at last
becomes greater than any of those hitherto mentioned)
is the air’s elasticity. This, however, will not begin
to show itself in the way of resistance till the velocity
of the moving body becomes considerably greater than
that by which the air presses into a vacuum. Having
therefore first ascertained this velocity, which we shall
suppose to be 1200 feet in a second, it is plain, that
if a body moves with a velocity of 1800 feet in a se¬
cond, it must compress the air before it ; because the
fluid hath neither time to expand itself in order to fill
the vacuum left behind the moving body, nor to rush
in by its gravity. This compression it will resist by
its elastic power, which thus becomes a new source of
resistance, increasing, without any limit, in proportion
to the velocity of the moving body. If now we sup¬
pose the moving body to set out with a velocity of
24CO feet in a second, it is plain, that there is not on¬
ly a vacuum left behind the body, but the air before
it is compressed into half its natural space. The loss
of motion in the projectile therefore is now very consi¬
derable. It first loses 15 pounds on every square inch
of surface on account of the deficiency of the moving
power of the air behind it ; then it loses 15 pounds
more on account of the resistance of the air before it;
again it loses 15 pounds on account of the elasticity of
the compressed air$ and lastly another 15 pounds on ac«
Sect. I
count of the vacuum behind, which takes off the weight
of the atmosphere, that would have been equivalent to y-*
one half of the elasticity of the air before it. The whole
resistance therefore upon every square inch of surface
moving with this velocity is 60 pounds, besides that
which arises from the power tending to preserve the
general state of the atmosphere, and which increases in
the duplicate proportion of the velocity as already men¬
tioned. If the body is supposed to move with a velo¬
city of 4800 feet in a second, the resistance from the
air’s elasticity will then be quadrupled, or amount to
60 pounds on the square inch of surface ; which added
to the other causes, produces a resistance of 105 pounds
upon the square inch ; and thus would the resistance
from the elasticity of the air go on continually increa¬
sing, till at last the motion of the projectile would be
as effectually stopped as if it was fired against a wall.
This obstacle therefore we are to consider as really in¬
superable by any art whatever, and therefore it is not
advisable to use larger charges of powder than what
will project the shot with a velocity of 1200 feet in a
second. To this velocity the elasticity of the air will
not make great resistance, if indeed it makes any at
all: for though Mr Robins hath conjectured that air
rushes into a vacuum with the velocity of sound, or
between II and 1200 feet in a second ; yet we have no
decisive proof of the truth of this supposition. At this
velocity indeed, according to Mr Robins, a very sud¬
den increase of resistance takes place : but this is denied
by Mr Glenie*, who supposes that the resistance pro-«
ceeds gradually; and indeed it seems to be pretty oh-Gmcy,
vious, that the resistance cannot very suddenly increase, P* 48,3:
if the velocity is only increased in a small degree. Yet
it is certain, that the swiftest motions with which can¬
non-balls can be projected are very soon reduced to
this standard ; for Mr Robins acquaints us, that “ a
24-pound shot, when discharged with a velocity of
2000 feet in a second, will be reduced to that of
1200 feet in a second in a flight of little more than
500 yards.”
In the 71st Volume of the Philosophical Transactions,
Count Rumford has proposed a new method of de¬
termining the velocities of bullets, by measuring the
force of the recoil of the piece. As in all cases ac¬
tion and re-action are supposed to be equal to one an¬
other, it appears that the momentum of a gun, or the
force of its recoil backwards, must always be equivalent
to the force of its charge : that is, the velocity with
which the gun recoils, multiplied into its weight, is
equal to the velocity of the bullet multiplied into its
weight; for every particle of matter, whether solid or
fluid, that issues out of the mouth of a piece, must be
impelled by the action of some power, which power
must re-act with equal force against the bottom of the
bore.—Even the fine invisible elastic fluid that is ge¬
nerated from the powder in its inflammation, cannot
put itself in motion without re-acting against the gun
at the same time. Thus rve see pieces, when they are
fired with powder alone, recoil as well as when their
charges are made to impel a weight of shot, though
the recoil is not in the same degree in both cases. It
is easy to determine the velocity of the recoil in any
gjven case, by suspending the gun in an horizontal po¬
sition by two pendulous rods, and measuring the arc ot
its ascent by means of a ribbon, as mentioned under
GUNNERY.
1
-
. II. GUN
Tj >ry. the article GUNPOWDER j and this will give the mo-
— mentum of the gun, its weight being known, and con¬
sequently the momentum of its charge. But in order
to determine the velocity of the bullet from the mo¬
mentum of the recoil, it will be necessary to know how
much the weight and velocity of the elastic fluid con¬
tributes to it.
“ That part of the recoil which arises from the ex¬
pansion of the fluid is always very nearly the same,
whether the powder is fired alone, or whether the
charge is made to impel one or more bullets, as has
been determined by a great variety of experiments.—
If therefore a gun, suspended according to the method
prescribed, is fired with any given charge of powder,
but without any bullet or wad, and the recoil is ob¬
served, and if the same piece is afterwards fired with
the same quantity of powder, and a bullet of a known
weight, the excess of the velocity of the recoil in the
latter case, over that in the former, will be propor¬
tional to the velocity of the bullet j for the difference
of these velocities, multiplied into the weight of the
gun, will be equal to the weight of the bullet multi¬
plied into its velocity.—Thus, if W is put equal to
the weight of the gun, 11= the velocity of the bullet
when fired with a given charge of powder without any
bullet; V= the velocity of the recoil, when the same
charge is made to impel a bullet; B =: the weight
of the bullet, and v— its velocity; it will be v=
^tr+w,,
B
To determine how far this theory agreed with prac¬
tice, an experiment was made with a charge of 165
grains of powder, without any bullet, which produced
a recoil of 5.5 inches; and in another, with a bullet,
the recoil was 5.6 inches ; the mean of which is 5.55
inches ; answering to a velocity of 1.1358 feet in a se¬
cond. In five experiments with the same charge of
powder, and a bullet weighing 580 grains, the mean
was 14.6 inches; and the velocity of the recoil answer¬
ing to the length just mentioned, is 2.9880 feet in a
second: consequently V—U, or 2.9880—1.1358, is
equal to 1.8522 feet in a second. But as the veloci¬
ties of recoil are known to be as the chords of the arcs
through which the barrel ascends, it is not necessary,
in order to determine the velocity of the bullet, to com¬
pute the velocities V and U; but the quantity V—U,
or the difference of the velocities of the recoil when the
given charge is fired with and without a bullet, may be
computed from the value of the difference of the chords
by one operation.—Thus the velocity answering to the
chord 9.05 is that of 1.8522 feet in a second, is just
equal to V—U, as was before found.
In this experiment the weight of the barrel with its
carriage was just 47I pounds, to which £ of a pound
were to be added on account of the weight of the rods
by which it was suspended ; which makes W=:48
pounds, or 336,000 grains. The weight of the bul¬
let was 580 grains ; whence B is to W as 580 to
336,000; that is, as 1 to 579.31 very nearly. The
value of V—U, answering to the experiments before
mentioned, was found to be 1.8522 ; consequently the
velocity of the bullets =rr>, was 1.8522X 579.31 = 1073
feet which differs only by 10 from loS^the velod-
ties found by the pendulum.
Vol. X. Part I. j.
N E R Y.
The velocities of the bullets may be found from the
recoil by a still more simple method ; for the velocities
of the recoil being as the chords measured upon the
ribbon, if c is put equal to the chord of the recoil ex¬
pressed in English inches, when the piece is fired with
powder only, and C= the chord when the same piece
is charged with a bullet: then C—c will be as V U ;
vZtj+w
and consequently as  ^—•—, which measures the
velocity of the bullet, the ratio of W to B remaining
the same.—If therefore we suppose a case in which
C—c is equal to one inch, and the velocity of the bul¬
let is computed from that chord, the velocity in any
other case, wherein C—c is greater or less than one
inch, will be found by multiplying the difference of the
chords C and c by the velocity that answers to the dif¬
ference of one inch.—The length of the parallel rods,
by which the piece was suspended being 64 inches, the
velocity of the recoil, =C—c=l inch measured upon
the ribbon, is 0.204655 parts of a foot in one second ;
which in this case is also the value of V—U : the ve¬
locity ol the bullet, or v, is therefore 0.204655 X 579.
31 = 118.35 feet in a second. Hence the velocity of
the bullet may in all cases be found by multiplying the
difference of the chords C and c by 118.35 ; the weight
of the barrel, the length of the rods by which it" is
suspended, and the weight of the bullet, remaining the
same ; and this whatever the charge of powder made
use of may be, and however it may differ in strength
and goodness.
The exactness of this second method will appear
from the following experiments. On firing the piece
with 145 grains of powder and a bullet, the mean of
three sets of experiments was 13.25, 13.15, and 13.2;
and with the same charge of powder without a bullet,
the recoil was 4.5, 4.3, or 4.4 : C—c therefore was
13.2—4.4=8.8 inches; and the velocity of the bullets,
=8.8 X 118.35=1045 feet in a second ; the velocities
by the pendulum coming out 10.40 feet in the same
space of time.
In the far greatest number of experiments to de¬
termine the comparative accuracy of the two methods,
a surprising agreement was found betwixt the last-men¬
tioned one and that by the pendulum ; but in some few
the differences were very remarkable. Thus, in two
where the recoil was 12.92 and 13.28, the velocity, by
computation from the chords, is 1030 feet per second ;
but in computing by the pendulum it amounted only
to 900 ; but in these some inaccuracy was suspected in
the experiment with the pendulum, and that the com¬
putation from the recoil was most to be depended up¬
on. In another experiment, the velocity by the re¬
coil exceeded that by the pendulum by no less than
346 feet; the former showing 2109, an^ the latter on-
Jy 1763 feet in n second. In two others the pendulum
was also deficient, though not in such a degree. In
all these it is remarkable, that where the difference
was considerable, it was still in favour of the recoil.
The deficiency in these experiments appears to have
been somewhat embarrassing to our author. “ It can¬
not be supposed, says he, that it arose from any im¬
perfection in Mr Bobins’s method of determining the
velocities of bullets ; for that method is founded upon
such principles as leave no room to doubt of its accura-
T
1 ey;
170
GUN
Theory, cy > and the practical errors that occur in making the
v——^ experiments, and which cannot be entirely prevented, or
exactly compensated, are in general so small, that the
difference in the velocities cannot be attributed to them.
It is true, the effect of those errors is more likely to
appear in experiments made under such circumstances
as the present j for the bullet being very light (a), the
arc of the ascent of the pendulum was but small j and
a small mistake in measuring the chord upon the rib¬
bon would have produced a very considerable error in
computing the velocity of the bullet: Thus a difference
of one-tenth of an inch, more or less, upon the ribbon,
in that experiment where the difference was greatest,
would have made a difference in the velocity of more
than 120 feet in a second. But, independent of the
pains that were taken to prevent mistakes, the striking
agreement of the velocities in so many other experi¬
ments, affords abundant reason to conclude, that the
errors arising from those causes were in no case very
considerable.—But if both methods of determining the
velocities of bullets are to be relied on, then the dif¬
ference of the velocities, as determined by them in these
experiments, can only be accounted for by supposing
that it arose from their having been diminished by the
resistance of the air in the passage of the bullets from
the mouth of the piece to the pendulum j and this sus¬
picion will be much strengthened, when we consider
how great the resistance of the air is to bodies that
move very swiftly in it; and that the bullets in these
experiments were not only projected with great veloci¬
ties, but were also very light, and consequentlv more
liable to be retarded by the resistance on that ac¬
count.
“ To put the matter beyond all doubt, let us see
what the resistance was that these bullets met with, and
how much their velocities were diminished by it. The
weight of the bullet in the most emmeous experiment
was 90 grains ; its diameter 0.78 of an inch ; and it was
projected with a velocity of 2109 feet in a second. If
now a computation be made according to the law laid
down by Sir Isaac Newton for compressed fluids, it
will be found, that the resistance to this bullet was not
less than 8J- pounds avoirdupois, which is something
more than 660 times its own weight. But Mr Robins
has shewn by experiment, that the resistance of the air
to bodies moving in it with very great velocity, is
near three times greater than Sir Isaac has determined
it; and as the velocity with which this bullet was im¬
pelled is considerably greater than any in Mr Robins’s
experiments, it is highly probable, that the resistance
in this instance was at least 2000 times greater than
the weight of the bullet.
“ The distance from the mouth of the piece to the
pendulum was 12 feet; but, as there is reason to think
that the blast of the powder, which always follows the
bullet, continues to act upon it for some sensible space
of time after it is out of the bore, and, by urging it
on, counterbalances, or at least counteracts in a great
measure, the resistance of the air, we will suppose that
the resistance does not begin, or rather that the mo¬
tion of the bullet does not begin to be retarded, till it
N E R Y. Sect,
lias got to the distance of two feet from the muxile, xtew
The distance, therefore, between the barrel and the'
pendulum, instead of 12 feet, is to be esteemed at 10
feet; and as the bullet took up about part of a
second in running over that space, it must in that time
have lost a velocity of about 335 feet in a second, as
will appear upon making the computation ; and this
will very exactly account for the apparent diminution
of the velocity in the experiment: for the difl’erence of
the velocities, as determined by the recoil and the pen¬
dulum =1:2109—1763 = 3^6 feet in a second, is ex¬
tremely near 335 feet in a second, the diminution of
the velocity by the resistance as here determined.
“ If the diminution of the velocities of the bullets
in the two subsequent experiments be computed in like
manner, it will turn out in one 65, and in the other
33, feet in a second : and making these corrections, the
comparison of the two methods of ascertaining the ve¬
locities will stand thus :
Velocities by the pendulum, 1763 I317 II3^
Resistance of air to he added, 335 65 33
Velocity by the recoil.
2098 1382 1169
2109 1430 1288
Difference after correction, +11 +4^ +II9
“ It appears, therefore, that notwithstanding these
corrections, the velocities as determined by the pendu¬
lum, particularly in the last, were considerably defici¬
ent. But the manifest irregularity of the velocities in
those instances, affords abundant reason to conclude,
that it must have arisen from some accidental cause,
and therefore that little dependence is to be put upon
the result of those experiments. I cannot take upon
me to determine positively what the cause was which
produced this irregularity, but I strongly suspect that
it arose from the breaking of the bullets in the barrel
by the force of the explosion : for these bullets, as has
already been mentioned, were formed of lead, inclosing
lesser bullets of plaster of Paris ; and I well remember
to have observed at the time several small fragments of
the plaster which had fallen down by the side of the
pendulum. I confess I did not then pay much atten¬
tion to this circumstance, as I naturally concluded that
it arose from the breaking of the bullet in penetrating
the target of the pendulum ; and that the small pieces
of plaster I saw upon the ground, had fallen out of the
hole by which the bullet entered. But if the bullets
were not absolutely broken in pieces in firing, yet if
they were considerably bruised, and the plaster, or a
part of it, were separated from the lead, such a change
in the form might produce a great increase in the re¬
sistance, and even their initial velocities might be af¬
fected by it ; for their form being changed from that
of a globe to some other figure, they might not fit the
bore ; and a part of the force of the charge might be
lost by the wdndage That this actually happened in
the experiment last mentioned, seems very probable,
as the velocity with which the bullet was projected, as
it
(a) They were made of lead inclosing a nucleus of Paris plaster.
!e<. III.
XI ry. it was determined by tb-e recoil, was considerably less
in proportion in that experiment than in many others
which preceded and followed it in the same set.
“ As allowance has been made for the resistance of
the air in these cases, it may be expected that the same
should be done in all other cases : but it will probably
appear, upon inquiry, that the diminution of the velo¬
cities of the bullets, on that account, was so inconsi¬
derable, that it might safely be neglected : thus, for
instance, in the experiments with an ounce of powder,
when the velocity of the bullet was more than 1750
feet in a second, the diminution turns out no more than
25 or 30 feet in a second, though we suppose the full
resistance to have begun so near as two feet from the
mouth of the piece ; and in all cases where the veloci¬
ty was less, the effect of the resistance was less in a much
greater proportion : and even in this instance, there is
reason to think, that the diminution of the velocity, as
we have determined it, is too great: for the flame of
gunpowder expands with such amazing rapidity, that
it is scarcely to be supposed but that it follows the bul¬
let, and continues to act upon it more than two feet,
or even four feet from the gun; and when the velocity
of the bullet is less, its action upon it must be sensible
at a still greater distance.”
As this method of determining the velocities of bul¬
lets by the recoil of the piece did not occur to Count
Rumford till after he had finished his experiments with
a pendulum, and taken down his apparatus, he bad it
not in his power to determine the comparative strength
of the recoil without and with a bullet ; and conse¬
quently the velocity with which the flame issues from
the mouth of a piece. He is of opinion, however, that
every thing relative to these matters may be determi¬
ned with greater accuracy by the new method than by
any other formerly practised j and he very justly re¬
marks, that the method of determining the velocity by
the recoil, gives it originally as the bullet sets out;
while that by the pendulum shows it only after a part
has been destroyed by the resistance of the air. In the
course of his remarks, he criticises upon a part of Mr
Robins’s theory, that when bullets of the same diame¬
ter, but different weights are discharged from the same
piece by the same quantity of powder, their velocities
are in the sub-duplicate ratio of their weight. This theo¬
ry, he observes, is manifestly defective, as being found¬
ed upon a supposition, that the action of the elastic
fluid, generated from the powder, is always the same
in any and every given part of the bore when the charge
is the same, whatever may be the weight of the bullet;
and as no allowance is made for the expenditure of
force required to put the fluid itself in motion, nor for
the loss of it by the vent. “ It is true (says he) Dr
Hutton in bis experiments found this law to obtain
without any great error ; and possibly it may hold good
with sufficient accuracy in many cases; for it sometimes
happens, that a number of errors or actions, whose
operations have a contrary tendency, so compensate
each other, that their effects when united are not sen¬
sible. But when this is the case, if any one of the
causes of error is removed, those which remain will be
detected.—When any given charge is loaded with a
heavy bullet, more ot the powder is inflamed in any
very short space of time than when the bullet is light¬
er, and the action of the powder ought upon that ac-
I7I
count to.be greater; but a heavy bullet takes up long- practice.
er time in passing through the We than a light one ; >—y—;
and consequently more of the elastic fluid generated
from the powder escapes by the vent and by windage.
It may happen that the augmentation of the force, on
account of one of these circumstances, maybe just able
to counterbalance the diminution of it arising from the
other; and if it should be found upon trial, that this
is the case in general, in pieces as they are now con¬
structed, and with all the variety of shot that are made
use of in practice, it would be of great use to know
the fact ; but when, with Air Robins, concluding too
hastily from the result of a partial experiment, we sup¬
pose, that because the sum total of the pressure of the
elastic fluid upon the bullet, during the time of its pas¬
sage through the bore, happens to be the same when
bullets of different weights are made use of, that there¬
fore it is always so, our reasonings may prove very in¬
conclusive, and lead to very dangerous errors.”
In the prosecution ofhissubjectCountllumford proves
mathematically, as well as by actual experiment, that
the theory laid down by Mr Robins in this respect is
erroneous. The excess is in favour of heavy bullets,
which acquire a velocity greater than they ought to
do according to Mr Robins’s rule ; and so considerable
are the errors, that in one of Count Rumford’s experi¬
ments, the difference was no less than 2042 feet in a
second. WThen the weight of the bullet was increased
four times, the action of the powder rvas found to be
nearly doubled ; for in one experiment, when four bul¬
lets were discharged at once, the collective pressure was
as I ; but when only a single bullet was made use of, it
was no more than 0.5825 ; and on the whole he con¬
cludes, that the velocity of bullets is in the reciprocal
sub-triplicate ratio of their weights. Our author ob¬
serves also, that Air Robins is not only mistaken in the
particular just mentioned, but in his conclusions with
regard to the absolute force of gunpowder compared
with the pressure of the atmosphere ; the latter being
to the force of gunpowder as 1 to 1000 according to
Air Robins ; but as I to 1308 according to Count Rum-
ford.
Sect. III. Practice of Gunnery.
With regard to the practical part of gunnery, which
ought to consist in directing the piece in such a man¬
ner as always to hit the object against which it is
pointed, there can be no certain rules given. The fol¬
lowing maxims are laid down by Air Robins as of use
in practice.
1. In any piece of artillery whatever, the greater
the quantity of powder it is charged with, the greater
will be the velocity of the bullet.
2. If two pieces of the same bore, but of different
lengths, are fired with the same charge of powder, the
longer will impel the bullet with a greater celerity
than the shorter.
3. If two pieces of artillery different in weight, and
formed of different metals, have yet their cylinders of
equal bores and equal lengths; then with like charges
of powder and like bullets they will each of them dis¬
charge their shot with nearly the same degree of cele¬
rity.
4. The ranges of pieces at a given elevation are no
Y 2 just
GUNNERY,
172
Practice. measures of the velocity of the shot *, for the same
piece fire it successively at an invariable elevation, with
the powder, bullet, and every other circumstance as
nearly the same as possible, will yet range to very dif¬
ferent distances.
5. The greatest part of that uncertainty in the ranges
of pieces which is described in the preceding maxim,
can only arise from the resistance ol the air.
6. The resistance of the air acts upon projectiles in
a twofold manner ; for it opposes their motion, and by
that means continually diminishes their celerity j and
it besides diverts them from the regular track they
would otherwise follow *, whence arise those deviations
and inflections already treated of.
7. That action of the air by which it retards the
motion of projectiles, though much neglected by wri¬
ters on artillery, is yet, in many instances, of an im¬
mense force $ and hence the motion of these resisted
bodies is totally different from what it would other¬
wise be.
8. Til is retarding force of the air acts with different
degrees of violence, according as the projectile moves
with a greater or less velocity ; and the resistances
observe this law, That to a velocity which is double
another, the resistance within certain limits is fourfold j
to a treble velocity, ninefold ; and so on.
9. But this proportion between the resistances to
two different velocities, does not hold if one of the ve¬
locities he less than that of 1200 feet in a second, and
the other greater. For in that case the resistance to
the greater velocity is near three times as much as it
would come out by a comparison with the smaller, ac¬
cording to the law explained in the last maxim.
10. To the extraordinary power exerted by the re¬
sistance of the air it is owing, that when two pieces of
different bores are discharged at the same elevation,
the piece of the largest bore usually ranges farthest,
provided they are both fired with fit bullets, and the
customary allotment of powder.
11. The greatest part of military projectiles will at
the time of their discharge acquire a whirling motion
round their axis by rubbing against the inside of their
respective pieces; and this whirling motion will cause
them to strike the air very differently from what
thi'y would do had they no other than a progressive
motion. By this means it will happen, that, the re¬
sistance of the air will not always be directly opposed
to their flight ; but will frequently act in a line oblique
to their course, and will thereby force them to deviate
from the regular track they would otherwise describe.
And this is the true cause of the irregularities describ¬
ed in maxim 4.
12. From the sudden trebling the quantity of the
air’s resistance, when the projectile moves swifter than
at the rate.of I2QO feet in a second (as hath been ex¬
plained in maxim 9.), it follows, that whatever be the
regular range of a ballet discharged with this last-
mentioned velocity, that range will he hut little in¬
creased how much soever the velocity of the bullet
may be still farther augmented by greater charges of
powder.
13. If the same piece of cannon he successively fired
at an invariable elevation, but with various charges of
powder, the greatest charge being the whole weight
of the bullet in powder, and the least not less than the
3 "
Sect, t
fifth part of that weight •, then if the elevation he not praclj(
less than eight or ten degrees, it will be found, thatv
some of the ranges with the least charge will exceed
some of those with the greatest.
14. If two pieces of cannon of the same bore, hut
of different lengths, are successively fired at the same
elevation with the same charge of powder ; then it
will frequently happen, that some of the ranges with
the shorter piece will exceed some of those with the
longer.
15. In distant cannonadings, the advantages arising
from long pieces and large charges of powder are but
of little moment.
16. In firing against troops with grape-shot, it will
be found, that charges of powder much less than those
generally used, are the most advantageous.
17. The principal operations in which large charges
of powder appear to be more efficacious than small ones,
are the ruining of parapets, the dismounting of batteries
covered by stout merlings, or battering in breach j for,
in all these cases, if the object be but little removed
from the piece, every increase of velocity will increase
the penetration of the bullet.
18. Whatever operations are to he performed by ar¬
tillery, the least charges of powder with which they can
be effected are always to be preferred.
19. H ence, then, the proper charge of any piece
of artillery is not that allotment of powder which will
communicate the greatest velocity to the bullet (as
most practitioners formerly maintained) 5 nor is it to be
determined by an invariable proportion of its weight to
the weight of the hall : but, on the contrary, it is such
a quantity of powder as will produce the least velocity
for the purpose in hand j and, instead of bearing al¬
ways a fixed ratio to the weight of the hall, it must be
different according to the different business which is to
be performed.
20. No field-piece ought at any time to he loaded
with more than J, or at the utmost j, of the weight of
its bullet in powder, nor should the charge of any bat¬
tering piece exceed -f of the weight of its bullet.
21. Although precepts very different from those we
have here given have often been advanced by artille¬
rists, and have been said to be derived from experience;
yet is that pretended experience altogether fallacious;
since from our doctrine of resistance established above,
it follows, that every speculation on the subject of ai-
tillery, which is only founded on the experimental
ranges of bullets discharged with considerable veloci¬
ties, is liable to great uncertainty. -6 ;
The greatest irregularities in the motion of bulletsDesui|ii
are, as we have seen, owing to the whirling motion on an<1‘^
their axis, acquired by the friction against the sides
the piece. The best method hitherto known of pre¬
venting these is by the use of pieces with rifled barrels.
These pieces have the insides of their cylinders cut
with a number of spiral channels : so that it is in rea¬
lity a female screw, varying from the common screws
only in this, that its threads or rifles are less deflected,
and approach more to a right line ; it being usual for
the threads with which the rifled barrel is indented,
to take little more than one turn in its whole length.
The numbers of these threads are different in each
barrel, according to the size of the piece and the
fancy of the workman ; and in like manner the depth
t«
GUNNERY.
III. GUNNERY.
17.5
„c to which they are cut is not regulated by any invari-
able rule.
The usual method of charging these pieces is this:
When the proper quantity of powder is put down, a
leaden bullet is taken, a small matter larger than the
bore of the piece was before the rifles were cut: and
this bullet being laid on the mouth of the piece, and
consequently too large to go down of itself, it is forced
by a strong rammer impelled by a mallet, and by re¬
peated blows is driven home to the powder; and the
softness of the lead giving way to the violence with
which the bullet is impelled, that zone of the bullet
which is contiguous to the piece varies its arcular
form, and takes the shape of the inside of the barrel;
so that it becomes part of a male screw exactly answer¬
ing to the incidents of the rifle.
In some parts of Germany and Switzerland, how¬
ever, an improvement is added to this practice ; espe¬
cially in the larger pieces which are used for shooting
at great distances. This is done by cutting a piece
of very thin leather, or of thin fustian, in a circular
shape, somewhat larger than the bore of the barrel.
This circle being greased on one side, is laid upon the
muzzle with its greasy side downwards; and the bullet
being then placed upon it, is forced down the barrel
with it; by which means the leather or fustian incloses
the lower half of the bullet, and, by its interposition
between the bullet and the rifles, prevents the lead
from being cut by them. But it must be remembered,
that in the barrels where this is practised, the rifles
are generally shallow, and the bullet ought not to be
too large.—But as both these methods of charging at
the mouth take up a good deal of time, the rifled
barrels winch have been made in Britain are con¬
trived to be charged at the breech, where the piece is
for this purpose made larger than in any other part.
The powder and bullet are put in through the side of
the barrel by an opening, winch, when the piece is
loaded, is then filled up with a screw. By this means,
when the piece is fired, the bullet is forced through
the rifles, and acquires the spiral motion already de¬
scribed ; and perhaps somewhat of this kind, says Mr
Robins, though not in the manner now practised, would
be of all others the most perfect method for the con¬
struction of these kinds of barrels.
From the whirling motion communicated by the
rifles, it happens, that when the piece is fired, that
indented zone of the bullet follows the sweep of the
rifles; and thereby, besides its progressive motion, ac¬
quires a circular motion round the axis of the piece ;
which circular motion will be continued to the bullet,
alter its separation from the piece; and thus a bullet
discharged from a rifled barrel is constantly made to
whirl round an axis which is coincident with the line
<d its flight. By this whirling on its axis, the aber¬
ration of the bullet, which proves so prejudicial to all
operations in gunnery, is almost totally prevented.
I he reason ot this may be easily understood from con¬
sidering the slow motion of an arrow through the air.
I'or example, if a bent arrow, with its wings not placed
in some degree in a spiral position, so as to make it
revolve round its axis as it flies through the air, were
shot at a mark with a true direction, it would con-
*ta«tly deviate from it, in consequence of being
pressed to one side by the convex part opposing the
air obliquely. Let us now suppose this deflection in Practice,
a flight of 100 yards to be equal to 10 yards. Now, ~
if the same bent arrow were made to revolve round its
axis once every two yards of its flight, its greatest de¬
viation would take place when it had proceeded only
one yard, or made half a revolution ; since at the end
of the next half revolution it would again return to
the same direction it had at first; the convex side of
the arrow having been once in opposite positions. In
this manner it would proceed during the whole course
of its flight, constantly returning to the true path at
the end of every two yards; and when it reached the
mark, the greatest deflection to either side that could
happen wmuld be equal to what it makes in proceed¬
ing one yard, equal to T^o-th part of the former, or
3.6 inches, a very small deflection when compared
with the former one» In the same manner, a cannon-
ball which turns not round its axis, deviates greatly
from the true path, on account of the inequalities on
its surface; which, although small, cause great devia¬
tions by reason of the resistance of the air, at tbe same
time that the ball acquires a motion round its axis in
some uncertain direction occasioned by tbe friction
against its sides. But by tbe motion acquired from
the rifles, the error is perpetually corrected in the
manner just now described ; and accordingly such pieces
are much more to be depended on, and will do execu-.
tion at a much greater distance than the other.
The reasons commonly alleged for the superiority
of rifle-barrels over common ones, are, either that the
inflammation of the powder is greater, by the resist¬
ance which the bullet makes by being thus forced into
the barrel, and that hereby it receives a much greater
impulse; or that the bullet by the compounding of
its circular and revolving motions, did as it were bore
the air, and thereby flew to a much greater distance
than it would otherwise have done; or that by the
same boring motion it made its way through all solid
substances, and penetrated into them much deeper
than when fired in the common manner. But Mr
Robins hath proved these reasons to be altogether
erroneous, by a great number of experiments made
with rifle-barrelled pieces. “ In these experiments (says
he), I have found that the velocity of the bullet fired
from a rifled barrel was usually less than that of the
bullet fired from a common piece with the same pro¬
portion of powder. Indeed it is but reasonable to
expect that this should he the case ; for if the rifles
are very deep, and the bullet is large enough to fill
them up, the friction bears a very considerable pro¬
portion to the effort of the powder. And that in this
case the friction is of consequence enough to have its
effects observed, I have discovered by the continued
use of the same barrel. For the metal of the barrel
being soft, and wearing away apace, its bore by half
a year’s use was considerably enlarged, and consequent¬
ly the depths of its rifles diminished ; and then I found
that the same quantity of powder Avould give to the
bullet a velocity near a tenth part greater than what
it had done at first. And as the velocity of the bul¬
let is not increased by the use of rifled barrels, so nei¬
ther is the distance to which it flies, nor the depth of
its penetration into solid substances. Indeed these two
last suppositions seern at first sight too chimerical to
deserve a formal confutation. But I cannot help qbr
servings
1 74
Practice, serving, that those who have been habituated to the
Y——' use of rifled pieces are very excusable in giving way to
these prepossessions. For they constantly found, that
with them they could fire at a mark with tolerable
success, though it were placed at three or four times
the distance to which the ordinary pieces wex-e sup-
* posed to reach. And therefore, as they were ignorant
of the true cause of this variety, and did not know
that it arose only from preventing the deflection of the
ball j it was not unnatural for them to imagine that
the superiority of effect in the rifled piece was owing
either to a more violent impulse at first, or to a more
easy passage through the air.
“ In order to confirm the foregoing theory of rifle-
barrelled pieces, I made some experiments by which
it might be seen whether one side of the ball discharged
from them uniformly keeps foremost during the whole
course. To examine this particular, I took a rifled
barrel carrying a bullet of six to the pound $ but in¬
stead of its leaden bullet I used a wooden one of the
same size, made of a soft springy wood, which bent
itself easily into the rifles without breaking. And fi¬
ring the piece thus loaded against a wall at such a di¬
stance as the bullet might not be shivered by the blow,
I always found, that the same surface which lay fore¬
most in the piece continued foremost without any sen¬
sible deflection during the time of its flight. And this
was easily to be observed, by examining the bullet ;
as both the marks of the rifles, and the part that im¬
pinged on the wall, were sufficiently apparent. Now,
as these wooden bullets were but the 16th part of the
weight of the leaden ones, I conclude, that if there
bad been any unequal resistance or deflective power,
its effects must have been extremely sensible upon this
light body, and consequently in some of the trials
I made, the surface which came foremost from the
piece must have been turned round into another situa¬
tion.
“ But again, I took the same piece, and, loading it
now with a leaden ball, I set it nearly upright, sloping
it only three or four degrees from the perpendicular in
the direction of the wind ; and firing it in this situation,
the bullet generally continued about half a minute in
the air, it rising by computation to near three quarters
of a mile perpendicular height. In these trials I found
that the bullet commonly came to the ground to the
leeward of the piece j and at such a distance from it,
as nearly corresponded to the angle of its inclination,
and to the effort of the wind $ it usually falling not
nearer to the piece than 100, nor farther from it than
150, yards. And this is a strong confirmation of the
almost steady flight of this bullet for about a mile
and a half: for wei'e the same trial made with a com¬
mon piece, I doubt not but the deviation would often
amount to half a mile, or perhaps considerably more }
though this experiment would be a very difficult one
to examine, on account of the little chance there would
- - be of discovering where the ball fell.
Balls from “ It must be observed, however, that though the
rifled pieces bullet impelled from a rifle-barrelled piece keeps for a
wili at ^jme f0 regUlar track with sufficient nicety; yet if
viate^from ^ts 80 ^ar extended that the track becomes
their true considerably incurvated, it will then undergo consi-
course. derable deflections. This, according to my expe¬
riments, arises from the angle at last made by the
Sect. Ill
axis on which the bullet turns, and the direction in practict
which it flies ; for that axis continuing nearly parallel't*^
to itself, it must necessarily diverge from the line of
the flight of the bullet, when that line is bent from
its original direction: and when it once happens that
the bullet whirls on an axis which no longer coincides
with the line of its flight, then the unequal resistance
formerly described wili take place, and the deflecting
power hence arising will perpetually increase, as the
track of the bullet, by having its range extended, be¬
comes more and more incurvated.—This matter I have
experienced in a small rifle-barrelled piece, carrying a
leaden ball of near half an ounce weight. For this piece,
charged with one dram of powder, ranged about 550
yards at an angle of 12 degrees with sufficient regula¬
rity ; but being afterwards elevated to an angle of 24
degrees, it then ranged very irregularly, generally de¬
viating from the line of its direction to the left, and in
one case not less than 100 yards. This apparently
arose from the cause above mentioned, as was confirm¬
ed from the constant deviation of the bullet to the left;
for by considering how the revolving motion was con¬
tinued with the progressive one ; it appeared that a de¬
viation that way was to be expected.
“ The best remedy I can think of for this defect is
the making use of bullets of an egg-like form instead
of spherical ones. For if such a bullet hath its shorter
axis made to fit the piece, and it be placed in the bar¬
rel with its smaller end downwards, then it will ac¬
quire by the rifles a rotation round its larger axis ; and
its centre of gravity lying nearer to its fore than its
hinder part, its longer axis will be constantly forced
by the resistance of the air into the line of its flight;
as we see, that by the same means arrows constantly lie
in the line of their direction, however that line be in¬
curvated.
“ But, besides this, there is another circumstance
in the use of these pieces, which renders the flight of
their bullets uncertain when fired at a considerable
elevation. For I find by my experiments, that the
velocity of a bullet fired with the same "quantity of
powder from a rifled barrel, values much more from
itself in different trials than when fired from a com¬
mon piece. This, as I conceive, is owing to the great
quantity of friction, and the impossibility of rendering
it equal in each experiment. Indeed, if the rifles are
not deeply cut, and if the bullet is nicely fitted to the
piece, so as not to require a great force to drive it
down, and if leather or fustian well greased is made
use of between the bullet and barrel, perhaps, by a
careful attention to all these particulars, great part of
the inequality in the velocity of the bullet may be pre¬
vented, and the difficulty in question be in some mea¬
sure obviated : but, till this be done, it cannot be
doubted, that the range of the same piece, at an ele¬
vation, will vary considerably in every trial; although
the charge be each time the same. And this I have
myself experienced, in a number of diversified trials,
with a rifle-barrelled piece loaded at the breech in the
English manner. For here the rifles being indented
very deep, and the bullet so large as to fill them up
completely, I found, that though it flew with sufficient
exactness to the distance of 400 or 500 yards ; yet
when it was raised to an angle of about 12 degrees
(at which angle, being fired with one-fifth of its weight
GUNNERY.
ct III.
GUNNERY.
*75
L, e in powder, its medium range is nearly 1000 yards) j in
^ this case, I say, I found that its range was variable ;
although the greatest care was taken to prevent any
inequalities in the quantity of powder, or in the man¬
ner of charging. And as, in this case, the angle was
too small for the first-mentioned irregularity to produce
the observed effects ; they can only be imputed to the
different velocities which the bullet each time received
by the unequal action of the friction.”
* Thus we see, that it is in a manner impossible en¬
tirely to correct the aberrations arising from the re¬
sistance of the atmosphere ; as even the rifle-barrelled
pieces cannot be depended upon for more than one-
half of their actual range at any considerable elevation.
It becomes therefore a problem very difficult of solution
to know, even within a very considerable distance,
how far a piece will carry its ball with any probability
of hitting its mark, or doing any execution. The best
rules hitherto laid down on this subject are those of
Mr Robins. The foundation of all his calculations is
the velocity with which the bullet flies off from the
mouth of the piece. Mr Robins himself had not op¬
portunities of making many experiments on the velo¬
cities of cannon-balls, and the calculations from smaller
ones cannot always be depended upon. In the 68th
volume of the Phil. Trans. Mr Hutton hath recited a
ie- number of experiments made on cannon carrying balls
bn m from one to three pounds weight. His machine lor
(1^* ^ discovering the velocities of these balls was the same
if n with that of Mr Robins, only of a larger size. His
charges of powder were two, four, and eight ounces ;
and the results of 15 experiments which seem to have
been the most accurate, are as follow.
Velocity with two
ounces.
702 feet in
682
695
7°3
725
Velocity with
four ounces.
to68 feet in 1//
1020
948
973
957
Velocity with
eight ounce?.
1419 feet in 1"
135*
1443
1360
1412
5)3507
Mean veloe. 701
5)4966
993
5)6986
I397
In another course, the mean velocities, with the same
charges of powder, were 613, 873, 1162. “ The mean
velocities of the balls in the first course of experiments
(says Mr Hutton) with two, four, and eight ounces of
powder, are as the numbers I, 1.414, and 1*993 ')
the subduplicate ratio of the weights (two, four, and
eight) give the numbers I, 1.414, and 2, to which the
others are sufficiently near. It is obvious, however,
that the greatest difference lies in the last number,
which answers to the greatest velocity. It will still he
a little more in defect if we make the allowance for the
weights of the balls ; for the mean weights of the halls
with the two and four ounces is iS^ ounces, but of
the eight ounces it is iS-fj diminishing therefore the
number 1.993 in the reciprocal subduplicate ratio of
l8|- to i8|, it becomes 1.985, which falls short of the
number 2 by .015, or the 133d part of itself. A si¬
milar defect was observed in the other course of expe¬
riments ; and both are owing to three evident causes,
viz. 1. The less leagth of cylinder through which the
ball was impelled j for with the eight-ounce charge it Practice.
lay three or four inches nearer to the muzzle of the ' * ■ -■*
piece than with the others. 2. The greater quantity
of elastic fluid which escaped in this case than in the
others by the windage. This happens from its moving
with a greater velocity ; in consequence of which, a
greater quantity escapes by the vent and windage than
in smaller velocities. 3. The greater quantity of powder
blown out unfired in this case than in that of the lesser
velocities ; for the ball which was impelled with the
greater velocity, would be sooner out of the piece than
the others, and the more so as it had a less length of the
bore to move through j and if powder fire in time,
which cannot be denied, though indeed that time is
manifestly very short, a greater quantity of it must re¬
main unfired when the ball with the greater velocity
issues from the piece, than when that which has the
less velocity goes out, and still the more so as the bulk
of powder which was at first to be inflamed in the one
case so much exceeded that in the others.
“ Let us now compare the corresponding velocities
in both cases. In the one they are 701, 993, 1397 J
in the other, 613, 873, 1162. Now the ratio of the
first two numbers, or the velocities with two ounces of
powder, is that of I to 1.1436, the ratio of the next
two is that of 1 to 1.1375, and the ratio of the last
is that of 1 to 1.2022. But the mean weight of the
shot for two and four ounces of powder was 28-5- oun¬
ces in the first course and 18^ in this j and for eight
ounces of powder it was 28^ in the first and 18^- in this.
Taking therefore the reciprocal subduplicate ratios of
these weights of shot, we obtain the ratio of 1 to 1.224
for that of the balls which were fired with 2 ounces and
four ounces of powder, and the ratio of I to 1.241 for
the balls which were fired with eight ounces. Rut the
real ratios above found are not greatly difl’erent from
these ; and the variation of the actual velocities from
this law of the weights of shot inclines the same way in
both courses of experiments. We may now collect into
one view the principal inferences that have resulted
from these experiments.
1. “It is evident from them that powder fires al¬
most instantaneously.
2. “ The velocities communicated to balls or shot
of the same weight with different quantities of powder,
are nearly in the subduplicate ratio of these quantities j
a very small variation in defect taking place when the
quantities of powder become great.
3. “ When shot of different weights are fired with
the same quantity of powder, the velocities communi¬
cated to them are nearly in the reciprocal subduplicate
ratio of their weights.
4. “ Shot which are of different weights, and impel¬
led by different quantities of powder, acquire velocities
which are directly as the square roots of the quantities
of powder, and inversely as the square roots of the
weights of the shot nearly.”
The velocities of the bullets being thus found as
nearly as possible, the ranges may be found by the fol¬
lowing rules laid down by Mr Robins.
I. “ Till the velocity of the projectile surpasses Mr Ro-
that of 1100 feet in a second, the resistance may be 1)ins’s roe-
reckoned to be in the duplicate proportion of thelh#
velocity, and its mean quantity may be reckoned a-r^ng”fof‘*
hoot buffets, .
176
GUNNERY.
Practice. boat half an ounce avoirdupois on a 12 pound shot,
~—v ,u—' moving with a velocity of about 25 or 26 feet in a se¬
cond.
2. “ If the velocity be greater than that of iioo or
1200 feet in a second, then the absolute quantity of
the resistance in these greater velocities will be near
three times as great as it should be by a comparison
with the smaller velocities.—Hence then it appears,
that if a projectile begins to move with a velocity less
than that of 1100 feet in 1", its whole motion may
be supposed to be considered on the hypothesis of a
resistance in the duplicate ratio of the velocity. And
if it begins to move with a velocity greater than this
last mentioned, yet if the first part of its motion, till
its velocity be reduced to near 1100 feet in 1", be con¬
sidered separately from the remaining part in which
the velocity is less than 1100 feet in l/''5 it is evident,
that both parts may be truly assigned on the same hy¬
pothesis j only the absolute quantity of the resistance
is three times greater in the first part than in the last.
’Wherefore, if the motion of a projectile on the hypo¬
thesis of a resistance in the duplicate ratio of the velo¬
city be truly and generally assigned, the actual mo¬
tions of resisted bodies may be thereby determined,
notwithstanding the increased resistances in the great
velocities. And, to avoid the division of the motion
into two, I shall show how to compute the whole at one
operation with little more trouble than if no such in¬
creased resistance took place. v
“ To avoid frequent circumlocutions, the distance
to which any projectile would range in a vacuum on
the horizontal plane at 450 of elevation, I shall call the
potential random of that projectile 5 the distance to
which the projectile would range in vacuo on the hori¬
zontal plane at any angle different from 450, I shall call
the potential range of the projectile at that angle *, and
the distance to which a projectile really ranges, I shall
call its actual range.
“ If the velocity with which a projectile begins to
move is known, its potential random and its potential
range at any given angle are easily determined from
the common theory of projectiles * j or more generally,
if either its original velocity, its potential random, or its
potential range, at a given angle, are known, the other
two are easily found out.
“ To facilitate the computation of resisted bodies, it
is necessary, in the consideration of each resisted body,
to assign a certain quantity, which I shall denominate
F, adapted to the resistance of that particular projec¬
tile. To find this quantity F to any projectile given,
we may proceed thus : First find, from the principles
already delivered, with what velocity the projectile must
move, so that its resistance may be equal to its gravity.
Then the height from whence a body must descend in
a vacuum to acquire this velocity is the magnitude of
F sought. But the concisest way of finding this quan¬
tity F to any shell or bullet is this. If it be of solid
iron, multiply its diameter measured in inches by 300,
the product will be the magnitude of F expressed in
yards. If, instead of a solid iron bullet, it is a shell or
a bullet of some other substance ; then, as the specific
gravity of iron is to the specific gravity of the shell or
bullet given, so is the F corresponding to an iron bullet
of the same diameter to the proper F for the shell or
bullet given. The quantity F being thus assigned, the
* See Pro
jectiles.
  Sect. Ill,
necessary computation of these resisted motions may pracljC{
be dispatched by the three following propositions, al-
ways remembering that these propositions proceed on
the hypothesis of the resistance being in the duplicate
proportion of the velocity of the resisted body. How
to apply this principle, when the velocity is so great
as to have its resistance augmented beyond this rate,
shall be shewn in a corollary to be annexed to the first
proposition.
Actual
ranges
expres¬
sed in F
O.OI
0.02
O.O4
O.06
O.08
0.1
0.12
0.I4
O.IJ
0.2
O.25
O.3
o-35
0.4
o-45
o-5
0-55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0*75
0.8
0.85
0.9
o-95
1.0
1.05
1.1
I-I5
1.2
1.25
i-35
1.4
M5
i-5
Correspond¬
ing potential
ranges ex¬
pressed in F.
0.0100
0.0201
O.O405
0.0612
0.0822
O.IO34
O.I249
O.I468
O.I578
O.2I4O
0.2722
°'3324
0.3947
0-4591
0.5258
0.5949
0.6664
0.7404
0.8170
0.8964
0.9787
1.0638
1.1521
1.2436
i-3383
1.4366
i*5384
1.6439
1-7534
1.8669
i*5845
2.1066
2.2332
2.3646
2.5008
2.6422
Actual
ranges
expres
sed in F
Correspond¬
ing potential
ranges ex¬
pressed in F.
1-SS
1.6
1.65
i-7
i-75
1.8
1.85
I-9
1- 95
2.
2.05
2.1
2.15
2.2
2.25
2- 3
2-35
2.4
2-45
2-5
2-55
2.6
2.65
2.7
2-75
2.8
2.85
2.9
2- 95
3- °
3-°5
3-1
3-2
3-25
2.7890
2.9413
3.0994
3-2635
3-4338
3.6107
3-7944
3- 985i
4- i833
4.3 89°
4.6028
4.8249
5- °557
5-2955
5-5446
5.8036
6.0728
6.3526
6.6435
6.9460
7.260 c
7-5875
7.9276
8.2813
8.6492
9-°3I9
9.4000
9.8442
10.2752
10.7237
11.1904
11.6761
12.1816
12.7078
13-2556
Actual
ranges
expres¬
sed in F
3-3
3-35
3-4
3-45
3-5
3-55
3-6
3-65
3-7
3-75
3-8
3-85
3-9
3- 95
4.0
4- 05
4.1
4-i5
4.2
4-25
4-3
4-35
4-4
4-45
4-5
4-55
4.6
4-65
4-7
4-75
4.8
4-85
4.9
4- 95
5- o
Correspond-
ingpotentiai
ranges ex¬
pressed in F
13.8258
14- 4I95
15- 0377
15.6814
16- 35i7
17.0497
17.7768
I8.5341
19.3229
20.1446
21.0006
21.8925
22.8218
23.7901
24.7991
25.8506
26.9465
28.0887
29.2792
30.5202
31.8138
33-i625
34.5686
26.0346
3 7-563 2
39-I57I
40.8193
42.4527
44.3605
46.2460
48.2127
50.2641
C2.4040
54-6363
S^9653
“ PROP. I, Given the actual range of a given shell
or bullet at any small angle not exceeding 8° or 10°, to
determine its potential range, and consequently its po¬
tential random and original velocity.
“ Sol. Let the actual range given be divided by the
F corresponding to the given projectile, and find the
quote in the first column of the preceding Table : then
the corresponding number in the second column mul¬
tiplied into F will be the potential range sought: am
thence, by the methods already explained, the potential
random and the original velocity of the projectile
given.
“ Exam.
Ic nr. GUNNERY.
Exam. An 18 pounder, the diameter of whose
shot is about 5 inches, when loaded with lib. of pow¬
der, ranged at an elevation of 30 30' to the distance of
975 yards.
“ The F corresponding to this bullet is 1500 yards ;
and the quote of the actual range by this number is
65; corresponding to which, in the second column, is
.817 J whence 817 F, or 1225 yards, is the potential
range sought; and this, augmented in the ratio of the
sine of twice the angle of elevation to the radius, gives
10050 yards for the potential random : whence it will
be found, that the velocity of this projectile was that
of 984 feet in a second.
“ Cor. 1st. If the converse of this proposition be de¬
sired j that is, if the potential range in a small angle
be given, and thence the actual range be sought j this
may be solved with the same facility by the same table:
for if the given potential range be divided by its cor¬
respondent F, then opposite to the quote sought in
the second column, there will be found in the first
column a number which multiplied into F will give
the actual range required. And from hence it fol¬
lows, that if the actual range be given at one angle, it
may be found at every other angle not exceeding 8° or
10°.
“ Cor. id. If the actual range at a given small angle
be given, and another actual range be given, to which
the angle is sought j this will be determined by finding
the potential ranges corresponding to the two given
actual ranges; then the angle corresponding to one of
these potential ranges being known, the angle corre¬
sponding to the other will be found by the common
theory of projectiles.
“ Cor. 3d. If the potential random deduced from the
actual range by this proposition exceeds 13000 yards;
then the original velocity of the projectile was so great,
as to be affected by the treble resistance described
above ; and consequently the real potential random will
be greater than what is here determined. However,
in this case, the true potential random may be thus
nearly assigned. Take a 4th continued proportional
to 13OOO yards, and the potential random found by
this proposition, and the 4th proportional thus found
may be assumed for the true potential random sought.
In like manner, when the true potential random is gi¬
ven greater than 13000 yards, we must take two mean
b; Bpe„proportionals between 13000 and this random * ; and
0 di- the first of these mean proportionals must be assumed
^ n instead of the random given, in every operation de-
1 0*" scribed in these propositions and their corollaries. And
r_ this method will nearly allow for the increased resist-
( by »nce in large velocities, the difference only amount-
‘ ieofing to a few minutes in the angle of direction of the
ms' projected body, which, provided that angle exceeds
two or three degrees, is usually scarce worth attend¬
ing to.
“ Of this process take the following example.
“ A 24 pounder fired with 12 pounds of powder,
when elevated at 70 15/, ranged about 2500 yards.
Here the F being near 1700 yards, the quote to be
sought in the first column is 147, to which the num¬
ber corresponding in the second column is 2.556;
whence the potential range is near 4350 yards, and the
potential random thence resulting 17400. But this
being more than 13000, we must, to get the true po-
VOL.X. Parti. f
tential random, take a 4th continued proportional to
13000 and 17400; and this 4th proportional, which
is about 31000 yards, is to be esteemed the true po¬
tential random sought; whence the velocity is nearly
that of 1730 feet in a second.
“ Scholium. This proposition is confined to small
angles, not exceeding 8° or io°. In all possible cases
of practice, this approximation, thus limited, will not
differ from the most rigorous solution by so much as
what will often intervene from the variation of the den¬
sity of the atmosphere in a few hours time ; so that
the errors of the approximation are much short of other
inevitable errors, which arise from the nature of this
subject.
“ PROP. II. Given the actual range of a given shell
or bullet, at any angle not exceeding 450, to determine
its potential range at the same angle ; and thence its
potential random and original velocity.
“ Sol. Diminish the F corresponding to the shell or
bullet given in the proportion of the radius to the co¬
sine of ^ of the angle of elevation. Then, by means
of the preceding table, operate with this reduced F
in the same manner as is prescribed in the solution of
the last proposition, and the result will be the potential
range sought ; whence the potential random, and the
original velocity, are easily determined.
“ Exam. A mortar for sea-service, charged with
3olb. of powder, has sometimes thrown its shell, of
12^ inches diameter, and of 2311b. weight, to the di¬
stance of 2 miles, or 5450 yards. This at an elevation
of 45°. „   
“ The F to this shell, if it were solid, is 3825 yards;
but as the shell is only £ of a solid globe, the true F
is no more than 3060 yards. This, diminished in the
ratio of the radius to the cosine of ^ of the angle of
elevation, becomes 2544. The quote of the poten¬
tial range by this diminished F is 1.384 ; which sought
in the first column of the preceding table gives 2.280
for the corresponding number in the second column ;
and this multiplied into the reduced F, produces 5800
yards for the potential range sought, which, as the angle
of elevation was 450, is also the potential random; and
hence the original velocity of this shell appears to be
that of about 748 feet in a second.
“ Cor. The converse of t^iis proposition, that is, the
determination of the actual range from the potential
range given, is easily deduced from hence by means of
the quote of the potential range divided by the redu¬
ced F ; for this quote searched out in the second column
will give a corresponding number in the first column,
which multiplied into the rednced F, will be the actual
range sought.
“ Also, if the potential random of a projectile be
given, or its actual range at a given angle of eleva¬
tion ; its actual range at any other angle of elevation,
not greater than 450, may hence be known. For the
potential random will assign the potential range at any
given angle ; and thence, by the method of this corol¬
lary, the actual range may be found.
“ Exam. A fit musket-bullet fired from a piece of
the standard dimensions, with of its weight in good
powder, acquires a velocity of near 9^0 *n a se”
cond : that is, it has a potential random of near 8400
yards. If now the actual range of this bullet at 150
was sought, we must proceed thus:
z “ From
178
Practicx*.
Potential Rantloms.
3 F
6 F
10 F
20 F
30 F
40 F
50 F
100 F
200 F
500 F
1000 F
2500 F
GUNNERY.
Fr nm tlie given potential random it follows, that
the potential range at 150 is 4200 yards; the diame¬
ter ot the bullet is % of an inch ; and thence, as it is
of lead, its proper F is 337.5 yards, which, reduced
in the ratio ot the radius to the cosine ot ^ ot 150, be¬
comes 331 yards. The quote ot 4200 by this num¬
ber is 12.7 nearly; which being sought in the second
column, gives 3.2 nearly for the corresponding number
in the first column ; and this multiplied into 331 yards
(the reduced F) makes 1059 y;u'ds f°r actual range
sought.
“Exam. II. The same bullet, fired with its whole
weight in powder, acquires a velocity ot about 2100
feet in a second, to which there corresponds a potential
random of about 45700 yards. But this number
greatly exceeding 13000 yards, it must be reduced by
the method described in the third corollary of the first
proposition, when it becomes 19700 yards. If now
the actual range of this bullet at 150 be required, we
shall from hence find, that the potential range at 150
is 9850 yards; which, divided by the reduced F of
the last example, gives for a quote 2975 : and thence
following the steps prescribed above, the actual range
of this bullet comes out 1396 yards, exceeding the for¬
mer range by no more than 337 yards; whereas the
difference between the two potential ranges is above
ten miles. Of such prodigious efficacy is the resistance
of the air, which hath been hitherto treated as too in¬
significant a power to be attended to in laying down
the theory of projectiles !
“ ScHOL. I must here observe, that as the density
of the atmosphere perpetually varies, increasing and di¬
minishing often by TV part, and sometimes more, in
a few hours ; for that reason I have not been over ri¬
gorous in forming these rules, but have considered
thi m as sufficiently exact when the errors of the ap¬
proximation do not exceed the inequalities which
would take place by a change of tt0- part in the den¬
sity of the , atmosphere. With this restriction, the
rules of this proposition may be safely applied in all
possible cases of practice. That is to say, they will
exhibit the true motions of all kinds of shells and can¬
non-shot, as far as 450 of elevation, and of all mus¬
ket huliets fired with their largest customary charges,
if not elevated more than 30°. Indeed, if experi¬
ments are made with extraordinary quantities of pow¬
der, producing potential randoms greatly surpassing
the usual rate ; then in large angles some farther mo¬
difications may be necessary. And though, as these
cases are beyond the limits of all practice, it may be
thought unnecessary to consider them; yet, to enable
those who are so disposed to examine these uncommon
cases, I shall here insert a proposition, which will de¬
termine the actual motion of a projectile at 450, how
enormous soever its original velocity may be. But as
this proposition will rather relate to speculative than
practical cases, instead of supposing the actual range
known, thence to assign the potential random, I shall
now suppose the potential random given, and the actual
range to be thence investigated.
“ PROP. III. Given the potential random of a gi¬
ven shell or bullet; to determine its actual range at
45°- ....
“ Soi,. Divide the given potential random by the F
-corresponding to the shell or bullet given, and call the
Sect III,
quotient 7, and let l he the difiVrence between the ta- Ptnctilt,
bular logarithms of 25 and of 7, the logarithm of 10 v—1
being supposed unity y then the actual range sought is
"  11'
3 4 F-f- 2 l F — F, where the double sine of 2 / F is
to be thus understood ; that if q be less than 25, it
must be —2 / F ; if it be greater, then it must be -j~
2 l F. In this solution, q may be any number not less
than 3, nor more than 25CO.
“ Cor. Computing in the manner here laid down,
we shall find the relation between the potential ran¬
doms, and the actual range at 450, within the limits
of this proposition, to be as expressed in the following
table.
Actual Range at 450
M F
2.1 F
2.6 F
3.2 F
3.6 F
3.8 F
4.0 F
46 F
51 F
5.8 F
6.4 F
7.0 F
Whence it appears, that, when the potential ran¬
dom is increased from 3 F to 2500 F, the actual range
is only increased fiom 1^ F to 7 F ; so that an increase
of 2497 F in the potential random produces no great¬
er an increase in the actual range than 5I F, which is
not its part ; and this will again be greatly dimi¬
nished on account of the increased resistance, which
takes place in great velocities. So extraordinary are
the effects of this resistance, which we have been hi¬
therto taught to regard as inconsiderable.
“ That the justness of the approximations laid down
in the 2d and 3d propositions may be easier examined ;
I shall conclude these computations by inserting a
table of the actual ranges, at 450, of a projectile which
is resisted in the duplicate proportion of its velocity.
This table is computed by methods different from those
hitherto described, and is sufficiently exact to serve as
a standard with which the result of our other rules
may he compared. And since whatever errors occur
in the application of the preceding propositions, they
will be most sensible at 450 of elevation, it follows,
that hereby the utmost limits of those errors may be
assigned.
Potential Randoms.
.1 F
•25
•5
•75
1.0
1.25
1- 5
J*75
2.0
2- 5
3- o
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
Actual Range at 45'
.0963 F
.2282 F
.4203 F
.5868 F
.7323 F
.860
.978
1.083
I-I79
I*349
M95
F
F
F
F
F
F
Potential
y-a a"
e
n iCt- Potential Ilandoms.
. Ill,
3- 5
4.0
4- 5
5*°
5- 5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7-5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9-5
10.0
1 x.o
13.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
3°.°
40.0
50.0
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
GUN
Actual Range at 430
1.624 F
1- 738
1.840
1.930
2.015
2 097
2.169
2.237
2.300
2- 359
2.414
2.467
2.511
2.564
2.651
2.804
2- 937
3.196
3- 396
3-557
3.809
3-998
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
t dif- We have now onl? to consider that part of practical
:i parts gunnery which relates to the proportions of the difter-
tjt jCHt parts of cannon, the metal of which they are
made, &c.
Formerly guns were made of a very great length,
and were on that account extremely troublesome and
unmanageable. The error here was first discovered by
accident} for some cannon, having been cast by mistake
two feet and a half shorter than the common standard,
were found to be equally efficacious in service with the
common ones, and much more manageable. This soon
produced very considerable alterations in the form of
the artillery throughout Europe : but in no country
have greater improvements in this respect been made
than in our own. For a long time brass, or rather a
kind ot bell-metal, was thought preferable to cast iron
for making ot cannon. The composition of this metal
is generally kept a secret by each particular founder.
- The author of the Military Dictionary gives the fol¬
lowing proportions as the most common, viz,. “ To
240 Ih. of metal fit for casting they put 68 lb. of cop¬
per, 52 lb. of brass, and 12 lb. of tin. To 4200 lb.
of metal fit for casting, tbe Germans put 3687!!-lb. of
copper, 2045-* lb. of brass, and 307!^-lb. of tin. O-
thers use 100 lb. of copper, 6 lb. of brass, and 9 lb. of
tin j while some make use of too lb. of copper, 10 lb.
of brass, and 15 lb. of tin. This composition was both
found to he very expensive, and also liable to great in¬
conveniences in the using.” A few years ago, there¬
fore, a proposal was made by Mr Muller for using iron
guns of a lighter construction than the brass ones, by
which he supposed that a very great saving would he
made in the expence j and likewise, that the guns of the
new construction would be more manageable, and even
il- efficacious, than the old ones. “ The reduction of the
» rt>o-expence (says Mr Muller) of the veiy large artillery
i the necessary for sea and land service, is to be considered
g of under two heads : the one, To diminish the weight} and
N E R Y. 179
the other, Not to use anv brass field-artillery, but only Practice
iron, to lessen the great burden ot our ships of war, " 1 y- >
and to carry larger calibers than those of other nations
of the same rate. If the weights of our guns are di¬
minished, they will require fewer hands to manage them,
and of consequence a smaller number will be exposed
to danger at a time : and if we carry larger calibers,
our rates will he a match for larger ships.
“ The advantage of using iron guns in the field in¬
stead of brass, will he that the expences are lessened in
proportion to the cost of brass to that of iron, which is
as 8 to 1.
“ The only objection against iron is, its pretended
brittleness : but as we abound in iron that is stronger
and tougher than any brass, tins objection is invalid.
This I can assert, having seen some that cannot be
broken by any force, and will flatten like hammered
iron : if then we use such iron, there can be no danger
of tbe guns bursting in the most severe action.
“ Though brass guns are not liable to burst, yet
they are sooner rendered unserviceable in action than
iron. For by the softness of the metal, the vent wi¬
dens so soon, and they are'so liable to bend at the
muzzle, that it would be dangerous to fire them } as
we found by experience at Belleisle, and where we
were obliged to take guns from the ships to finish the
siege.
“ I hese being undeniable facts, no possible reason
can be assigned against using iron guns in both sea and
land service, and thereby lessen the expences of ar¬
tillery so considerably as will appear by the following
tables.
Lengths and Weights of Iron Ship-Guns.
Old Pieces. New Pieces.
vitub.
12
l8
24
32
42
Ling 111
Ft. In.
4 6
6 o
7 °
7 °
9 0
9 0
9 0
9 6
10 o
Wtii. hi.
Cwt. qrs. lb
7 1 7
12 2 1 -
17 1 14
23 .2
32 3 3
41 1
48 o c
53 3 23
55 1 J2
Caiib.j Length.
9
12
24
32
42
48"
Ft. In.
3 6
4 4
5 °
5 6
6 4
7 °
7 6
8 6
Weigh!.
Cut. qrs. lb.
3 3 0
7 2 0
II I O
15 0 0
22 2 O
30 O O
40 o o
52 2 O
60 o o
“ Guns of tins construction appear sufficiently strong
from the proof of two three-pounders made fop. Lord
Egmont, and they even may be made lighter and of
equal service.
Z 2 Length
Length and Weight of Battering Pieces.
Old Brass. New Iron.
Calib.
12
18
Length.
Ft.
8,
Weight.
rwt. qrs. lb.
l9
25
24
32
10
29
48
5l
55
Calib.
12
l8
24
32
Length.
In.
1
Cwt. qrs. lb
U N N E R Y. Sect. 1]
That is, the old set cbsts II times* and 63.2 over, more Praclic
than the new set*, or li sets of the new could be made
at less expence than one of the old.
u This table shows what may be saved in the navy;
and if we add those on board sloops, the different gar¬
risons, and the field train, with the great expence of
their carriage in the field, it may be found pretty near
as much more.
Weight.
»4
18
29
37 3 0
42
Num.
of
Guns
Total 227.
Total 1511.
J>iff. 72.
“ That these guns are sufficiently strong, is evident
from the former trial; besides, there are several 32
pounders of the same dimensions and weight now exist-
iner and serviceable ; though cast in King Charles II.’s
ing and serviceable ; though
time.
N. B. These battering pieces may serve in garri¬
sons.
It appears from these tables, that no proportion has
been observed in any guns hitherto made, in respect to
their length or weight, but merely by guess.
100
9°
80
74
70
64
60
5°
44
40
36
32
28
24
20
Weight
of
Old.
Weight
of
New.
4367
3537
3108
3091
2997
2543
2177
1881
1365
1234
963
956
593
531
421
2556
2001
1821
1840
1796
13°5
1185
I035
7Q5
312
45^
435
285
255
191
Differ.
l8ll
1536
1287
125O
1200
I2c8
992
846
660
922
5I3
521
308
276
230
Num.
of
Ships.
5
9
7
32
10
23
30
J9
8
9
7
28
23
12
l5
Total
Difference.
9058
13827
9OI4
40016
12005
28485
29782
16078
5284
8298
3596
14602
7°95
332i
3453
Difference between the weights 203918 3
Expences C Brass guns of two first rates 203918 15
Iron ditto - - 43I09 5
of the
Some Examples to show what may he saved by this
Scheme.
The old Royal George carried 100 brass guns, which
weighed together 218.2 tons ; the ton costs 130 pounds,
workmanship included.
The expence of these guns is then 28366 pounds
A set of iron guns of the same
number and calibers, according to
my construction, weighs - 127.8 tons
The ton costs 16 pounds, and the
whole set _ - _ 2044.8 pounds
The Royal George carries then 90.4
tons more than is necessary, and
the difference between the ex¬
pence is - - - 26321.2 pounds
That is, 12.5 times mere than the new iron set costs :
or 12 ships of the same rate may be fitted out at less
charge.
a - {ZYz -
The difference between the weight
of the old and new is - - 76.6 tons
The difference between the expence
is then - - - -• 1225.6 pounds
Asetof brass battering pieces weighs 11.36 tons
A ton costs 130 pounds, and the set 1476.8 pounds
A set of the new weighs - 7.55 tons
The ton costs 16 pounds, and the set 117.8 pounds
We get L. 257028 o a
To this and other proposals for reducing the weight
and expence of guns great attention has been paid;,
and the Carron Company in Scotland have not on-
ly greatly improved those of the old construction,
but a gun of a different construction, invented by
Mr Charles Gascoigne, formerly director of that work,
has been of more effectual service than any Hi¬
therto made use of.r—-—Fig. 6». represents the form p]
and proportions of the guns made at Carron, and CCS
which serve for those of all sizes, from one half-pound- !l!
ers and upwards. The proportions are measured by thCp^
diameters of the caliber, or bore of the gun, divided^,
into 16 equal parts, as represented in the figure. The0ftl)
following are the names of the different parts of a can-mail'
AB, the length of the cannon..
AE, the first reinforce.
EF, the second reinforce.
FB, the chase.
HB, the muzzle.
Ao, the cascabel, or pomiglioa*
AC, the breed].
CD, the vent-field..
FI, the chase-girdle.
r s, the base-ring and ogee.
tr the vent-astragal and fillets.
pq, the first reinforce-ring and ogee.
VW, the second reinforce-ring and ogee.
X, the chase-astragal and fillets.
*,th8
III.
Pn ice.
the muzzle-astragal and fillets.
n, the muzzle mouldings.
#i, the swelling ot the muzzle.
A /, the breech-mouldings.
TT, the trunnions.
id
The dotted lines along the middle of the piece show
the dimensions of the caliber, and the dotted circle
shows the size of the ball. Fig. 7. shows a eohorn
made also at Carron, and which may be measured by
the same scale.
As the breech of the cannon receives an equal im-
ption pulse with the bullet from the action of the inflamed
■ gunpowder, it thence follows, that at the moment the
bullet flies off, the piece itself pushes backward with
very great force. This is called the recoil ot the can¬
non ; and if the piece is not of a very considerable
weight, it would fly upwards, or to a side, with ex¬
treme violence. If again it was firmly fastened down,
so that it could not move in the least, it would be veTy
apt to burst, on account of the extreme violence with
which the powder would then act upon it. For this
reason it hath been found necessary to allow the recoil
to take place, and consequently all large pieces ot
artillery are mounted upon carriages with wheels,
which allow them to recoil freely j and thus they may
be fired without any danger. There are several sorts
of carriages for ordnance, viz. bastard carriages, with
low wheels and high wheels ; sea-carriages, made in
imitation of those for ship-guns*, and carriages for field-
pieces, of which there are two kinds. The carriages
must be proportioned to the pieces mounted on them.
The ordinary proportion is for the carriage to have once
and a half the length of the gun, the wheels to be half
the length of the piece in height. Four times the dia¬
meter or caliber gives the depth of the planks in the
fore end ; in the middle 3}’.
ription F‘g* 8. shows the gun called a carronacle invented
3 car- or rather improved by Mr Gascoigne $ and which, in
k. June 1779, was by the king and council instituted a
5* standard navy-gun, and 10 of them appointed to be
added to each ship of war, from a first-rate to a sloop.
Of this gun the Carron Company have published the
following account.
“ The carronade * is made so short, that it is worked
with its carriage in the ship’s port *, the trunnions lying
immediately over the fill of the port : it is correctly
bored $ and the shot being perfectly round, fills the ca¬
liber with such exactness, that the least possible of the
impulse of the powder escapes, upon explosion, between
the cylinder and the shot; which last also is thereby
more truly directed in its flight. The bottom of the
cylinder is a hemisphere, to which the end of the car¬
tridge is not liable to stick, and in which the smallest
charge of powder envelopes the shot, exhausting nearly
the whole of its impelling force upon it: the trunnions
are placed so as to lessen the recoil, and that the gun
cannot rest against the sides of the carriage, and is ba¬
lanced with the utmost facility. There are views cast
upon the vent and muzzle, to point the gun quickly to
an object at 250 and 500 yards distance. There is a
handle A fixed upon the pommel-end of the gun, by
which it is horizontally ranged and pointed ; and there
is a ring cast upon the oascabel, through which the
e Car¬
le.
GUNNERY. 181
breechin rope is reeved, the only rope used about these Practice,
guns. _ v
“ The carronade is mounted upon a carriage B, with
a perfectly smooth bottom of strong plank, without
trucks j instead of which there is fixed on the bottom
of the carriage, perpendicular from the trunnions, a
gudgeon C of proper strength, with an iron washer D
and pin E at the lower end thereof. This gudgeon is
let into a corresponding groove l, cut in a second car¬
riage G, called a slide-carriage ; the washer supported
by the pin over-reaching the under edges of the groove
H. Th is slide-carriage is made with a smooth upper
surface, upon which the gun-carriage is moved, and by
the gudgeon always kept in its right station to the
port *, the groove in the slide-carriage being of a suffi¬
cient length to allow the gun to recoil and be loaded,
within board. The slide-carriage, the groove included,
is equally broad with the fore part of the gun-carriage,
and about four times the length : the fore part ot the
slide-carriage is fixed by hinge-bolts I, to the quick-
work of the ship below the port, the end lying over the
fill, close to the outside plank, and the groove reaching
to the fore end *, the gudgeon of the gun-carriage, and
consequently the trunnions ot the gun, are over the fill
of the port when the gun is run out; and the port is
made of such breadth, with its sides bevelled oft with¬
in board, that the gun and carriage may range from
bow to quarter. The side-carriage is supported from
the deck at the hinder end, by a wedge K, or step-
stool ; which being altered at pleasure, and the fore
end turning upon the hinge-bolts, the carriage can be
constantly kept upon a horizontal plane, for the more
easy and quick working of the gun when the ship lies
along.
“ The gun and carriages being in their places, the
breechin rope, which must be strong and limber, is
reeved through the ring on the breech, then led through
an eye-bolt drove downwards, the eye standing upright
upon the upper edge of each cheek of the gun-carriage ;
from these eye-bolts the ends of the breechin rope are
seized down as usual to an eye-bolt driven into the
quick-work on each side, in a line with the lower sur¬
face of the slide-carriage.
“ The gun being mounted and ready for action, is
loaded with one-twelfth part of the weight of its ball in
service charge of powder put into a woollen cartridge,
and the end tied up with a worsted yarn, and placed
next to the shot *, and with a single ball, well rammed
home upon the powder, without a wadding between
them r the gun being then run out in the port, is
ranged and elevated with great facility, by means of
the handle on the pommel j and, by. the views, very
quickly pointed.—Upon discharge, the gun attempts
to kick upwards, which being prevented by the washer
of the gudgeon bearing hard against the under part of
the slide-carriage, the recoil takes place ; and the
gudgeon sliding backwards in the groove (the washer
still bearing against an iron plate on the under edge
of the groove), till the gun is brought up by the
breechin rope, as much re-action succeeds as slackens
the rape, so that the gun and carriage may be in¬
stantly turned fore and aft by the handle, and loaded
again
M This gun has many singular advantages over the
athera
c
182
Practice, others of light construction.—Jt is so extremely light,
that the smallest ships can carry almost any weight ot
shot (the 12 pounder weighing under 500 wt. and the
other calibers in proportion), and that without being
attended with the inconveniences imputed generally to
light guns, since it cannot injure its carriage, or jump
out of its station in the port upon recoil 5 and it will
never heat.
“ It can be easily managed and worked of all cali¬
bers, from the 12 pounders downwards with two hand,s,
and the 18 and 24 pounders with three hands. It may
be readily ranged, pointed, and discharged, twice in
three minutes, which doubles the strength of the ship
against an enemy of equal force. It is wrought upon
h horizontal plane to windward or to leeward how
much soever the ship lies along under a pressure of sail;
and therefore, besides being hampered with no tackles
or other ropes, except the breechin rope, it may he
Worked with as much ease and expedition in chace or
in a gale of wind as in lying to for action.—It can be
ranged from how to quarter, so as to bring a broadside
to bear in a circuit of above 10 points of the compass
on each side.—It is no more expensive in ammunition
than the old guns of two-thirds less weight of shot and
it requireS'Very few hands above the complement ne¬
cessary for navigating merchant-ships 5 and increases
the strength of privateers crews, by exposing few
hands at the gun®, and augmenting the number at small
arms.
i‘ Though the carronade cannot, strictly speaking,
throw its shot to an equal distance with a longer gun $
yet, from the fitness of the shot to its cylinder, the
powers of this gun will greatly surpass the expectations
of such as are not intimately acquainted with the effects
of the elastic force of fired powder, since, with one-
twelfth part of the weight of its hall, at very small ele¬
vations, it will range its shot to triple the distance at
which ships generally engage, with sufficient velocity
for the greatest execution, and with all the accuracy in
its direction that can be attained from guns of greater
4S lengths.
Objections “ There have been two seeming disadvantages im-
to its u®e puted to this gun, which it does not merit, viz. the
aaswvied. n;cety 0f fitting the shot to the bore of the gun, and
its incapacity to hold more than two shot- at one
charge. But as seamen have few opportunities of
confirming themselves in just opinions by experiments
made on shore, and cannot, in that ca®e, he fully
conversant with the subject ; the following loose
hints may not be inept towards removing these objec¬
tions.
“ It is an axiom in projectiles, That a shot cannot be
impelled from a gun to any distance in a direction truly
parallel to the axis of the cylinder of the piece, or what
is commonly called point blank, arising from several well
known causes: for, however juNt may he the cylinder,
and however perfect and smooth may be the sphere of
its corresponding shot, and admitting that the im¬
pulse of the powder acts through the centre of gravity
, of the shot, and also that the shot consequently leaves
the piece in a direction parallel to the axh of its cylin¬
der i yet the shot is no sooner discharged, but it be¬
comes more or less inflected by its gravity, and deflect¬
ed, according to its velocity, by the resistance of the air
and wind.
Sect. II
“ These irregularities are of little importance in close praclic|
sea-fights, and being the effect of natural causes are y-
common to all. Besides these, the deviation of a shot
from its true direction, is further augmented by the
windage between the cylinder and its shot J but the
greatest uncertainty in the flight of a shot, making al¬
lowance for the action of its gravity, and the air’s
resistance, springs from the dtfects of the shot itself.
Round-shot for ship-guns are seldom nicely examined j
and, unless they are cast solid and truly globular, and
free of all hollows, roughness, and other outside ble¬
mishes, and well fitted to the gun, it cannot even be
discharged in the direction of the axis of the piece ; to
the disappointment of those that use such, and to the
discredit of the gun-founder, however justly the piece
is viewed, or disparted ; but being impelled against the
surface of the cylinder, bounds and rebounds from side
to side, acquires a rotatory motion, and when cast hol¬
low withal, and breaking within the cylinder before
discharge, (which sometimes happens, especially with
double charges), never fails to injure, and when often
repeated may at last hurst, the very best guns. Round-
shot should not be taken on board a ship, without be¬
ing examined as to its shape and surface, gaged for its
size to the caliber of the gun, and weighed that it be
not above or below the standard more than half an
ounce in the pound of its respective caliber: good shot
then, being of the same importance to all guns, re¬
moves the first objection.
“ If the direction of the flight of a shot to its object
is affected by so many seeming trivial causes, how much
more uncertain must it he, when two or more shot are
discharged together from one gun: for the shot next
the powder being impelled with more celerity than that
immediately before it, strikes against it after discharge,
and sometimes shivers itself to pieces, and never fails to
change obliquely the direction of both; and this hap¬
pens with round and double-headed, &c. and all dou¬
ble charges 5 and which, from their various figures,
cannot reach an object at tire same elevations with the
round-shot 5 especially when these other shots are of
greater weight than the round, which is often the case.
However frightful a broadside with double charges may
appear at sea, more confusion is created by them, and
more time lost, within board, by the strain and exces¬
sive recoil, than real damage done without board by the
additional charge: for upon a trial on shore, where the
eflect can be traced, it will be found, that, at 100
yards distance, more shot will take place within a small
compass by single than by double charges ; and the
charges will be oftener re peated in a given time, with¬
out heating the gun : and these facts being established,
remove also the second objection.”
I he following account of the proof of one of these
guns will perhaps serve to give a more adequate idea of
the great usefulness of them, than any description:—
“ On Monday, Oct. 4. 1779* there was an experi¬
ment made at Carron, before the earl of Dunmore,
&c. &e. with a 68 pounder carronade, nearly of the
weight of a British navy 1 2-pounder gun, and charged
with the same quantity, (viz. 61b.) of powder.—The
cai ronade was mounted, on its proper carriages, into a
port of the dimensions of a 74 |£un ship’s lower deck
port j was pointed without elevation, at a centre of
eight inches diameter, marked on a bulk’s head of the
thickness
G U N N E it Y.
TIL GUNNERY.
L thickness of two feet five inches solid wood, at 163
. — yards distance; behind which, at 168 yards, there was
another hulk’s head of two feet four inches thick ; and
behind that again, at 170 yards distance, a bank of
>83
earth. The shot pierced the bulk’s heads each time, praetice.
and was buried from three to four feet into the bank,
and the splinters were thrown about to a considerable
distance on all sides.
1st shot struck 1 foot
2d ditto ditto 2 feet ditto,
3d do. do. through the horizontal line
ditto.  
do. -
2 inches below ——
7 inches below the horizontal line, and 5 feet
— ditto, and 2 ditto
from the mark.
4th do.
5th do.
6th do.
7th do.
8th do.
9th do.
10th do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
touched the lower part of ditto
2 inches below   —
2 feet below   —
3 inches below  —
The carronade was laid each time by the views
without an instrument ; and the shot were all to the
left of the mark, owing to a small error in disparting
the views ; the third, fourth, and fifth shot, made one
fracture, as did also the sixth, seventh, and eighth, and
the sixth and eighth struck the same spot.
“ The carronade was easily worked with four men,
and may be readily worked and discharged on board a
ship twice a-minute with six men.—With six pounds
weight of powder the shot was impelled with a velocity
of 1400 feet in a second.”
tion We have already seen of how much consequence
rifle-barrels are in order to bring the art of gunnery
to perfection ; as they enlarge the space in which the
ball will fly without any lateral deflection to three or
four times its usual quantity. This improvement, how¬
ever, till very lately, only took place in musket-barrels.
But in the beginning of the year 1774, Dr Lind, and
Captain Alexander Blair of the 69th regiment of foot,
invented a species of rifled field-pieces. They are
made of cast iron, and are not bored like the common
pieces, but have the rifles moulded on the core, alter
which they are cleaned out and finished with proper in¬
struments.
Guns of this construction, which are intended for
the field, ought never to be made to carry a ball ot
above one or two pounds weight at most ; a leaden bul¬
let of that weight being sufficient to destroy either man
or horse.—A pound gun of this construction, of good
metal, such as is now made by the Canon Company,
need not weigh above an hundred pounds weight,
and its carriage about another hundred. It can there¬
fore be easily transported from place to place, by a
few men ; and a couple of good horses may transport
*ix of these guns and their carriages, if put into a
cart.
But, for making experiments, in order to determine
the resistance which bodies moving with great veloci¬
ties meet with from the air, a circumstance to which
these guns are particularly well adapted, or for annoy¬
ing an enemy’s sappers that are carrying on their ap¬
proaches towards a besieged place, a larger caliber may
be used.
The length of the gun being divided into seven equal
parts, the length of the first reinforce AB (fig- 9.) is
two of these parts ; the second BC, one and 4^ the
diameter of the caliber ; the chase CD, four wanting
xi of the diameter of the caliber.
The distance from the hind part of the base-ring A
- from ditto,
and 3 do. 4 inches from do.
do. and 2 do. 4 ditto from do.
do. 2 do. 10 do. from do.
do.  10 do. from do.
do.   7 do. from do.
do.  10 do. from do.
do. I foot 9 do. from do.
do. —— 3 do. from do.
to the beginning of the bore, is one caliber and T37 of
a caliber. The trunnions TT are each a caliber in
breadth, and the same in length ; their centres are pla¬
ced three sevenths of the gun’s length from the hind
part of the base ring, in such a manner that the axis of
the trunnions passes through the centre line of the bore,
which prevents the gun from kicking, and breaking its
carriage. The length of the cascabel is one caliber
and 44 of a caliber.
The caliber of the gun being divided into 16
parts ;
The thickness of metal at the base-ring A from
the bore, is -
At the end of the first reinforce ring B
At the same place, for the beginning of the
second reinforce . _ _
At the end of the second reinforce C
At the same place for the beginning of the
chase c - - -
At the end of the chase muzzle, the mould¬
ings a D excluded
At the swelling of the muzzle b
At the muzzle-fillet c - -
At the extreme moulding D
Base-ring ...
Ogee next the base-ring d -
Ttie astragal or half round
Its fillet - - -
Total astragal and fillets at the ventfield c
First reinforce ring B - -
Second reinforce ring C - -
Its ogee - - - -
Its astragal . - -
And its fillet - - -
The muzzle astragal, and fillet a
Breadth of the fillet at the base-ring
Distance of the fillet at the button from the
fillet at the base ring
Breadth of the fillet at the button
Diameter of the fillet at the button
Distance of the centre of the button from its
fillet -
Diameter of the button E
Diameter of its neck
equal
18.5
17
17
*5
'MS
9
12
9-5
8
5*5
4*75
1
4
4 5
3*5
3
i*5
1
4
1
5
i
18
12:
18
10*5
The vent should be placed about half an Inch from
the bottom of the chamber or bore, that the cartridge
may he pricked, lest some of the bottoms of the car-
5 tridge*
184
G U N N E B Y.
Practice
Fig. io,
, tridges should be left in when the gun is sponged, a
J circumstance which might retard the firing till the shot
be again drawn (which is no easy matter), and the
. gun be cleaned out. From some experiments of Colo¬
nel Desaguliers and Mr Muller, it has been imagined,
> that the powder never has so strong an effect as when
it is fired close to the bottom of the bore ; yet it is
found, by the experiments of Count de la Lippe, to
have the greatest effect when fired near to the middle
of the charge. This he proved by firing it with tubes,
introduced at a vent bored through the button and
breech of the gun, of different lengths, so as to reach
the different parts of the powder. In the same man¬
ner, a musket or fowling-piece is found to push more
when the touch-hole is placed at some little distance
from the bottom of the bore •, which arises from nothing
but the powder’s acting with more force, by being in¬
flamed to greater advantage *, consequently, in this
case, the same quantity of powder will have a greater
effect, than when the touch-hole is placed at the bot¬
tom of the bore, which may be of some use in husband¬
ing the powder.
The above dimensions are taken from some elegant
one half pound guns, which were made for the prince
of Asturias by the Carron Company.
The rifles make one spiral turn in the length of the
bore ; but go no nearer to the breech, in their full size,
than two calibers •, and then terminate with a gentle
slope in half a caliber more, so as not to prevent the
cartridge with the powder from being easily sent home
to the bottom of the gun, which would otherwise con¬
stantly happen with the flannel cartridges, and even
sometimes with paper ones, if not made to enter very
looselv. The shape of the rifles is semicircular, their
breadth being equal to the diameter, which is of a
caliber, and their depth equal to the semidiameter, or
of a caliber.
The bullets, fig. 10. are of lead, having six knobs
cast on them to fit the rifles of the gun. Being thus
made of soft metal, they do not injure the rifles; and
may also save an army the trouble of carrying a great
quantity of shot about with them, since a supply of lead
may be had in most countries from roofs, &c. which
can be cast into balls as occasion requires. Lead like¬
wise being of greater specific gravity than cast iron,
flies to a much greater distance.
Rifled ordnance of any caliber may be made to
carry iron-shot for battering or for other purposes $
provided holes, that are a little wider at their bottoms
than at their upper parts, be cast in a zone round the
ball, for receiving afterwards leaden knobs to fit the
rifles of the cannon; by which means, the iron-shot
will have its intended line of direction preserved, with¬
out iniuring the rifles more than if the whole ball was
of lead, the rotatory motion round its axis, in the line
of its direction (which corrects the aberration) being
communicated to it by the leaden knobs, following the
spiral turn of the rifles in its progress out of the gun.
It is particularly to be observed, that the balls must be
made to go easily down into the piece, so that the car¬
tridge with the powder and the bullet may be both sent
home together, with a single push of the hand, without
any wadding above either powder or ball j by which
means, the gun is quickly loaded, and the ball flies
Sect. II
farther than when it is forcibly driven into the gun, as Pri!Ct;Cf
was found from many experiments. The only reason —-y—,
why, in common rifled muskets, the bullets are rammed
in forcibly, is this, that the zone of the ball which is
contiguous to the inside of the bore may have the figure
of the rifles impressed upon it, in such a manner as to
become part of a male screw, exactly fitting the in¬
dents of the rifle, which is not at all necessary in the
present case, the figure of the rifles being originally
cast upon the ball. These knobs retard the flight of
the bullet in some degree*, but this small disadvantage
is fully made up by the ease with which the gun is
loaded, its service being nearly as quick as that of a
common field-piece ; and the retardation and quantity
of the whirling motion which is communicated to the
bullet being constantly the same, it will not in the
least affect the experiments made with them, in order
to determine the resistance of the air. ^
In order to hit the mark with greater certainty than Sectoral
can be done in the common random method, thesetelekope
guns are furnished with a sector, the principal parts ofbelongia
which are, I. The limb, which is divided in such
manner as to show elevations to 15 or 20 degrees. Theor(ln|incJ
length of the radius is five inches and a half, and its
nonius is so divided as to show minutes of a degree.
2. The telescope, AB, fig. II. an achromatic refrac-Fig.u.l
tor, is seven inches in length (such as is used on Had¬
ley’s quadrants, that are fitted for taking distances of
the moon from the sun or stars, in order to obtain the
longitude at sea), having cross hairs in it. 3. The
parallel cylindric bar, CD, is of an inch in diame¬
ter, having two rectangular ends EF, each half an inch
square and an inch long. On one side of the end next
the limb of the sector, is a mark corresponding to a si¬
milar one in the hinder cock of the gun, with which it
must always coincide when placed on the gun. The
length of the parallel bar, together with its ends, is
seven inches. The bar is fixed to the sector by means
of two hollow cylinders, G, H, which allow the sector
a motion round the bar. There is a finger screw a up¬
on the hollow cylinder G, which is slit, in order to
tighten it at pleasure upon the bar. 4. The circular
level I, fig. 11. and 12. for setting the plane of thejpjg, n|
sector always perpendicular when placed upon the gun,
is \ of an inch in diameter. There is a small screw rf,
to adjust the level at right angles to the plane of the
sector. 5. The finger screw 6, for fixing the index
of the sector at any particular degree of elevation pro¬
posed.
The line of collimation (that is, the line of vision
cut by the intersecting point of the two cross hairs in
the telescope) must be adjusted truly parallel to the bar
of the sector when at o degrees. This is done by
placing the sector so that the vertical hair may exactly
cover some very distant perpendicular line. If it again
covers it when the sector is inverted, by turning it half
round upon the bar, which has all the while been kept
steady and firm, that hair is correct j if not, correct
half the error by means of the small screws, c d e,
fig. 11. and 13. at the eye-end of the telescope,
the other half by moving the bar 5 place it again to co¬
ver the perpendicular line, and repeat the above opera¬
tion till the hair covers it in both positions of the sec¬
tor. Then turn the sector, till the horizontal hair co¬
ver
III. ' GUN
ice. ver the same perpendicular line j and turning the sector
—half round on its bar, correct it, if wrong, in the same
manner as you did the vertical hair.
N. B. Of the four small screws at the eye-end of
the telescope, those at the right and left hand move
whatever hair is vertical, and those at top or underneath
move whatever hair is horizontal.
On the side of the gun upon the first reinforce, are
cast two knobs, F, fig. 9. and 14. having their middle
part distant from each other six inches, for fixing on
b the brass-cocks, A, fig. 14. and 15. which receive the
rectangular ends of the parallel cylindric bar of the sec¬
tor, when placed on the gun.
The next adjustment is to make the parallel bar, aud
line of collimation of the telescope, when set at o de¬
grees, parallel to the bore of the gun, and consequently
to the direction of the shot. The gun being loaded,
the cartridge pricked, and the gun primed, place the
sector on the cocks of the gun ; and having first set the
sector to what elevation you judge necessary, bring the
intersection of the cross hairs in the telescope upon the
centre of tire mark, the limb of the sector being set
vertical by means of the circular level, and then take
off the sector without moving the gun. Fire the gun ;
and if the bullet hits any where in the perpendicular
line, passing through the centre of the mark, the line
of collimation of the telescope and direction of the shot
agree : hut if it hit to the right of the mark, so much
do they differ. In order to correct which, bring the
gun into the same position it was in before firing, and
secure it there. Then file away as much of the fore
cock, on the side next the gun, as will let the inter¬
section of the cross-hair fall somewhere on the line pas¬
sing perpendicularly through the point where the shot
fell; and it is then adjusted in that position, so much
being filed off the side of the cock at w, fig. 14. and
15. as will allow the side b to he screwed closer, that
the ends of the parallel bar may have no shake in tire
cocks. To correct it in the other position, and so to
find the true o degrees of the gun, that is, to bring the
line of collimation of the telescope, parallel bar, and
bore of the gun, truly parallel to each other, repeat
the above with the trunnions perpendicular to the ho¬
rizon, the sector being turned a quarter round upon its
bar, so as to bring its plane vertical. The deviation of
the shot found in this' way is corrected by deepening
one of the cocks, so that the vertical hair of the tele¬
scope may be brought to cover the line passing perpen¬
dicularly through the point where the bullet hits ; the
gun being placed in the same position it was in before
it was fired. This adjustment being repeated two or
three times, and any error that remains being correct¬
ed, the gun is fit to be mounted on its carriage for ser¬
vice. It is to be observed, that this sector will fit any
gun, if the cocks and rectangular ends, &c. of the
parallel bar be of the above dimensions, and will be
equally applicable to all such pieces whose cocks have
been adjusted, as if it had been adjusted separately
With each of them. And if the sector be set at any
degree of elevation, and the gun moved so as to
bring the intersection of the cross-hairs on the ob¬
ject to be fired at (the limb of the sector being verti-
chIj, the bore ot the gun will have the same elevation
above it, in the true direction of the shot, whatever
position the carriage of the gun is standing in. A te-
VOL.X. Parti. 5 +
N E R Y. 185
lescope with cross hairs, fixed to a common rifled mus- Practice.
ket, and adjusted to the direction of the shot, will  v ' lU
make any person, with a very little practice, hit an
object with more precision than the most experienced
marksman. ^
For garrison service, or for batteries, the ship or Their car-
garrison carriage, with two iron staples on each side tolia£e8,
put through a couple of poles to carry these guns from
place to place with more dispatch, are as proper as any.
Put, for the field, a carriage like that at fig. 16. where I<5*
the shafts push in upon taking out the iron pins a bt
and moving the cross bar A, upon which the breech of
the gun rests, as far down as the shafts were pushed
in, is the properest, since the whole can then be car¬
ried like a hand-barrow, over ditches, walls, or rough
ground, all which may be easily understood from the
figure.
The principal advantage that will accrue from the
use of rifled ordnance, is the great certainty with
which any object may be hit when fired at with them,
since the shot deviates but little from its intended line
of direction, and the gun is capable of being brought
to bear upon the object, with great exactness, by means
of the telescope and cross-hairs.
The other pieces of artillery commonly made use of Mortars
are mortars, howitzers, and royals. The mortars are described,
a kind of short cannon of a large bore, with chambers
for the powder, and are.made of brass or iron. Their
use is to throw hollow shells filled with powder, which
falling on any building, or into the works of a fortifi¬
cation, burst, and with their fragments destroy every
thing near them. Carcases are also thrown out of
them; which are a sort of shells with five holes, filled
with pitch and other materials, in order to set build¬
ings on fire; and sometimes baskets full of stones, of
the size of a man’s fist, are thrown out of them up¬
on an enemy placed in the covert-way in the time
of a siege. The ingenious General Desaguliers con¬
trived .to throw bags filled with grapeshot, contain¬
ing in each bag from 400 to 600 shot of different
dimensions, out of mortars. The effect of these is
tremendous to troops forming the line of battle,
passing a defile, or landing, &c. the shot pouring down
like a shower of hail on a circumference of above qoo
feet.
Mortars are chiefly distinguished by tbe dimensions
of their bore; for example, a 13-inch mortar is one
the diameter of whose bore is 13 inches, &c.—The
land-mortars are those used in sieges, and in bat¬
tles. They arc mounted on beds, and both mortar
and bed are transported on block carriages. There is
likewise a kind of land mortars mounted on travelling
carriages, invented by Count Buckeburgh, which may
be elevated to any degree ; whereas all the English
mortars are fixed to an angle of 450. This custom,
however, does not appear to have any foundation in
reason. In a siege, shells should never be thrown with
an angle of 45 degrees, excepting in one case only ; that
is, when the battery is so far off, that they cannot other¬
wise reach the works : for when shells are thrown out
of the trendies into the works of a fortification, or
from the town into the trenches, they should have as
little elevation as possible, in order not to bury them¬
selves, but to roll along the ground, whereby they do
much more damage, and occasion a much greater con-
A a sternation
186
GUNNERY.
Praetice. sternation among the troops* than if they sunk into the
u—-\ - ground. On the contrary, when shells are thrown upon
magazines, or any other buildings, the mortars should
be elevated as high as possible, that the shells may ac¬
quire a greater force in their fall, and consequently do
more execution.
There are other kinds of mortars, called partriclge-
mortarsjiand-morlars, and firelock-mortars; which last
are also called bombards. The partridge-mortar is a
common one, surrounded with 13 other little mortars
bored round its circumference, in the body of the me¬
tal ; the middle one is loaded with a shell, and the
others with grenades. The vent of the large mortar
being fired, communicates its fire to the rest) so that
both the shell and grenades go off at once. Hand-
mortars were frequently used before the invention of
cohorns. They were fixed at the end of a staff four leet
and a half long, the other end being shod with iron to
stick in the ground j and while the bombardier with one
hand elevated it at pleasure, he fired it with the other.
The firelock-mortars, or bombards, are small mortars
fixed to the end of a firelock. They are loaded as all
common firelocks are j and the grenade, placed in the
mortar at the end of the barrel, is discharged by a
flint-lock. To prevent the recoil hurting the bombar¬
dier, the bombard rests on a kind of halberd made for
that purpose.
The chamber in mortars is the place where the pow¬
der is lodged. They are of different forms, and made
variously by different nations j but the cylindric seems
51 to be preferable to any other form.
Howitzers The howitzer is a kind of mortar mounted on a field-
snd. royals, carriage like a gun : it differs from the common mor¬
tars in having the trunnions in the middle, whereas
those of the mortar are at the end. The construction of
howitzers is as various and uncertain as that of mortars,
excepting that the chambers are all cylindric. They
are distinguished by the diameter of their bore * for in¬
stance, a 10-inch howitzer is that which has a bore of
jo inches diameter, and so of others. They were much
more lately invented than mortars, and indeed are
plainly derived from them.
Royals are a kind of small mortars* which carry a
shell whose diameter is 5.5 inches. They are mounted
on beds in the same way as other mortars.
Fig. 17. represents a mortar 5 and the names of its-
parts are as follow :
S*
Parts of a
mortar.
y»s-17..
AB, the whole length of the mortar.
AC, the muzzle.
CD, chase.
DE, reinforce.
EF, breech,
GH, trunnions,
o, vent.
b, dolphin.
c </, vent-astragal and fillets.
d <?, breech-ring and ogee.
f g, reinforce-ring and ogee.
g h, reinforce-astragal and fillets.
i k, muzzle-astragal and fillets.
k l, muzzle-ring and ogee.
im, muzzle-mouldings,
shoulders.
Interior parts.
0, chamber.
p, bore.
q, mouth.
r, vent.
Sect. II
Practici
The mortar-beds are formed of very solid timber,
and placed upon very strong wooden frames, fixed in
such a manner that the bed may turn round. The fore
part of those beds is an arc of a circle described from
the centre on which the whole turns. ^
There are several instruments employed in the load-liutriime
ing of cannon. The names of these are as follow : osedia
I. The lantern or ladle, which serves to carry the'oa<*’n^
powder into the piece, and which consists of two parts,CamiW1*
viz. of a wooden box, appropriated to the caliber of
the piece for which it is intended, and of a caliber and
a half in length with its vent j and of a piece of copper
nailed to the box, at the height of a half caliber.—This
lantern must have three calibers and a half in length,
and two calibers in breadth, being rounded at the end
to load the ordinary pieces.
2. The rammer is a round piece of wood, commonly
called a box, fastened to a stick 12 feet long, for the
pieces from 12 to 33 pounders j and 10 for the 8 and
4 pounders j which serve to drive home the powder and
ball to the breech.
3. The spunge is a long staff or rammer, with a piece
of sheep or lamb skin wound about its end, to serve for
scouring tire cannon when discharged, before it be
charged with fresh powder ; to prevent any spark of
fire from remaining in her, which would endanger the
life of him who should load her again.
4. Wad-screw consists of two points of iron turned
serpent-wise, to extract the wad out of the pieces when
one wants to unload them, or the dirt which had chan¬
ced to enter into it.
5. The botefeux are sticks two or three feet long,
and an inch thick, split at one end, to hold an end of
the match twisted round it, to fire the cannon..
6. The priming iron is a pointed iron rod, to clear
the touch-hole of the pieces of powder or dirt ; and
also to pierce the cartridge, that it may sooner taka
fire.
7. The primer, which must contain a pound of pow¬
der at least, to prime the pieces.
8. The quoin of mire* which are pieces of wood
with a notch on the side to put the fingers on, to draw
them back or push them forward when the gunner
points his piece. They are placed on the sole of the
carriage.
9. Leaden plates, which are used to cover the touch-
hole, when the piece is charged, lest some dirt should
enter it and stop it. j J
Before charging the piece, it is well sponged, to clean Mettic;
it of all filth and dirt withinside j then the proper nianȤ
weight of gunpowder is put in and rammed down j caredie|U‘ I
being taken that the powder be not bruised in ram¬
ming, which weakens its effect j it is then run over by
a little quantity of paper, hay, or the like j and lastly,
the ball is thrown in.
To point, level, or direct the piece, so as to play
against any certain point, is done by the help of a qua¬
drant
2
>r ice,
III. G U N N E
drant with a plummet : which quadrant consists of two
branches made of brass or wood ; one about a foot
long, eight lines broad, and one line in thickness $
the other four inches long, and the same thickness
and breadth as the former. Between these branches is
a quadrant, divided into 90 degrees, beginning from
the shorter branch, and furnished with thread and
plummet.
The longest branch of this instrument is placed in
the cannon’s mouth, and elevated or lowered till the
thread cuts the degree necessary to hit the proposed
object. Which done, the cannon is primed, and then
set fire to. The method by the sector, however, pro¬
posed by Dr Lind, is certainly in all cases to be pre¬
ferred.
A 24 pounder may very well fire 90 or 100 shots
every day in summer, and 60 or 75 in winter. In case
of necessity it may fire more ; and some French officers
of artillery assure us, that they have caused such a piece
to fire every day 150 shots in a siege.—-A 16 and a 12
pounder fire a little more, because they are easier served.
There have even been some occasions where 200 shots
have been fired from these pieces in the space of nine
hours, and 138 in the space of firing. In quick firing,
tubes are made use of. They are made of tin ; and
their diameter is two-tenths of an inch, being just suf¬
ficient to enter into the vent of the piece. They are
about six inches long, with a cap above, and cut slant¬
ing below, in the form of a pen ; the point is strength¬
ened with some solder, that it may pierce the cartridge
without bending. Through this tube is drawn a quick-
match, the cap being fitted with mealed powder moist¬
ened with spirits of wine. To prevent the mealed
powder from falling out by carriage, a cap of paper or
flannel steeped in spirits of wine is tied over it. To
range pieces in a battery, care must be taken to recon¬
noitre well the ground where it is to be placed, and
the avenues to it. The pieces must he armed each with
two lanterns or ladles, a rammer, a spunge, and two
priming-irons. The battery must also be provided
with carriages and other implements, necessary to re¬
mount the pieces which the enemy should chance to
dismount.
To serve expeditiously and safely a piece in a bat¬
tery, it is necessary to have to each a sack of leather,
large enough to contain about 20 pounds of powder
to charge the lanterns or ladles, without carrying them
to the magazine; and to avoid thereby making those
trains of powder in bringing back the lantern from the
magazine, and the accidents which frequently happen
thereby.
A battery of three pieces must have 30 gabions,
because six are employed on each of the two sides or
epaulments, which make 12, and nine for each of the
two merlons.
There ought to be two gunners and six soldiers to
each piece, and an officer of artillery.
The gunner posted on the right of the piece must
take care to have always a pouch full of powder and
two priming irons: his office is to prime the piece, and
load it with powder. The gunner on the left fetches
the powder from the little magazine, and fills the lan¬
tern or ladle which his comrade holds; after which, he
takes care that the match be very well lighted, and
R Y.
ready to set fire to the piece at the first command of
the officer.
There are three soldiers on the right and three on
the left of the piece. The two first take care to ram
and spunge the piece each on his side. The rammer
and spunge are placed on the left, and the lantern or
ladle on the right. After having rammed well the wad
put over the powder and that put over the bullet, they
then take each a handspike, which they pass between
the foremost spokes of the wheel, the ends whereof
will pass under the head of the carriage, to make the
wheel turn round, leaning on the other end of the hand¬
spike, towards the embrasure.
It is the office of the second soldier on the right to
provide wad, and to put it into the piece, as well over
the powder as over the bullet; and that of his comrade
on the left to provide 30 bullets, and every time
the piece is to be charged to fetch one of them and
put it into the piece after the powder has been ram¬
med. Then they both take each a handspike, which
they pass under the hind part of the wheel, to push it
in battery. - - -
The officer of artillery must take care to have the
piece diligently served.
In the night he must employ the gunners and sol¬
diers, who shall relieve those who have served 24 hours,
to repair the embrasures.
If there be no water near the battery, care must be
taken to have a cask filled with it, in which to dip the
sponges and cool the pieces every 10 or 12 rounds.
The carriage for a mortar of 12 inches diameter
must be 6 feet long, the flasks 12 inches long and 10
thick. I he trunnions are placed in the middle of the
carriage.
lire carriage of an 1 8 inch mortar must be 4 feet
long, and the flasks 11 inches high and 6 thick.
lo mount the mortars of new invention, they use
carriages of cast iron.
In Germany, to mount mortars from 8 to 9 inches, Method of
and carry them into tlie field, and execute them hori-manaSin£
zontally as a piece of cannon, they make use of a piece ni0,tars‘
ol wood 8 feet 2 inches long, with a hole in the middle
to lodge the body of the mortar and its trunnions as
far as their half diameter, and mounted on two wheels
four feet high, to which they join a vantrain propor¬
tioned to it, and made like those which serve to the
carriages of cannons.
Having mounted the mortar on its carriage, the next
thing is to caliber the bomb by means of a great ca¬
liber, the two branches whereof embrace the whole
circumference ot the bomb: these two branches are
brought on a rule where the different calibers are mark¬
ed, among which that of the bomb is found.
If no defect be found in the bomb, its cavity is fill¬
ed, by means of a funnel, with whole gunpowder j a
little space or liberty is left, that when a fusee or wood¬
en tube, of the figure of a truncated cone, is driven
through the aperture (with a wooden mallet, not an
iron one for fear of accident), and fastened with a ce¬
ment made of quicklime, ashes, brick-dust, and steel-
filings, worked together in a glutinous water, or of four
parts of pitch, two of colophony, one of turpentine,
and one of wax, the powder may not be bruised. This
tube is filled with a combustible matter made of two
A a 2 ounces
55
\
188
Practice, ounces of nitre, one of sulphur, and three or more of
-v■■' gunpowder dust well rammed. See FuSEE.
This fusee set on fire hums slowly till it reaches the
gunpowder, which goes off at once, bursting the shell
to pieces with incredible violence. Special care, how¬
ever, must be taken that the fusee be so proportioned
as that the gunpowder do not take fire ere the shell
arrives at the destined place ; to prevent which, the
fusee is frequently wound round with a wet clammy
thread.
Batteries consist,—I. Of an epaulment to shelter the
mortars from the fire of the enemy. 2. Of platforms on
which the mortars are placed. 3. Of small magazines
of powder. 4. Of a boyau, which leads to the great
magazine. 5. Of ways which lead from the battery
to the magazine of bombs. 6. Of a great ditch before
the epaulment. 7. Of a berm or retraite.
The platforms for mortars of 12 inches must have 9
feet in length and 6 in breadth.—The lambourds for
common mortars must be four inches thick 5 those of a
concave chamber of 81b. of powder, 5 inches ; those of
I2lb. 6 inches $ those of l81b. 7 inches or thereabouts.
Their length is at discretion, provided there be enough
to make tiie platforms 9 feet long.—The fore part of
the platform will be situated at two feet distance from
the epaulment of the battery.—The bombardiers, to
shelter themselves in their battery, and not be seen from
the town besieged, raise an epaulment of 7 feet or more
high, which epaulment has no embrasures.
To serve expeditiously a mortar in battery, there are
required,—five strong handspikes •, a dame or rammer,
of the caliber of the conic chamber, to ram the wad
and the earth ; a wooden knife a foot long, to place
the earth round the bomb ; an iron scraper two feet
long, one end whereof must be four inches broad and
roundwise, to clean the bore and the chamber of the
mortar, and the other end made in form of a spoon to
clean the little chamber; a kind of brancard to carry
the bomb, a shovel, and pick-axe.
The officer who is to mind the service of the mortar
must have a quadrant to give the degrees of eleva¬
tion.
Five bombardiers, or others, are employed in that
service ; the first must take care to fetch the powder to
charge the chamber of the mortar, putting his priming-
iron in the touch-hole before he charges the chamber ;
and never going to fetch the powder before he has ask¬
ed his officer at what quantity of powder he designs
to charge, because more or less powder is wanted ac¬
cording to the distance where it is fired; the same will
take care to ram the wad and earth, which another
soldier puts in the chamber.
The soldier on the right will put again two shovelful
of earth in the bottom of the bore, which should be
likewise very well rammed down.
This done, the rammer or dame is returned into its
place against the epaulment on the right of the mor¬
tar : he takes an handspike in the same place to post
himself behind the carriage of the mortar, in order to
help to push it into battery : having laid down his
handspike, he takes out his priming-iron, and primes
the touch-hole with fine powder.
The second soldier on the right and left will have by
that time brought the bomb ready loaded, which must
Sect. II]
he received into the mortar by the first soldier, and pla- pract|M
ced very strait in the bore or chase of the mortar. 't-
The first on tne right will furnish him with earth
to put round the bomb, which he must take care to
ram close with the knife given him by the second on
the left.
This done, each shall take a handspike, which the
two first on the right and left shall put under the pegs
of retreat of the fore part, and the two behind under
those of the hind part, and they together push the mor¬
tar in battery.
Afterwards the officer points or directs the mortar.
During that time the first soldier takes care to
prime the touch-hole of the mortar, without ramming
the powder ; and the last on the right must have the
match ready to set fire to the fusee of the bomb on the
right, while the first is ready with his on the left to set
fire to the touch-hole of the mortar, which he ought
not to do till he sees the fusee well lighted.
The foremost soldiers will have their handspikes ready
to raise the mortar upright as soon as it has discharged,
while the hindmost on the left shall with the scraper
clean the bore and chamber of the mortar.
The magazine of powder for the service of the bat¬
tery must be situated 15 or 20 paces behind, and co¬
vered with boards and earth over it.—The loaded
bombs are on the side of the same magazine, at five or
six paces distance.
The officer who commands the service of the mortar
must take care to discover as much as possible with the
eye the distance of the place where he intends to throw
his bomb, giving the mortar the degree of elevation
according to the judgment he has formed of the di¬
stance. Having thrown the first bomb, he must di¬
minish or increase the degrees of elevation according to
the place upon which it shall fall. Several make use
of tables to discover the different distances according
to the differences of the elevations of the mortar, espe¬
cially the degrees of the quadrant from 1 to 45 : but
these, from the principles already laid down, must be
fallacious. ^
The petard is the next piece of artillery which de-Oftbep1
serves our attention ; and is a kind of engine of metal,tar^'
somewhat in shape of a high-crowned hat, serving to
break down gates, barricades, draw-bridges, or the
like works, which are intended to be surprised. It is
very short, narrow at the breech and wide at the
muzzle, made of copper mixed with a little brass, or
of lead with tin.
The petards are not always of the same height and
bigness : they are commonly 10 inches high, 7 inches
of diameter a-top, and 10 inches at bottom. They
weigh commonly 40, 45, and 50 pounds.
The madrier, on which the petard is placed, and
where it is tied with iron circles, is of two feet for its
greatest width, and of 18 inches on the sides, and no
thicker than a common madrier. Under the madrier
are two iron bars passed crosswise, with a hook, which
serves to fix the petard.
To charge a petard 15 inches high, and 6 or 7
inches of caliber or diameter at the bore, the inside
must be first very well cleaned and heated, so that the
hand may bear the heat; then take the best powder
that may be found, throw over it some spirit of wine,.
GUNNERY.
Engl Try Jtittiams
gunnery:
PLATE CCXUX
7
/V/7/??/<?//
/'////
t ft///f/'rfi
v////y
'/ f////
ru///r/r7\
rt?zno?i • ^frf/////sv/<■!//
<>//
t// v/?r /f>?w/f
:/r.
'/(?///
‘\r; O) cr^
[ifArc/ii&a/d. Jrn//j-
,
III. GUN
and expose it to the sun, or put it in a frying-pan $
-/and when it is well dried, 5 lb. or 6 lb. of this powder
is put into the petard, which reaches within three
lingers of the mouth : the vacancies are filled with tow,
and stopped with a wooden tompion j the mouth being
strongly bound up with cloth tied very tight with ropes j
then it is fixed in the madrier, that has a cavity cut in
it to receive the mouth of the petard, and fastened
down with ropes.
Some, instead of gunpowder for the charge, use one
of the following compositions, viz. gunpowder seven
pounds, mercury sublimate one ounce, camphor eight
ounces j or gunpowder six pounds, mercury sublimate
three ounces, and sulphur three ; or gunpowder six, bea¬
ten glass half an ounce, and camphor three quarts.
Before any of these pieces are appropriated for ser¬
vice, it is necessary to have each undergo a particular
trial of its soundness, which is called a 'proof, to be
made by or before one authorized for the purpose, call¬
ed the prorf master.
To make a proof of the piece, a proper place is cho¬
sen, which is to be terminated by a mount of earth ve¬
ry thick to receive the bullets fired against it, that none
of them may run through it. The piece is laid on the
ground, supported only in the middle by a block of
wood. It is fired three times; the first with powder
of the weight of the bullet, and the two others with ^
of the weight; after which a little more powder is put
in to singe the piece; and after this, water, which is
impressed with a spunge, putting the finger on the
touch-hole to discover if there be any cracks ; which
N E R Y. 189
done, they are examined with the cat, which is a piece pract;ce.
of iron with three grasps, disposed in the form of a tri-' /
angle, and of the caliber of the piece ; then it is visited
with a wax-candle, but it is of very little service in the
small pieces, because if they be a little long, the smoke
extinguishes it immediately. See Plate CCXLIX. ^
Besides the large pieces already mentioned, invented Of smaH
for the destruction of mankind, there are others called ai'1*1*-
small guns ; viz. muskets of ramparts, common muskets,
fusils, carabines, musketoons, and pistols.
A musket, or musquet, is a fire-arm borne on the
shoulder, and used in war, formerly fired by the appli¬
cation of a lighted match, but at present with a flint
and lock. The common musket is of the caliber of 20
leaden balls to the pound, and receives balls from 22
to 24 : its length is fixed to 3 feet 8 inches from the
muzzle to the touch-pan.
A fusil, or fire-lock, has the same length and cali¬
ber, and serves at present instead of a musket.
A carabine is a small sort of fire-arm, shorter than a
fusil, and carrying a ball of 24 in the pound, borne by
the light-horse, hanging at a belt over the left shoulder.
This piece is a kind of medium between the pistol and
the musket ; and bears a near affinity to the arquebuss,
only that its bore is smaller. It was formerly made
with a match lock, but afterwards with a flint-lock.
The musquetoon is of the same length of the cara¬
bine, the barrel polished, and clean within. It carries
five ounces of iron, or seven and a half of lead, with an
equal quantity of powder.
The barrel of a pistol is generally 14 inches long.
GUN
n ,v. GUNPOWDER, a composition of nitre, sulphur,
! and charcoal, mixed together, and usually granula-
' ted ; which easily takes fire, and, when fired, rarefies
or expands with great vehemence, by means of its ela¬
stic force.
It is to this powder we owe all the action and effect
of guns, ordnance, &c. so that the modern military
art, fortification, Sec. in a great measure depend there¬
on.
Invention of Gunpowder. See Gun.
Method of makitig Gunpowder. Dr Shaw’s receipt
for this purpose is as follows : Take four ounces of
refined nitre, an ounce of sulphur, and six drams of
small-coal: reduce these to a fine powder, and con¬
tinue beating them for some time in a stone mortar
with a wooden pestle, wetting the mixture between
whiles with water, so as to form the whole into an uni¬
form paste, which is reduced to grains, by passing it
through a wire-sieve fit for the purpose ; and in this
form being carefully dried, it becomes the common
gunpowder.
lor greater quantities mills are usually provided, by
means of which more work may be performed in one
day than a man can do in a hundred.
The nitre or saltpetre is refined thus: Dissolve four
pounds of rough nitre as it comes to us from the In-
ies, by boiling it in as much water as will commodi¬
ous y suffice for that purpose : then let it shoot for two
GUN
or three days in a covered vessel of earth, with sticks Gunpow-
laid across for the crystals to adhere to. These cry- der.
stals being taken out, are drained and dried in the ""—■"Y"—J
open air.
In order to reduce this salt to powder, they dissolve
a large quantity of it in as small a portion of water as
possible ; then keep it constantly stirring over the fire
till the water exhales, and a white dry powder is left
behind.
In order to purify the sulphur employed, they
dissolve it with a very gentle heat; then scum and pass
it through a double strainer. If the sulphur should
happen to take fire in the melting, they have an iron
cover that fits on close to the melting vessel, and damps
the flame. The sulphur is judged to be sufficiently
refined if it melts, without yielding any fetid odour,
between two hot iron plates, into a kind of red sub¬
stance.
The coal for making gunpowder is either that of
willow or hazel, well charged in the usual manner,
and reduced to powder. And thus the ingredients
are prepared for making this commodity : but as
these ingredients require to be intimately mixed, and
as there would be danger of their firing if beat in a
dry form, the method is to keep them continually moist,
either with water, urine, or a solution of sal ammoniac:
they continue thus stamping them together for 24
hours; after which the mass is fit for corning and
drying
GUN [ 190 ] G U N
Gtmpow- drying in the sun, or otherwise, so as sedulously to pre-
der. vent its firing.
Different kinds of Gunpowder. The three ingre¬
dients of gunpowder are mixed in various proportions
according as the powder is intended for muskets, great
guns, or mortars, though these proportions seem not
to be perfectly adjusted or settled by competent expe¬
rience.
Semienowitz, for mortars, directs a hundred pounds
of saltpetre, twenty-five of sulphur, and as many of
charcoal; for great guns, a hundred pounds of salt¬
petre, fifteen pounds of sulphur, and eighteen pounds
of charcoal ; for muskets and pistols, a hundred pounds
of saltpetre, eight pounds of sulphur, and ten pounds
of charcoal, Miethius extols the proportion of one
pound of saltpetre to three ounces of charcoal, and
two or two and a quarter of sulphur; than which,
lie affirms, no gunpowder can possibly be stronger.
He adds, that the usual practice of making the gun¬
powder weaker for mortars than guns, is without any
foundation, and renders the expence needlessly much
greater: for whereas to load a large mortar twenty-
four pounds of common powder is required, and conse¬
quently, to load it ten times, two hundred and forty
pounds, he shows, by calculation, that the same effect
y would be produced by one hundred and fifty pounds of
the strong powder.
* Phil. Onthis subject Count Rumford * observes, thatalmost
Trans. all those who have written upon gunpowder, particu-
vol. Ixxi. Jarly those of the last century, have given different re¬
ceipts for its composition; and he proposes it as a
query, Whether these differences have not arisen from
observing that some kinds of powder were better adapt¬
ed to particular purposes than others, or from experi¬
ments made on purpose to ascertain the fact? “ There
is one circumstance (he says) that would lead us to
suppose that this was the case. That kind of powder
designed for mortars and great guns was weaker than
that intended for small arms: for if there is any foun¬
dation for these conjectures, it is certain, that the
weakest powder, or the heaviest in proportion to its
elastic force, ought to be used to impel the heaviest
bullets; and particularly in guns that are imperfectly
formed, where the vent is large, and the windage very
great. I am perfectly aware (adds he), that an ob¬
jection may here be made, viz. that the elastic fluid
generated from gunpowder must be supposed to have
the same properties very nearly, whatever may be the
proportion of its several ingredients; and that there¬
fore the only difference there can be in powder is, that
one kind may generate more of this fluid, and another
less; and that when it is generated it acts in the same
manner, and will alike escape, and with the same ve¬
locity, by any passage it can find. But to this I an¬
swer, that though the fluid may be the same, as it un¬
doubtedly is, and though its density and elasticity
may be the same in all cases at the instant of its ge¬
neration ; yet in the explosion, the elastic and unelastic
parts are so mixed together, that I imagine the fluid
cannot expand without taking the gross matter along
with it; and the velocity with which the flame issues at
the vent is to be computed from the elasticity of the
fluid, and the density or weight of the fluid and gross
matter taken together, and not simply from the density
and elasticity of the fluid.”
To increase the strength of powder, Dr Shaw thinks ,
it proper to make the grains considerably large, and to dJn
have it well sifted from the small dust. We see that^i'
gunpowder, reduced to dust, has little explosive force;
but when the grains are large, the flame of one grain
has a ready passage to another, so that the whole par¬
cel may thus take fire nearly at the same time, other¬
wise much force may be lost, or many of the grains go
away as shot unfired.
In the 71st volume of the Phil.Trans. Count Rumford
gives an account of several attempts to augment the
force of gunpowder by the addition of different ingre¬
dients. The power of steam has by many been over¬
rated to such a degree, as to be supposed capable of
answering the purposes of gunpowder; but no at¬
tempts to accomplish this have ever succeeded in any
degree. Count Rumford attempted to combine the forces
of steam and gunpowder together in the following
manner. Having procured a number of air bladders of
very small fishes, he put different quantities of water
into them, from the size of a small pea to that of a
pistol bullet, and tying them up with some very fine
thread, hung them up to dry on the outside. He then
provided a number of cartridges made of fine paper,
and filled them with a quantity of gunpowder equal
to the usual charge for a common horseman’s pistol.
He then loaded the pistol with a bullet, fired it against
an oaken plank about six feet from the muzzle, and
observed the recoil and penetration of the bullet. He
next tried the effect of one of these small bladders of
water when put among the gunpowder, but always
found the force of the powder very much diminished,
and the larger the quantity of water the greater was
the diminution ; the report of the explosion was also
diminished in a still greater proportion than the force
of the bullet or recoil. It being supposed that the
bladder had burst, and thus by wetting the gunpowder
prevented it from taking fire, the experiment was re¬
peated with highly rectified spirit of wine, hut the
diminution of the force was very little inferior to what
it had been with water. Etherial oil of turpentine
and small quantities of quicksilver were also tried, but
with no better success than before. Thinking, how¬
ever, that the failure of the quicksilver might be owing
to its having been too much in a body, the experiment
was repeated with the metal dispersed in small particles
through the powder. To accomplish this dispersion
the more completely, 20 grains of ethiops mineral were
mixed very intimately with 145 grains of powder;
but still the force of the bullet was much less than if
the powder had been used without any addition. As
the explosion of pulvis fulminans appears vastly supe¬
rior to that of gunpowder, some salt of tartar, in its
purest state, was mixed in the proportion of 20 grains
to 145 of powder; but on firing the piece, it was
still found that the force of the explosion was lessened.
Sal ammoniac was next tried, which, under certain
circumstances, is found to produce a great quantity of
air or elastic vapour ; but on mixing 20 grains of it
with 145 of gunpowder, the force of the explosion
was still found to be diminished. As most of the me¬
tals, when dissolved in acids, particularly brass in spirit
of nitre, are found to produce much elastic vapour, it
was thought worth while to try whether the force of
powder could be augmented by this means. Twenty
grains
GUN [i
| v grains of brass dust were therefore mixed with 145
j, grains of powder ; but still the force of the explosion
/ was not augmented. In our author’s opinion, how¬
ever, neither brass dust nor ethiop’s mineral diminish
the force of the explosion otherwise than by filling up
the interstices between the grains, obstructing the pas¬
sage of the flame, and thus impeding the progress of
the inflammation. Thus it appears, that little hope
remains of augmenting the force of gunpowder by
any addition either of liquid or inflammable solids 1 the
reason is obvious; viz. because all of them, the liquids
especially, absorb great quantities of heat before they
can be converted into vapour; and this vapour, after
it is formed, requires more heat to make it expand
more forcibly than air: hence, as the effects of gun¬
powder depend entirely upon the emission of a quan¬
tity of air, and its rarefaction by vehement heat, the
I power must be greatly diminished by the absorption
of this heat, which ought to be spent in rarefying
air. Even solid bodies cannot be set on fire without
a previous absorption of heat to convert them into
vapour; but liquids have this property still more than
solids, and must therefore'diminish the explosive force
still more. Lime added to gunpowder, however, is
said to augment the power of the explosion by one
third.
In his experiments on gunpowder, Count Rumford
had the curiosity to compare the strength of aurum ful-
minans, when enclosed in a gun-barrel, with that of
common gunpowder; but his experiment only verified
what has been found by others, viz. that this powder
which in the open air makes such a very violent re¬
port, has in close vessels scarce any power, compara¬
tively speaking, either of explosion or projecting a
bullet. Count Rumford, however, taking it for granted
that the power of aurum fulminans would be found
much greater than that of gunpowder, took care to
have a barrel of uncommon strength prepared for the
experiment. The weight of it w’as 7 lb. -5 oz. ; the
length 13.25 inches, and the width of the bore
O.55 inches. This barrel, being charged with 27.44
grains of aurum fulminans and two leaden bullets,
which, together with the leather put about them to
make them fit the bore without windage, weighed
427 grains; it was laid upon a chafingdish of live
coals at the distance of about ten feet from the pen¬
dulum, and the piece was directed against the centre
of the pendulum. Some minutes elapsed before the
powder exploded; but when it did so, the explosion
did not much exceed the report of a well-charged air-
gun; and it was not until he saw the pendulum in
motion, that Count Rumford could be persuaded that
the bullets had been discharged. On examination,
however, it was found that nothing had been left in
the barrel, and that the powder had probably been all
exploded, as a great many particles of the revived me¬
tal were thrown about. From a calculation of the
motion communicated to the pendulum, it was found
that the velocity ot the bullets had been about 428 feet
m a second ; whence it appears that the power of aurum
fulminans, compared with that of gunpowder, is only as
4 to 13 very nearly.
Method of Trying and Examining Gunpowder.—
'ere are two general methods of examining gunpowder;
one with regard to its purity,, the other with regard ta
11 ] GUN
its strength. Its purity is known by laying two or Gnnpow-
three little heaps near each other upon white paper, der.
and firing one of them. For if this takes fire readily, v——
and the smoke rises upright, without leaving any dross
or feculent matter behind, and without burning the
paper, or firing the other heaps, it is esteemed a sign
that the sulphur and nitre were well purified, that the
coal was good, and that the three ingredients were
thoroughly incorporated together: but if the other
heaps also take fire at the same time, it is presumed,
that either common salt was mixed with the nitre, or
that the coal was not well ground, or the whole mass
not well beat and mixed together; and if either the
nitre or sulphur be not well purified, the paper will be
black or spotted.
Several instruments have been invented to try the
strength of gunpowder ; but they have generally been
complained of as inaccurate. Mr Thomson, (now Count
Rumford), in the 71st volume of the Philosophical
Transactions, gives an account of an exact method of
proving the strength of it. “ A»the force of powder
(says he) arises from the action of an elastic fluid that
is generated from it in its inflammation, the quicker the
charge takes fire, the more of this fluid will be genera¬
ted in any given short space of time, and the greater of
course will its efl’ect be upon the bullet. But in the
common method of proving gunpowder, the weight by
which the powder is confined is so great in proportion to
the quantity of the charge, that there is time quite suf¬
ficient for the charge to be all inflamed, even when
the powder is of the slowest composition, before the
body to be put in motion can be sensibly removed
from its place. The experiment therefore may show
which of the two kinds of powder is the strongest,
when equal quantities of both are confined in equal
spaces, and both completely inflamed; but the de¬
gree of the inflammability, which is a property es¬
sential to the goodness of the powder, cannot by
these means be ascertained. Hence it appears how
powder may answer to the proof, such as is commonly
required, and may nevertheless turn out very indiffer¬
ent w’hen it comes to be used in service. But though
the common powder-triers may show powder to be
better than it really is, they can never make it appear
to be worse than it is: it will therefore always be the
interest of those who manufacture the commodity to
adhere to the old method of proof, but the purchaser
will find his account in having it examined in a method
by which its goodness may be ascertained with greater
precision.
From several experiments it appears, that the effect
of the charge is considerably augmented or diminished,
according to the greater or less force employed in ram¬
ming it down. To prevent this inconvenience, Count*
Rumford advises the use of a cylindric ramrod of wood,
fitted with a metal ring about an inch or an inch and
a half in diameter ; which being placed at a proper
distance from the end which goes up into the bore, will
prevent the powder from being too much compressed.
In making experiments of this kind, however, it is
necessary to pay attention to the heat of the barrel
as well as to the temperature of the atmosphere ; for
heat and cold, dryness and moisture, have a very sen¬
sible effect upon gunpowder to augment or diminish
its force. When a very great degree of accuracy
therefore.
GUN [ 192 ] GUN
CJunpow- Iiappens to be requisite, it wiil be proper to
der. begin by firing the piece two or three times, merely
v—11 •' to warm it; alter which tliree or four experiments may
be made with standard powder, to determine the proof
mark a second time, for the strength of powder is dif¬
ferent at different times, in consequence of the state of
the atmosphere. After this the experiments may be
made with the powder that is to be proved, taking
care to preserve the same interval ot time between the
discharges, that the heat of the piece may be the same
in each trial.
Having determined the comparative degrees of
strength of two different kinds of powder, their com¬
parative value may be ascertained by augmenting the
quantity of the weaker powder till the velocity of the
bullets in both cases becomes the same. The strong
powder is therefore precisely as much more valuable
than the weak, as it produces the same effect with a
smaller quantity. Thus if a quarter of an ounce of
one kind of powder discharges a bullet with the same
velocity that half an ounce of another kind does, it is
plain that the former is twice as valuable as the latter,
and ought to be sold at double the price.—By compa¬
risons of this kind, Count Bum ford found that the best
battle powder (so called from its being made at the
village of Battle in Kent) is stronger than government
powder, in the proportion of 4 to 3 ; but from a com¬
parison of the prices, it appears that the former is no
less than 41-! per cent, dearer than it ought to be ; and
consequently, that whoever mes it in preference to go¬
vernment powder, does it at a certain loss of /\ij per
cent, of the money it costs him.
It is supposed by Count Rumford, that very little
of the heat acquired in firing a piece of ordnance
comes from the powder ; for the time that it con¬
tinues in the piece, perhaps not exceeding the 200th
part of a second, is so small, that were the flame four
hundred times, instead of four times, as Mr Robins
supposes, hotter than red-hot iron, it is by far too short
to communicate a sensible degree of heat to one of our
large pieces of cannon. Besides, if the heat of the flame
was sufficient to communicate such a degree of heat
to the gun, it must undoubtedly be capable of burn¬
ing up ail combustible bodies that come in its way,
and of melting lead-shot when such were used ; but in¬
stead of this, we frequently see the finest paper dischar¬
ged from the mouth of a gun without being inflamed,
after it has sustained the action of the fire through the
whole length of the bore ; and the smallest lead-shot
is discharged without being melted. The objection
drawn from the heat of bullets taken up immediately
after being discharged from fire-arms does not bold ;
for bullets discharged from air-guns and even cross-bows
are likewise found hot, especially when they happen to
strike any hard body, and are much flattened. If a
musket ball be discharged into water, or against any
very soft body, it will not be sensibly heated ; but if it
bits a plate of iron or any other body which it can¬
not penetrate, it will be broken in pieces by the blow,
and the dispersed parts will be found in a state little
sholt of actual fusion. Hence our author concludes,
that bullets are not heated by the flame, but by per¬
cussion. Another objection is, that the vents of brass
guns are frequently enlarged to such a degree by re¬
peatedly firing them, that the piece becomes useless.
5
But this proves only that brass is easily corroded by c,mp
the flame of gunpowder; which indeed is the case dei
with iron also. We cannot suppose that in either case'~V 1
any real solution takes place ; on the contrary, it is
very evident that it does not: for when the vents of
fire-arms are lined with gold, they will remain with¬
out enlargement for any length of time, though it is
well known that gold is much more easily melted than
iron. As the heat communicated to bullets, therefore,
is not to be ascribed to the flame but to percussion, so
the heat acquired by guns is to he attributed, in our
author’s opinion, to the motion and friction of the
internal parts of the metal among themselves by the
violent action of the flame upon the inside of the bore.
To generate heat, the action of the powder must be
not only sufficient to strain the metal, and produce a
motion in its parts, but this effect must be extremely
rapid ; and the effect will be much augmented if the
exertion of the force and the duration of its action
are momentaneous : for in that case the fibres of the
metal that are violently stretched will return with
their full force and velocity, and the swift vibratory
motion and attrition above mentioned will be produced.
Now the effort of any given charge of powder upon
the gun is very nearly the same whether it be fired
with a bullet or without ; but the velocity with
which the generated elastic fluid makes its escape, is
much greater when the powder is fired alone than
when it is made to impel one or more bullets; the
heat ought therefore to he much greater in the for¬
mer than in the latter case, as has been found by ex¬
periment. “ But to make this matter still plainer,
(says our author), we will suppose any given quantity
of powder to be confined in a space that is just capable
of containing it, and that in this situation it is set on
fire. Let us suppose this space to be the chamber of a
piece of ordnance, and that a bullet or any other solid
body is so firmly fixed in the bore, immediately upon
the charge, that the whole effort of the powder shall
not be able to remove it: as the powder goes on to
be inflamed, and the elastic fluid to be generated, the
pressure upon the inside of the chamber will be in¬
creased, till at length all the powder being burnt, the
strain upon the metal will be at its greatest height, and
in this situation things will remain ; the cohesion or
elasticity of the particles of metal counterbalancing the
pressure of the fluid.—Under these circumstances very
little heat would be generated ; for the continued ef¬
fort of the elastic fluid would approach to the nature
of the pressure of a weight ; and that concussion, vi¬
bration, and friction among the particles of the metal,
which in the collision of elastic bodies is the cause of
the beat produced, would scarcely take effect. But in¬
stead of being firmly fixed in its place, let the bullet
now be moveable, but let it give way with great diffi*
culty, and by slow degrees. In this case the elastic
fluid will be generated as before, and will exert its
whole force upon the chamber of the piece ; but as the
bullet gives way to the pressure, and moves on in the
bore, the fluid will expand itself and grow weaker, and
the particles of the metal will gradually return to their
former situations ; but the velocity with which the me¬
tal restores itself being hut small, the vibrations that re¬
mains in the metal after the elastic fluid has made its
escape will be very languid, as will the heat be which
GUN [ 193 ] GUN
>w- i8 generated by it. But if, instead of giving way with
so much difficulty, the bullet is made lighter, so as to
■■■'afford but little resistance to the elastic fluid in making
its escape, or if it is fired without any bullet at all;
then, there being little or nothing to oppose the pas¬
sage of the flame through the bore, it will expand
itself with amazing velocity, and its action upon the
gun will cease almost in an instant; the strained metal
will restore itself with a very rapid motion, and a sharp
vibration will ensue, by which the piece will be much
heated.”
The Count, however, after more mature reflection,
a greater number and diversity of experiments, and the
increased knowledge which must always accompany
such intellectual exertions as have distinguished him
through life, has been enabled to evince, that the ama¬
zing force of the elastic fluid generated in the com¬
bustion of gunpowder, may be fully accounted for on
the hypothesis, that it entirely depends on the elasticity
of watery vapour, or steam, which is doubled by every
increase of temperature equal to 30° of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer. If then the mean pressure of the atmo¬
sphere at the temperature of 212°, equals the elastic
force of steam, this force at the temperature of 2420
must be equal to the pressure of two atmospheres, since
212+30=242, and so on in the same ratio. The
Count also found that the elastic force of gunpowder
is equal to the pressure of 131,072 atmospheres at the
temperature of 7220. By the flame of gunpowder,
brass has been known to be melted, which requires a
temperature equal to 3807° of Fahrenheit, or 21° of
Wedgwood, to bring it to a state of fusion. He also
proved in a satisfactory manner, that gunpowder con¬
tains a sufficient quantity of water for supplying the
requisite proportion of steam *, but for a full account of
his very ingenious and detailed experiments on this
curious subject, we must refer our readers to Nichol¬
son’s Journal, vol. i. 410. p. 459.
It has been proposed to substitute hyperoxymuriate
of potash in place of nitre j but the use of this substance
is attended with many inconveniences, some of which
preclude its being employed in the composition of gun¬
powder. See Chemistry, N° 959 to N° 967.
To recover damaged Gunpowder. The method of
the powder-merchants is, to put part of the powder
on a sail-cloth, to which they add an equal weight of
what is really good ; and with a shovel mingle it well
together, dry it in the sun, and barrel it up, keeping
it in a dry and proper place. Others again, if it be
very bad, restore it by moistening it with vinegar, wa¬
ter, urine, or brandy ; then they beat it fine, scarce
it, and to every pound of powder add an ounce, an
ounce and a half, or two ounces, according as it is
decayed, of melted saltpetre. Afterwards, these in¬
gredients are to be moistened and mixed well, so that
nothing can be discerned in the composition, which
may be known by cutting the mass j and then they
granulate it as before. In case the powder be in a
manner quite spoiled, the only way is to extract the
saltpetre with water according to the usual manner,
y boiling, filtrating, evaporating, and crystallizing j
and then with fresh sulphur and charcoal to make it up
anew again.
In regard to the medical virtues of gunpowder,
oer aave informs us, that the flame of it affords a
Vol. X. Part I. +
very healthy fume in the height of the plague, because Canpow-
the explosive acid vapour of nitre and sulphur corrects tier
the air; and that the same vapour, if received in a 11
small close pent-up place, kills insects. eiin-
It is enacted by 5 and 11 of Geo. I. and 5 Geo. II. Simti>ery-
c. 20. that gunpowder be carried to any place in a co¬
vered carriage $ the barrels being close-jointed j or in
cases and bags of leather, &c. And persons keeping
more than 200 pounds weight of gunpowder at one
time, within the cities of London and Westminster, or
the suburbs, &c. are liable to forfeitures if it be not
removed $ and justices of the peace may issue warrants
to search for, seize, and remove the same.
GuK-Shot Wounds. See Surgery.
GuN-Smith, a maker of small fire-arms, as muskets,
fowling-pieces, pistols, &c.
GuN-Smithery, the business of a gun-smith, or the
art of making fire-arms of the smaller sort, as muskets,
fowling-pieces, pistols, &c.
Ihe principal part of these instruments is the bar¬
rel, which ought to have the following properties.
I. Lightness, that it may incommode the person who
carries it as little as possible. 2. Sufficient strength
and other properties requisite to prevent its bursting by
a discharge. 3. It ought to be constructed in such a
manner as not to recoil with violence. And, 4. It
ought to be of sufficient length to carry the shot to as
great a distance as the force of the powder employed is
capable of doing.
-The manufacture of fire-arms is now carried to such
a degree of perfection by different European nations,
that it may perhaps be justly doubted whether any far¬
ther improvement in the requisites just mentioned can
be made. For the materials, the softest iron that can
be procured is to be made use of. The best in this
country are formed of stubs, as they are called, or old
horse-shoe nails $ which are procured by the gun¬
smiths from farriers, and from poor people who subsist
by picking them up on the great roads leading to
London. These are sold at about 10s. per cwt. and
28 pounds are requisite to form a single musket barrel.
The method of manufacturing them from this material
is as follows : A hoop of about an inch broad, and six
or seven inches diameter, is placed in a perpendicular
situation, and the stubs, previously well cleaned, piled
up in it with their heads outermost on each side, till
the hoop is quite filled and wedged tight with them.
The whole then resembles a rough circular cake of
iron, which being heated to a white heat, and then
strongly hammered, coalesces into one solid lump. The
hoop is now removed, and the heatings and hammerings
repeated till the iron is rendered very tough and close
in the grain ; when it is drawn out into pieces of about
24 inches in length, half an inch or more in breadth,
and half an inch in thickness.
Four of these pieces are employed for one barrel;
but in the ordinary way a single bar of the best soft
iron is employed. The workmen begin with ham¬
mering out this into the form of a flat ruler, having its
length and breadth proportioned to the dimensions of
the intended barrel. By repeated heating and ham¬
mering this plate is turned round a tempered iron rod
called a mandril, the diameter of which is considerably
smaller than the intended bore of the barrel. One of
the edees of the plate being laid over the other about
B b half
GUN [ 194 ] GUN
half an inch, the whole is heated and welded by two
or three inches at a time, hammering it briskly, but
with moderate strokes, upon an anvil which has a num¬
ber of semicircular furrows in it, adapted to barrels of
different sizes. Every time the barrel is withdrawn
from the fire, the workman strikes it gently against the
anvil once or twice in an horizontal direction. 13y
this operation the particles of the metal are more per¬
fectly consolidated, and every appearance of a seam in
the barrel is obliterated. The mandril being then
again introduced into the cavity of the barrel, the lat¬
ter is very strongly hammered upon it in one of the se¬
micircular hollows ot the anvil, by small portions at a
time ; the heatings and hammerings being repeated
until the whole barrel lias undergone the operation,
and its parts rendered as perfectly continuous as if they
had been formed out of a solid piece, lo effect this
completely, three welding beats are necessary when the
very best iron is made use of, and a greater number for
the coarser kinds. The French workmen imagine,
that by giving the barrel, while in the fire, slight ho¬
rizontal strokes with the hammer, so as to communi¬
cate a vibratory motion to the iron, those particles are
thrown off which are in a state ot fusion and cannot
easily be converted into malleable iron j but consider¬
ing the great number of operations already described
which the metal has undergone, we can scarce suppose
this to be of much consequence.
The next operation in forming the barrels is the
boring of them, which is done in the following man¬
ner : Two beams of oak, each about six inches in dia¬
meter, and six or seven feet long, are placed horizon¬
tally and parallel to one another j having each of their
extremities mortised upon a strong upright piece about
three feet high, and firmly fixed. A space of three
or four inches is left between the horizontal pieces, in
which a piece of wood is made to slide by having at
either end a tenon let into a groove which runs on the
inside of each beam throughout its whole length.
Through this sliding piece a strong pin or holt of iron
is driven or screwed in a perpendicular direction, ha¬
ving at its upper end a round hole large enough to ad¬
mit the breech of the barrel, which is secured in it by
means of a piece of iron that serves as a wedge, and a
vertical screw passing through the upper part of the
hole. A chain is fastened to a staple in one side of the
sliding piece which runs between the two horizontal
beams and passing over a pulley at one end of the ma¬
chine, has a weight hooked on to it. An upright piece
of timber is fixed above this pulley and between the
ends of the beams, having its upper end perforated by
the axis of an iron crank furnished with a square socket*,
the other axis being supported by the wall, or by a
strong post, and loaded with a heavy wheel of cast iron
to give it force. The axes of this crank are in a line
with the hole in the bolt already mentioned.—The
borer being then fixed into the socket of the crank,
has its other end, previously well oiled, introduced into
the barrel, whose breech part is made fast in the hole
of the bolt: the chain is then carried over the pulley,
and the weight hooked on ; the crank being then turn¬
ed with the band, the barrel advances as the borer cuts
its way, till it has passed through the whole length.-—
The boring hit consists of an iron rod somewhat longer
than the barrel, one end of which fits the socket of the
2
crank j the other is adapted to a cylindrical piece of c,\m
tempered steel about an inch and a half in length, ha-
ving its surface cut after the manner of a perpetual ,
screw, with five or six threads, the obliquity of which
is very small. The breadth of the furrows is the same
with that of the threads, and their depth sufficient to
let the metal cut by the threads pass through them
easily. Thus the bit gets a very strong hold of the
metal ; and the threads, being sharp at the edges, scoop
out and remove all the inequalities and roughness from
the inside of the barrel, and render the cavity smooth
and equal throughout. A number of bits, each a little
larger than the former, are afterwards successively pas¬
sed through the barrel in the same way, until the bore
has acquired the magnitude intended. By this ope¬
ration the barrel is very much heated, especially the
first time the borer is passed through it, by which
means it is apt to warp. To prevent this in some
measure, the barrel is covered with a cloth kept con¬
stantly wetted, which not only preserves the barrel from
an excess of heat, hut likewise preserves the temper of
the hit from being destroyed. The borer itself mast
also he withdrawn from time to time *, both to clean it
from the shavings of the metal and to oil it, or repair
any damages it may have sustained. Every time a fresh
bit has been passed through the barrel, the latter must
be carefully examined, to see if it lias warped ; and
likewise if there are any spots, by the workmen called
blacks., on its inside. When warped, it must he straight¬
ened on the anvil $ for which a few slight strokes on
the convex parts will he sufficient; and this is termed
setting up the barrel. When black spots are perceived,
the corresponding part on the outside must he marked,
and driven in by gentle strokes with the hammer, when
they will be completely removed by passing the bmer-
another time through the piece.
The equality of the bore is of the utmost conse¬
quence to the perfection of a barrel j insomuch that
the greatest possible accuracy in every other respect
will not make amends for any deficiency in this.
The method used by gunsmiths to ascertain this is by
a cylindrical plug of tempered steel highly polished,
about an inch in length, and fitting the bore exactly.
This is screwed upon the end of an iron rod, and in¬
troduced into the cavity of the barrel, where it is mo¬
ved backwards and forwards } and the places where it
passes with difficulty being marked, the boring hit is
repeatedly passed until it moves with equal ease through
every part. Any person who wishes to know the merit
of his piece in this respect, may do it with tolerable ac¬
curacy by means of a plug of lead cast on a rod of iron ;
or even by a musket ball filed exactly to the bore, and
pushed through the barrel by a ramrod ; taking care,
however, not to use much force lest the ball be flattened,
and its passage thus rendered difficult.
The last step towards the perfection of the inside of
the barrel is termed fine boring; by which is meant the
smoothing it in such a manner as to remove all marks
and inequalities left by the borer. The fine borer re¬
sembles the other in its general construction; but in¬
stead of the piece of steel cut in form of a screw which
belongs to that, it is furnished with a square broach
10 or 12 inches long, highly polished, and very sharp,
by which means it cuts the metal very smoothly. It
is found to answer the purpose best when only two of
GUN [ 195 ] GUN
\A{. its edges are allowed to work j the other two are cover-
1, ery. ed with slips of oiled paper, one or more additional
■« slips being put on each time that the instrument is pas¬
sed through the barrel. The fine-borer is frequently
passed through, from the muzzle to the breech, and
from the breech to the muzzle, until the whole inside
presents a perfectly equal and polished surface } the
barrel being likewise examined and set up, if requisite,
after each time. It is absolutely necessary that this in¬
strument should be perfectly true, and not in the least
cast or warped in the tempering.
Besides the operations above described, another, call¬
ed polishing, is usually performed on gun-barrels, though
it is doubtful whether this last be attended with any
good effect or not. It is performed by a cylinder of
lead, five or six inches long, cast upon a rod of iron,
and filed exactly to the bore. The lead being then co¬
vered with very fine emery and oil, is wrought back¬
wards and forwards through the whole length of the
barrel until the inside has acquired the requisite degree
of polish. The disadvantages of tiiis operation are, that
it is scarce possible to perform it without pressing more
upon one part than another, and thus producing some
degree of inequality on the inside, which is of the very
worst consequence to fire-arms. The polish thus given
is likewise very perishable $ so that the fine-boring may
justly be considered as the last operation necessary for
the inside of a barrel j and it is then proper to give
the external form and proportions by means of a file,
lor this purpose, four faces are first formed upon it,
then eight, then 16 ; and so on till it be quite round,
excepting the part next the breech, called the reinfor¬
ced part, which is always left of an octagonal form. It
being absolutely necessary that the barrel should be
equally thick on every side, gunsmiths employ, for ac¬
complishing this purpose, a particular tool named a
compass. Ibis consists of an iron rod bent in such a
manner as to form two parallel branches about an inch
distant from each other. One of these branches is
introduced into the barrel, and kept closely applied to
the side, by means of one or more springs with which
it is furnished : the other descends parallel to this on
the outside, and has several screws passing through it
with their points directed to the barrel. By screwing
these until their points touch the surface of the barrel,
and then turning the instrument round within the bore,
we perceive where the metal is too thick, and how
much it must be reduced, in order to render every part
perfectly equal throughout its circumference. It may
be made long enough to reach the whole length of the
barrel, though it will be more convenient to have it
only half as much, and to introduce it first at one end
and then at the other. Instead of rounding the barrel
oy means of a file and compass, however, some people
no so by turning it in a lathe j which is no doubt more
expeditious, though neither so certain nor exact. A
spindle as long as a gun-barrel cannot, without great
.‘faculty, prevented from springing considerably un-
ei the tool employed to reduce or smooth it in turn-
Uig '■> whence it is found, that by this operation barrels
are more frequently warped than by all the borings
icy undergo ; and there is now this farther inconveni-
®ncc, that they cannot be set up as formerly, without
danger of destroying them entirely.
c barrels being thus bored and formed externally,
it is customary with the gunsmiths in France to solder Cun-
on the loops and aim before they breech the barrel. Smiihery.
The English, h owever, do not restrict themselves in this  v——'
manner: for as soft solder is sufficient for fastening on
these, they never use any other ; while the French,
who use hard solder, must of consequence employ a
great heat. Thus the inside is roughened sometimes
so considerably, that it is necessary to repeat the fine
boring ; which could not be done without injuring the
threads of the screw formed for the breech, if the bar¬
rel were prepared for the latter without soldering on
the former.
The first tool employed in forming the breech-screw
is a plug of tempered steel, somewhat conical, with the
threads of a male screw upon its surface, and by the
rvorkmen termed a screw tap. This being introduced
into the barrel, and worked from left to right and back
again, until it has marked out the four first threads ot
the screw, another less conical tap is introduced ; and
when this has carried the impression of the screw as far
as it is intended to go, a third one, nearly cylindrical,
is made use of, scarcely differing from the plug of the
breech intended to fill the screw thus formed in the
barrel. The plug itself has its screw formed by means
ot a screw-plate of tempered steel, with several female
screws, corresponding with the taps employed for
forming that in the barrel. Seven or eight threads are
a sufficient length for a plug : they ought to be neat
and sharp, so as completely to fill the turns made in the
barrel by the tap. The breech plug is then to be case-
hardened, or to have its surface converted into steel, by
covering it with shavings of horn, or the parings of the
hoofs of horses, and keeping it for some time red hot j
alter which it is plunged in cold water.
The only thing now requisite for completing the bar¬
rels is to give them a proper colour ; as a preparation
for which their outside is first to be neatly polished with
oil and emery. This being done, it was formerly the
custom to give such a degree of heat as would make
them blue throughout $ but as this cannot be effected
without a partial calcination of the surface, which of
consequence affects the inside also, the blue colour has
been for some time disused, and a brown one substituted
in its place. To give this colour, the pieces are first
rubbed over with aquafortis or spirit of salt diluted with
water j after which they are laid by till a complete
coat of rust is formed upon them : a little oil is then
applied 5 and the surface being rubbed dry, is polished
by means of a hard brush and bees-wax.
Thus the common musket barrels for the purposes
especially of sportsmanship are made; but there are some
other methods of manufacture, by which the barrels are
made to differ in some respects from those just describ¬
ed, and are thought to be considerably improved.
One kind of these are called t wisted barrels ; and by the
English workmen are formed out of the plates made
oi stubs formerly described. Four of these, of the size
already mentioned, are requisite to make one barrel.
One of them heated red hot for five or six inches is
turned like a cork-screw by means of the hammer and
anvil ; the remaining parts being treated successively in
the same manner until the whole is turned into a spiral,
forming a tube, the diameter ot which corresponds with
the bore of the intended barrel. Four are generally
sufficient to form a barrel of the ordinary length, i. e.
B b 2 from
GUN
from 32 to 38 indies; and the two which form the
breech or strongest part, called the reinforced part, are
considerably thicker than those which form the muzzle
or fore part of the barrel. One of these tubes is then
welded to a part of an old barrel to serve as a handle ;
after which the turns of the spiral are united by heat¬
ing the tube two or three inches at a time to a bright
white heat, and striking the end of it several times
against the anvil in a horizontal direction with conside¬
rable strength, which is jumping the barrel; and
the heats given for this purpose are called jumping heats.
The next step is to introduce a mandril into the cavity,
and to hammer the heated portion lightly in order to
flatten the ridges or burs raised by the jumping at the
place where the spirals are joined. As soon as one piece
is jumped throughout its whole length, another is weld¬
ed to it, and treated in the same manner, until the four
pieces are united, when the part of the old barrel is
cut off, as being no longer of any use. The welding
is repeated three times at least, and is performed exact¬
ly iu the same manner as directed for plain barrels ;
and the piece may afterwards be finished according to
the directions already given.
The operation for the French twisted barrels is very
different from that just mentioned, and much more ex¬
ceptionable. It consists in heating the barrel by a few
inches at a time to a strong red heat ; one end is then
screwed into a vice, and a square piece of iron with an
handle like an augre is introduced into the other. By
means of these the fibres of the heated portion are
twisted into a spiral direction, which is supposed to re¬
sist the effort of the inflamed powder better than the
other. To render this operation complete, however,
it must he observed, that when once the several por¬
tions of the barrel have been twisted, the subsequent
heats ought not to be very great, or the grain of the
metal will regain its former state, and the barrel be no
better for the twisting than before. To twist a barrel
in this manner, also, it will be necessary to forge it at
least half a foot longer than it is intended to be, that a
sufficient length may be kept cold at each end to give
a sufficient purchase to the vice and tvvistinginstrument;
and these portions must afterwards be cut off before the
barrel is bored, or two pieces of an old barrel may be
welded to the muzzle and breech of that which is to
be twisted, and cut off when the operation is over.
These pieces may also be made stronger than usual to
resist the force of the vice and twisting instrument; and
in order to give the latter a firmer hold, the cavity of
the muzzle may be made of a square form. The Eng¬
lish workmen are unanimously of opinion that this me¬
thod of twisting is really injurious to the barrel, by
straining the,fibres of the metal. At any rate, from
the injudicious methods followed by the French artists,
the greatest part of their barrels, said to be twisted, are
not so in reality ; there being at least six or seven inches
at the muzzle, and seven or eight at the breech, which
are not affected by the operation.
The French ribbon barrels have a great resemblance
to the English twisted ones: but the process for making
them is much mope operose, though it seems not to pos¬
sess any real advantage over that used by the English
artists. A plate of iron, about the twelfth part of an
inch in thickness, is turned round a mandril, and weld¬
ed its whole length ia the same manner as a plain bar*
GUN
rel. Upon this slight barrel, which is called the lining,
a plate of iron about an inch in breadth, and bevelled Smiitti
off at the edges, is by means of successive heats rolled't-
in a spiral direction ; after which it is termed the ribbon,
and must have a thickness corresponding with that part
of the barrel which it is to form. As it would, how¬
ever, be difficult to form a ribbon of sufficient length
for the whole barrel, it is made in several pieces ; and
Avhen one piece is rolled on, another is welded to its
end, and the operation continued until the lining be en¬
tirely covered. The edges are so much bevelled, that
the one folds over the other about a quarter of an inch.
After the ribbon is all rolled on, the barrel must be
heated by two or three inches at a time, and the turns
of the spiral united to each other and to the lining by
being welded in the same manner as the twisted barrel;
though, from what has been said of the construction of
these barrels, it is plain that the operation of jumping
cannot be admitted in them. The barrel is afterwards
bored in such a manner that almost the whole of the
lining is cut out, and scarce any thing left but the rib¬
bon with which the lining was covered.
The superiority of twisted and ribbon barrels over
the plain kind gave occasion to a third sort named
wired barrels. These were invented by an ingenious
workman at Paris named Barrois; whose method was
as follows : Upon a thin barrel, filed and dressed as
usual, he rolled, as close as possible, and in a spiral di¬
rection, a tempered iron wire about the thickness of a
crow-quill, the first layer covering only the reinforced
part. The turns of the wire were soldered to each
other and to the barrel with a composition which he
kept a secret. The wired part was then filed smooth
and bright, but not so much as to weaken it; a second
layer of wire was applied over the first, extending two-
thirds of the length of the barrel ; and this being
smoothed and brightened like the first, a third layer was
applied, which covered the two former and reached
quite to the muzzle.
The barrels made after this manner are supposed to
be much superior to others, though the supposition
seems not to be well founded. It is certain that wire
is not preferable to other iron as a material for gun-
barrels : and the solder used by M. Barrois in a quan¬
tity nearly equal to the wire itself, must be accounted
a defect as far as it was used ; for no metal has yet
been found equal to iron for the purposes of gun¬
smiths : so that by the use of so much of this solder in
the composition of the barrel, it must be undoubtedly
weaker than if it had been all made of iron. We are
not to suppose the wire absolutely free from flaws;
and even though it were, there will always be small
cavities between its turns, which the solder cannot fill
completely. Besides, as the operation of wiring was
performed by M. Barrois upon a barrel that had been
previously bored and dressed within, the repeated heats
to which it was afterwards subjected in soldering, if
they did not cause it warp, at least rendered it so
rough that it was necessary to fine-bore it afterwards.
The only advantage therefore which these barrels were
found to possess was their beautiful appearance; which
was greatly overbalanced by the circumstances just
mentioned, as well as by the extravagant prices at
which they were sold; a single barrel being sold at jh
aod a double one at twice that sum; whence the sale of
them
[ 196 j
GUN
E
them never answered the expectation of the invent-
y. or, and after his death nobody thought of making
—’ them.
The Spanish barrels have long been held in great
estimation, both on account of their being formed of
better iron than those of other countries, and likewise
from an opinion of their being more perfectly forged
and bored. Those made at Madrid are the best, and
even of these such as have been made by former gun¬
smiths are in the greatest estimation. The most cele¬
brated Spanish gunsmiths were Nicholas Biz, who lived
in the beginning of the present century, and died in
1724; and the barrels fabricated by him in the former
part of his life are held in greatest estimation. Those
of his cotemporaries, Juan Belan and Juan Fernandez,
are no less valued ; all of their barrels selling in France
at looolivres, or 45I. 15s. sterling. The successors of
these great artists were Diego Esquibal, Alonzo Mar¬
tinez, Agostin Ortiz, Matthias Vaera, Luis Santos,
Juan Santos, Francisco Garcia, Francisco Targarone,
Joseph Cano, and N. Zelaya. The most celebrated
after these were Francisco Loper, Salvador Cenarro,
Miguel Zeguarra, Isidoro Soler, and Juan de Soto.
The three first are gunsmiths to the king; and the bar¬
rels made by all of them sold for 13I. sterling. Almost
all the Madrid barrels are composed of the old shoes of
horses and mules, which are all collected for the pur¬
pose. They are manufactured first by welding longi¬
tudinally, and then being joined together in four or five
pieces like the English barrels made from stubs, as al¬
ready mentioned. In this, and indeed all other opera¬
tions for making gun-barrels, an immense waste of the
iron takes place ^ but that of the Spanish iron is by far
the greatest, a mass of 40 or 45 pounds being required
to make one barrel, which when rough from the forge
weighs only six or seven pounds j so that from 30 to 38
pounds are lost in the hammerings. It may perhaps,
however, be doubted, whether the iron be really puri¬
fied by this waste *, for it is certain, that by long conti¬
nued working in the fire it may be rendered totally use¬
less and destroyed •, neither can we lie assured that the
other advantages pretended to result from the.ir method
of manufacture are of any consequence. The Spanish
artists likewise value themselves on giving the inside of
their barrels a very high polish j but the advantage of
this, as has already been observed, is extremely dubi¬
ous. The only thing requisite in a gun-barrel is that it
do not lead; that is, that the mark of the bullet be
not perceived on the inside after it has been discharged,
by some of the lead rubbed off as it passes through. In
the opinion of very good judges, therefore, it is better
to take a barrel immediately after it has undergone the
operation of fine-boring than to give it any higher po¬
lish and in support of this opinion, M. de Marolles,
author of great reputation, informs us, that he has
seen a barrel rough from the borer throw a charge of
shot deeper into a quire of paper than one which was
highly polished within, though the length, bore, and
charge, were the same in both.
As the Spanish iron is universally allowed to be ex¬
cellent, it has not been unreasonably supposed that the
superiority of the barrels manufactured in that king¬
dom is owing more to the goodness of the materials
than to the skill of the workmen. It must be observed,
however, that instead of making the plates overlap a
97 ] GUN
tittle in the place where they join, they give one of them Cun-
a complete turn $ so that every Spanish barrel may be Smithery.
said to be double throughout its whole length. The ir"“
different portions of the iron are also forged in such a
manner, that the grain of the iron is disposed in a spi¬
ral manner ; whence it has the same effect with a rib¬
bon or twisted barrel. The outside is finished by turn¬
ing them in a lathe; whence probably they are always
less elegantly wrought than the French and English
pieces. The great value put upon them is also thought
to be more owing to fancy than to any real good quali¬
ties they possess. Formerly they were made from three
to three feet and a half long; their bore being such as
to admit a bullet from 22 to 24 in the pound ; and
their weight from three to three pounds and a half.
The reinforced part extends two-fifths of the length ;
and at 10 or 12 inches from the breech is placed a
sight, such as is usually put upon rifle-barrels or those
intended only for ball. According to Espinas, arque-
buss-bearer to Philip IV. the weight of a Spanish bar¬
rel ought to be four pounds and a half when their length
is 42 inches ; but both weight and length are now
much reduced, they seldom exceeding the dimension
already mentioned. Next to the barrels made at Ma¬
drid, the most esteemed are those of Bustindui and St
Olabe at Placentia in Biscay ; and of Jeun and Clement
Padwesteva, Eudal Pous, and Martin Marechal, at
Barcelona ; the usual price of them being about 3I. 10s.
sterling.
Having now described the method of forging barrels,
we shall next proceed to give an account of those im¬
perfections to which they are sometimes liable, and
which render them apt to burst or recoil with violence.
The principal of these are the chink, crack, and flaw.
The first is a small rent in the direction of the length of
the barrel ; the second across it; and the third is a kind
of scale or small plate adhering to the barrel by a nar¬
row base, from which it spreads out like the head of a
nail from its shank, and when separated leaves a pit or
hollow in the metal. The chink or flaw is of much
worse consequence than the crack in fire-arms, the force
of the powder being exerted more upon the circumfe¬
rence than the length of the barrel. The flaw is much
more frequent than the chink, the latter scarce ever
occurring but in plain barrels formed out of a single
plate of iron, and then only when the metal is deficient
in quality. When flaws happen on the outside, they
are of no great consequence ; but in the inside they are
apt to lodge moisture and foulness which corrode the
iron, and thus the cavity enlarges continually till the
piece bursts. This accident, however, may arise from
many other causes besides the defect of the barrel itself.
The best pieces will burst when the ball is not sufficient¬
ly rammed home, so that a space is left between it and
the powder. A very small windage or passage for the
inflamed powder between the sides of the barrel and ball
will be sufficient to prevent the accident; but if the
ball has been forcibly driven down with an iron ram¬
rod, so as to fill up the cavity of the barrel very exact¬
ly, the piece will almost certainly burst, if only a very
small space be left between it and the powder; and the
greater the space is, the more certainly does the event
Take place. Of this Mr Robins gives a remarkable in¬
stance, accounting at the same time for the phenome¬
non. “ A moderate charge of powder (says he), when
it
G UN [ 19S ] G u N
Gun- ^ has expanded itself through the vacant space and
Smithery. reaches the ball, will, by the velocity each part has
' “ acquired, accumulate itself behind the ball, and will
thereby be condensed prodigiously : whence, if the bar¬
rel be not of an extraordinary strength in that part, it
must infallibly burst. The truth ot this I have ex¬
perienced in a very good Tower musket forged of very
tough iron: for charging it with 12 pennyweights of
powder, and placing the ball loosely 16 inches from
the breech ; on the firing of it, the part of the barrel
just behind the bullet was swelled out to double its dia¬
meter like a blown bladder, and two large pieces of two
inches in length were burst out of it.” A piece will
frequently burst from having its mouth stopped up
with earth or snow j which accident sometimes happens
to sportsmen in leaping a ditch, in which they have as¬
sisted themselves with their fowling-piece, putting the
mouth of it to the ground j and when this does not
happen, it is only to be accounted for from the stop¬
page being extremely slight. For the same reason a
musket will certainly burst if it be fired with the muz¬
zle immersed only a very little way in water. It will
also burst from an overcharge ; but when such an ac¬
cident happens in other circumstances, it is most proba¬
bly to be attributed to a defect in the workmanship, or
in the iron itself. These defects are principally an im¬
perfection in the welding, a deep flaw having taken
place, or an inequality in the bore j which last is the
most common of any, especially in the low-priced bar¬
rels. The reason of a barrel’s bursting from an ine¬
quality in the boi’e is, that the elastic fluid, set loose
by the inflammation of the powder, and endeavouring
to expand itself in every direction, being repelled by
the stronger parts, acts with additional force against
the weaker ones, and frequently bursts through them,
which it would not have done had the sides been equally
thick and strong throughout. W'ith regard to defects
arising from the bad quality of the iron, it is impossible
to say any thing certain. As the choice of the mate¬
rials depends entirely on the gunsmith, the only way to
be assured of having a barrel made of proper metal is to
purchase it from an artist of known reputation, and to
give a considerable price for the piece.
The recoil of a piece becomes an object of import¬
ance only when it is very great $ for every piece recoils
in some degree when it is discharged. The most fre¬
quent cause of an excessive recoil is an inequality in the
bore of the barrel ; and by this it will be occasioned
even when the inequality is too small to be perceived
by the eye. The explanation of this upon mechanical
principles indeed is not very easy: for as it is there an
invariable law, that action and re-action are equal to
one another, we should be apt to suppose that every
time a piece is discharged it should recoil with the
whole ditTerence between the velocity of the bullet and
that of the inflamed powder. Rut were this the case,
no man could fire a musket without being destroyed ;
for the bullet flies out only with a velocity of 1700
feet in a second, or not much more, while that of the
powder, as calculated by Mr Robins, is not less than
7000 feet in the same space. But was the recoil to be
made with the difference of these velocities, or with
one half of it, it is plain that no man could bear it.
1 he same thing therefore must take place in the recoil
of a musket, which Dr Priestley observed in his experi¬
ments on the explosion of inflammable and dephlogisti- Qan_
cated air, viz. that the force is exerted much more up- Smitfo f1
on the part farthest from that where the inflammation '"T'
begins than upon that next to it. At any rate, how¬
ever, the strength of the recoil will always be found
proportionable to the weight of the piece j that is, the
lighter the piece is, the greater the recoil, and vice
versa. The recoil may be increased by any thing
which retards the passage of the shot; whence it is also
augmented by the foulness of the barrel by repeated fir¬
ing. M. de Marolles informs us also, that a piece will
recoil, if, from the breech-plug being made too short,
some turns of the screw remain empty j as in these a
part of the powder is lodged which forms an obstacle
to the explosion ; though in what manner this takes
place is not very apparent, as, though the powder
lodged there might contribute little or nothing to the
force of the explosion, it can scarce be shown to stand
in the way of it. The same author likewise informs us,
that a barrel mounted upon a very straight stock will
recoil more than upon one that is considerably bent.
Sometimes also a fowling-piece will recoil from the
sportsman applying it improperly to his shoulder ;
though this last circumstance seems likewise inexplica¬
ble. It is most probable therefore that the supposed
greater recoil taken notice of in this case, arises only
from the usual recoil being more sensibly felt in one
position than another.
The cause to which too great a recoil in muskets
has been usually attributed, is the placing of the touch-
hole at some distance from the breech-plug j so that
the powder is fired about the middle, or towards its
fore part, rather than at its base. To avoid this, some
artists form a groove or channel in the breech-plug as
deep as the second or third turn of the screw; the
touch-hole opening into this channel, and thus firing
the powder at its very lowest part. It appears, how¬
ever, from a number of experiments made upon this
subject by M. le Clerc gunsmith to the king of France,
that it made very little difference with regard to the
recoil, whether the touch hole was close to the breech
or an inch distant from it. The only circumstance to
be attended to with respect to its situation therefore
is, that it be not quite close to the breech-plug; as in
such a case it is found to he more apt to be choked up
than when placed about a quarter of an inch from
it.
The only other circumstance now to be determined
with regard to musket-barrels is their proper length.
Formerly it was supposed that the longer they were
made, the greater would be the distance to which
they carried the shot, and that without any limitation.
This opinion continued to prevail till about half a cen¬
tury ago, when it was first proposed as a doubt whe¬
ther long barrels carried farther than short ones. With
regard to cannon, indeed, it had long before this time
been known that they might be made too long; and
Balthazar Killar, a celebrated cannon-founder in the
reign of Louis XIV. was able to account for it. V hen
asked by Mons. Suriry de St Remy, why the culverin
of Nancy, which is 22 feet long, did not carry a ball
equally far with a shorter piece ? he replied, that “ the
powder, when inflamed, ought to quit the cavity of
the piece in a certain time, in order to exert its whole
force upon the bullet: by a longer stay, part of the
force
J ~ «
GUN [ 199 ] GUN
force is lost; and the same-cause may produce an ine-
7- quality in the shots, by giving a variation to the bullet,
so as to destroy its rectilineal course, and throw it to
one side or other of the mark.” Mr Robins, who on
this as well as every other question in gunnery has al¬
most exhausted the subject, informs us, that “ if a
musket-barrel, of the common length and bore, be fired
with a leaden bullet and half its weight of powder,
and if the same barrel be afterwards shortened one-half
and fired with the same charge, the velocity of the
bullet in this shortened barrel will be about one-sixth
less than what it was when the barrel was entire ; and
if, instead of shortening the barrel, it be increased to
twice its usual length, when it will be near eight feet
long, the velocity of the bullet will not hereby be aug¬
mented more than one-eighth part. And the greater
the length of the barrel is in proportion to the diame¬
ter of the bullet, and the smaller the quantity of pow¬
der, the more inconsiderable will these alterations of
velocity be.” From these considerations it appears,
that the advantages gained by long barrels are by no
means equivalent to the disadvantages arising from the
weight and incumbrance of using them ; and from a
multitude of experiments it is now apparent, that every
one may choose what length he pleases, without any
sensible detriment to the range of his piece. The most
approved lengths are from 32 to 38 inches.
An opinion has generally prevailed among sports¬
men, that by some unknown manceuvre the gunsmith
is able to make a piece, loaded with small shot, throw
the contents so close together, that even at the distance
of 40 or 50 paces the whole will be confined within
the breadth of a hat. From such experiments as have
been made on this subject, however, it appears, that
the closeness or wideness with which a piece throws its
shot is liable to innumerable variations from causes
which no skill in the gunsmith can possibly reach. So
variable are these causes, that there is no possibility of
making the same piece throw its shot equally close
twice successively. In general, however, the closer
the wadding is, the better disposed the shot seems to
be to fall within a small compass. The closeness of
the shot therefore would seem to depend in a great
measure on preventing the flame of the powder from
insinuating itself among its particles : whence the fol¬
lowing method is said to be practised with success by
those who shoot for a wager at a mark with small shot ;
viz. to put in the shot by small quantities at a time,
ramming down a little tow or thin paper over each;
so as to fill the interstices of the grains, and thus pre¬
vent the flame from getting in amongst the grains and
scattering them. In firing with small shot, a curious
circumstance sometimes occurs, viz., that the grains,
instead of being equally distributed over the space they
strike, are thrown in clusters of 10, 12, 15, or more ;
whilst several considerable spaces are left without a
grain m them. Sometimes one-third or one-half of
the charge will be collected into a cluster of this kind ;
nay, sometimes, though much more rarely, the whole
charge, will be collected into one mass, so as to pierce
a board near an inch thick at the distance of 4c or
45 paces. Small barrels are said to be more liable to
this clustering than large ones : and M. de Marolles
in orms us, that this is especially the case when the
barrels are new, and likewise when they are fresh.
washed ; though he acknowledges that it did not al- Gun-
vvays happen with the barrels he employed even after Smitheiy.
they were washed. It is probable, therefore, that the v—~
closeness of the shot depends on some circumstances re¬
lative to the wadding rather than to the mechanism of
the barrel.
Some pieces are composed of two or more barrels
joined together; in which case the thickness of each
of the barrels is somewhat less than in single-barrelled
pieces. After being properly dressed, each of them is
filed flat on the side where they are to join each other,
so that they may sit more closely together. Two cor¬
responding notches are then made at the muzzle and
breech of each barrel; and into these are fitted two
small pieces of iron to hold them more strongly to¬
gether. Being then united by tinning the contiguous
parts, a triangular piece of iron called the rib is fasten¬
ed on in like manner, running the whole length on the
upper side; which serves to hold them more strongly
together. After this they are to be polished and co¬
loured in the manner described for single barrels. Great
care should be taken that the barrels joined in this
manner should be quite equal in strength to one an¬
other, and that both should be quite upright, or of an
equal thickness throughout. If any inequality takes
place in the strength of the barrels, the weaker will be
warped by the action of the stronger ; and the warping
from this cause has sometimes been so considerable as
to render one ol the barrels useless. To bring every
part of the circumference of each barrel to an equal
strength as nearly as possible, so that no part may be
strained by the explosion, that side where they touch
each other must he so reduced, that the partition
between the two calibres may be no thicker than ei¬
ther barrel was at the same place before it was filed tc
join in this manner. Formerly the double-barrelled
pieces were made with one barrel lying over the other,
each barrel having a separate pan,’hammer, and ham¬
mer-spring, but only one cock for both. The barrels
were therefore made to turn round at the place where
the breeches joined with the stock ; so that as soon as
one was fired off, the other could be brought into its
place by pressing a spring moved by the guard with
the right hand, while with the left "the barrels were
turned upon their common axis ; and as soon as tbs
charged barrel was thus brought into its proper situa¬
tion, the spring descended into a notch and kept it
firm. But this method was found to be too complicated
and embarrassed, though upon the same plan three and
four barrels were sometimes mounted upon one stock ;
but these pieces were intolerably heavy, and have no
real superiority over the double-barrelled pieces which
do not turn round, and which of consequence are now
only made use of.
In forging barrels of all kinds, it is of considerable
importance to have them made at first as near as pos¬
sible to the weight intended when they are finished, so
that very little be taken away by the boring and filing :
for as the outer surface, by having undergone the ac¬
tion of the hammer more immediately than any other
part, is rendered the most compact and pure, we should
be careful to remove as little of it as possible ; and the
same holds, though in a less degree, with the inside
which is to be cut with the borer. Pistol-barrels are
forged in one piece, two at a time, joined by their
muzzles,. .
GUN' [ 200 ] GUT
Gun- muzzles, and are bored before they are cut asunder ;
Smithery by which means there is not only a saving of time and
H labour, but a greater certainty of the bore being the
Gunter’s • i .1
.. same in both.
'”e' . GUNTER, Edmund, an excellent English mathe¬
matician and astronomer, was born in Hertfordshire in
1581, and studied at Westminster-school; from whence
he removed to Oxford, where he took the degree of
master of arts in 1606, and afterwards entered into holy
orders. In 1615 he took the degree of bachelor of
divinity : but being peculiarly eminent for his know¬
ledge in the mathematics, he had two years before been
chosen professor of astronomy in Gresham college, Lon¬
don ; where he distinguished himself by his lectures
and writings. He invented a small portable quadrant i
and also the famous line of proportions, which, after
the inventor, is called Gunter's scale. He likewise
published Canon Triangulorum ; and a work entitled
Of the Sector, Cross-staff, and other instruments. This
last was published, with an English translation of his
Canon Triangulorum, in 4to, by Samuel Foster profes¬
sor of Gresham-college. Mr Gunter died at that col¬
lege in 1626.
Gunter's Line, a logarithmic line, usually gradua¬
ted upon scales, sectors, &c.
It is also called the line of lines and line'of numbers;
being only the logarithms graduated upon a ruler,
* which therefore serves to solve problems instrumental-
ly in the same manner as logarithms do arithmetical¬
ly. It is usually divided into 100 parts, every tenth
whereof is numbered, beginning with I and ending
with 10: so that if the first great division, marked I,
stand for one-tenth of any integer, the next division,
marked 2, will stand for two-tenths, 3, three-tenths,
and so on ; and the intermediate divisions will in like
manner represent roodth-parts of the same integer. If
each of the great divisions represent 10 integers, then
will the lesser divisions stand for integers j and if the
greater divisions be supposed each 100, the subdivisions
will be each 10.
Use of Gunter's Line. 1. To find the product of two
numbers. From 1 extend the compasses to the multi¬
plier j and the same extent, applied the same way
from the multiplicand, will reach to the product.
Thus if the product of 4 and 8 be required, extend
the compasses from I to 4, and that extent laid from 8
the same way will reach to 32, their product. 2. To
divide one number by another. The extent from the
divisor to unity will reach from the dividend to the
quotient: thus, to divide 36 by 4, extend the com¬
passes from 4 to 1, and the same extent will reach from
36 to 9, the quotient sought. 3. To three given num¬
bers to find a fourth proportional. Suppose the numbers
6, 8, 9 : extend the compasses from 6 to 8 j and this
extent, laid from 9 the same way, will reach to 12, the
fourth proportional required. 4. To find a mean pro¬
portional between any two given numbers. Suppose 8
and 32: extend the compasses from 8, in the left-hand
part of the line, to 32 in the right; then bisecting this
distance, its half will reach from 8 forward, or from
32 backwards, to 16, the mean proportional sought,
q. To extract the square-root of any number. Suppose
25 : bisect the distance between I on the scale and the
point representing 25 5 then the half of this distance,
set off from 1, will give the point representing the
3
root 5. In the same manner the cube root, or that of cunuj
any higher power, may be found by dividing the dis- I'm
tance on the line between I and the given number in- 8
to as many equal parts as the index of the power ex-, C:''[l
presses j then one of those parts, set from I, will find
the point representing the root required.
Gunter's Quadrant, one made of wood, brass, &c.
containing a kind of stereographic projection of the
sphere, on the plane of the equinoctial j the eye being
supposed placed in one of the poles.
Gunter's Scale, called by navigators simply the
gunter, is a large plain scale, generally two feet long,
and about an inch and a half broad, with artificial lines
delineated on it, of great use in solving questions in
trigonometry, navigation, &c.
GUNWALE, or Gunnel, is the uppermost wale
of a ship, or that piece of timber which reaches on ei¬
ther side from the quarter-deck to the forecastle, being
the uppermost bend which finishes the upper works of
the hull, in that part in which are put the stanchions
which support the waste trees.
GURK, an episcopal town of Carinthia in Germany,
seated on the river Gurk, in E. Long. 14.18. N. Lat.
47. 12.
GURNARD. See Trigla, Ichthyology In¬
dex.
GUST, a sudden and violent squall of wind, burst¬
ing from the hills upon the sea so as to endanger the
shipping near the shore. These are peculiar to some
coasts, as those of South Barbary and Guinea.
GUSTAVIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
monadelphia class. See Botany Index.
GUSTAVUS I. king of Sweden, son of Eric de
Vasa duke of Gripsholm. Christian II. king of Den¬
mark having made himself master of the kingdom of
Sweden, confined Gustavus at Copenhagen ; but he
making his escape, wandered a long time in the forests,
till the cruelties of the tyrant having occasioned a re¬
volution, he was first declared governor of Sweden,
and in 1513 elected king. This prince introduced
Lutheranism into his dominions, which in a little time
spread itself all over the kingdom. He died in 1560;
having made his kingdom hereditary, which was before
elective. See Sweden.
Gustavus Adolphus, surnamed the Great, king of
Sweden, was born at Stockholm in 1594, and succeed¬
ed his father Charles in i6ir. He espoused the cause
of the Protestants in Germany, who were oppressed and
almost entirely ruined by the emperor Ferdinand. He
was a great warrior, and gained many victories, of
which an account is given under the article Sweden.
He was at last killed in the battle of Lutzen, where
his troops got the victory, and defeated two of the em¬
peror’s armies.
GUTHALUS, or Guttalus, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, is thought to be the Viadrus of Ptolemy. Now
the Oder, which rising in Moravia, runs through Sile¬
sia, Brandenburg, and Pomerania, into the Baltic.
GUTTA, a Latin term for what in English we call
drop.
Gutta Rosacea, in Medicine, denotes a red or pim¬
pled face ; a distemper which, though not always owing
its original to hard drinking, is nevertheless most inci¬
dent to tipplers of strong beer, wines, spirits, &c.
Gutta Serena, a disease in which the patient, with¬
out
GUY [ 201 ] GUY
out sny apparent fault in the eye, is deprived of sight.
See Medicine Index.
Gutta, in Architecture, are ornaments in the form
-'of little cones used in the Doric corniche, or on the ar¬
chitrave underneath the triglyphs, representing a sort
of drops or bells.
GUT-tie, a disease incident to oxen and male
calves at the time of castration. In the county of
Hereford, those who breed cattle open the scrotum of
their calves, and forcibly extract the testicles with
their teeth, in consequence of which every vessel is
ruptured belonging to these parts. The vasa deferen-
tia are separated from the testicles, and form a kind
of bow from the urethra, where they are united to the
transverse muscles. The jejunum is the part ot the gut
that is tied, where it turns from the right to the left,
and from the left to the right. .As the bow of the
gut hangs over the vasa delerentia, a hitch is formed
over the how of the gut, analogous to what is made by
a carter over his cart line. In this manner an obstruc¬
tion is occasioned in the bowels, which terminates in a
mortification, commonly proving fatal in the course ot
four days.
The symptoms which attend a gut-tie resemble those
of an incurable colic, or mortification of the intestines.
To ascertain the distinction between the gut-tie and the
colic, the hand and arm of the operator ought to lie
oiled, in which state it should be introduced into the
anus. Here the string will be found united to the
muscles, and without occasioning any pain to the ani¬
mal, may be traced with ease to the stricture by the
hand.
Mr Harris, farmer at Wickton, informs us, that the
gut-tie may be prevented by the following simple and
easy method of castration. “ Open the scrotum, loosen
out the testicles, and tie the several vessels with a waxed
thread or silk, or sear them with a hot iron, to pre¬
vent their bleeding, as in the common way ot cutting
colts. This method can never displace the vessels of
the bladder, testicles, kidneys, or intestines j all of
which remained covered or attached to the peritonaeum,
or lining of the abdomen of the beast, which renders jt
impossible that there should ever be a stricture or tie
on the gut.”
GUTTURAL, a term applied to letters or sounds
pronounced or formed as it were in the throat.
GUTTY, in Heraldry, a term used when any thing
is charged or sprinkled with drops. In blazoning, the
colour of the drops is to be named: as gutty of sable,
of gules, &c.
GUY, Thomas, an eminent bookseller, founder of
the hospital for sick and lame in Southwark bearing
his name, was the son of Thomas Guy, lighterman and
coal-dealer in Horsley-down, Southwark. He was put
apprentice, in 1660, to a bookseller in the porch of
Mercer’s chapel j and set up trade with a stock ol about
200l. in the house that forms the angle between Corn-
hill and Lombard-street. The English Bibles being at
that time very badly printed, Mr Guy engaged with
others in a scheme for printing them in Holland and
importing them *, hut this being put a stop to, he con¬
tracted with the university of Oxford for their privilege
of printing them, and carried on a great bihle-trade
for many years to a considerable advantage. 1 bus he
began to accumulate money, and his gains rested in his
1 Vol.X. Parti. f
hands ; for being a single man, and very penurious, Guy,
his expences could not be great, when it was his custom Guy’s ClilT.
to dine on his shop counter with no other table-cover- *
ing than an old newspaper: and besides he was not more
scrupulous about the style of his apparel. The hulk of
his fortune, however, was acquired by purchasing sea¬
men’s tickets during Queen Anne’s wars, and by South-
Sea stock in the memorable year 1720. To show
what great events spring from trivial causes, it is
asserted, that the public owe the dedication of the
greatest part of his immense fortune to charitable pur¬
poses, to the indiscreet officiousness of his maid-servant
in interfering with the mending of the pavement be¬
fore the door. Guy had agreed to marry her, and,
preparatory to his nuptials, had ordered the pavement
before his door, which was in a neglected state, to be
mended, as far as to a particular stone which he point¬
ed out. The maid, while her master was out, inno¬
cently looking on the paviers at work, saw a broken
place that they had not repaired, and mentioned it to
them; but they told her that Mr Guy had directed
them not to go so far. Well, says she, do you mend
it ; tell him I bade you, and I know he will not be an¬
gry. It happened, however, that the poor girl pre¬
sumed too much on her influence over her careful lover,
with whom a few extraordinary shillings expence turn¬
ed the scale totally against her : the men obeyed ; Guy
was enraged to find his orders exceeded, his matrimo¬
nial scheme was renounced, and so he built hospitals in
his old age. In the year 1707 he built and furnished
three wards on the north side of the outer court of
St Thomas’s Hospital in Southwark, and gave look
to it annually for eleven years preceding the erection
of his own hospital; and, some time before his death,
erected the stately iron gate, with the large houses on
each side, at the expence of about 3000I. He was
76 years of age when lie formed the design of building
the hospital contiguous to that of St Thomas’s, which
bears his name, and lived to see it roofed in, dying in
the year 1724. The charge of erecting this vast pile
amounted to 18,793^* an^ 2I9’499^* -en‘‘
dow it; a much larger sum than had ever been dedica¬
ted to charitable uses in this kingdom by any one man.
He erected an alms house wi'h a library, at 1 anwortli
in Staffordshire (the place of his mother’s nativity, and
for which he was representative in parliament) for 14
poor men and women ; and for their pensions, as well
as for the putting out poor children apprentices, be¬
queathed 125I. a-year. Lastly, he bequeathed 1 oool.
to every one who could prove themselves in any degree
related to him.
Guy, a rope used to keep steady any weighty body
whilst it is hoisting or lowering, particularly when the
ship is shaken by a tempestuous sea.
Guy is likewise a large slack rope, extending from
the head of the main-mast to the head of the fore-mast,
and having two or three large blocks, fastened to the
middle of it. This is chiefly employed to sustain the
tackle used to hoist in and out the cargo of a merchant
ship, and is accordingly removed from the mast-head
as soon as the vessel is laden or delivered.
Guy's Cliff', in Warwickshire, a great clill on the
west sice of the Avon and the north side of Warwick,
where in the Britons time was an oratory, and in that
of the Saxons an hermitage, where Guy earl ot VVar-
C c wick,
G Y G [ 202 J GYM
wick* who is said to have retired to it after his fatigues I'tusa lake of I*yd ia, distant 40 stadia, or live miles,
by the toils and pleasures ot the world, built a chapel, from Sardis.
I I I • 1 1 *.l 4a1_f.   P..»-»*~tr% f l-\ O r» V ft
and conabited
GygtE
with the hermit j and that from thence
it had the name. This hermitage was kept up to the
reign of Henry VI. when Rich. Beauchamp, earl of
Warwick, established a chantry here, and in memory
of the famous Guy erected a large statue of him ift the
chapel eight feet in height, and raised a roof over the
adjacent springs. The chapel is in the parish ot St
Nicholas, in the suburbs of Warwick.
GUYON, Johanna Mart Bouriers be la
Mothe, a French lady, memorable for her writings,
and for her sufferings in the cause of Quietism, was de¬
scended from a noble family, and born at Montargis in
1648. She gave some extraordinary symptoms of illu¬
mination from her earliest infancy, and tried to take
the veil before she was of age to dispose of herself j but
her parents obliged her to marry a gentleman to whom
they had promised her. She was a widow at the age
of 28 ; when distinguishing herself in, and making
many converts to, the way of contemplation and prayer
known by the name of Quietism, complaints were made
of her spiritualism, and she was confined by order of the
king, and severely examined for eight months. She was
discharged j but was afterwards involved in the perse¬
cution of the archbishop of Cambray, and thrown into
the Bastile, where she underwent many examinations :
but nothing being made out against her, she once more
obtained her liberty, and lived private to her death in
1717. She spent her latter years in mystical reveries j
covering her tables, ceilings, and every thing that would
receive them, with the sallies of a visionary imagination.
Her pious verses were collected after her death in 5 vols.
entitled Cantiques spirituels, ou d1 Emblemessur VAmour
Divin. Her publications were, Le tnoyen court et ires
facile de faire Oraisons; and Le Cantique des Cantiques
de Salomon interprete selon le sens mystique; which were
condemned by the archbishop of Paris.
GUYTON de Morveau, L. B. a late celebrated
French chemist. See Supplement.
GUZ, an Indian measure which varies in different
places, but is in general equal to a yard of English
measure. The guz of Akbar did not exceed 41
fingers.
GWINIAD. See Salmo, Ichthyology Index.
GYARUS, in Ancient Geography, one of the Cy¬
clades, 12 miles in compass, lying to the east of Delos.
It was a desert island, and allotted for a place of banish¬
ment by the Romans.
GYBING, the act of shifting any boom-sail from
one side of the mast to the other.
In order to understand this operation more clearly, it
is necessary to remark, that by a boom-sail is meant
any sail whose bottom is extended by a boom, the fore¬
end of which is hooked to its respective mast, so as to
swing occasionally on either side of the vessel, descri¬
bing an arch, of which the mast will be the centre.
As the wind or the course changes, it also becomes
frequently necessary to change the position of the boom,
together with its sail, which is accordingly shifted to the
other side of the vessel as a door turns upon its hinges..
The boom is pushed out by the effort of the wind upon
the sail, and is restrained in a proper situation by a
strong tackle communicating with the vessel’s stern.
GYGiEUS, in Ancient Geography; called also Co-
2
GYGES, in fabulous history, a Lydian, to whom
Candaules king of the country showed his wife naked.
The queen was so incensed at this instance of imprudence
and infirmity in her husband, that she ordered Gyges
either to prepare for death himself, or to put Candaules
to death. He chose the latter j and, marrying the
queen, ascended the vacant throne about 718 years be¬
fore the Christian era. He was the first of the Merm-
nadae who reigned in Lydia. He reigned 38 years,
and distinguished himself by the immense presents which
he made to the oracle of Delphi (Herod, i. c. 8.)—
According to Plato, Gyges descended into a chasm
of the earth, where he found a brazen horse, whose
sides he opened, and saw within the body the carcase
of a man of uncommon size, from whose finger he took
a brazen ring. This ring, when he put it on his finger,
rendered him invisible $ and by means of its virtue he
introduced himself to the queen, murdered her hus¬
band, and married her and usurped the crown of Lydia.
(Cic. Oss. iii. c. 9.).
GYMNASIARCH, in antiquity, the director of
the gymnasium. He had two deputies under him j the
one called xystarch, who presided over the athletee, and
had the oversight of wrestlings the other was gymnasteSf
who had the direction of all other exercises.
GYMNASIUM, in Grecian antiquity, a place fit¬
ted for performing exercises of the body, See.—The
word is Greek, formed of yvpnt, “ naked j” by rea¬
son they anciently put off their clothes, to practise ^vith
the more freedom.
Gymnasia, according to Potter, were first used at
Lacedaemon, but were afterwards very common in all
parts of Greece y and imitated, very much augmented,
and improved, at Rome. There were three principal
gymnasia at Athens ; the academy where Plato taught;
the Lyceumr noted lor Aristotle’s lectures j and the
Cynosarges, allotted for the populace.
Vitruvius describes the structure and form of the
ancient gymnasia, lib. v. cap. 11. They were called
gymnasia, because several of the exercises were perform¬
ed naked $ andpalcestrce, from wrestling, which was one
of the most usual exercises there : the Romans some¬
times also called them therm«e, because the baths and
bagaios made a principal part of the building.—It ap¬
pears that they did not perform their exercises quite
naked so early as the time of Homer, but always in
drawers y which they did not lay aside before the
Olympiad. One Orsippus is said to have been the first
who introduced the practice j for having been worsted
by means of his drawers undoing and entangling him,
he threw them quite aside, and the rest afterwards imi¬
tated him. They were not single edifices, but a knot
of buildings united, being sufficiently capacious to hold
many thousands of people at once j and having room
enough fox philosophers, rhetoricians, and the profes¬
sors of all other sciences to read their lectures,—and
wrestlers, dancers, and all others who had a mind to
exercise,—at the same time without the least disturb¬
ance or interruption. They consisted of a great many
parts. Vitruvius recites no less than 12, viz. 1. The
exterior porticoes, where the philosophers, rhetoricians,
mathematicians, physicians, and other virtuosi, read
public lectures, and where they also disputed and re¬
hearsed
Gymi
sirnr
i ,
G Y M [ 203 ] GYM
!• ia. hearsed their performances. 2. The ephebeum, where
,1, the youth assembled very early, to learn their exercises
' G; ia- in private, without any spectators. 3. The coryceum,
j* * j‘‘ apodyterion, or gymnasterion, a kind of wardrobe,
where they stripped, either to bathe or exercise. 4.
The elseothesium, alipterion, or unctuarium, appoint¬
ed for the unctions, which either preceded or followed
the use of the bath, wrestling, pancratia, &c. 5. The
conisterium or conistra, in which they covered them¬
selves with sand or dust, to dry up the oil or sweat. 6.
The palaestra, properly so called, where they practised
wrestling, the pugillate, pancratia, and divers other
exercises. 7. The sphaeristerium or tennis-court, re¬
served for exercises wherein they used balls. 8. Large
unpaved alleys, which comprehended the space be¬
tween the porticoes and the walls wherewith the edifice
was surrounded. 9. The xysti, which were porticoes
for the wrestlers in winter or bad weather. 10. Other
xystis or open alleys, allotted for summer and fine
weather, some of which were quite open, and others
planted with trees. 11. The baths, consisting of se¬
veral different apartments. 12. The stadium, a large
space of a semicircular form, covered with sand, and
surrounded with seats for the spectators.
For the administration of the gymnasia, there were
different officers : the principal were, 1. The gymna-
siarcha, who was the director and superintendant of the
whole. 2. The xystarcha, who presided in the xystus
or stadium. 3. The gymnasta, or master of the exer¬
cises, who understood their different effects, and could
accommodate them to the different complexions of the
athletae. 4. The psedotriba, whose business was me¬
chanically to teach the exercises, without understanding
their theory or use. Under these four officers were a
number of subalterns, whose names distinguished their
different functions.
The gymnastic exercises may be reduced to two gene¬
ral classes; as they depend either on the action of the
body alone, or as they require external agents or in¬
struments. The latter consisted chiefly in mounting
the horse, driving the chariot, and swimming. The
former were chiefly of two kinds} orchestice, and pa-
laestrice.
The orchestice comprehended, 1. Dancing. 2. Cu-
bistice, or the art of tumbling. 3. Sphseristice orteunis,
including all the exercises with pilae or balls.
The palaestrice comprised all exercises under the de¬
nomination pal(estr(B ; as wrestling, boxing, pancratia,
hoplomachia, running, leaping, throwing the discus,
the exercise of the javelin, and that of the hoop, deno¬
minated by the Greeks which consisted in roll¬
ing an iron hoop five or six feet in diameter, beset with
iron rings, the noise of which apprising the people to
give way, afforded them also an amusement. Both
strength and skill were requisite in directing this hoop,
which was to be driven with an iron rod. To these
must also be added the exercises belonging to the me¬
dicinal gymnastics ; as, 1. Walking. 2. Vociferation,
or shouting. 3. Holding one’s breath. Hoffman enu¬
merates no fewer than 55 sorts of exercises that were
practised in the gymnasia.
GYMNASTICS, Gymnastice, or the Gymna¬
stic art, denotes the art of performing exercises of the
°dy, whether for defence, health, or diversion. See
Gymnasium.
Several modern writers have treated of this art. M. Gymna-
Burette has given the history of gymnastics in the sties.
Memoirs of the Iloyal Academy of Inscriptions. 'l!""'
On the first establishment of society, men, being ap¬
prised of the necessity of military exercises for repel¬
ling the insults of their neighbours, instituted games
and proposed prizes to animate their youth to combats
of divers kinds. And as running, leaping, strength
and dexterity ol arm in throwing the javelin, driving
a ball, or tossing a quoit, together with wrestling, &c.
were exercises suited to the manner of fighting in those
days ; so the youth vied to excel in them, in the pre¬
sence of the aged, who sat as their judges, and dispen¬
sed prizes to the conquerors ; till what was originally
only amusement, became at length a matter of such
importance, as to interest great cities and entire nations
in its practice. Hence arose an emulation and eager¬
ness to excel, in hopes, one day, of being proclaimed
and crowned conquerors in the public games, which
was the highest honour a mortal could arrive at : nay,
they went so far as to imagine, that even gods and
demigods were not insensible of what men were so
captivated with } and, in consequence hereof, to intro¬
duce the greatest part of these exercises into their reli¬
gious ceremonies, the worship of their gods, and the
funeral honours done to the manes of the dead.
1 hough it be hard to determine the precise epocha
of the gymnastic art, yet it appears from several passages
in Homer, and particularly the 23d book of the Iliad,
where he describes the games celebrated at the funeral
of Patroclus, that it was not unknown at the time of
the Trojan war. From that description, which is the
earliest monument now extant of the Grecian gymna¬
stics, it appears, that they had chariot-races, boxing,
wrestling, toot-races, gladiators, throwing the discus,
drawing the bow, and hurling the javelin} and it should
seem from the particular account Homer gives of these
exercises, that even then the gymnastic art wanted little
of perfection : so that when Galen says there was no
gymnastic art in Homer’s days, and that it began to
appear no earlier than Plato, he is to be understood of
the medicinal gymnastics only. This last, indeed, had
its rise later} because, while men continued sober and
laborious, they had no occasion for it} but when luxu¬
ry and idleness had reduced them to the sad necessity
of applying to physicians, these, who had found that
nothing contributed so much to the preservation and
re-establishment of health as exercises, proportioned to
the different complexions, ages, and sexes, did not fail
to refer them to the practice of gymnastics.
According to Plato, one Herodicus, prior a little
time to Hippocrates, was the first who introduced this
art into physic; and his successors, convinced by ex¬
perience of its usefulness, applied themselves in earnest
to improve it. Hippocrates, in his book of Kegimen,
has given instances of it, where he treats of exercise in
general, and of the particular effects of walking, with
regard to health ; also of the different sorts of races,
either on foot or horseback } leaping, wrestling, the
exercise of the suspended ball, called corycus, chirono-
my, unctions, frictions, rolling in the sand, &c. But
as physicians did not adopt all the exercises of the gym¬
nastic art in their practice, it came to be divided be¬
tween them and the masters of martial and athletic
exercises, who kept schools, the number of which was
C c 2 greatly
GYM [204] GYN
At length tlie Romans they have an aversion to Idleness and indolence:
* Florid.
lib. i.
greatly Increased In Greece,
also caught the same taste ; and, adopting the military
and athletic exercises of the Greeks, they improved
and advanced them to the utmost pitch of magnificence,
not to say extravagance. But the declension of the
empire involved the arts In its ruin, and, among others,
gymnastics and medicine 5 which last unhappily then
relinquished the title it had to the former, and has ne¬
glected to resume it ever since.
GYMNOPYRIS, in Natural History, an old name
given to some species of pyrites. See Pyrites, Mine¬
ralogy Index.
GYMNOSOPHISTS, a set of Indian philosophers,
famous in antiquity j so denominated from their go¬
ing barefoot. The word is formed of the Greek
yvproroQirK, q. d. a sophist or philosopher who goes
naked.
This name was given to the Indian philosophers,
whom the excessive heat of the country obliged to go
naked; as that of Peripatetics was given to those who
philosophised walking. The Gymnosophists, however,
did not go absolutely naked ; but only clothed them¬
selves no farther than modesty required. There were
some of these sages in Africa} but the most celebrated
clan of them was in India. The African gymnoso¬
phists dwelt upon a mountain in Ethiopia, near the
Nile, without the accommodation either of house or
cell. They did not form themselves into societies like
those of India ; but each had his private recess, where
he studied and performed his devotions by himself. If
any person had killed another by chance, he applied to
these sages for absolution, and submitted to whatever
penances they enjoined. They observed an extraordi¬
nary frugality, and lived only upon the fruits of the
earth. Lucan ascribes to these Gymnosophists several
new discoveries in astronomy.
As to the Indian Gymnosophists, they dwelt in the
woods, where they lived upon the wild products of the
earth, and never drank wine nor married. Some of
them practised physic, and travelled from one place
to another j these were particularly famous for their
remedies against barrenness. Some of them, likewise,
pretended to practise magic, and to foretel future
events.
In general, the Gymnosopbists were wise and learned
men : their maxims and discourses, recorded by histo¬
rians, do not in the least savour of a barbarous educa¬
tion j but are plainly the result of great sense and deep
thought. They kept up the dignity of their charac¬
ter to so high a degree, that it was never their custom
to wait upon any body, not even upon princes them¬
selves. They believed the immortality and transmi¬
gration of the soul: they placed the chief happiness
of man in a contempt of the goods of fortune, and the
pleasures of sense, and gloried in having given faithful
and disinterested counsels to princes and magistrates.
It is said, that when they became old and infirm, they
threw themselves into a pile of burning wood, in order
to prevent the miseries of an advanced age. One of
them, named Calanus, thus burnt himself in the pre¬
sence of Alexander the Great.
Apuleius* describes the Gymnosophists thus: “ They
are all devoted to the study of wisdom, both the elder
masters and the younger pupils ; and what to me ap¬
pears the most amiable thing in their character is, that
ac‘ Gymi 1.
cordingly, as soon as the table is spread, before a bit phi
of victuals be brought, the youths are all called toge- ||
ther from their several places and offices, and the ma- GynaT
sters examine them what good they have done since
the sunrise : here one relates something he has disco¬
vered by meditation ; another has learned something by
demonstration , and as for those who have nothing to
allege why they should dine, they are turned out to
work fasting.”
The great leader of the Gymnosophists, according
to Jerome, was one Buddas, called by Clemens Butta,
who is ranked by Suidas among the Brachmans. lhat
last author makes Buddas the preceptor of Manes the
Persian, the founder of the Gymnosophists.
GYMNOSPERMIA, in Botany, (from yvpvog, “ na¬
ked,” and “ seed >”) the first order in Linnfe-
us’s class of didynamia. It comprehends the plants
of that class which have naked seeds. The seeds are
constantly four in number, except in one genus, viz.
phryma, which is monospermous. See Botany, p. 65.
and 2ij.
GYMNOTUS, a genus of fishes belonging to the
order of apodes. See Ichthyology Index.
GYNiECEUM, among the ancients, the apartment
of the women, a separate room in the inner part ol the
honse, where they employed themselves in spinning,
weaving, and needle-work.
GYNiECOCRACY, denotes the government of
women, or a state where women are capable of the su¬
preme command. Such are Britain and Spain.
GYNiECOCRATUMENI, an ancient people of
Sarmatia Europaea, inhabiting the eastern banks of the
river Tanais, near its opening into the Palos Maeotis j
thus called, as authors relate, because they had no wo¬
men among them $ or rather because they were under
the dominion of women. The word is formed of ym,
woman, and vanquished, of *$«««, / ovet'
come, q. d. overcome by women.
Fa. Hardouin, in his notes on Pliny, says, they were
thus called, because, after a battle which they lost
against the Amazons, on the banks of the Thermo-
doon, they were obliged to have venereal commerce
with them, in order to get them children^; et quid vie-
tricibus obsequanlur adprocurandam cissobolem.—Har¬
douin calls them the husbands of the Amazons, Ama-
•zonum connubia ; for, as the author observes, the word
unde must be retrenched from Pliny, having been foist¬
ed into the text by people who were not masters of
the author’s meaning, unde Amwzonuni connubia. See
Amazons. They who take the Amazons for a fabu¬
lous people, will conclude the same of the Gynaecocra-
tumenians.
GYNANDRIA, (from yutn, a “ woman j” and«wj>
a “ man,”) the name of the 20th class in Linnaeus’s
sexual system, consisting of plants with hermaphrodite
flowei’s, in which the stamina are placed upon the style*
or pillar-shaped receptacle resembling a style, which
rises in the middle of the flower, and bears both the
stamina and stigma 5 that is, both the supposed organs
of generation. See Botany, p. 65.
The flowers of this class, says Linnaeus, have a mon¬
strous appearance, arising, as he imagines, from the
singular and unusual situation of the parts of fructifi¬
cation.
c gypsies,
GYP L 205 ] GYP
pGS i .eg GYPSIES, or Egyptians, an outlandish tribe of
uvagabonds, who disguising themselves in uncouth ha¬
bits, smearing their faces and bodies, and framing to
K ! themselves a canting language, wander up and down,
and, under pretence of telling fortunes, curing diseases,
&c. abuse the common people, trick, them of their
money, and steal all that they can come at.
They are a strange kind of commonwealth among
themselves of wandering impostors and jugglers, who
made their first appearance in Germany about the be¬
ginning of the 16th century. Munster, it is true, who
is followed and relied upon by Spelman, fixes the time
of their first appearance to the year 1417 : as lle
owns that the first whom he ever saw were in 1529,
it is probably an error of the press for 1517 ; especially
as other historians inform us, that when Sultan Selim
conquered Egypt in the year 1517, several of the na¬
tives refused to submit to the Turkish yoke, and re¬
volted under one Zinganeus ; whence the Turks call
them Zinganees ; but being at length surrounded and
■ banished, they agreed to disperse in small parties all
over the world, where their supposed skill in the black
art gave them an universal reception in that age of su¬
perstition and credulity. In the compass of a very few
years they gained such a number of idle proselytes
(who imitated their language and complexion, and be¬
took themselves to the same arts of chiromancy, beg¬
ging, and pilfering), that they became troublesome, and
even formidable, to most of the states of Europe.—
Hence they were expelled from France in the year
1560, and from Spain in 1591. And the government
of England took the alarm much earlier; for in 1530
they are described by Stat. 22 Hen. VIII. c. 10. as
“ an outlandish people calling themselves Egyptians,
i> using no craft nor feat of merchandise, who have come
into this realm, and gone from shire to shire, and place
to place, in great companies, and used great, subtle,
‘ and crafty means to deceive the people ; bearing them
in hand that they by palmistry could tell men’s and
( women’s fortunes ; and so many times by craft and shb-
tility have deceived the people of their money, and also
► have committed many heinous felonies and robberies.”
t Wherefore they are directed to avoid the realm, and
not to return under pain of imprisonment, and forfei¬
ture of their goods and chattels ; and upon their trials
> for any felony which they may have committed, they
shall not be entitled to a jury de medietate linguce. And
afterwards it is enacted, by statutes 1st and 2d Ph. and
Mary, c. 4. and 5th Eliz. c. 20. that if any such per¬
sons shall he imported into the kingdom, the importer
shall forfeit 40I. And if the Egyptians themselves re¬
main one month in the kingdom, or if any person be-
ing 14 years old, whether natural-born subject or stran¬
ger, which hath been seen or found in the fellowship
of such Egyptians, or which hath disguised him or her¬
self like them, shall remain in the same one month at
one or several times, it is felony' without benefit of
clergy. And Sir M. Hale informs us, that at one Suf¬
folk assizes no less than 13 persons were executed upon
these statutes a few years before the Restoration. But,
to the honour of our national humanity, there are no
instances more modern than this of carrying these laws
into practice ; and the last sanguinary act is itself now
repealed by 23 Geo. III. c. 54.
In Scotland they seem to have enjoyed some sUare
of indulgence; for a writ of privy seal, dated 1594, Gypiies.
supports John Faw, lord and earl of Little Egypt, in v——V—
the execution of justice on his company and folk, con¬
form to the laws of Egypt, and in punishing certain
persons there named who rebelled against him, left
him, robbed him, and refused to return home with
him. James’s subjects are commanded to assist in ap¬
prehending them, and in assisting Faw and his adhe¬
rents to return home. There is a like writ in his fa¬
vour from Mary queen of Scots 1553, and in 1554 he
obtained a pardon for the murder of Nunan Small. So
that it appears he had staid long in Scotland, and per¬
haps some of the time in England; and from him this
kind of strolling people might receive the name of Faw
Gang, which they still retain.
A very circumstantial account of this singular race
of vagrants has been lately given in an express Inqiiii'y
concerning them, written in German by H. M. G.
Grellman, and translated by Mr Raper. It is incre¬
dible to think bow this regular swarm of banditti has
spread itself over the face of the earth. They wander
about in Asia, in the interior parts of Africa, and like
locusts have overrun most of the European nations.
In the reigns of Henry VIII. and Queen Elizabeth,
as we have seen, they were set up as a mark of ge¬
neral persecution in England ; yet their numbers do
not appear to have much diminished. Spain is sup¬
posed by Mr Twiss to contain 40,000 of these va¬
grants ; but by others 60,000; and by some even dou¬
ble that number. They are less numerous in France
in consequence of the strictness of the police. In Italy
they abound, especially in the dominions of the church,
on account of the had police and the prevalence, of su¬
perstition, which permit and entice them to deceive the
ignorant. They are scattered, though not in great
numbers, through Germany, Denmark, Sweden, and
Russia ; but their chief population is in the south-east
parts of Europe, which seem to be the general ren¬
dezvous of the gypsy nation. At a moderate compu¬
tation Europe contains more than seven bundled
thousand of these vagabonds.—For near four centuries
they have wandered through the world ; and in every
region, and among every people, whether barbarous or
civilized, thev have continued equally unchanged by
the lapse of time,, the variation of climate, and the
force of example. Their singular physiognomy and
particular manners are the same in every country.-—
Their swarthy complexion receives no darker shade
from the burning sun of Africa, nor pny fairer tincture
from the temperate climates of Europe : they contract
no additional laziness in Spain, nor acquire any new
industry in England; in Turkey they behold the
mosque and the crescent with equal indifference as
they do the reformed and the catholic church in Eu¬
rope. In the neighbourhood of civilized life they con¬
tinue barbarous ; and, beholding around them cities
and settled inhabitants, they live in tents or boles in
the earth, and wander from place to place as fugitives
and vagabonds.
They are passionately fond of ornaments; in which
however they consult neither propriety nor consistency ;
they will wear an old laced coat, while the rest of their
garments scarcely hang together. In Hungary and
Translyvania their summer habitations are tents; their
winter ones holes 10 or 12 feet deep in the earth, ex¬
cept c
G Y P T 205 ] GYP
Gypsies, cept such as keep inns, or exercise trades.. They
'-v—^ are fond of plate, particularly silver cups, which they
bury under the hearth for security. Their principal
occupations are, smith’s work, or tinkers, or wooden
ware, and horse-dealing ; and in Hungary and Iran-
gylvania they are executioners of criminals, flayers or
dead beasts, and washers of gold. 1 he women deal
in old clothes, prostitution, wanton dances, and fortune¬
telling. Notwithstanding these occupations the majo¬
rity of this people are lazy, beggars, and thieves. Ihey
bring up their children to their own professions, and are
very fond of them. They have few disordeis, except
the measles and smallpox, and weakness in their eyes,
occasioned by the smoke j and live to an advanced age,
with a strong attachment to life. Their physic is saf¬
fron in their soups, or bleeding.
These people, however, appear to be distinguished
by different singularities in different countries. At
least in the following circumstances the German gyp¬
sies differ widely from those we commonly meet with
in England. It is a great feast to them, our author
says, whenever they can procure a roast of cattle that
died of any distemper. It is all one to them, whether
it be carrion of a sheep, hog, cow, or other beast,
horse-flesh only excepted; they are so far from being
disgusted with it, that to eat their fill of such a meal,
is to them the height of epicurism. When any one
censures their taste, or shows surprise at it, they an¬
swer, “ The flesh of a beast which God kills, must be
better than of one killed by the hand of man.” They
therefore take every opportunity of getting such dain¬
ties. That they take carrion from a laystall, as is af¬
firmed of the gypsies in Hungary, is by no means cer¬
tain, any more than that they eat horse-flesh. But if
a beast out of a herd dies, and they find it before it
becomes rotten and putrified, or if a farmer gives them
notice of a cow dead, they proceed, without hesitation,
to get possession of this booty. Their favourite object
is animals that have been destroyed by fire ; therefore,
whenever a conflagration has happened, either in town
or country, the next day the gypsies, from every neigh¬
bouring quarter, assemble and draw the suffocated half-
consumed beasts out of the ashes. Men, women, and
children, in troops, are extremely busy, joyfully car¬
rying the flesh home to their dwelling-places ; they
return several times, provide themselves plentifully with
this roast meat, and gluttonize in their huts as long as
their noble fare lasts.
The gypsies have, at least in Transylvania, a sort of
regular government, rather nominal than real or effec¬
tive. They have their leaders or chiefs, whom they
distinguish by the Sclavonian title, Waywode. To
this dignity every person is eligible who is of a family
descended from a former waywode ; but the preference
is generally given to those who have the best clothes
and the most wealth $ who are of a large stature, and
not past the meridian of life.—Of religion, however,
they have no sense j though, with their usual cunning
and hypocrisy, they profess the established faith of
every country in which they live. They also speak the
languages of the respective countries, yet have a lan¬
guage of their own ; from whence derived, authors
difl'er. The only science which they have attained is
music. Their poetry is ungrammatical indecent rhyme.
Their general character and capacities are thus de¬
scribed : Imagine people of a childish way of thinking ; Gypsi
their minds filled with raw, undigested conceptions j1
guided more by sense than reason ; using understanding
and reflection so far only as they promote the gratifi.
cation of any particular appetite ; and you have a per¬
fect sketch of the gypsies character. They are lively,
uncommonly loquacious and chattering; fickle in the
extreme, consequently inconstant in their pursuits j
faithless to every body, even their own cast; void of
the least emotion of gratitude, frequently rewarding
benefits with the most insidious malice. Fear makes
them slavishly compliant when under subjection $ but
having nothing to apprehend, like other timorous peo¬
ple, they are cruel. Desire of revenge often causes
them to take the most desperate resolutions. To such
a degree of violence is their fury sometimes excited,
that a mother has been known, in the excess of passion,
to take her little infant by the feet, and with it strike
the object of her anger, when no other instrument has
readily presented itself. They are so addicted to drink¬
ing, as to sacrifice what is most necessary to them, that
they may feast their palate with spirits. They have,
too, what one would little expect, an enormous share
of vanity, which shows itself in their fondness for fine
clothes, and their gait and deportment when dressed in
them. One might imagine, that this pride would have
the good effect to render a gypsy cautious not to be
guilty of such crimes as subject him to public shame j
but here comes in the levity of character, for he never
looks to the right nor to the left in his transactions. In
an hour’s time he forgets that he is just untied from the
whipping post. But their pride is grounded on mere
idle conceit, as appears plainly from their making it a
point of honour to abuse their companions, and put on
a terrible appearance in the public market, where they
are sure to have many spectators j they cry but, make
a violent noise, challenge their adversary to fight, but
very seldom any thing comes of it. Thus the gypsy
seeks honour, of which bis ideas coincide very little
with those of other people, and sometimes deviate en¬
tirely from propriety.
“ Nothing (continues our author) can exceed the un¬
restrained depravity of manners existing among these
people, I allude particularly to the other sex. Un¬
checked by any idea of shame, they give wav to every
desire. Ihe mother endeavours, by the most scanda¬
lous arts, to train up her daughter for an offering to
sensuality; and this is scarce grown up before she be¬
comes the seducer of others. Laziness is so prevalent
among them, that were they to subsist by their own la¬
bour only, they would hardly have bread for two of the
seven days in the week. This indolence increases their
propensity to stealing and cheating, the common attend¬
ants on idleness. They seek to avail themselves of
every opportunity to satisfy their lawless desires. Their
universal bad character therefore for fickleness, infide-
lity, ingratitude, revenge, malice, rage, depravity, la¬
ziness, knavery, thievishness, and cunning, though not
deficient in capacity and cleverness, render these people
ol no use in society, except as soldiers to form maraud-
ing parties. Persons in their company, and under their
disguise, have formed dangerous designs against cities
and countries. They have been banished from almost
all civilized states, in their turn, except Hungary and
Transylvania, and to little purpose.” Our author
opinion,
G Y P [ 207 ] GYP
liisies. opinion, that as Turkey would allow them toleration,
w y—' it would be better for the European states to take some
steps for cultivating and civilizing them, and making
them useful. But while they are insensible of religion
and strongly attached ta their own manners, it is to be
feared the attempt will be impracticable. This ap¬
pears from a very- intelligent Hungarian lady’s experi¬
ence on the subject, communicated in a letter as fol¬
lows:. ‘ There are a great number of them on my
estates, but I have permitted two families in particular
to establish themselves at the place of my own residence,
under the express condition that no others shall come
here and join them. I took all possible pains to make
them reasonable creatures. I set the elder ones to work j
the younger ones tend the cattle. I observed that they
were more fond of horses than any thing else j for
which reason I placed a gypsy under each groom. I
had their children clothed, that none of them might be
running about naked, according to their usual practice.
' It appeared, however, that custom was become nature
with them. The old ones worked diligently so long as
any body stood over them j the moment their backs
were turned, they all got together in a circle, their legs
across, facing the sun, and chattered. Thus they can¬
not possibly earn more, indeed hardly so much, as would
find them bread, although very cheap with us •, for the
bread I give them does not stand me in half a kreutzer
the pound. Even in winter they cannot bear a hat on
their head or shoes on their feet. The boys run like
wild things wherever they are sent, either on foot or on
horseback ; but they spoil horses unmercifully, beat
them on the head, jerk the bits in their mouths, so as
to make them run down with blood. They cannot be
brought by any means whatever to dress horses. Clothe
them as you will, they always sell or lose their clothes.
In a word, one cannot but consider them as void of
reason ; it is really shocking to see even well grown
children put whatever they find into their mouths, like
infants before they can speak ; wherefore they eat eve¬
ry thing, even carrion, let it stink never so much.
Where a mortality happens among the cattle, there
these wretched beings are to be found in the greatest
numbers.’
The origin of this people, as we have seen, has been
generally believed to be Egyptian ; and that belief is
as old as their existence in Europe. Thomasius, Sal¬
mon the English geographer, and lately Signior Grise-
lini, have endeavoured to prove it by satisfactory evi¬
dence. This theory, however, according to our au¬
thor, is without foundation. The Egyptian descent of
these people, he thinks, is not only destitute of proofs,
but the most positive evidence is found to contradict it.
Their language differs entirely from the Coptic; and
their customs are very different from those of the Egyp¬
tians. They are indeed to be found in Egypt j but
they wander about there as strangers, and form a di¬
stinct people, as in other countries. The expressions
of Bellonius are strong and decisive : “ No part of the
world, I believe, is free from those banditti, wander¬
ing about in troops, whom we by mistake call Egyp¬
tians and Bohemians. When we were at Cairo, and in
the villages bordering on the Nile, we found troops of
these strolling thieves sitting under palm trees j and
they are esteemed foreigners in Egypt as well as among
us.”
The Egyptian descent of the gypsies being rejected, Gypsies,
our author next endeavours to show that they come ''——y——
from Hindostan. The chief basis of his theory, how¬
ever, is no other than that very dubious one, a simila¬
rity of language. He adds a long vocabulary of the
gypsy and the Hindostanic languagesin which, it
must be confessed, many words are the same y but ma¬
ny are difterent. A principal proof which he adduces
on this head is from the relation of Captain Szekely
von Doha, to whom a printer in 1763 related, that a
preacher of the Reformed church, when a student at
Leyden, being intimately acquainted with three young
Malabar students, took down laoo of their words,
which he fancied corresponded with the gypsy language;
and they added, that a tract of land in their island was
named Ozigania. He repeated these words to the Ra—
her gypsies, who explain them without trouble or hesi¬
tation. This account was published in the Vienna Ga¬
zette. Supposing these three young men to be sons of
Bramins, who use the Sanscrit, the common language
of Hindostan comes as near to that as modern Italian
to pure Latin. The comparison of the two languages
takes up above 30 pages ; and Mr Grellman thinks it
establishes his system. The same opinion is maintained
by Mr Marsden, in a paper upon this subject in the 7th
volume of the Archeologia. The numerals, however,
both in Hindostanic and gypsy, differ greatly as stated
by the two authors. And here, as in other such com¬
parisons, one is astonished at the credulity of the com¬
parers of orthoepy and orthography (as a periodical cri¬
tic observes), which can have no connection in langua¬
ges with which we are not perfectly familiar, even were
both languages reduced to writing by their respective
people : how much less, then, where one of the two
languages is never reduced to writing, as is the case of
the gypsy, but it is blended with the language of the
country where the clan resides ? This appears from the
correspondence of several words in all languages with
the gypsy. Mr Grellman acknowledges the two gypsy
versions of the Lord’s Prayer, at different periods, differ
so widely, that one would almost be inclined to doubt
whether they were really the same language. We think
we can discern a few words differently indeed written,
but probably pronounced alike. Nor can we, in all the
languages in which Chamberlayne gives the Lord’s
Prayer, perceive the least resemblance to the gypsy
name of father, Dade and Dady except in the Welsh,
Taad. In prosecuting his argument, Mr Grellm&n
does not insist on the similarity of colour between the
two people, nor on the cowardice common to both, nor
on the attachment of the Indians to tents, or letting
their children go naked ; all these being traits to be
met with in other nations: but he dwells on the word
Polgar, the name of one of the first gypsy leaders, and
of the Hindostanic god of marriage; also on the corres¬
pondence between the travelling smiths in the two peo¬
ple, who carry two pair of bellows ; the Indian’s boy
blows them in India, the wife or child ot the gypsy in
Europe : as if every travelling tinker, in every nation
where tinkers travel, had not the same journeymen.
In lascivious dances and chiromancy the two people
agree; nor are these uncommon in other parts of the
globe. The excessive loquacity of the two people is
produced as similar ; as it no other nations in the world
were loquacious. Fainter resemblances are, a fondness
for
GYP
Gvjjsies. for saffron, and the intermarrying only with their own
people. The last position in the author’s theory is, that
the gypsies are of the lowest class of Indians, namely,
Perias, or, as they are called in Hindostan, Suders.
He compares the manners of this class with those of the
gypsies, and enumerates many circumstances in which
they agree : some of the comparisons are frivolous, and
prove nothing. As an instance of which we may take
the following: ‘ Gypsies are fond of being about horses j
the Suders in India likewise, for which reason they are
commonly employed as horse-keepers by the Europeans
resident in that country.’ This reasoning does not prove
that the gypsies are Suders, any more than that they
are Arabians or Yorkshire farmers.
The objections, however, to which this learned and
industrious author’s theory is liable, are such as only
show it to be by no means satisfactory j but do not
prove that it is wrong. It may possibly be right; and
upon this supposition the cause of their emigration
from their country, he conjectures, not without proba¬
bility, to be the war of Timur Beg in India. In the
years 1408 and 1409 this conqueror ravaged India;
and the progress of his arms was attended with devasta¬
tion and cruelty. All who made resistance were de¬
stroyed ; those who fell into the enemy’s hands were
G Y S
made slaves ; of these very slaves 100,000 were put Gypsi,
to death. As on this occasion an universal panic took j]
place, what could be more natural than that a great Gyd>°i
number of terrified inhabitants should endeavour to save
themselves by flight ?—In the last place, the author en¬
deavours to trace the route by which the gypsies came
from Hindostan to Europe : but here he justly acknow¬
ledges that all that can be said on the subject is mere
surmise ; and, upon the whole, after perusing all the
preceding details, the reader will probably be of opi¬
nion that there still hangs a cloud over the origin of this
extraordinary race.
GYPSOPHILA, a genus of plants belonging to the
decandria class ; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 22d order, Caryophyllei. See Botany Index.
GYPSUM, Plastilr-stone, or Alabaster. See
Gypsum, Mineralogy Index.
GYR falco, the name of a large and fierce species
of falcon, called in English the jer-fulcon. See Orni¬
thology Index.
GYRINUS, a genus of insects of the Coleoptera or¬
der. See Entomology Index.
GYSHORN, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Lunenburgh, situated on the river Aller, in E. Long.
10. 49. N. Lat. 52. 49.
r 208 ]
H
TT THE eighth letter and sixth consonant in our
-■•-*■5 alphabet; though some grammarians will have
it to be only an aspiration, or breathing. But nothing
can be more ridiculous than to dispute its being a di¬
stinct sound, and formed in a particular manner by the
organs of speech, at least in our language: witness the
words cat and heat, aim, and harm, ear, and hear, at
and hat, &c. as pronounced with or without the h.
It is pronounced by a strong exspiration of the breath
between the lips, closing, as it were, by a gentle mo¬
tion of the lower jaw to the upper, and the tongue
nearly approaching the palate.
There seems to be no doubt, that our h, which
is the same with that of the Romans, derived its fitrure
from that of the Hebrew n. And, indeed, the Phoe¬
nicians, most ancient Greeks and Romans, used the
same figure with our H, which in the series of all these
alphabets keeps its primitive place, being the eighth
letter.
H, used as a numeral, denotes 200; and with a dash
over it, h 200,000.
As an abbreviation, H was used by the ancients to
denote homo, hceres, hova, &c. Thus H. B. stood for
lucres bonorum ; and H. S. corruptly for L L S. se¬
sterce ; and H. A. for Hadrianus.
HAAG, or Hag, a town of the duchy of Bavaria
in Germany, seated on a hill on the west side of the
river Inn, in E. Long. 12. 15. N. Lat. 48. 18.
IIABAKKUK, one of the twelve lesser prophets,
whose prophecies are taken into the canon of the Old
Habdal
Testament. The name is written in the Hebrew with Habakk
n heth; and signifies “ a wrestler.” There is no pre- H
cise time mentioned in Scripture when this Habakkuk|
lived ; but from his predicting the ruin -of the Jews by
the Chaldeans, it may be concluded that he prophesied
before Zedekiah, or about the time of Manasseh. He
is reported to have been the author of several prophecies
which are not extant : but those that are indisputably
his, are contained in three chapters. In these the pro¬
phet complains very pathetically of the disorders which
he observed in the kingdom of Judaea. God reveals to
him, that he would shortly punish them in a very terri¬
ble manner by the arms of the Chaldeeans. He fore-
tels the conquests of Nebuchadnezzar, his metamor¬
phosis, and death. He foretels, that the vast designs
of Jehoiakim would be frustrated. He speaks against
a prince (probably the king of Tyre) who built with
blood and iniquity ; and he accuses another king (per¬
haps the king of Egypt) of having intoxicated bis
friend, in order to discover his nakedness. The third
chapter is a song or prayer to God, whose majesty be
describes with the utmost grandeur and sublimity of ex¬
pression.
HABAT, a province of Asia, in Baibary, and in
the kingdom of Fez. It is surrounded by the Medi¬
terranean, the straits of Gibraltar, and the Atlantic
ocean. The principal towns are Arzilla, Tetuan, and
Ceuta ; which last is in possession of the Spaniards.
HABDALA, a ceremony of the Jews observed on
the evening of the sabbath when every one of the fa¬
mily
(
p
*
H A B [ 209 ] H A B
dala mily is come home. At that time they light a taper
beas or lamp, with two wicks at least. The master of the
pus. family then takes a cup, with some wine, mixed with
fragrant spices, and having repeated a passage or two
of Scripture, as for example, “ I will take the cup of
salvation,” &c. Psal. cxvi. and “ The Jews had light
and gladness,” &c. Esth. viii. he blesses the wine and
spices. Afterwards he blesses the light of the fire ; and
then casts his eyes on his hands and nails, as remem¬
bering that he is going to work. The whole is in¬
tended to signify, that the sabbath is over, and is from
that moment divided from the day of labour which
follows. For this reason the ceremony is called Hab-
clala, which signifies “ distinction.” After the cere¬
mony is over, and the company breaks up, they wish
one another, not “ a good night,” but “ a good
week.”
HABEAS corpus, in L aiv, is the great remedy in
cases of False Imprisonment. The incapacity of the
three other remedies referred to under that article, to
give complete relief in every case, hath almost entirely
antiquated them, and hath caused a general resource
to be had, in behalf of persons aggrieved by illegal
imprisonment, to the present writ, the most celebra¬
ted in the English law. Of this there are various
kinds made use of by the courts at Westminster, for
removing prisoners from one court into another for the
more easy administration of justice. Such is the ha¬
beas corpus ad respondendum, when a man hath a cause
of action against one who is confined by the process of
some inferior court; in order to remove the prisoner,
and charge him with this new action in the court
above. Such is that ad satisfaciendum, when a prison¬
er hath had judgment against him in an action, and
the plaintiff is desirous to bring him up to some supe¬
rior court to charge him with process of execution.
Such also are.those ad prosequendum, testificandum, de¬
liberandum, &c.; which issue when it is necessary to
remove a prisoner, in order to prosecute or bear testi¬
mony in any court, or to be tried in the proper juris¬
diction wherein the fact was committed. Such is,
lastly, the common writ ad faciendum et recipiendum,
which issues out of any of the courts of Westminster-
hall, when a person is sued in some inferior jurisdiction,
and is desirous to remove the action into the superior
court*, commanding the inferior judges to produce the
body of the defendant, together with the day and cause
of his caption and detainer (whence the writ is fre¬
quently denominated an habeas corpus cum causci), to
do and receive whatsoever the king’s court shall consi¬
der in that behalf. This is a writ grantable of com¬
mon right, without any motion in court; and it in¬
stantly supersedes all proceedings in the court below.
But, in order to prevent the surreptitious discharge of
prisoners, it is ordered by statute 1 & 2 P. & M. c. 13.
that no habeas corpus shall issue to remove any prisoner
out of any gaol, unless signed by some judge of the
court out of which it is awarded. And, to avoid vexa¬
tious delays by removal of frivolous causes, it is enacted
by statute 21 Jac. I. c. 23. that, where the judge of
an inferior court of record is a barrister of three years
standing, no cause shall be removed from thence by
habeas corpus or other writ, after issue or demurrer de¬
liberately joined ; that no cause, if once remanded to
the inferior court by writ of procedendo or otherwise,
» ol. X. Part I, ±
shall ever afterwards be again removed ; and that no Habeas
cause shall be removed at all, if the debt or damages Corpus,
laid in the declaration do not amount to the sum of v
five pounds. But an expedient having been found out
to elude the latter branch of the statute, by procuring
a nominal plaintiff to bring another action for five
pounds or upwards (and then by the course of the
court the habeas corpus removed both actions to<>-ether),
it is therefore enacted by statute 12 Geo. I. c. 29.
that the inferior court may proceed in such actions as
are under the value of five pounds, notwithstanding
other actions may be brought against the same defendt
ant to a greater amount.
. ^ut ^,e great and efficacious writ, in all manner of
illegal confinement, is that of habeas corpus ad subjici¬
endum ; directed to the person detaining another, and
commanding him to produce the body of the prisoner,
with the day and cause of his caption and detention,
ad faciendum, subjiciendum, et recipiendum, to do, sub- Blackst.
mit to, and receive whatsoever the judge or conx\.^omment‘
awarding such writ shall consider in that behalf. This
is a high prerogative writ, and therefore by the com¬
mon law issuing out of the court of king’s bench, not
only in term-time, but also during the vacation, by a
fiat from the chief justice, or any other of the judges,
and running into all parts of the king’s dominions:
for the king is at all times intitled to have an account
why the liberty of any of his subjects is restrained,
wherever that restraint may be inflicted. If it issues
in vacation, it is usually returnable before the judge
himself who awarded it, and he proceeds by himself
thereon j unless the term should intervene, and then it
may be returned in court. Indeed, if the party were
privileged in the courts of common pleas and exche¬
quer, as being an officer or suitor of the court, an ha¬
beas corpus ad subjiciendum might also have been award¬
ed from thence j and, if the cause of imprisonment were
palpably illegal, they might have discharged him : but
if he were committed for any criminal matter, they
could only have remanded him, or taken bail for his
appearance in the court of king’s bench j which occa¬
sioned the common pleas to discountenance such ap¬
plications. It hath also been said, and by very re¬
spectable authorities, that the like habeas corpus mav
issue out of the court of chancery in vacation : but
upon the famous application to Lord Nottingham by
Jenks, notwithstanding the most diligent searches, no
precedent could be found where the chancellor had is¬
sued such a writ in vacation ; and therefore his lordship
refused it.
In the court of king’s bench it was, and is still,
necessary to apply for it by motion to the court, as in
the case of all other prerogative writs {certiorari, pro¬
hibition, mandamus, &c.) which do not issue as of
mere course, without showing some probable cause why
the extraordinary power of the crown is called in to
the party’s assistance. For, as was argued by Lord
chief justice Vaughan, “ it is granted on motion, be¬
cause it cannot be had of course ; and there is there¬
fore no necessity to grant it $ for the court ought to
be satisfied that the party hath a probable cause to
be delivered.” And this seems the more reasonable,
because, when once granted, the person to whom k
is directed can return no satisfactory excuse for not
bringing up the body of the prisoner. So that, if it
D d issued
j
H A B [21
Habeas issued of mere course, without showing to the court
Corpus, or judge some reasonable ground for awarding it, a
v" ' traitor or felon under sentence of death, a soldier or
mariner in the king’s service, a wife, a child, a rela¬
tion, or a domestic, confined for insanity or other pru¬
dential reasons, might obtain a temporary enlargement
by suing out an habeas corpus, though sure to be re¬
manded as soon as brought up to the court. And
therefore Sir Edward Coke, when chief justice, did not
scruple, in 13 Jac. I. to deny a habeas corpus to one
confined by the court of admiralty for piracy j there
appearing, upon his own showing, sufficient grounds
to confine him. On the other hand, if a probable
ground be shown, that the party is imprisoned without
just cause, and therefore hath a right to be delivered,
the writ of habeas corpus is then a writ of right,
which “ may not be denied, but ought to be granted
to every man that is committed, or detained in pri¬
son, or otherwise restrained, though it be by the
command of the king, the privy-council, or any
other.”
In the articles Liberty and Rights, will be found a
full discussion of the personal liberty of the subject. This
is shown to be a natural inherent right, which could
not be surrendered or forfeited unless by the commis¬
sion of some great and atrocious crime, and which
ought not to be abridged in any case without the spe¬
cial permission of law j a doctrine coeval with the
first rudiments of our constitution •, and handed down
to us from the Anglo-Saxons, notwithstanding all their
struggles with the Danes, and the violence of the
Norman conquest: asserted afterwards and confirmed
by the conqueror himself and his descendants j and
though sometimes a little impaired by the ferocity of
the times, and the occasional despotism of jealous or
usurping princes, yet established on the firmest basis by
the provisions of magna charta, and a long suctession
of statutes enacted under Edward III. To assert an
absolute exemption from imprisonment in all cases, is
inconsistent with every idea of law and political socie¬
ty ; and in the end would destroy all civil liberty, by
rendering its protection impossible: but the glory of
the English law consists in clearly defining the time,
the causes, and the extent, when, wherefore, and to
what degree, the imprisonment of the subject may be
lawful. 1 his it is which induces the absolute neces¬
sity of expressing upon every commitment the reason
for which it is made : that the court, upon an habeas
corpus, may examine, into its validity ; and according
to the circumstances of the case may discharge, admit
to bail, or remand the prisoner.
And yet, early in the reign of Charles I. the court
* ^Late S bench, relying on some arbitrary precedents
Trials viii, (ari^ those perhaps misunderstood), determined * that
they could not upon an habeas corpus either bail or
deliver a prisoner, though committed without any
cause assigned, in case he was committed by the spe¬
cial command of the king, or by the lords of the privy-
council. This drew on a parliamentary inquiry, and
produced the petition of right, 3 Car. I. which recites
this illegal judgment, and enacts that no freeman here¬
after shall be so imprisoned or detained. But when,
in the following year, Mr Selden and others were
committed by the lords of the council, in pursuance of
bis majesty’s special command, under a general charge
o ]
H A B
of “ notable contempts and stirring up sedition against
the king and government,” the judges delayed for
turn terms (including also the long vacation) to deliver
an opinion how far such a charge w'as bailable 5 and
when at length they agreed that it was, they how¬
ever annexed a condition of finding sureties for the good
behaviour, w'hich still protracted their imprisonment j
the chief justice Sir Nicholas Hyde, at the same time
declaring f, that “ if they were again remanded fort
that cause, perhaps the court would not afterwards grant
a habeas corpus, being already made acquainted with
the cause of the imprisonment.” But this was heard
with indignation and astonishment by every lawyer
present; according to Mr Selden’s own account of the
matter, whose resentment was not cooled at the distance
of four-and-twenty years.
These pitiful evasions gave rise to the statute 16
Car. I. c. 10. § 8. whereby it is enacted, that if any
person be committed by the king himself in person,
or by his privy-council, or by any of the members
thereof, he shall have granted unto him, ■without any
delay, upon any pretence whatsoever, a wrrit oi habeas
corpus, upon demand or motion made to the court of
king’s bench or common pleas •, who shall thereupon,
within three court days after the return is made, exa¬
mine and determine the legality of such commitment,
and do what to justice shall appertain, in delivering,
bailing, or remanding such prisoner. Yet still in the
case of Jenks, before alluded to, who in 1676 was
committed by the king in council for a turbulent
speech at Guildhall, new shifts and devices were made
use of to prevent his enlargement by law j the chief
justice (as wTell as the chancellor), declining to award
a writ of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum in vacation,
though at last he thought proper to award the usual
writs ad deliberandum, &c. whereby the prisoner was
discharged at the Old Bailey. Other abuses bad also
crept into daily practice, which had in some measure
defeated the benefit of this great constitutional re¬
medy. The party imprisoning was at liberty to de¬
lay his obedience to the first writ, and might wait till
a second and a third, called an alias and a pluries,
were issued, before he produced the party j and many
other vexatious shifts were practised to detain state-
prisoners in custody. But whoever will attentively
consider the English history, may observe, that the
flagrant abuse of any power, by the crown or its mi¬
nisters, has always been productive of a struggle ;
which either discovers the exercise of that power to
be contrary to law, or (if legal) restrains it for the
future. This was the case in the present instance.
The oppression of an obscure individual gave birth to
the famous habeas corpus act, 31 Car. II. c. 2. which
is frequently considered as another magna charta of the
kingdom 5 and by consequence has also in subsequent
times reduced the method of proceeding on these writs
(though not within the reach of that statute, but issu¬
ing merely at the common law) to the true standard of
law and liberty.
The statute itself enacts, 1. That the writ shall be
returned and the prisoner brought up, within a limited
time according to the distance, not exceeding in any
case twenty days. 2. That such writs shall be endor¬
sed, as granted in pursuance of this act, and signed by
the person awarding them. 3. That on complaint and
, request
H A B [2
habeas request in writing by or on behalf of any person corn-
corpus. niitted and charged with any crime (unless committed
“’"v for treason or felony expressed in the warrant, or for
suspicion of the same, or as accessary thereto before the
fact, or convicted or charged in execution by legal
process), the lord chancellor, or any of the twelve
judges in vacation, upon viewing a copy of the war¬
rant, or affidavit that a copy is denied, shall (unless the
party has neglected for two terms to apply to any court
for his enlargement) award a habeas corpus for such
prisoner, returnable immediately before himself or any
other of the judges 5 and upon the return made shall
discharge the party, if bailable, upon giving security
to appear and answer to the accusation in the proper
court of judicature. 4. That officers and keepers ne¬
glecting to make due returns, or not delivering to the
prisoner or his agent within six hours after demand a
copy of the warrant of commitment, or shifting the
custody of a prisoner from one to another without suffi¬
cient reason or authority (specified in the act), shall for
the first offence forfeit look and for the second offence
200I. to the party grieved, and be disabled to hold his
office. 5. That no person, once delivered by habeas
corpus, shall he recommitted for the same offence, on
penalty of 500I. 6. That every person committed for
treason or felony shall, if he requires it the first week
of the next term, or the first day of the next session of
oyer and terminer, be indicted in that term or session,
or else admitted to hail ; unless the king’s witnesses
cannot be produced at that time : and if acquitted, or
if not indicted and tried in the second term or session,
he shall he discharged from his imprisonment for such
imputed offence : but that no person, after the assizes
shall be opened for the county in which he is detained,
shall be removed by habeas corpus, till after the assizes
are ended ; but shall be left to the justice of the judges
of assize. 7. That any such prisoner may move for
and obtain his habeas corpus, as well out of the chan¬
cery or exchequer as out of the king’s bench or com¬
mon pleas •, and the lord chancellor or judges denying
the same, on sight of the warrant, or oath that the same
is refused, forfeit severally to the party grieved the
sum of 500I. 8. That the writ of habeas corpus shall
run into the counties palatine, cinque ports, and other
privileged places, and the islands of Jersey and Guern¬
sey. 9. That no inhabitant of England (except per¬
sons contracting, or convicts praying to he transported ;
or having committed some capital offence in the place
to which they are sent) shall he sent prisoners to Scot¬
land, Ireland, Jersey, Guernsey, or any places beyond
the seas, within or without the king’s dominions, on
pain that the party committing, his advisers, aiders,
and assistants, shall forfeit to the party grieved a sum
not less than 500I. to he recovered with treble costs ;
shall he disabled to bear any office of trust or profit j
shall incur the penalties of preemunire ; and shall be
incapable of the king’s pardon.
Ibis is the substance of that great and important
statute, which extends (we may observe) only to the
case of commitments for such criminal charge as can
produce no inconvenience to public justice by a tem¬
porary enlargement of the prisoner; all other cases of
unjust imprisonment being left to the habeas corpus at
common law. But even upon writs at the common
law it is now expected by the court, agreeable to an-
ii ] H A B
cient precedents and the spirit of the act of parliament, Habeas
that this writ should he immediately obeyed, without Corpus
waiting for any alias or pluries ; otherwise an attach-
ment will issue, By which admirable regulations, ju- .
dicial as well as parliamentary, the remedy is now com¬
plete for removing the injury of unjust and illegal con¬
finement. A remedy the more necessary, because the
oppression does not always arise from the ill nature,
hut sometimes from the mere inattention, of govern¬
ment. For it frequently happens in foreign countries,
(and has happened in England during the temporary
suspension of the statute), that persons apprehended up¬
on suspicion have suffered a long imprisonment, merely
because they were forgotten.
HABERDASHER, in commerce, a seller of hats
and other small wares.—The master and warden of the
company of haberdashers in London, calling to their
assistance one of the company of cappers, and another
of the hat-makers, and mayors, &c. of towns, may
search the wares of all hatters who work hats with fo¬
reign wool, and who have not been apprentices to the
trade, or who dye them with any thing but copperas
and galls, or woad and madder; in which cases, they
are liable to penalties by stat. 8 Eliz. cap. 7. and
5 Geo. II. cap. 22. See Berdash.
HABERGION, or Haubergeon, Habergetum,
a coat of mail ; an ancient piece of defensive armour,
in form of a coat, descending from the neck to the mid¬
dle, and formed of little iron rings or meshes, linked
into each other.—It is also written haberge, hauberge,
haubere, haubert, hautber, hautbert, and hauberk, Spel-
man takes it from the ancient French hault, “ high,”
and berg, “ armour, covering ;” as serving to defend
the upper part of the body. Du Cange and Skinner
derive it from the Belgic hals, or Teutonic halt*,
“ neck,” and bergen, “ to cover ;” i. e. a defence for
the neck. Others will have it formed of al, alia, q. d.
all, and bergen, “ to cover;” as importing it a cover
for the whole body. In Scripture it seems to signify
an offensive weapon. “ The sword of him that layeth
at him cannot hold ; the spear, the dart, nor the haber¬
geon,” Job, xli. 26.
HABIT, in Philosophy, an aptitude or disposition
either of mind or body, ac quired by a frequent repeti¬
tion of the same act. See Custom and Habit.
Habit is also used for a dress or garb, or the com¬
position of garments, wherewith a person is covered.
Tiie principal part of the dress worn by the Jews and
Greeks was the ifttiltov and the The ipxjut was
an upper garment, consisting of a loose square piece of
cloth wrapped round the body ; the ^truiy was an under
garment, or tunic, which was fastened round the body
and embraced it closely, falling down to the mid thigh.
It is proper in this place to observe that a person di¬
vested of this upper garment or Ipxltat, in the eastern
language, is styled naked, and in this sense David
danced naked before the ark.
The several sorts of garments in use with both sexes,
amongst the Romans, were the toga, tunica, peluna,
lacerna, chlamys, paludamentum, laena, stola, pallium
or palla. See Toga, &c.
For the habits of the priests amongst the Jews,
Greeks, and Romans, see the article PRIESTS.
Habit is particularly used for the uniform garments
of the religious, conformable to the rule and . order
• D d a whereof
Habit
!i
Haeket.
H A C [ 21
whereof they make profession ; as the habit of St Be¬
nedict, of St Augustine, &c.
In this sense we say absolutely, such a person has ta¬
ken the habit •, meaning he has entered upon a novi¬
ciate in a certain order. So he is said to quit the habit,
when he renounces the order. See ^ ow.
The habits of the several religious are not supposed
to have been calculated for singularity or novelty : the
founders of the orders, who were at first chiefly inhabi¬
tants of deserts and solitudes, gave their monks the ha¬
bit usual among the country people. Accordingly, the
primitive habits of St Anthony, St Hilarion, St Bene¬
dict, &c. are described by the ancient writers as con¬
sisting chiefly of sheep skins, the common dress of the
peasants, shepherds, and mountaineers of that time ;
and the same they gave to their disciples.
The orders established in and about cities and inha¬
bited places took the habit worn by other ecclesiastics
at the time of their institution. Thus, St Dominic
gave his disciples the habit of regular canons, which he
himself had always worn to that time. And the like
may be said of the Jesuits, Barnabites, Theatins, Ora-
torians, &.c. who took the common habit of the eccle¬
siastics at the time of their foundation. And what
makes them differ so much from each other, as well as
from the ecclesiastical habit of the present times, is,
that they have always kept invariably to the same
form ; whereas the ecclesiastics and laics have been
changing their mode on every occasion.
HABITE a?ul Repute, in Scots Latu, the com¬
mon opinion of the people, among whom a person
lives, with respect to any circumstance relating to
him.
HABITUDE, among schoolmen, the respect or re¬
lation one thing bears to another. See Relation.
HABSBURG, or Hapsburg, an ancient castle of
Swisserlaml, in the canton of Bern. It is the place
where the ancient counts of Hapsburg resided, and is
seated near the lake of Lucern, and to the east of
the town of that name. E. Long. 8. 10. N. Lat.
47- 22.
HACHA, a sea-port town of South America, in
Terra Firma, seated at the mouth of a river of the same
name. Here the Spanish galleons touch at their arri¬
val in South America, from whence expresses are sent
to all the settlements to give them notice of it. W.
Long. 72. 46. N. Lat. II. 28.
HACKET, John, bishop of Litchfield and Coven¬
try, was born in 1592. In 1623 he was made chaplain
to James I. and prebendary of Lincoln: and soon after
obtained the rectory of St Andrew’s Holborn, with
that of Cheamin Surrey ; his patron telling him, he in¬
tended Holborn for wealth, and Cheam for health. In
1642 he was presented to a prebendary and residenti¬
ary ; but was deprived of the enjoyment of them, as
well as of St Andrew’s, by the ensuing troubles. He
then lived retired at Cheam with little disturbance
until he recovered his preferments by the restoration
of Charles II. by whom he was preferred to the see of
Litchfield and Coventry in 1661. Finding the beau¬
tiful cathedral of Litchfield almost battered to the
ground, he in eight years finished a complete church
superior to the former, at his own expence of 20,000!.
excepting 1000I. he had from the dean and chapter,
with what he could procure from private benefactors.
Haeki
, II
Hackii'
Coach'
2 ] H A C
He laid out 1000I. on a prebendal house, his palaces at
Litchfield and Eccleshall having been demolished du¬
ring the civil wars $ and beside these acts of munifi¬
cence, left several other benefactions at his death in
1670. He published, before he entered into orders, a " ^
comedy entitled Loyola, which W’as twice acted before
King James I. After his death there appeared a
“ Century of his sermons on several remarkable sub¬
jects,” in folio j and “ The Life of Archbishop Wil¬
liams,” in folio, which was abridged in 1700 by Am¬
brose Philips.
HACKNEY, a parish of Middlesex, on the north¬
east side of London, containing no less than 12 ham¬
lets. At the bottom of Hackney-Marsh, through
which the river Lea runs, between Old Ford and the
Wyck, there have been discovered the remains of a
great stone causeway, which, by the Roman coins, &c.
found there, was no doubt one of the famous highways
made by the Romans. The church here is of a very
ancient foundation, so old as Edward II. That part
next London is called Marc-street ; the middle CAwrcA-
street; and the north part Clapton; Dorleston and
Shaklewell are on the west, and Hummerton, which
leads to the Marsh, on the east. Here are three meet¬
ing-houses and several boarding-schools,besides the free-
school in the church-yard, a charity-school, and 17 alms¬
houses. It was from this place that the coaches let to
the people in London first received their name} for in
the 17th century, many people having gone on visits
to see their friends at Hackney, it occasioned them of¬
ten to hire horses or carriages, so that in time it
became a common name for such horses, coaches,
and chairs, as were let to the people of London },
and the name has now become general. Population
16,771.
HACKXTEY-Coaches, those exposed to hire in the
streets of London, and some other great cities, at rates
fixed by authority. See Coach.—These first began to
ply in the streets of London, or rather waited at inns,
in the year 1625, and were only 20 in number ; but in
1635 they were so much increased, that King Charles
issued out an order of council for restraining them. In
1637, he all°wed 50 hackney-coachmen, each of whom
might keep 12 horses. In 1652, their number was li¬
mited to 200; and in 1654, it was extended to 300.
In 1661, 400 were licensed, at 5I. annually for each.
In 1694, 700 were allowed, and taxed by the 5 and
6 of W. and M. at 4I. per annum each. By 9 Anne
cap. 23. 800 coaches were allowed in London and
Westminster ; but by 8 Geo. III. cap. 24. the num¬
ber is increased to 1000, which are to be licensed by
commissioners, and to pay a duty of 9s. per week to
the king. On Sundays there were formerly only
175 hackney-coaches to ply, which were to be ap¬
pointed by commissioners } but their number is now
unlimited.
The fare of hackney coachmen in London, or with¬
in ten miles of the city, is 12 shillings and sixpence SucA w
per day, allowing 12 hours per day. By the hour it is the^0l
is. 6d. for the first, and is. for every hour after; and
none are obliged to pay above is. for any distance^
not exceeding a mile and a half; or above is. 6d. for
any distance not exceeding two miles. Where hack¬
ney-coachmen refuse to go at, or exact more than,
their limited hire, they are subject to a forfeit not un¬
der
HAD
C 213 ]
, ,kney. der 10s. or exceeding 3!. and vvliicli the commission-
idles, ers have power to determine. Every hackney-coach
dding- must be provided with check-strings, and every coach-
;aT)- man plying without them incurs a penalty of 5s.—
Drivers of hackney-coaches are to give way to persons
of quality and gentlemen’s coaches, under the penalty
of 51*
The duty arising from licences to hackney-coaches
and chairs in London, forms a branch of the king’s
* eKeve-extraordinary and perpetual revenue *. This revenue
is governed by commissioners of its own, and is in
truth a benefit to the subject; as the expence of it
is felt by no individual, and its necessary regulations
have established a competent jurisdiction, whereby a
Very refractory race of men may be kept in tolerable
order.
HADDINGTON, County of, otherwise called
East Lothian*, is bounded by Mid Lothian on the west;
on the north by the frith of Forth ; on the east by the
German ocean ; and it is separated from the county of
Berwick by the Lammermuir hills. It is about 25 miles
long, and from 12 to 16 broad, being reputed one of
the most fertile counties in the kingdom, producing
abundance of wheat and every species of grain. Even
the mountainous part of it towards the south is admi¬
rably adapted to the rearing of sheep. The inhabi¬
tants on the sea coasts employ themselves in fishing,
making of salt, foreign trade, and the exportation of
corn. Several branches of the linen and woollen ma¬
nufacture have been established in the interior of the
county, and are in a flourishing condition. There is
a manufacture of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) esta¬
blished at Prestonpans, and one for sal ammoniac near
the same place.
It contains three royal boroughs, viz. Haddington,
North Berwick, and Dunbar; besides a number of well
peopled villages and towns, such as Tranent, Preston-
pafis, Aberlady, Dirleton, &c. In this county also
there are many seats of noblemen and gentlemen, such
as those of the duke of Roxburgh, marquis of Tweeddale,
earl of Haddington, Lord Blantyre, earl of Wemyss,
Lord Elibank, earl of Hopetoun, Sir James Hall,
Hay of Drummelzier, &c. &c. In this county there
is abundance of coal of an excellent quality, of free¬
stone and lime-stone; ironstone is found in the parish
ofHumbie, and in the vicinity of Stenton there are
some traces of an ore of lead. It is divided into 24
parishes. The population in 1801 amounted to 29,986
souls, and in 1811 to 31,057. The following table ex¬
hibits a view of the population of this county, accor¬
ding to the Statistical History of Scotland.
Parishes.
Parishes.
I Aberlady
Athelstaneford
Bolton
Dirleton
5 Dunbar
Garvald
Gladsmuir
Haddington
Humbie
16 Innerwick
Population
in 1755*
739
691
359
1700
3281
774
*4*5
3975
1570
941
Population
in 1790-98.
800
927
235
1200
3700
730
1380
39r5
676
960
*5
20
24
Morham
North Berwick
Oldhamstocks
Ormiston
Pencaitland
Prestonhaugh
Prestonpans
Salton
Spot
Stenton
Tranent
Whitekirk
Whittingham
Yester
HAD
Population
in 1755-
245
1412
622
- 810
- 910
- 1318
1596
761
727
631
2459
968
7J4
- 1091
29,709
3I>°57
Population
in 1790-98.
190 -
1300
498
864
I033
1176
2028
830
619
624
2732
994
655
900
28,966
Hadding¬
ton
II
Jladersle-
ben.
Population in 1811
See Haddingtonshire, Supplement.
Haddington, a borough-town of Scotland and
the capital of East Lothian, or Haddingtonshire, is
situated about 16 miles east from Edinburgh, being the
first stage on the London road, and in W. Long. 2.
25. N. Lat. 55. 50. It stands on the river Tyne, has
four streets which are neatly built, cutting each other
at right angles, with a town-house erected in 1748,
from a design by the celebrated Mr Adams. The
school is commodious, with lodgings for the masters,
and accommodation for boarders. The parish church is
large, which formerly belonged to the Franciscan mo¬
nastery, and was probably built about the beginning
of the 13th century. The west end is now the place of
worship, for the rest of it is completely in ruins. The
aisle is the burying place of the family of Maitland,
and contains several marble statues of the dukes of
Lauderdale. On the monument of Maitland of Thirl-
stane is an epitaph composed by James VI. Haddington
is a place of great antiquity, for it is styled by the mo¬
ther of Malcolm IV. in a charter granted in 1178,
meum Burgum de Haddington. Its political constitu¬
tion is composed of a provost, three bailies, a dean of
guild, treasurer, and 12 counsellors. Its incorporated
trades are seven in number. It was once strongly for¬
tified, of which different traces are still to be seen.
A considerable manufacture of coarse woollen cloth is
carried on in the town and suburbs. It has two annual
fairs, and a weekly market on Friday, computed to
be the greatest in Scotland for all sorts of grain.
Haddington has suffered much from the ravages of fire
and the inundations of the Tyne, which rose 17 feet
above its usual level in the year 1775, by which one
half of the town was laid under water. Here the ce¬
lebrated John Knox, father of the reformation, is said
to have been born, and strangers are still shewn the
house where he first drew his breath. It has a vote in
electing a member of parliament along with North
Berwick, Dunbar, Jedburgh, and Lauder. Its revenue
is estimated at about 400I. sterling per annum.
HADDOCK, the English name of a species of Ga-
dus. See Gadus, Ichthyology Index.
HADERSLEBEN, a sea-port town of Denmark,
Maders’e-
ben
II
Haeretico.
H A E [2
in the duchy of Sleswic, with a strong citadel, built
upon a small island. It is seated on a bay ol the Baltic
sea, and has a well frequented harbour. E. Long. 9.
30. N. Lat. 55. iS.
HADES, in the scriptures, is used in various senses.
Sometimes it signifies the invisible regions of the dead,
sometimes the place of the damned, and sometimes the
grave. In Greek authors it is used to signify in gene¬
ral the regions of the dead. See Hell.
HADLEY, a town of Suffolk, seated in a bottom
on the river Preston. It has a handsome church, a
chapel of ease, and a Presbyterian meeting-house, and
had 2592 inhabitants in 1811. The streets are pretty
broad, but not paved. Large quantities of yarn are
spun here for the Norwich manufacture •, and this town
had once a considerable woollen manufacture, which is
now decayed. E. Long. 1. o. N. Lat. 52. 7.
HADlilAN. See Adrian.
HaEMAGOGOS, among physicians, a compound
medicine, consisting of fetid and aromatic simples mix¬
ed with black hellebore, and prescribed in order to pro¬
mote the menstrual and haemorrhoidal fluxes ; as also to
bring away the lochia.
HAEM AN THUS, the Blood-Flower, a genus of
plants belonging to the hexandria class ; and in the
natural method ranking under the ninth order, Spatha-
ccce. See Botany Index.
HAEMATITES, or Blood-stone, a species of iron
ore. See Mineralogy Index.
HAE MAT OPUS, the Sea-PyE, a genus of birds be¬
longing to the order of grallae. See Ornithology Index.
HAEMATOXYLUM, Logwood, or Campeachy
Wood; a genus of plants belonging to the decandria
class ; and in the natural method ranking under the 33d
order, Lomentacece. See Botany Index ; and for its
properties and use as a dye stuff, see Dyeing Index.
HAEMOPTYSIS, Ha:maptysis, or Hcemoptoe; a
spitting of blood. See Medicine Index.
HAEMORRHAGY,(compounded of«<fs«, “ blood,”
and gifvvpi, “ I burst forth)” in medicine, a flux of
blood at any part of the body ; arising either from a
rupture of the vessels, as when they are too full or
too much pressed 5 or from an erosion of the same, as
when the blood is too sharp and corrosive.—The hae-
morrhagy, properly speaking, as understood by the
Greeks, was only a flux of blood at tbe nose ; but the
moderns extend tbe name to any kind of flux of blood,
whether by the nose, mouth, lungs, stomach, intestines,
fundament, matrix, or whatever part. Bee Medicine
and Surgery Index.
HAEMORRHOIDAL, an appellation given by
anatomists to the arteries and veins going to the intesti-
num rectum.
HAEMORRHOIDS, or Piles, an haemorrhage or
issue of blood from the hemorrhoidal vessels. See
M EDICINE Index.
HAEMUS, in Ancient Geography, a vast ridge, run¬
ning from Illyricum toward tbe Euxine, (Pliny)-, so
high as to afford a prospect both of tbe Euxine and A-
driatic. Here, in after ages, was constituted a province
called Hcemimons, or Heemimontus.
HAERETICO COMBURENDO, a writ which ancient¬
ly lay against an heretic, who, having once been con¬
victed of heresy by his bishop, and having abjured it,
afterwards falling into it again, or into some other, is
5
4 ] ‘ HAG
thereupon committed to the secular power. This writ Hasic, 1
is thought by some to be as ancient as the common
law itself j however, the conviction of heresy by the a'-
common law was not in any petty ecclesiastical court, ^ '
but before the archbishop himself in a provincial synod,
and the delinquent was delivered up to the king to do
with him as he pleased j so that the crown had a con-
troul over the spiritual power. But by 2 Henry IV.
cap. 15. the diocesan alone, without the intervention
of a synod, might convict of heretical tenets j and un- ,
less the convict abjured his opinions, or if after abju¬
ration he relapsed, the sheriff was bound ex officio, if
required by the bishop, to commit the unhappy victim
to the flames, without waiting for the consent of the i
crown. This writ remained in force, and was actually
executed on two Anabaptists in the seventh of Eliza¬
beth, and on two Arians in the ninth of Janies I.—Sir
Edward Coke was of opinion, that this writ did not lie i
in his time : but it is now formally taken away by sta¬
tute 29 Car. II. cap. 9. But this statute does not ex- :
tend to take away or abridge the jurisdiction of Prote- j
stant archbishops or bishops, or any other judges of any
ecclesiastical courts, in cases of atheism, blasphemy, he- j
resy, or schism, and other damnable doctrines and opi- ij
nions 5 but they may prove and punish the same accord- 1
ing to his majesty’s ecclesiastical laws, by excommuni- '
cation, deprivation, degradation, and other ecclesiasti- >
cal censures, not extending to death, in such sort and j
no other, as they might have done before the making
of this act, sec. 2. See Heresy.
HAERLEM. See Harlem.
HAG. See Myxine, Helminthology Index.
HAGARENS, the descendants of Ishmael. They
are called also Ishmaelites Saracens: and lastly, \
by the general name of Arabians.
As to the Hagarens, they dwelt in Arabia the Hap- |
py, according to Pliny. Strabo joins them with the |
Nabathseans, and Chavlolaeans, whose habitation was
rather in Arabia Deserta. Others think their capital *
was Petra, otherwise Agra, and consequently they ^
should be placed in Arabia Petraea. The author of the
Ixxxiii. Psalm, ver. 6. joins them with the Moabites j 1
and in the Chronicles it is said (1 Chr. v. 10.), that
tbe sons ot Reuben, in the time of Saul, made war
against the Hagarens, and became masters of their
country eastward of the mountains of Gilead. This
therefore was the true and ancient country of the
Hagarens. When Trajan came into Arabia, be be¬
sieged the capital of tbe Hagarens, but could not take
it. The sons ol Hagar valued themselves of old upon
their wisdom, as appears by Baruch iii. 23.
HAGENAU, a town of Germany, and capital of
a bailiwick of the same name, which was formerly
imperial, but now belongs to the French. It was
taken by them in 1673 the Imperialists retook it in
1702 j after which it was several times taken and re¬
taken by both parties $ but at last the French got
possession of it in 1706. It is divided by the river
Motter into two parts j and is seated near a forest of its
own name, in E. Long. 7. 53. N. Lat. 48. 49.
HAGGAI, the tenth of the small prophets, was
born, in all probability, at Babylon, in the year of the
world 3457* lror*i whence be returned with Zerubba-
bel. It was this prophet who by command from God
(Ezra v. I, 2, &c,) exhorted the Jews, after their re¬
turn
HAG [ 215 ] H A I
Hi »g^ai turn from tlie captivity, to finish the rebuilding of the
11 temple, which they had intermitted for 14 years. His
Cc 1^Ue' ■ remonstrances had their effect 5 and to encourage them
'v to proceed in the work, he assured them from God,
that the glory of this latter house should be greater
than the glory of the former house ; which was ac¬
cordingly fulfilled, when Christ honoured it with his
presence : for with respect to the building, this latter
temple was nothing in comparison of the former.
We know nothing certain of Haggai’s death. The
Jews pretend, that he died in the last year of the
reign of Darius, at the same time with the prophets
Zechariah and Malachi, and that thereupon the spirit
of prophecy ceased among the children of Israel. Epi-
phanius will have it, that he was buried at Jeru¬
salem among the priests. The Greeks keep his fes¬
tival on the 16th of December, and the Latins on the
4th of July.
HAGIOGRAPHA, a name given to part of the
books of Scripture, called by the Jews Cetuvim. The
word is compounded of «y;a$, “ holy and y^ocipu, “ I
write.” The name is very ancient: St Jerome makes
frequent mention of it: before him, St Epiphanius
called these books simply r^ottyuct.
The Jews divide the sacred writings into three clas¬
ses : The Law, which comprehends the five books of
Moses : The Prophets, which they call Neviim: And
the Cetuvim O'Dim, called by the Greeks, &.c. Hagio-
gmpha ; comprehending the books of Psalms, Proverbs,
Job, Daniel, Ezra, including also the books of Nehe-
miah, Chronicles, Canticles, Ruth, the Lamentations,
Ecclesiastes, and Esther.
The Jews sometimes call the books the Writings,
by way of eminence, as being written by immediate
inspiration of the Holy Spirit. Thus says Kimchi, in
his preface to the Psalms, Maimnnides in More Ne-
vnch, and Elias Levita in his Thisbi, under the word
They distinguish the hagiographers, however, from
the prophets j in that the authors of the former did
not receive the matters contained in them by the way
called Propheci/, which consists in dreams, visions, whis¬
pers, ecstacies, &c. but by mere inspiration and direction
of the Spirit.
HAGUE, a town of the United Provinces, in
Holland, situated in E. Long. 4. 10. N. Lat. 48. 49.
•—In Latin it is called Haga Comitis; in French, La
Haye; in Dutch, tier Haag, or ’S-Graavenhage, i. e.
the Earl’s Grove or Wood, from the wood near which
it is built, and in which the earls of Holland had a
country-house. Though it sends no deputies to the
states, it is one of the most considerable towns in Hol¬
land, pleasantly situated, and exceeding beautiful. It
may indeed compare with almost any city in Europe, ^
though geographers account it but a village. The in¬
habitants also breathe a better air than those of the
other cities, as it stands on a dry soil, somewhat
higher than the rest of the country. It has no gates
or walls, but is surrounded by a moat over which there
are many draw-bridges. Two hours are required to
walk round it, and it contained about 42,000 inha¬
bitants in 181‘7. It is a place of much splendor and
business, being the seat of the high colleges of the
republic and province of Holland, and the residence
<jf the stadtholder and foreign ambassadors 5 and there
are a great many fine streets and squares in it. In the Hague
inner court, all the high colleges and courts of justice
hold their assemblies j there also the foot-guards do Hai-Tang.
duty, as the horse-guards in the outer, when the states
are sitting. De Plants is an open airy place, in form
of a triangle, adorned with neat and beautiful build¬
ings: the Vyverbeg is an eminence, laid out into se¬
veral fine shady walks, with the Vyver, a large bason of
water, at the bottom • the Voorhout is the most cele¬
brated part of the Hague, and consists of the mall,
and three ways for coaches on each side, planted with
trees, being much the same as St James’s park at Lon¬
don : the palace of Opdam, or Wassenaar, is built in a
very elegant taste : the Prince and Princess Grafts are
fine streets : the Plan, in Dutch Het Pleyn, is a beau¬
tiful grove, laid out in several cross walks, and sur¬
rounded with stately houses. The Jewish synagogue
is well worth being seen by a curious traveller; and al¬
so the palaces of the prince of Orange, the hotel of
Spain, the new Woorhout, the mausoleum of the ba¬
ron of Opdam in the great church, and the several
hospitals. The environs of the Hague are exceedingly
pleasant. Among other agreeable objects are the
wood, with the palace ot Orange at the extremity of
it, called the house in the wood; the village of Sche-
veling ; and the sand-hills along the north sea ; with
the village of \ oorburg, and the charming seats and
fine gardens round it. Two miles from the Hague is
Ryswick, a village: and, a quarter of a mile from
that, a noble palace formerly belonging to the prince of
Orange, famous for the treaty of peace concluded there
in 1697. Loosduynen, where Margaret, countess of
Henneburg, and daughter of Florence IV. count of
Holland and Zealand, is said to have been delivered of
365 children at a birth in 1276, is above five miles
from the Hague. Five miles beyond Loosduvnen,
and not far from the beautiful village of Gtavesande,
is Honslardyck, another palace belonging to the prince
of Orange, and one of the finest structures in the Low
Countries.
HA 1-nan. See Hainan.
IlAi-Tang, a beautiful Chinese shrub, originally
brought from the bottom of the rocks which border
the sea-coast. It has been cultivated in China for more
than 14 centuries; and is celebrated as often in the
works of the Chinese poets, as roses and lilies are iu
those of ours. Painters and embroiderers ornament
almost all their works with its foliage and flowers.
The stalk of the hai-tang is of a cylindric form, and
shoots forth a number of branches of a purple tint
towards their bases, and full of knots, which are also
of a purple colour round the edges. It produces a
number of shoots, the tallest of which are about two
feet and a half in height. Its leaves (which are much
indented, of an oval form towards the stalk, pointed
at their upper extremities, and full of small prickles)
grow almost opposite one another on the branches, and
at the same distance as the knots. Their colour above
is a deep-green ; that below is much lighter, and al¬
most effaced by their fibres, which are large, and of
a delicate purple : all these leaves together have a beau¬
tiful effect to the eye. The flowers grow in bunches
at the extremities of the branches. Each flower is
composed of four petals, two great and two small, re¬
sembling in colour the bloom of a peach-tree, and
which ,
H A I [ 216 ] H A I
Hai-Tang,'which have almost the same figure as the blossom of
Hail. our cherry-trees. The two large are cemented one
“""■v upon the other, in the form of a purse ; and when they
blow, the two small blow also in their turn j and then
the whole four represent a cross. The pistil is com¬
posed of very bright yellow grains, which separate
gradually one from another by the lengthening of the
filaments to which they adhere j they then open into
little bells, and compose a small yellow tuft, supported
by a slender stalk, which rises above the petals. I he
calyx, which sustains each of the flowers, is composed
of two purple-coloured leaves, united in form of a
purse. In proportion as the flowers grow and increase
in size, the two leaves of the calyx open, become pale
and dry, and drop off. The flowers, supported by
small stalks, separate one from the other, and produce
of themselves other flowers, which rise up from a new
calyx.
This plant is propagated from seed, but with dif¬
ficulty. It thrives best in a sandy soil; dung or mould
destroy itand great care must be taken to refresh it
only with the purest water. As it cannot endure the
sun in any season, it is always planted below walls
that are exposed to the north. It generally begins to
flower about the end of August. After it has pro¬
duced seed, all its branches are cut; and it common¬
ly shoots forth new ones before the spring follow¬
ing ; but it is necessary to heap up gravel and pieces
of bricks round its roots, to prevent them from rot¬
ting. Notwithstanding all the care that is taken to
cultivate this tree at Peking, it does not thrive so
well there as in the southern provinces. The smell of
its leaves has an affinity both to that of the rose and
the violet; but it is weaker, and never extends to any
great distance.
HAIL, in Natural History, a meteor generally de¬
fined frozen rain, but differing from it in that the
hailstones are not formed of single pieces of ice, but of
many little spherules agglutinated together. Neither
are these spherules all of the. same consistence ; some of
them being hard and solid like perfect ice; others soft,
and mostly like snow hardened by a severe frost. Some¬
times the hailstone hath a kind of core of this soft mat¬
ter ; but more frequently the core is solid and hard,
while the outside is formed of a softer matter. Hail¬
stones assume various figures, being sometimes round,
at other times pyramidal, crenated, angular, thin, and
flat, and sometimes stellated, with six radii like the
small crystals of snow.
Natural historians furnish us with various accounts
of surprising showers of hail, in which the hailstones
were of extraordinary magnitude. Mezeray, speaking
of the war of Louis XII. in Italy, in the year 1510,
relates, that there was for some time a horrible dark¬
ness, thicker than that of night; after which the clouds
broke into thunder and lightning, and there fell a
shower of hailstones, or rather (as he calls them) peb¬
ble-stones, which destroyed all the fish, birds, and beasts
of the country^—It was attended with a strong smell
of sulphur ; and the stones were of a bluish colour, some
of them weighing a hundred pounds. Hist, de France,
tom. ii. p. 339.
At Lisle in Flanders, in 1686, fell hailstones of a
very large size; some of which contained in the middle
2
a dark brown matter, which, thrown on the fire, gave
a very great report. Phil. Trans. N° 203. ||
Dr Halley and others also relate, that in Cheshire,
Lancashire, &c. April 29. 1697, a thick black cloud,' ^
coming from Caernarvonshire, disposed the vapours to
congeal in such a manner, that for about the breadth
of two miles, which was the limit of the cloud, in its
progress for the space of 60 miles, it did inconceivable
damage ; not only killing all sorts of fowls and other
small animals, but splitting trees, knocking down horses
and men, and even ploughing up the earth ; so that
the hailstones buried themselves under ground an inch
or an inch and a half deep. The hailstones, many of
which weighed five ounces, and some half a pound,
and being five or six inches about, were of various fi¬
gures ; some round, others half round ; some smooth,
others embossed and crenated : the icy substance of
them was very transparent and hard, but there was a
snowy kernel in the middle of them.
In Hertfordshire, May 4. the same year, after a se¬
vere storm of thunder and lightning, a shower of hail
succeeded, which far exceeded the former: some per¬
sons were killed by it, their bodies beat all black and
blue ; vast oaks were split, and fields of rye cut down
as with a scythe. The stones measured from 10 to
13 or 14 inches about. Their figures were various,
some oval, others picked, some flat. Philosoph. Trans.
N° 229. See Meteorology Index.
HAILING, the salutation or accosting of a ship at
a distance, either at sea, or in a harbour. The usual
expression is “ Hoa, the ship ahoay !” To which she
answers, “ Holloa ? Whence came ye ? W here are
ye bound? Good voyage! What cheer? All well!
How fare ye ?” &c.
HAIMSUCKEN. See Hamesecken.
HAINAN, a considerable island of Asia, situa¬
ted in between 18° and 20° N. Lat. It is subject
to China, and belongs to the province of Quang-ton.
It has on the north the province of Quang-si; on the
south the channel formed between the bank Paracel
and the eastern coast of Cochinchina; on the west,
the same kingdom and part of Tong-king; and on
the east, the Chinese sea. Its extent from east to west
is between 60 and 70 leagues, and from north to
south 45; this island therefore is about 160 leagues in
circumference. Kiun-tcheou-fou,fits capital, stands on
a promontory, and ships often anchor at the bottom
of its walls. Two different kinds of mandarins com¬
mand here, as in all the other provinces of China :
the first are called literati; the second, mandarins of
arms, or military officers. Its jurisdiction extends
over three cities of the second class and ten of the third.
The greater part of the island is under the dominion of
the emperor of China; the rest is independent, and
inhabited by a free people, who have never yet been
subdued. Compelled to abandon their plains and
fields to the Chinese, they have retreated to the moun¬
tains in the centre of the island, where they are shelter¬
ed from the insults of their neighbours.
These people formerly had a free and open corre¬
spondence with the Chinese. Twice a-year they ex¬
posed, in an appointed place, the gold which they dug
from their mines, with their eagle-wood, and calamba,
so much esteemed by the Orientals. A deputy was
sent
H A I [2
j]ian( sent to the frontiers, to examine the cloths and other
I nault. commodities of the Chinese, whose principal traders
4■v-*-' repaired to the place of exchange fixed on j and after
the Chinese wares were delivered, they put into their
hands with the greatest fidelity what they had agreed
for. The Chinese governors made immense profits by
this barter.
The emperor Kang-hi, informed of the prodigious
quantity of gold which passed through the hands of
the mandarins by this traffic, forbade his subjects, un¬
der pain of death, to have any communication with
these islanders: however, some private emissaries of
the neighbouring governors still find the means of
having intercourse with them *, but what they get at
present by this clandestine trade is little, in comparison
of that which they gained formerly. The natives of
this island are very deformed, small of stature, and of a
copper colour: both men and women wear their hair
thrust through a ring on their forehead ; and above
they have a small straw-hat, from which hang two
strings that are tied under the chin. Their dress con¬
sists of a piece of black or dark-blue cotton cloth,
which reaches from the girdle to their knees: the wo¬
men have a kind of robe of the same stuff, and mark
their faces from the eyes to the chin with blue stripes
made with indigo.
Among the animals of this island are a curious spe¬
cies of large black apes, which have the shape and fea¬
tures of a man $ they are said to be very fond of wo¬
men : there are also found here crows with a white
ring round their necks j starlings which have a small
crescent on their bills; blackbirds of a deep blue co¬
lour, with yellow ears rising half an inch ; and a mul¬
titude of other birds, remarkable for their colour or
song. Besides mines of gold and lapis lazuli, which
enrich the island of Hainan, it produces in abundance
various kinds of curious and valuable wood. The pre¬
decessor of the present emperor caused some of it to be
transported to Peking, at an immense expence, to
adorn an edifice which he intended for a mausoleum.
The most valuable is called by the natives hoali, and
by the Europeans rose or violet wood from its smell; it
is very durable, and of a beauty which nothing can
equal; it is therefore reserved for the use of the em¬
peror.
Hainan, on account of its situation, riches, and ex¬
tent, deserves to be ranked amongst the most consider¬
able islands of Asia. Not far from thence is another
small island, commonly called San-cian. It is celebra¬
ted by the death of St Francis Xavier: his tomb is still
to be seen on a small hill, at the bottom of which is a
plain covered on one side with wood, and on the other
ornamented with several gardens. This island is not
a desert, as some travellers have pretended : it contains
five villages ; the inhabitants of which are poor people,
who have nothing to subsist on but rice and the fish
which they catch.
HAINAULT, formerly a province of the Nether¬
lands, belonging partly to France and partly to the
house of Austria. It is bounded to the south by
I ranee; to the north by Flanders and Brabant; to the
east by the duchy of Brabant, the county of Namur, and
the bishopric of Liege ; and to the west by Artois and
Flanders. Its extent from north to south is about 45
miles, and about 48 from east to west. The air is
VOL. X. Part I. f
7 3 H A I
pleasant and temperate, and the soil fruitful: it abounds HainauJt,
in rich pastures, corn-fields, woods and forests, coal, Hair,
iron, lead, beautiful marble, slate, and other useful 1 1 v "■—J
stones : it is well watered by rivers and lakes, and
breeds abundance of black cattle, and sheep whose
wool is very fine. Its principal rivers are the Schelde,
the Selle, and the Hender. This province is reckon¬
ed to contain 24 walled towns, 950 villages, one du¬
chy, and several principalities, earldoms, peerdoms,
and baronies. The abbeys in it are 27. For spiritual
matters, the greater part of it is subject to the arch¬
bishop of Cambray, and the rest to the bishops of
Liege and Arras. The states of the province con¬
sist of the clergy, nobility, and commoners. The cler¬
gy are the abbots, deputies of the chapters, and rural
deans; but the chapters of St Waudru and St Ger¬
main, in Mons, send no deputies, as they contribute
nothing to the public taxes. The nobility consist of
the earls and barons, and all those who by their birth
have a right to a seat in the assembly of the states.
The commoners are composed of the deputies of the
towns. The clergy in this county are uncommonly
rich. Ihe states meet only when they are summoned
by the sovereign; but there is a standing committee at
Moris which meets weekly. Tins county had counts
of its own, till the year 1436; when Philip the Good,
duke of Burgundy, arrived to the possession of it, up¬
on the death of Jaqueline, the heiress, without issue.
The French acquired that part of it which they pos¬
sess, partly by the peace of the Pyrenees, and partly
by those of Nimeguen and Ryswick. It was former¬
ly governed by a sovereign council, at the head of
which was the high bailiff, who had very great autho¬
rity ; he represented the sovereign, was governor of
Mons, and captain-general of the province. By the
treaty of Luneville, the whole of the province was ceded
to France.
HAIR, small filaments issuing out of the pores of
the skins of animals ; and serving most of them as a te¬
gument or covering*. In lieu of hair, the nakedness* See A-
of some animals is covered with feathers, wool, scales natomy,
&c. ’N08i.
Hair is found on all parts of the human body, except \
the soles of the feet and the palms of the hands.—But
it grows longest on the head, chin, breast, in the arm-
pits, and about the privities.
The ancients held the hair a sort of excrement, fed
only with excrementitious matters, and no proper part
of a living body.—They supposed it generated of the
fuliginous parts of the blood, exhaled by the heat of
the body to the surface, and there condensed in passing
through the pores.—Their chief reasons were, that the
hair being cut, will grow again apace, even in extreme
old age, and when life is very low: that in hectic and
consumptive people, where the rest of the body is con¬
tinually emaciating and attenuating, the hair shall
thrive : nay, and that it will grow again in dead car¬
cases.—-They added, that hair does not feed and grow
like the other parts, by introsusception, i. e. by a juice
circulating within it ; but, like the nails, by juxtaposi¬
tion, each part next the root thrusting forward that im¬
mediately before it.
But the moderns are agreed, that every hair does
properly and truly live, and receive nutriment to fill
and distend it like the other parts; which they argue
E e hence,
H A I . [21
hence, that the roots do not turn gray in aged persons
sooner than the extremities, but the whole changes co¬
lour at once, and the like is observed in boys, &c. ;
which shows that there is a direct communication, and
that all the parts are atFected alike.
It may be observed, however, that, in propriety, the
life and growth of hairs is of a difterent kind from that
of the rest of the body ; and is not immediately de¬
rived therefrom, or reciprocated therewith. It is ra¬
ther of the nature of vegetation. They grow as plants
do out of the earth ; or, as some plants shoot from
the parts of others ; from which though they draw
their nourishment, yet each has, as it were, its several
life and a distinct economy. They derive their food
from some juices in the body, but not from the nutri¬
tious juices ; whence they may live though the body
be starved.—Wulferus, in the Philosophical Collections,
gives an account of a woman buried at Nuremberg,
whose grave being opened forty-three years after her
death, there was hair found issuing forth plentifully
through the clefts of the coffin ; insomuch, that there
was reason to imagine the coffin had some time been
covered all over with hair. The cover being removed,
the whole corpse appeared in its perfect shape ; but,
from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot,
covered over with a thick-set hair, long and curled.
The sexton going to handle the upper part of the head
with his fingers, the whole structure fell at once, lea¬
ving nothing in his hand but an handful of hair : there
was neither skull nor any other bone left; yet the hair
was solid and strong enough.—Mr Arnold, in the same
collection, gives a relation of a man hanged for theft,
who in a little time, while he yet hung upon the gal¬
lows, had his body strangely covered over with hair.—
Some moderns, however, deny the authenticity of these
and other similar instances*
The hairs ordinarily appear round or cylindrical ;
but the microscope also discovers triangular and square
ones; which diversity of figure arises from that of the
pores, to which the hairs always accommodate them¬
selves. Their length depends on the quantity of the
proper humour to feed them, and their colour on the
quality of that humour : whence, at different stages of
life, the colour usually differs. Their extremities split
into two or three branches, especially when kept dry,
or suffered to grow' too long; so that what appears only
a single hair to the naked eye, seems a brush te the mi¬
croscope.
The hair of a mouse, viewed by Mr Derham with a
microscope, seemed to be one single transparent tube,
with a pith made up of fibrous substances, running in
dark lines, in some hairs transversely, in others spirally.
1 he darker medullary parts or lines, he observes, were
no other than small fibres convolved round, and lyin"
closer together than in the other parts of the hair.
They run from the bottom to the top of the hair, and
he imagines, may serve to make a gentle evacuation of
some humour out of the body. Hence the hair of hairy
animals, this author suggests, may not only serve as a
fence against cold, &c. but as an organ of insensible per¬
spiration.
Though the external surface of the body is the na¬
tural place of hairs, we have many well-attested in¬
stances ot their being found also on the internal sur¬
face. Amatus Lusitanus mentions a person who had
8 ] H A I
hair upon his tongue. Pliny and \ alerius Maximus
concur in their testimonies, that the heart of Aristome- ■
nes the Messehian was hairy. Ctelius lihodiginus re¬
lates the same of Hermogenes the rhetorician; and Plu¬
tarch, of Leonidas the Spartan.—Hairs are said to have
been frequently found in the breasts of women, and to
have occasioned the distemper called trichiasis; but some
authors are of opinion, that these are small worms and
not hairs. There have been, however, various and in¬
disputable observations of hairs found in the kidneys,
and voided by urine.
Hippocrates is of opinion, that the glandular parts
are the most subject to hair: but bundles of hair have
been found in the muscular parts of beef, and in such
parts of the human body as are equally firm with that.
—Hair has been often found in abscesses and imposthu-
mations. Schultetus, opening the abdomen of a wo¬
man, found 12 pints of water, and a large lock or
bundle of hair swimming loose in it. But of all the
internal parts, there is none so much subject to an un¬
natural growth of hair as the ovaries of females, and
that as well of the human species as of other animals.
Of this Dr Tyson relates three remarkable instances ;
two of these were young women, and the other was a
bitch. The animal had been much emaciated in its
hinder parts ; the hair was about an inch and a half
long : but the most remarkable particular was, that
hair was also found lying loose in the cavities of the
veins. We have several instances of mankind being
affected in the same manner. Cardan relates, that he
found hair in the blood of a Spaniard ; and Slonatius
in that of a gentlewoman of Cracovia; and Schultetus
declares Irom his own observation, that those people
who are afflicted with the plica polonica, have very
often hair in their blood.
Diseases of the Hair. Almost the only disease of
the hair, besides the remarkable one called plica polo¬
nica, is its falling off, or baldness. For this manv re¬
medies have been recommended, but scarce any of them
can be depended upon. The juice of burdock, and
the lixivial salts of vine ashes, are said to be efficacious ;
also the powder of hermodactyls, and the decoction of
boxwood. A remarkable instance of the efficacy of
this last is given under the article Buxus.—Some
authors give instances of the hair changing its colour in
a short time, through grief, or by reason of a fright,
&c.
Hair as an Ornament, or as an Ensign of Dignity or
of Peltgion. By the Jews hair was worn naturally long,
just as it grew ; but the priests had theirs cut every
fortnight, while they were in waiting at the temple i
they made use of no razors, however, but scissars only.
Bhe Nazarites, while their vow continued, were for¬
bidden to touch their heads with a razor. See Naza-
rite.
The falling off of the hair, or a change of its colour,
was regarded amongst the Hebrews as a sign of the le¬
prosy. Black hair was esteemed by them as the most
beautiful. Absalom’s hair was cut once a-year, and
is said to have weighed 200 shekels, by the king’s
weight, which is about 31 ounces. The law of God
bath left no particular ordinances with respect to the
hair.
The hair of both Jewish and Grecian women enga¬
ged a principal share of their attention, and the Roman
ladies
H A I
air. ladies seem to have been no less curious with respect to
'• theirs. They generally wore it long, and dressed it in
a variety of ways, ornamenting it with gold, silver,
pearls, &c. On the contrary, the men amongst the
Greeks and Romans, and amongst the later Jews, wore
their hair short, as may be collected from books, me¬
dals, statues, &c. This formed a principal distinction
in dress betwixt the sexes. This observation illustrates
a passage in St Paul’s epistle to the Corinthians (i Cor.
xi. 14. 15.).
St Paul forbids the Corinthian women, when pray-
Iing by divine inspiration, to have their hair dishevelled ;
probably because this made them resemble the heathen
priestesses, when actuated by the pretended influence
of their gods.
Amongst the Greeks, both sexes, a few days before
marriage, cut off" and consecrated their hair as an ofl’er-
ing to their favourite deities. It was also customary
among them to hang the hair of the dead on the doors
of their houses previous to interment. They likewise
tore, cut oft’, and sometimes shaved their hair, when
mourning for their deceased relations or friends, which
they laid upon the corpse, or threw into the pile, to be
consumed together with the body. The ancients ima¬
gined that no person could die till a lock of hair was
cut off*, and this act they supposed was performed by
the invisible hand of death, or Iris, or some other mes¬
senger of the gods. The hair, thus cut off, it was sup¬
posed, consecrated the person to the infernal deities,
under whose jurisdiction the dead were supposed to be.
It was a sort of first fruits which sanctified the whole.
(See Vtrg. JEn. iv. 694.).
Whatever was the fashion with respect to the hair,
in the Grecian states, slaves were forbidden to imitate
the freemen. The hair of the slaves was always cut
in a particular manner, called which
they no longer retained after they procured their free¬
dom.
. It was esteemed a distinguished honour among the an¬
cient Gauls to have long hair, and hence came the ap¬
pellation Gallia Comata. For this reason Julius Coesar,
upon subduing the Gauls, made them cut off their hair
as a token of submission. It was with a view to this,
that such as afterwards quitted the world to go and
live in cloisters, procured their hair to be shaven ofl’j
to show that they bade adieu to all earthly ornaments,
and made a vow of perpetual subjection to their supe¬
riors.
Gregory of Tours assures us, that in the royal family
of France, it was a long time the peculiar mark and
privilege of kings and princes of the blood to wear
long hair, artfully dressed and curled : every body else
was obliged to be polled, or cut round, in sign ef in¬
feriority and obedience. Some writers assure us, that
there were different cuts for all the different quali¬
ties and conditions ; from the prince who wore it at
full length, to the slave or villain who was quite cropt.
Jo cut off the hair of a son of France, under the
first race of kings, was to declare him excluded from
the right of succeeding to the crown, and reduced to
the condition of a subject.
In the eighth century, it was the custom of people
of quality to have their children’s haircut the first time
by persons they had a particular honour and esteem
H A I
for 5 who, in virtue of this ceremony, were reputed a Hair,
sort of spiritual parents or godfathers thereof: Though '—"V—
this practice appears to have been more ancient; inas¬
much as we read, that Constantine sent to the pope the
hair of his son Heraclius, as a token that he desired
him to be his adoptive father.
The parade of long hair became still more and more
obnoxious in the progress of Christianity, as something
utterly inconsistent with the profession of persons who
bore the cross. Hence numerous injunctions and ca¬
nons to the contrary. Rope Anicetus is commonly
supposed to have been the first who forbade the clergy
to wear long hair ; but the prohibition is of an older
standing in the churches of the east ; and the letter
wherein that decree is written, is of a much later date
than that pope.— The clerical tonsure is related by Isi¬
dore Hispalensis, as of apostolical institution.
Long hair was anciently held so odious, that there
is a canon still extant of the year 1096, importing, that
such as wore long hair should be excluded coming into
church while living, and not be prayed for when dead.
We have a furious declamation of Luitprand against the
emperor Phocas, for wearing long hair, after the man¬
ner of the other emperors of the east, all except Theo-
philas, who being bald, enjoined all his subjects to
shave their heads.
The French historians and antiquaries have been
very exact in recording the head of hair of their several
kings. Charlemagne wore it very short, his son short¬
er j Charles the Bald had none at alh Under Hugh
Capet it began to appear again : this the ecclesiastics
took, in dudgeon, and excommunicated all who let their
hair grow. Peter Lombard expostulated the matter so
warmly with Charles the Young, that he cut oft’ his
hairj and his succesors for some generations wore it
very short.—A professor of Utrecht, in 1650, wrote
expressly on the question, Whether it be lawful for men
to wear long hair ? and concluded for the negative.—
Another divine, named Eeves, who had written for the
affirmative, replied to him.
The ancient Britons were extremely proud of the
length and beauty of their hair, and were at much
pains in dressing and adorning their heads. Some of
them carried their fondness for and admiration of their
hair to an extravagant height. It is said to have been
the last and most earnest request of a young warrior,
who was taken prisoner and condemned to be beheaded,
that no slave might he permitted to touch his hair,
which was remarkably long and beautiful, and that it
might not be stained with his blood. We hardly ever
meet with a description of a fine woman or beautiful
man, in the poems of Ossian, but their hair is men¬
tioned as one of their greatest beauties. Not content¬
ed with the natural colour of their hair, which was
commonly fair or yellow, they made use of certain
washes to render it still brighter. One of these washes
wras a composition of lime, the ashes of certain vegeta¬
bles, and tallow. They made use of various arts also
to make the hair of their heads grow thick and long ;
which last was not only esteemed a great beauty, but
was considered as a mark of dignity and noble birth.
Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, is described by Dio with
very long hair, flowing over her shoulders, and reach¬
ing down below the middle of her back. The Britons
E e 2 shaved
[ 219 1
H A I [ 220 ] H A I
lfnir, shaved all their beards, except tlieir upper lips ; the
—hair of which they, as well as the Gauls, allowed to
grow to a very inconvenient length.
In after-times, the Anglo-Saxons and Danes also
considered fine hair as one of the greatest beauties and
ornaments of their persons, and were at no little pains
in dressing it to advantage. Young ladies before niai’-
riage wore their hair uncovered and untied, flowing in
ringlets over their shoulders; but as soon as they were
married, they cut it shorter, tied it up, and put on a
head-dress of some kind or other, according to the pre¬
vailing fashion. To have the hair entirely cut off was
so gieat a disgrace, that it was one of the greatest pu¬
nishments inflicted on those women who were guilty of
adultery. The Danish soldiers who were quartered up¬
on the English, in the reigns of Edgar the Peaceable
and of Ethelred the Unready, were the beaux of those
times, and were particularly attentive to the dressing
of their hair ; which they combed at least once every
day, and thereby captivated the affections of the Eng¬
lish ladies. The clergy, both secular and regular, were
obliged to shave the crowns of their heads, and keep
their hair short, which distinguished them from the
laity } aud several canons were made against their con¬
cealing their tonsure, or allowing their hair to grow
long. The shape of this clerical tonsure was the sub¬
ject of long and violent debates between the English
clergy on the one hand, and those of the Scots and
Piets on the other ; that of the former being circular,
and that of the latter only semicircular. It appears
very plainly, that long flowing hair was universally
esteemed a great ornament; and the tonsure of the
clergy was considered as an act of mortification and
self-denial, to which many of them submitted with re¬
luctance, and endeavoured to conceal as much as pos¬
sible. Some of them who affected the reputation of su¬
perior sanctity inveighed with great bitterness against
the long hair of the laity ; and laboured earnestly to
persuade them to cut it short, in imitation of the cler¬
gy. Ihus the famous St Wulstan bishop of Worcester,
is said to have declaimed with great vehemence against
luxury of all kinds, hut chiefly against long hair as most
criminal and most universal. “ The English (says Wil¬
liam of Malmsbury in his life of St Wulstan) were very
vicious in their manners, and plunged in luxury,
through the long peace which they had enjoyed in the
reign of Edward the Confessor. The holy prelate Wul¬
stan reproved the wicked of all ranks with great bold¬
ness ; hut he rebuked those with the greatest severity
who were proud of their long hair. When any of those
vain people bowed their heads before him to receive his
blessing, before he gave it, he cut a lock of their hair
with a little sharp knife, which he carried about him
lor that purpose ; and commanded them, by way of
penance for their sins, to cut all the rest of their hair
in the same manner. If any of them refused to comply
with this command, he denounced the most dreadful
judgments upon them, reproached them for their effe¬
minacy, and foretold, that as they imitated women in
the length of their hair, they would imitate them in
their cowardice when their country was invaded •
which was accomplished at the landing of the Nor¬
mans.”
Ihis continued to be long a topic of declamation
among ,the clergy, who even represented it as, one of
the greatest crimes, and most certain marks of repro- ,
bation. Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, went so „
far as to pronounce the terrible sentence of excom¬
munication against all who wore long hair, for which
pious zeal he is very much commended. Serlo, a
Norman bishop, acquired great honour by a sermon
which he preached before Henry I. A. D. 1104, against
long and curled hair, with which the king and all his
courtiers were so much affected, that they consented
to resign their flowing ringlets, of which they had been
so vain. The prudent prelate gave them no time to
change their minds, but immediately pulled a pair of
shears out of his sleeve, and performed the operation :(
with his own hand. Another incident happened about j
25 years after, which gave a temporary check to the i
prevailing fondness for long hair. It is thus related
by a contemporary historian : “An event happened, 1
A. D. 1129, which seemed very wonderful to our |
young gallants ; who, forgetting that they were men, 1
had transformed themselves into women by the length l
of their hair. A certain knight, who was very proud j
of his long luxuriant hair, dreamed that a person suffo- S
cated him with its curls. As soon as he awoke from i
his sleep, he cut his hair to a decent length. The re- 1
port of this spread over all England, and almost all i
the knights reduced their hair to the proper standard. !
But this reformation was not of long continuance ; )
for in less than a year all who wished to appear fashion- i
able returned to their former wickedness, and contend¬
ed with the ladies in length of hair. Those to whom
nature had denied that ornament supplied the defect
by art.”
The Greeks, and, after their example, the Romans,
wore false hair.
Commerce in Hair. Hair makes a very considerable
article in commerce, especially since the mode of pe¬
rukes has obtained. The hair of the growth of the
northern countries, as England, &c. is valued much
beyond that of the more southern ones, as Italy, Spain, !
the south parts of France, &c. The merit of good hair
consists in its being well fed, and neither too coarse nor j
too slender; the bigness rendering it less susceptible of ■
the artificial curl, and disposing it rather to frizzle, and '
the smallness making its curl of too short duration. Its 1
length should be about 25 inches; the more it falls short *
of this, the less value it bears.
There is no certain price for hair; hut it is sold from
five shillings to five pounds an ounce, according to its 1
quality. .
The scarceness of gray and white hair has put the
dealers in that commodity upon the methods of redu¬
cing other colours to this. This is done by spreading
the hair to bleach on the grass like linen, after first
washing it out in a lixivious water. This ley, with the ‘
lorce of the sun and air brings the hair to so perfect
a whiteness, that the most experienced person may be
deceived therein ; there being scarce any way of detect¬
ing the artifice, hut by boiling and drying it, which
leaves the hair of the colour of a dead walnut-tree
leaf.
There is also a method of dyeing hair with bismuth,
which renders such white hair as borders too much
upon the yellow of a bright silver colour: boiling is
the proof of this too, the bismuth not being able to
stand it. .
Hair
H A I [2
Hair may be also changed from a red, gray, or other
/disagreeable colour, to a brown or deep black, by a so¬
lution of silver. The liquors sold under the name of
hair-waters, are at bottom no more than solutions of
silver in aquafortis, largely diluted with water, with
the addition perhaps of other ingredients, which contri¬
bute nothing to their efficacy. The solution should be
fully saturated with the silver, that there may be no
more acid in it than is necessary for holding the metal
dissolved j and besides dilution with water, a little spi¬
rit of wine may be added for the farther dulcification
of the acid. It must be observed, that for diluting the
solution, distilled water, or pure rain-water, must be
used j the common spring-waters turning it milky, and
precipitating a part of the dissolved silver.—It is to be
observed also, that if the liquor touches the skin, it has
the same effect on it as on the matter to be stained,
changing the part moistened with it to an indelible
black.—Hair may also be dyed of any colour, in the
same manner as wool.
Hair which does not curl or buckle naturally is
brought to it by art, by first boiling and then baking
it in the following manner : After having picked and
sorted the hair, and disposed it in parcels according
to lengths, they roll them up and tie them tight down
upon little cylindrical instruments, either of wood or
earthen ware, a quarter of an inch thick, and hollowed
a little in the middle, called pipes ; in which state they
are put in a pot over the fire, there to boil for about
two hours. When taken out, they let them dry; and
when dried, they spread them on a sheet of brown pa¬
per, cover them with another, and thus send them to
the pastry-cook ; who making a crust or coffin around
them of common paste, sets them in an oven till the
crust is about three-fourths baked.
The end by which a hair grows to the head is called
the head of the hair; and the other, with which they
begin to give the buckle, the point. Formerly the pe¬
ruke-makers made no ditference between the ends, but
curled and wove them by either indifferently : but this
made them unable to give a fine buckle ; hair woven
by the point never taking a right curl. Foreigners
own themselves obliged to the English for this discove¬
ry, which was first carried abroad by a peruke-maker
of our country.
Hair is also used in various other arts and manufac¬
tures.—In particular, the hair of beavers, hares, conies,
&c. is the principal matter whereof hats are made.
Spread on the ground, and left to putrefy on corn-lands,
hair, as all other animal substances, viz. horns, hoofs,
blood, garbage, &c. proves good manure.
Hair, in Farriery, is generally called the coat; and,
with regard to horses, deserves particular consideration.
The hair growing on the fetlock serves as a defence
to the prominent part of it in travelling in stony ways
or in frosty weather. If the hair of a horse’s neck, and
the parts most uncovered, be close, smooth, and sleek,
it is an indication of his being in health and good case.
In order to make the hair of a horse soft and sleek, he
must be kept warm at heart, for the least inward cold
will cause the hair to stare ; also sweat him often, for
that will loosen and raise the dust and filth that renders
his coat foul; and when he is in the heat of a sweat,
*crape off all the white foam, sweat, and filth, that is
raised up with an old sword blade j and also when he is
21 ] H A I
blooded, if you rub him all over with his own blood, ]|a;r
repeating it two or three days, and cui ryand dress him j|
well, it will make his coat shine as if covered with a Hair-
fine varnish. 'Worm.
Hair falling from the mane or tail is caused either
by his having taken some heat, which has engendered a
dry mange; or from some affection of the skin. To
cure this, anoint the horse’s mane and crest with black
soap; make a strong ley of ashes, and wash it all over
with it. But if a canker should grow on a horse’s tail,
which will eat away both flesh and bone, oil of vitriol is
recommended to be applied to the part affected. But
as this is a very dangerous application, lunar caustic
will be found a safer and an equally effectual remedy.
If you would take away hair from any part of a
horse’s body, boil half a pound of lime in a quart of
water, till a fourth part is consumed, to which add an
ounce of orpiment; make this into a plaster, and lay it
on.
Hair, or Down, of plants ; a general term expres¬
sive of all the hairy and glandular appearances on the
surface of plants, to which they are supposed by natu¬
ralists to serve the double purpose of defensive weapons
and vessels of secretion.
These hairs are minute threads of greater or less
length and solidity ; some of them visible to the naked
eye, whilst others are rendered visible only by the help
of glasses. Examined by a microscope, almost all the
parts of plants, particularly the young stalks or stems,
appear covered with hairs.
Hairs on the surface of plants present themselves
under various forms ; in the leguminous plants, they
are generally cylindric; in the mallow tribe, terminat¬
ed in a point; in agrimony, shaped like a fish-hook ; in
nettle, awl-shaped and jointed ; and in some compound
flowers with hollow or funnel-shaped florets, they are
terminated in two crooked points.
Probable as some experiments have rendered it, that
the hairs on the surface of plants contribute to some
organical secretion, their principal use seems to be to
preserve the parts in which they are lodged from the
bad effects of violent frictions, from winds, from ex¬
tremes of heat and cold, and such like external inju¬
ries.
M. Guettard, who established a botanical method
from the form, situation, and other circumstances of the
hairy and glandular appearances on the surface of plants,
demonstrated, that these appearances are generally
constant and uniform in all the plants of the same genus.
The same uniformity seems to characterise all the dif¬
ferent genera of the same natural order.
The different sorts of hairs which form the down upon
the surface of plants were imperfectly distinguished by
Grew in 1682, and by Malpighi in 1686. M. Guettard
just mentioned was the first who examined the subject
both as a botanist and a philosopher. His observations
were published in 1747.
HAIR-Cloths, in military affairs, are large pieces of
cloth made with half hair. They are used for covering
the powder in waggons, or upon batteries; as also for
covering charged bombs or hand-grenades, and many
other uses in magazines.
HAm-Powder. See Starch.
HAiR-TForm. See Gordius, Helminthology
Index,
HAKE,
HAL [ 222 ] HAL
Hake HAKE, the English name of a fish common in the
II English and some other seas, called by authors the
llaltKM'- merlucius and lucius viarinus. This fish was used of
‘ , old dried and salted. Hence the proverb obtains in
Kent, As dry os a hake. See ICHTHYOLOGY Index.
HAKLUYT, KlCHARD, a naval historian, is sup¬
posed to have been born ir. London about the year
1553, and descended of a genteel family in Hereford¬
shire, as the name frequently occurs in the list of high
sheriffs for that county in former reigns. Lie was edu¬
cated at Westminster-school ; and thence, in 1570, re¬
moved to Christ-church, Oxford ; where he applied
himself particularly to the study of cosmography, and
read public lectures in that science. Sir Edward Staf¬
ford being sent ambassador to France in 1583, Air
Hakluyt was one of his attendants, probably in the ca¬
pacity of chaplain. He was at this time master of arts
and professor of divinity. In 1585, he obtained the
royal mandate for the next vacant prebend of Bristol, to
which preferment he succeeded during his residence at
Paris. Constantly attentive to his favourite cosmogra-
phical inquiries, in searching the French libraries, he
found a valuable history of Florida, which had been
discovered about 20 years before by Captain Loudon-
niere and others : this he caused to be published, at his
own expence, in the French language, and soon after
revised and republished Peter Martyr’s book De orbe
novo. After five years residence in France, Mr Hak¬
luyt returned to England in company with Lady Shef¬
field, sister to the lord admiral Howard. In the year
1-589, he published his Collection of Voyages in one fo¬
lio volume, which in 1598 was republished in three.
In 1605, our author was made prebendary of Westmin¬
ster \ which, with the rectory of Wetheringset in the
county of Suffolk, seems to have been the summit of
his preferment. He died in 1616, and was buried in
Westminster-abbey \ bequeathing to his son Edmund
his manor of Bridge Place, and several houses in To-
thil-street, Westminster. He was an indefatigable and
faithful historian. His works are, 1. A Collection of
Voyages and Discoveries, a small volume. 2. History
of Florida, above mentioned. 3. The principal Navi-
gations, Voyages, and Discoveries of the English Na¬
tion, made by Sea or over Land to the farthest distant
Quarters of the Earth, at any time within the compass
of these 1 500 years, in three vols folio. 4. The Dis1-
coveries ot the World, from the first Original to the
Year 1555, written in the Portugal tongue hv Ant.
Galvano ; corrected, much amended and translated in¬
to English, by Richard Hakluyt. 5. Virginia richly
valued, bv the Description of the Main Land of Florida,
her next Neighbour, &c. written by a Portugal gentle¬
man of Elvas, and translated by Richard Hakluyt.
Besides these, he left several manuscripts, which were
printed in Purchas’s collection.
HALBERS1 ADI, a small district of Germany,
bounded on the north-east by the duchy of Magdeburg,
on the south by the principality of Anhault, on the west
by the diocese of Hildsheim, on the east by part of the
electorate of Saxony, and on the north by Brunswick
Wolfenbnttle. It is now subject to Piussia, and forms
part of the government of Magdeburg. It is near 40
miles in length and 30 in breadth. The soil in general
is fertile in coin and flax ; and there are some woods,
though in general fuel is scarce. There are three
large towns in it which send representatives to the diet, HaibJ
together with 10 small ones, and 91 county-towns and stad
villages. The number of the inhabitants is computed II
at about 200,000 : the greatest part of them are Lu- ,
therans ; but there are also Calvinists, Jews, and Ro¬
man Catholics. The manufactures are chiefly woollen
(for the country produces a great number of sheep) ;
the exports are grain ; and a kind of beer called broi-
han. The annual revenue arising from this principa¬
lity, and the incorporated counties and lordships, is
said to amount to 500,000 rix-dollars. Till the treaty
of Westphalia in 1648 this country was a diocese, but
was then transferred to the electoral house of Branden¬
burg as a temporal principality. The principal places
are Halberstadt, Groningen, Oschersleben, Osterwick,
&c.
Halberstadt, a city of Germany, in the circle of
Lower Saxony, seated near the river Hothein. It is a
neat uniform place ; and has some good churches and
other handsome buildings, of which the cathedral is the
chief. There is an inn in this place, which is looked
upon to be the largest and to have the best accommo¬
dations of any in Europe. Before the Reformation it
was a bishop’s see. Inhabitants above 12,000. E.
Long. 11. 12. N. Lat. 51. 54.
HALBERT, or Halbard, in the art of war, a
well-known weapon carried by the serjeants of foot
and dragoons. It is a sort of spear, the shaft of which
is about five feet long, and made of ash or other wood.
Its head is armed with a steel point, not unlike the
point of a two-edged sword. But, besides this sharp
point which is in a line with the shaft, there is a cross
piece of steel, flat and pointed at both ends ; but ge¬
nerally with a cutting edge at one extremity, and a
bent sharp point at the other j so that it serves equally
to cut down or to push withal. It is also useful in de¬
termining the ground between the ranks, and adjusting
the files of a battalion. The word is formed of the
German ha/, “ hall,” and bard “ an hatchet.” Vossiua
derives it from the German hallcbaert, of hel, “ clarus,
splendens,” and baert, “ axe.”
The halbert was anciently a common weapon in the
army, where there were companies of halberdiers. It
is said to have been used by the Amazons, and after¬
wards by the Rhaetians and Vindelicians about the
year 570.
It was called the Danish axe, because the Danes
bore an halbert on the left shoulder. From the Danes
it was derived to the Scots, from the Scots to the Eng¬
lish Saxons, and from them to the French.
HALCA ON, the ancient name of the alcedo
or king’s fisher. See Alcedo, Ornithology In¬
dex.
Halcyon Days, in antiquity, a name given to seven
days before and as many after the winter solstice ; by
reason the halcyon, invited by the calmness of the
weathei, laid its eggs 111 nests built in the rocks, close
by the brink ot the sea, at this season ; and hence hal¬
cyon days is a phrase expressive ol times of peace and
tranquillity.
HALDE, John Baptist du, was born at Paris in
the year 1674, and having entered into the society of
the Jesuits, he was by them entrusted with the care of
collecting and arranging the letters which they receiv¬
ed from different quarters of the globe. He also filled
the
HAL [2
lalde, tlie office of secretary to Father le Telller, who was
Hale, confessor to the king of France. He died in the year
■"V'—' 1743, leaving a character behind him truly amiable for
mildness, piety,, and unwearied industry. He was the
author of some Latin poems, but that which most dis¬
tinguished him was his being the editor of the Lettres
Edifiantes et Curieuses, from the ninth to the 26th col¬
lection inclusive, with a valuable preface written by
himself. He was also the author, (some say editor) of
Description Ilistorique, Geographique, et Physique, de
VEmpire dela Chine, et de la Tartaric Chinoise, 4 vols
folio, considered as the completest account of that pro¬
digious empire which has appeared in Europe. It has,
with some necessary abridgements, been translated into
English. It has all the appearance of veracity, and the
style is simple and unaffected.
HALE, in the sea language, signifies pull; as, to
hale up, is to pull upj to hale in or out, is to pull in
or out. To over-hale a rope, is to hale it too stiff, or to
hale it the contrary way.
Keel-Hale. See Ducking.
Hale, Sir Mattheiu, lord chief justice of the king’s
bench in the reign of Charles II. was the son of Ro¬
bert Hale, Esq. a barrister of Lincoln’s Inn, and was
born in 1609. He was educated at Oxford, where he
made a considerable progress in learning j but was
afterwards diverted from his studies by the levities of
youth. From these he was reformed by Mr John
Glanvill serjeant at law ; and applying to the study of
the law, entered into Lincoln’s Inn. Noy the attor¬
ney-general took early notice of him, and directed
him in his studies. Mr Selden also took much notice
of him *, and it was this acquaintance that first set Mr
Hale on a more enlarged pursuit of learning, which he
had before confined to his own profession. During
the civil wars, ire behaved so well as to gain the esteem
of both parties. He was employed in his practice by
all the king’s party; and was appointed by the par¬
liament one of the commissioners to treat with the
king. The murder of King Charles gave him very sen¬
sible regret. However, he took the engagement; and
was appointed, with several others, to consider of the
reformation of the law. In 1653 he was by writ
made serjeant at law, and soon after appointed one of
the justices of the Common Pleas. Upon the death of
Oliver Cromwell he refused to accept of the new com¬
mission offered him by Richard his successor. He was
returned one of the knights of Gloucestershire in the
parliament which called home Charles II. Soon af¬
ter he was made lord chief baron of the exchequer ;
but declined the honour of knighthood, till lord chan¬
cellor Hyde, sending for him upon business when the
king was at his house, told his majesty, that “ there
Was his modest chief baron j” upon which he was un¬
expectedly knighted. He was one of the principal
judges that sat in Clifford’s Inn about settling the dif¬
ference between landlord and tenant, after the fire of
London, in which he behaved to the satisfaction of all
parties concerned, and also in his post of chief baron
acted with inflexible integrity. One of the first peers
went once to his chamber, and told him, “ That ha¬
ving a suit in law to he tried before him, he was then
to acquaint him with it, that he might the better un¬
derstand it when it should come to be tried in court.”
Upon which the lord chief baron interrupted him, and
23 ] HA L
said, “ He did not deal fairly to come to his cham- Hale,
hers about such affairs j for he never received informa- Hales,
tion of such causes but in open court, where both par- 1 ■ 11 v—“
ties were to be heard alike.” Upon which his grace
(for he was a duke) went away not a little dissatisfied,
and complained of it to the king as a rudeness that was
not to be endured ; but his majesty bid him content
himself that he was used no worse 5 and said, “ That
he verily believed he would have used him po better
if he had gone to solicit him in any of his own causes.”
Another remarkable incident happened in one of his
circuits. A gentleman who had a trial at the assizes
had sent him a buck for his table. When Judge Hale
therefore heard his name, he asked “ if he was not the
same person who had sent him the venison ?” and find¬
ing that he was the same, told him, that “ he could
not suffer the trial to go on till he had paid him for his
buck.” The gentle man answered, that “ he never
sold his venison ; and that he had done nothing to him
which he did not do to every judge who had gone that
circuit which was confirmed by several gentlemen
present. I he lord chief baron, however, would not
suffer the trial to proceed till he had paid for the pre¬
sent : upon which the gentleman withdrew the record.
In short, he was in 1671 advanced to be lord chief
justice of the king’s bench ; but about four years after
this promotion, his health declining, he resigned his
post in February 1675-6, and died in December fol¬
lowing. This excellent man, who was an ornament
to the bench, to his country, and to human nature,
wrote, 1. An Essay on the Gravitation and Non gra¬
vitation ol Fluid Bodies. 2. Observations touching the
rIorricellian Experiment. 3. Contemplations, moral and
divine. 4. The Life of Pomponius Atticus, with po¬
litical and moral Reflections. 5. Observations on the
Pri nciples of natural Motion. 6. The primitive Ori¬
gination of Mankind. He also left a great number of
manuscripts, in Latin and English, upon various sub¬
jects j among which are, his Pleas of the Crown, since
published by Mr Emyln in two volumes folio ; and his
Original Institution, Power, and Jurisdiction of Parlia¬
ments.
HALES, Stephen, D. D. a celebrated divine and
philosopher, was born in 1677. He was the sixth son
of Thomas Hales, Esq. the eldest son of Sir Robert
Hales, created a baronet by King Charles II. and
Mary the heiress of Richard Langley of Abbots-Wood
in Hertfordshire. In 1696 he was entered a pensioner
at Bennet-college, Cambridge ; and was admitted a
fellow in 17°3> an^ became bachelor of divinity in
1711. He soon discovered a genius for natural philo¬
sophy. Botany was his first study ; and he used fre¬
quently to make excursions among Gogmagog hills,
in company with Dr Stukely, with a view of prosecu¬
ting that study. In these expeditions he likewise col¬
lected fossils and insects, having contrived a curious in¬
strument for catching such of the latter as have wings.
In company with this friend he also applied himself
to the study of anatomy, and invented a curious me¬
thod of obtaining a representation of the lungs in lead.
They next applied themselves to the study of chemistry j
in which, however, they did not make any remarkable
discoveries. In the study of astronomy Air Hales was
equally assiduous. Having made himself acquainted
with the Newtonian system, he contrived a machine-
5 for.
HAL [ 224 ] HAL
Hales, for showing the phenomena on much the same principles
—-y—-with that afterwards made by Mr Rowley, and, from
the name of his patron, called an Orrery.
About the year 1710 he was presented to the per¬
petual cure of Teddington near Twickenham, in
Middlesex; and afterwards accepted of the living of
Porlock in Somersetshire, which vacated his fellowship
in the college, and which he exchanged for the living
of Faringdon in Hampshire. Soon after, he married
Mary, the daughter and heiress of Dr Newce, who
was rector of Halisham in Sussex, but resided at
Much-Haddam in Hertfordshire. On the 13th of
March 1718, he was elected a member of the Royal
Society j and on the 5th of March, in the year follow¬
ing, he exhibited an account of some experiments he
had lately made on the effect of the sun’s warmth in
raising the sap in trees. This procured him the thanks
of the society, who also requested him to prosecute the
subject. With this request he complied with great
pleasure j and on the 14th of June 1725 exhibited a
treatise in which he gave an account of his progress.
This treatise being highly applauded by the Society, he
farther enlarged and improved itj and in April 1727
he published it under the title of Vegetable Statics.
This work he dedicated to his majesty King George
II. who was then prince of Wales : and he was the
same year chosen one of the council of the Royal So¬
ciety, Sir Hans Sloane being at the same annual elec¬
tion chosen their president. The book being well re¬
ceived, a second edition of it was published in 1731.
In a preface to this edition Mr Hales promised a sequel
to the work, which he published in 1733 under the
title of Statical Essays, &c. In 173 2 he was appointed
one of the trustees for establishing a new colony in
Georgia. On the .5th of July 1733 the university of
Oxford honoured him with a diploma for the degree of
doctor in divinity ; a mark of distinction the more ho¬
nourable, as it is not usual for one university to confer
academical honours on those who are educated at ano¬
ther. In 1734, when the health and morals of the
lower and middling class of people were subverted by
the excessive drinking of gin, he published, though with¬
out his name, A friendly Admonition to the Drinkers
of Brandy and other spirituous Liquors j which was
twice reprinted. The latter end of the same year he
published a sermon which he preached at St Bride’s
before the rest of the trustees for establishing a new
colony in Georgia. His text was, “ Bear ye one ano¬
ther’s burthens, and so fulfil the law of Christ Gala¬
tians vi. 2. In 1739 he printed a volume in 8vo, en¬
titled, Philosophical Experiments on Sea-water, Corn,
Flesh, and other Substances. This work, which con¬
tained many useful instructions for voyagers, was dedi¬
cated to the lords of the admiralty. The same year
be exhibited to the Royal Society an account of some
farther experiments towards the discovery of medicines
for dissolving the stone in the kidneys and bladder, and
preserving meat in long voyages ; for which he recei¬
ved the gold medal of Sir Godfrey Copley’s donation.
The year following he published some account of Ex¬
periments and Observations on Mrs Stephen’s Medi¬
cines for dissolving the Stone, in which their dissolvent
power is enquired into and demonstrated.
In 1741 he read before the Royal Society an ac¬
count of an instrument which he invented, and called
3
a ventilator, for conveying fresh air into mines, hos¬
pitals, prisons, and the close parts of ships : he had
communicated it to his particular friends some months
before ; and it is very remarkable, that a machine of
the same kind, for the same purpose, was in the spring
of the same year invented by one Martin Triewald, an
officer in the service of the king of Sweden, called
captain of mechanics, for which the king and senate
granted him a privilege in October following, and or¬
dered every ship of war in the service of that state to
be furnished with one of them : a model also of this
machine was sent into France, and all the ships in the
French navy were also ordered to have a ventilator of
the same sort. It happened also, that about the same
time one Sutton, who kept a coffeehouse in Aldersgate-
street, invented a ventilator of another construction to
draw off the foul air out of ships by means of the cook-
room fire : but poor Sutton had not interest enough to
make mankind accept the benefit he offered them j
though its superiority to Dr Hales’s contrivance was
evident, and among others Dr Mead and the inge¬
nious Mr Benjamin Robins gave their testimony in
its favour (see Am-Pipes). The public, however, is
not less indebted to the ingenuity and benevolence of
Dr Hales, whose ventilators came more easily into use
for many purposes of the greatest importance to life,
particularly for keeping corn sweet, by blowing through
it fresh showers of air $ a practice very soon adopted
by France, a large granary having been made, under
the direction of Duhamel, for the preservation of corn
in this manner, with a view to make it a general
practice.
In 1743, Dr Hales read before the Royal Society
a description of a method of conveying liquors into
the abdomen during the operation of tapping, and it
was afterwards printed in their Transactions. In 174^,
he published some experiments and observations on tar-
water, which he had been induced to make by the pub¬
lication of a work called Siris, in which the learn¬
ed and most excellent Dr Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne,
had recommended tar-water as an universal medicine :
on this occasion several letters passed between them on
the subject, particularly with respect to the use of tar-
water in the disease of the horned cattle. In the same
year he communicated to the public, by a letter to the
editor of the Gentleman’s Magazine, a description of a
back-heaver, which will winnow and clean corn much
sooner and better than can be done by the common me¬
thod. He also, at the same time, and by the same
channel, communicated to the public a cheap and easy
way to preserve corn sweet in sacks ; an invention of
great benefit to farmers, especially to poor leasers, who
want to keep small quantities of corn for some time,
but have no proper granary or repository for that pur¬
pose. He also the same year took the same method to
publish directions how to keep corn sweet in heaps
without turning it, and to sweeten it when musty. He
published a long paper, containing an account of seve¬
ral methods to preserve corn by ventilators ; with a
particular description of several sorts of ventilators, il¬
lustrated by a cut, so that the whole mechanism of them
may be easily known, and the machine constructed by
a common carpenter. He published also in the same
volume, but without his name, a detection of the fal¬
lacious boasts concerning the efficacy of the liquid shell
in
HAL
in dissolving the stone in the bladder,
communicated to the Eoyal Society a proposal for
bringing small passable stones soon, and with ease, out
of the bladder; and this was also printed in their Trans¬
actions. In the Gentleman’s Magazine for July 1747,
be published an account of a very considerable improve¬
ment of his back-heaver, by which it became capable
of clearing corn of the very small grain, seeds, blacks,
smutt-balls, See. to such perfection as to make it fit for
seed-corn. In 1748 he communicated to the Royal
Society a proposal for checking, in some degree, the
progress of fires, occasioned by the great fire which
happened that year in Cornhill : And the substance of
this proposal was printed in their Transactions. In the
same year he also communicated to the Society two me¬
moirs, which are printed in their Transactions ; one on
the great benefit of ventilators, and the other on some
experiments in electricity. In 1749* his ventilators
were fixed in the Savoy prison, by order of the right
bon. Henry Fox, Esq. then secretary at war, after¬
wards Lord Holland ; and the benefit was so great,
that though 50 or 100 in a year often died of the gaol
distemper before, yet from the year 1749 to the year
*752 inclusive, no more than four persons died, though
in the year 175° the number of prisoners was 240; and
of those four, one died of the small-pox, and another of
intemperance. In the year 1750 he published some
considerations on the causes of earthquakes ; occasioned
by the slight shocks felt that year in London. The
substance of this work was also printed in the Philoso*
phical Transactions. The same year he exhibited an
examination ot the strength of several purging waters,
especially of the water of Jessop's welly which is print¬
ed in the Philosophical Transactions.
Dr Hales had now been several years honoured with
the esteem and friendship of his royal highness Frede¬
rick prince of Wales j who frequently visited him at
Teddington, from his neighbouring palace at Kew,
and took a pleasure in surprising him in the midst of
those curious researches into the various parts of nature
which almost incessantly employed him. Upon the
prince’s death, which happened this year, and the set¬
tlement of the household of the princess dowager, he
was, without his solicitation, or even knowledge, ap¬
pointed clerk of the closet or almoner to her royal
highness. In 1751 he was chosen by the college of
physicians to preach the annual sermon called Crowne's
lecture: Dr William Crowne having left a legacy for a
sermon to be annually preached on “ the wisdom and
goodness of God displayed in the formation of man.”
Dr Hales’s text was, With the ancietitis wisdom, and in
length of days understanding. Job xii. 12. This sermon,
as usual, was published at the request of the college.
In the latter end of the year 1752, his ventilators,
worked by a windmill, were fixed in Newgate, with
branching trunks to 24 wards ; and it appeared that
the disproportion of those that died in the gaol before
and after this establishment was as 16 to 7. He pub-
fished also a farther account of their success, and some
observations on the great danger arising from foul air,
exemplified by a narrative of several persons seized with
the gaol-fever by working in Newgate.
On the death of Sir Hans Sloane, which happened
in year I753» -Or Hales was elected a member of the
Vol. X. Part I. f
[ 225 ] HAL
In 1746 he Academy of Sciences at Paris in his room. The same
year he published in the Gentleman’s Magazine some 1
farther considerations about means to draw the foul aif
out of the sick rooms of occasional army hospitals,
and private houses in town. He also published many
other curious particulars relative to the use and suc¬
cess of ventilators. The same year a description of a
sea-gage, which the Doctor invented to measure un¬
fathomable depths, was communicated to the public in
the same miscellany : this paper was drawn up about
the year 1732 or 1733, by the Doctor, for Colin Camp-
bell, Esq. Ihis gentleman employed the ingenious
Mr Hawksbee to make the machine it describes, which
was tried in various depths, and answered with great
exactness. It was however lost near Bermuda. In
1754, he communicated to the Royal Society some
experiments for keeping water and fish sweet with
lime-water, an account of which was published in the
Philosophical Transactions. He also continued to en¬
rich their memoirs with many useful articles from this
time till his death, particularly a method of forward-
ing the distillation of fresh from salt water, by blowing
showers of fresh air up through the latter during the
operation. In 1757 he communicated to the editor of
the Gentleman’s Magazine an easy method of purifying
the air, and regulating its heat in melon-frames and
green-houses j also further improvements in his method
of distilling sea-water.
His reputation and the interest of his family and
friends might easily have procured him farther pre¬
ferment : but of farther preferment he was not de¬
sirous j for being nominated by his late majesty to a
canonry of \\indsor, he engaged the princess to re¬
quest his majesty to recal his nomination. That a
man so devoted to philosophical studies and employ¬
ments, and so conscientious in the discharge of his
duty, should not desire any preferment which should
reduce him to the dilemma either of neglecting his
duty, or foregoing his amusement, is not strange j
but that he would refuse an honourable and profitable
appointment, for which no duty was to be done that
would interrupt his habits of life, can scarce be im¬
puted to his temperance and humility without im¬
peaching his benevolence j for if he had no wish of any
thing more for himself, a liberal mind would surely
have been highly gratified by the distribution of so
considerable a sum as a canonry of Windsor would
have put into his power, in the reward of industry,
the alleviation of distress, and the support of helpless
indigence. He was, however, remarkable for social
virtue and sweetness of temper $ his life was not only
blameless, but exemplary in a high degree j he was
happy in himself and beneficial to others, as appears
by this account of his attainments and pursuits ; the
constant serenity and cheerfulness of his mind, and
the temperance and regularity of his fife, concurred,
with a good constitution, to preserve him in health and
vigour to the uncommon age of fourscore and four years.
He died at Teddington in 1761 j and was buried, pur¬
suant to his own directions, under the tower of the pa¬
rish church, which he built at his own expence not long
before his death. Her royal highness the princess of
Wales erected a monument to his memory in Westmin¬
ster abbey.”
F f HALESIA,
Hales
HAL [ 226 ] HAL
Halesia HALESIA, a genus of plants belonging to the do¬
ll decandria class, and in the natural method ranking un-
Halitax. t|ie jgfi, orJerj Bicornes. See Botany I?idex.
'' ' v HALESWORTH, a town of Suffolk in England,
seated on a neck of land between two branches of the
river Blith, 101 miles from London. It has a trade in
linen-yarn and sail-cloth, one large church, and in 1811
had 1810 inhabitants. About the town is raised a
great deal of hemp. E. Long. 1. 29. N. Lat. 52. 21.
HALF-blood, in Law, is where a man marries a
second wife, the first being dead, and by the first ven¬
ter he has a son, and by his second venter has likewise
a son 5 the two brothers, in this case, are but of half-
blood. See Consanguinity and Descent.
HALF-Merk; a noble, or 6s. 8d.
Half-Moon, in Fortification ; an outwork composed
of two faces, forming a salient angle, whose gorge is in
form of a crescent or half-moon, whence the name.
HALFPENNY, a copper coin, whose value is ex¬
pressed by its name, in reference to the penny.
HALI-BEIGH, first dragoman or interpreter at
the Grand Signior’s court in the 17th century, was
born of Christian parents in Poland ; but having been
taken by the Tartars when he was young, they sold
him to the Turks, who brought him up in their reli¬
gion in the seraglio. His name, in his native country,
was Bobowski. He learnt many languages, and Sir
Paul Ricaut owns he was indebted to him for several
things which he relates in \ns Pi'esent state of the Otto¬
man empire. He held a great correspondence with the
English, who persuaded him to translate some books
into the Turkish language ; and he proposed to re¬
turn into the bosom of the Christian church, but died
before he could accomplish the design. Dr Hyde pub¬
lished his book Of the liturgy of the Turks, their pil¬
grimages to Mecca, their circumcision and visiting of
the sick. He translated the catechism of the church of
England and the bible into the Turkish language. The
MS. is lodged in the library of Leyden. He wrote
likewise a Turkish grammar and dictionary.
HALICARNASSUS, in Ancient Geography, a
principal town of Caria, said to be built by the Ar-
gives, and situated between two bays, the Ceramicua
and Jasius.
It was the royal residence, (called formerly) j
especially of Mausolus, made more illustrious by his mo¬
nument. This monument was one of the seven won¬
ders, and erected by Artemisia. Halicarnasseus, or Ha-
licarnassensis, was the gentilitious name of Herodotus
and Dionysius. The former was called the Father of
History j and the latter was not only a good historian
but also a distinguished critic.
HALIiETUS. See Falco, Ornithology Index.
HALIEUTICS, Halieutica, AXuorncx, formed
of iXuvs, fisherman, which is derived from sea ;
books treating of fishes, or the art of fishing. We have
still extant the halieutics of Oppian.
HALIF AX, the capital of the province of Nova
Scotia in America, situated in W. Long. 63. 36. N.
Lat. 44. 45. It was founded in 1749, in order to se¬
cure the British settlements there from the attempts of
the French and. Indians. It was divided into 35
squares, each containing 16 lots of 40 by 60 feet j
©ne established church and one meeting-house, and a
small number of houses out of the regular streets.
The town was orginally guarded by forts on the out- Hali
side*, but from the commencement of the American re- '’■’■"'Y ^
volution, it was very strongly fortified. Along the
river Chebucto, to the southward of the town, are
buildings and fish-flakes for at least two miles, and to
the northward on the river for about one mile. The
plan, however, was greatly improved by the earl of
Halifax, who was the original contriver. The pro¬
clamation issued for this settlement, offered 50 acres of
land to every soldier and sailor who would settle in that
part of America, without rent or service, for ten vears,
and no more than one shilling per annum for each 50
acres ever afterwards : to every soldier and sailor who
had a wife and children, ten acres more were added for
every individual of his family, and for every increase
that should afterwards happen in the same proportion :
To each non-commissioned officer 80 acres, and 15 for
each of his family; 200 acres to each ensign; 300 to each
lieutenant; 400 to each captain ; 600 to every officer
in rank above a captain, and 30 for each of his family.
Government also engaged to transport and maintain the
new settlers for one year at its own expence, and fur¬
nish them with such arms, provisions, utensils, imple¬
ments, &c. as should be necessary to put them in a way
to cultivate their lands, to build habitations, and to
commence a fishery. The same conditions were likewise
offered to all carpenters and other handicraftsmen ;
and surgeons were offered the same conditions with the
ensigns.—This proclamation was published in March,
and by the month of May 3700 persons had offered
themselves. They accordingly embarked, and esta¬
blished themselves in the bay of Chebucto ; calling the
city Halifax, from the title of their patron. Before
the end of October the same year, 350 comfortable
wooden houses were built, and as many more during
the winter.—The same year in which the settlers em*
barked, the government granted them 40,000!. for
their expences. In 1750, they granted 57,582!. 17s.
3^d. for the same purpose ; in 1751, 53,927!. 14s. 4d. 5
in 1752,61,492!. 19s. 4£d.; in 1753, 94)6i5l. 12s.
4d.; in 1754, 58,447!. 2s.; and in 1755, 49,418!.
7s. 8d.—The place at last attained a degree of splendor
that seemed to rival the first cities in the United States ;
for this it has been equally indebted to the American
war, to the great increase of population from the exiled
loyalists, and the fostering care of Great Britain. About
this time the number of inhabitants was more than
doubled in ten years.
I he harbour, which is well sheltered from all winds,,
is so spacious, that a thousand sail ofships-may ride in-
safety. Upon it there are built a great number of com¬
modious wharfs, which have from 12 to 18 feet water
at all times of the tide, for the convenience of loading
and unloading ships. The streets of the town are re¬
gularly laid out, and Ci’oss each other at right angles ;
tire whole rising gradually from the water upon the side
of a hill whose top is regularly fortified, but not so as
to be able to withstand a regular attack. Many consi¬
derable merchants reside at this place, and are possessed1
of shipping to the amount of several thousand tons, em¬
ployed in a flourishing trade both with Europe and the
West Indies. There is a small but excellent careening
yaid for ships of the royal navy that are upon this sta¬
tion, or that may have occasion to come in to refit, and
take water, fuel, or fresh provisions on board, in their
passage
HAL [2
Halifax, passage to and from the West Indies. It Is always kept
-y—' well provided with naval stores ; and ships of the line
are hove down and repaired with great ease and safety.
Several batteries of heavy cannon command the har¬
bour, particularly those that are placed upon George’s
island, which being very steep and high, and situated in
mid-channel, a little way below the town, is well cal¬
culated to annoy vessels in any direction, as they must
of necessity pass very near it before they are capable of
doing any mischief. Above the careening yard, which
is at the upper end of the town, there is a large bason,
or piece of water, communicating with the harbour
below, near 20 miles in circumference, and capable of
containing the whole navy of England, entirely shel¬
tered from all winds, and having only one narrow en¬
trance, which, as we observed before, leads into the
harbour. I here are a number of detached settlements
lately formed by the loyalists upon the bason ; the
lands at a small distance from the water being generally
thought better than those near to Halifax ; but what
success may attend their labours, will require some time
to determine. An elegant and convenient building has
been erected near the town for the convalescence of the
navy ; but the healthiness of the climate has as yet
prevented many persons from becoming patients. There
is a very fine lighthouse, standing upon a small island
just of! the entrance of the harbour, which is visible,
either by night or day, six or seven leagues off at sea.
The population has been variously estimated from 8000
to 16,000. The imports from Great Britain in 1810
amounted to 6oo,oool.
Halifax, earl of. See Saville.
Halifax, a town in the west riding of Yorkshire
in England, seated on the river Calder, in W. Long.
I* 55- N’ Lat. 53. 4 5. It has the title of an earldom,
and is very eminent for the clothier trade. The parish
is said to be the most populous, if not the most ex¬
tensive, in England : for it is above 30 miles in cir¬
cumference; and, besides the mother church at Halifax,
and 16 meeting-houses, has 12 chapels, two of which
are parochial. What is a little singular, all the meet¬
ing-houses here, except the Quakers, have bells and
burying grounds. The woollens principally manu¬
factured here are kerseys and shalloons. Of the for¬
mer it is affirmed, that one dealer hath sent by com¬
mission 60,000 pounds worth in a year to Holland and
Hamburg; and of the latter, it is said, 100,OCO
pieces are made in this parish yearly. The inhabi¬
tants here and in the neighbouring towns are so en¬
tirely employed in these manufactures, that agriculture
is but little minded. Most of their provisions of all
sorts are brought from the north and east ridings,
and from Lancashire, Cheshire, Nottinghamshire, and
Warwickshire. The markets are very much crowded
for the buying and selling provisions and manufactures.
-The cloths, at the first erecting of the woollen manu¬
factures in these parts, having been frequently stolen
off the tenters in the night, a law was made, by which
the magistrates of Halifax were empowered to pass
sentence on and execute all offenders, if they were
taken in the fact, or owned it, or if the stolen cloth was
ound upon them, provided also the crime was com¬
mitted, and the criminal apprehended, within the liber¬
ties ot the forest of Hardwick. These found guilty
27 ] HAL
were executed in the following manner : an axe was Halifax
drawn by a pulley to the top of a wooden engine, and jj
fastened by a pin, which being pulled out, the axe fell Han-
down in an instant, and did its work. If they had'' 'v ""
stolen an ox, horse, or any other beast, it was led with
them to the scaffold, and there fastened by a cord to
the pin that held up the axe; and when the signal was
given by the jurors, who were the first burghers with¬
in the several towns of the forest, the beast was driven
away, and the pin plucked out, upon which the axe
fell and did its office. Ibis severe and summary course
of justice is^ not now in use. See Maiden and Guil-
LOTINE.—— The old parish church having been found too
small, a new one, in the Grecian style, was erected
in 1798. A large building called a cloth hall, for the
sale of woollens has been lately erected. It contains
315 separate rooms for the reception of goods, of which
50,000!. worth are generally exposed at a time. The
whole population of the parish in 1811 was 73,515, of
which the town contained nearly 11,000.
HALIOTIS, the Ear-shell, a genus of shell-fish,
belonging to the order of vermes testacea. See CoN-
CHOLOGY Index.
HALIPZ, a town of Poland, and capital of a ter¬
ritory of the same name, in Red Russia, with a castle.
It is seated on the river Neister. E. Long. 26 0.
N. Lat. 49. 20.
HALL, in Architecture, a large room at the en¬
trance of a fine house and palace. Vitruvius mentions
three kinds of halls ; the tetrastyle, with four columns
supporting the platfond or ceiling; the Corinthian,
with columns all round let into the wall, and vaulted
over ; and the Egyptian, which had a peristyle of in¬
sulated Corinthian columns, bearing a second order
with a ceiling.
The hall is properly the finest as well as first mem¬
ber of an apartment : and in the houses of ministers of
state, magistrates, &c. is the place where they dispatch
business, and give audience. In very magnificent
buildings, where the hall is larger and loftier^han or¬
dinary, and placed in the middle of the house, it is
called a saloon.
The length of a hall should be at least twice and a
quarter its breadth; and in great buildings, three
times its breadth. As to the height of halls, it may
be two-thuds of the breadth ; and, if made with an
arched ceiling, it will be much handsomer, and less
liable to accidents by fire. In this case, its height is
found by dividing its breadth into six parts, five of
which will be the height from the floor to the under
side of the key of the arch.
Hall is also particularly used for a court of justice;
or an edifice wherein there is one or more tribunals.
In Westminster-hall are held the great courts of
England, viz. the king’s bench, chancery, common
pleas, and exchequer. In adjoining apartments is like¬
wise held the high court of parliament.
Westminster-hall was the royal palace or place of
residence of our ancient kings ; who ordinarily held
their parliaments, and courts of judicature, in their
dwelling-houses (as is still done by the kings of Spain),
and frequently sat in person in the courts of judicature
as they still do in parliament. A great part of this palace
was burnt under Henry VIII.; what remains is still re-
F f 3 served
HAL [ 228 ] HAL
Hall served for the said judicatories. The great hall, where-
ij in the courts of king’s bench, &c. are kept, is said to
i have been built by William Rufus j others say by
Richard I. or II. It is reckoned superior, in point of
dimensions, to any hall in Europe j being 300 feet
long and 100 broad.
Hall, Joseph, an eminent prelate of the church of
England, was born in 1574, and educated at Cam¬
bridge. He became professor of rhetoric in that uni¬
versity, and then successively was made rector of Hal-
sted, in Suffolk, presented to the living of Waltham in
Essex, made prebendary of Wolverhampton, dean of
Worcester, bishop of Exeter, and lastly of Norwich.
His works testify his zeal against Popery, and are much
esteemed. He lamented the divisions of the Protestants,
and wrote something concerning the means of putting an
end to them. July 1616, he attended the embassy of
Lord Doncaster into France, and upon his return was
appointed by his majesty to be one of the divines who
should attend him into Scotland. In 1618 he was sent
to the synod of Dort with other divines, and pitched up¬
on to preach a Latin sermon before that assembly. But
being obliged to return from thence before the synod
broke up, on account of his health, he was by the states
presented with a gold medal. He wrote, 1. Miscella¬
neous epistles. 2. Mundus alter et idem. 3. A just cen¬
sure of travellers. 4. The Christian Seneca. 5. Satires,
in six books. 6. A century of meditations $ and many
other works, which, besides the above satires, make in
all five volumes in folio and quarto. He died in 1656.
HALLAGE, a fee or toll paid for cloth brought to
be sold in Blackwell-hall, London.
HALLAMAS, in our old writers the day of all-
hallows, or all-saints, viz. November 1. It is one of
the cross quarters of the year, which was computed, in
ancient writings, from Hallamas or Candlemas.
HALLAND, a country of Sweden, in the island
of Schonen, lying along the sea-coast, at the entrance
of the Baltic sea, and opposite to Jutland. It is 60
miles along the coast, but it is not above 12 in breadth.
Halmstadt is the capital town.
HALLATON, a town of Leicestershire, in Eng¬
land. It is seated on a rich soil, 12 miles south-east of
Leicester, in E. Long. o. 50. N. Lat. 52. 35.
HALLE, a little dismantled town ot the ^Nether¬
lands, in Hainault. The church of Notre Dame con¬
tains an image of the Virgin Mary, held in great vene¬
ration. E. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 50. 44.
Halle, a handsome and considerable town of Ger¬
many, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and in the duchy
of Magdeburg, with a famous university and salt-works.
It belongs to the king of Prussia j and is seated in a
pleasant plain on the river Sale. The inhabitants
are stated at 25,000. E. Long. 12. 8. N. Lat. ci
31-
Ha LLE, a free and imperial town of Germany, in
Suabia, famous for its salt-pits. It is seated on the
river Kocher, among rocks and mountains, in E. Long.
10. 50. N. Lat. 49. 6.
HALLEIN, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Bavaria, and archbishopric of Saltsburg j seated on the
river Saltza, among the mountains, wherein are mines
of salt, which are the chief riches of the towajand
country. E. Long. 12. 15. N. Lat. 47. 33,
HALLELUJA, a term of rejoicing, sometimes sung Ha
or rehearsed at the end of verses on such occasions.
The word is Hebrew 5 or rather, it is two Hebrew R
words joined together : one of them V?bn, hallelu, and <'“r
the other .T, jah ; an abridgement of the name of God,
mm, Jehovah. The first signifies laud ate, “ praise yej”
and the other, Dominum, “ the Lord.”
St Jerome first introduced the word hallelujah into
the church service : for a considerable time it was only
used once a-year in the Latin church, viz. at Easter ;
but. in the Greek church it was much more frequent.
St Jerome mentions its being sung at the interments
of the dead, which still continues to be done ia that
church, as also on some occasions in the time of
Lent.
In the time of Gregory the Great, it was appointed
to be sung all the year round in the Latin church,
which raised some complaints against that pope; as giv¬
ing too much into the Greek way, and introducing
the ceremonies of the church of Constantinople into
that of Rome. But he excused himself by alleging,
that this had been the ancient usage of Rome ; and that
it had been brought from Constantinople at the time
when the word hallelujah was first introduced under
Pope Damascus.
HALLENBERG, a town of Germany, in West¬
phalia, seven miles from Medebach, and 62 east of Co¬
logne.
HALLENCOURT, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of Somme, seven miles and a half south of
Abbeville.
HALLER, Albert Van, an eminent physician,
was born at Bern, on the 16th of October 1708. He
was the son of an advocate of considerable eminence
in his profession. His father had a numerous family,
and Albert was the youngest of five sons. From the
first period of his education, he showed a very great
genius for literature of every kind : to forward the
progress of his studies, his father took into his family
a private tutor, named Abraham Billod% ; and such was
the discipline exerted by this pedagogue, that the acci¬
dental sight of him at any future period of life, ex¬
cited in Haller very great uneasiness, and renewed all
his former terrors. According to the accounts which
are given us, the progress of Haller’s studies, at the
earliest periods of life, was rapid almost beyond belief.
When other children were beginning only to read, he
was studying Bayle and Moreri ; and at nine years of
age he was able to translate Greek, and was beginning
the study of Hebrew. Not long after this, however,
the course of his education was somewhat interrupted
by the death of his father ; an event which happened
when he was in the 13th year of his age. After this
he was sent to the public school at Bern, where he ex¬
hibited many specimens of early and uncommon genius.
He was distinguished for his knowledge in the Greek
and Latin languages ; but he was chiefly remarkable
for his poetical genius: and his essays of this kind,
which were published in the German language, were
read and admired throughout the whole empire. In the
16th year of his age he began the study of medicine
atlubingen, under those eminent teachers Duvernoy
and Camerarius ; and continued there for the space of
two years, when the great reputation of the justly ce¬
lebrated
HAL [ 229 J HAL
!aller. lebrated Boerbaave drew him to Leyden. Nor was this
-v—' distinguished teacher the only man from whose supe¬
rior abilities he had there an opportunity of profit¬
ing. Ruysch was still alive, and Albinus was rising
into fame. Animated by such examples, he spent all
the day, and the greatest part of the night, in the most
intense study} and the proficiency which he made,
gained him universal esteem both from his teachers and
fellow students. From Holland, in the year 1727, he
came to England. Here, however, his stay was but
short; and it was rather his intention to visit the illus¬
trious men of that period, than to prosecute his studies
at London. He formed connexions with some of the
most eminent of them. He was honoured with the
friendship of Douglas and Cheselden ; and he met with
a reception proportioned to his merit from Sir Hans
Sloane, president of the Royal Society. After his visit
to Britain, he went to France •, and there, under those
eminent masters, Winslow and Le Dran, with the latter
of whom he resided during his stay in Paris, he had
opportunities of prosecuting anatomy, which he had not
belore enjoyed. But the zeal of our young anatomist
was greater than the prejudices of the people at that
period, even in the enlightened city of Paris, could
admit of. An information being lodged against him to
the police for dissecting dead bodies, he was obliged to
cut short his anatomical investigations by a precipitate
retreat. Still, however, intent on the farther prosecu¬
tion of his studies, he went to Basil, where he became
a pupil to the celebrated Bernouilli.
Thus improved and instructed by the lectures of the
most distinguished teachers of that period, by uncom¬
mon natural abilities, and by unremitting industry, he
returned to the place of his nativity in the 26th year of
his age. Not long after this, he offered himself a can¬
didate, first for the office of physician to an hospital,
and afterwards fora professorship. But neither the cha¬
racter which he had before he left his native country,
nor the fame which he had acquired and supported
while abroad, were sufficient to combat the interest op¬
posed to him. He was disappointed in both} and it
was even with difficulty that he obtained, in the fol¬
lowing year, the appointment of keeper of a public
library at Bern. The exercise of this office was indeed
by no means suited to his great abilities : but it was
agreeable to him, as it afforded him an opportunity for
that extensive reading by which he has been so justly
distinguished. The neglect of his merit which marked
his first outset, neither diminished his ardour for medi¬
cal pursuits, nor detracted from his reputation either
at home or abroad. Soon after be was nominated
a professor in the university of Gottingen, by King
George 11. The duties of this important office he dis¬
charged, with no less honour to himself than advantage
to the public, for the space of 17 years} and it afforded
him an ample field for the exertion of those great talents
which he possessed. Extensively acquainted with the
sentiments of others respecting the economy of the
human body, struck with the diversity of opinions
which they held, and sensible that the only means of
investigating truth was by careful and candid experi¬
ment, he undertook the arduous task of exploring the
phenomena of human nature from the original source.
In these pursuits he was no less industrious than success¬
ful, and there was hardly any function of the body on
which his experiments did not reflect either a new or a
stronger light. Nor was it long necessary for him, in
this arduous undertaking, to labour alone. The ex¬
ample of the preceptor inspired his pupils with the spirit
of industrious exertion. Zinn, Zimmerman, Caldani,
and many others, animated by a generous emulation,
laboured with indefatigable industry to prosecute and
to perfect the discoveries of their great master. The
mutual exertion of the teacher and his students, not
only tended to forward the progress of medical
science, but placed the philosophy of the human body
on a more sure, and an almost entirely new basis.
But the labours of Dr Haller, during his residence at
Gottingen, were by no means confined to any one
department of science. He was not more anxious to
be an improver himself, than to instigate others to
similar pursuits. To him, the Anatomical Theatre,
the School of Midwifery, the Chirurgical Society, and
the Royal Academy of Sciences at Gottingen, owe
their origin. Such distinguished merit could not fail
to meet with a suitable reward from the sovereign un¬
der whose protection he then taught. The king of
Great Britain not only honoured him with every mark
of attention which he himself could bestow, but pro¬
cured him also letters of nobility from the emperor.
On the death of Dillenius, he had an ofler of the pro¬
fessorship of botany at Oxford ; the states of Holland
invited him to the chair of the younger Albinus } the
king of Prussia was anxious that he should be the suc¬
cessor of Maupertuis at Berlin. Marshal Keith wrote
to him in the name of his sovereign, offering him the
chancellorship of the university of Halle, vacant bvthe
death of the celebrated Wolff. Count Orlow invited
him to Russia, in the name of his mistress the empress,
offering him a distinguished place at St Petersburg!].
The king of Sweden conferred on him an unsolicited
honour, by raising him to the rank of knighthood of
the order of the polar star} and the emperor of Ger¬
many did him the honour of a personal visit} during
which he thought it no degradation of his character
to pass some time with him in the most familiar con¬
versation.
Thus honoured by sovereigns, revered by men of
literature, and esteemed by all Europe, he had it in
his power to have held the highest rank in the republic
of letters. Yet, declining all the tempting offers
which were made to him, he continued at Gottingen,
anxiously endeavouring to extend the rising fame of
that medical school. But after 17 years residence in
that university, an ill state of health rendering him less
fit for the duties of the important office which he held,
he solicited and obtained permission from the regency
of Hanover to return to his native city of Bern. His
fellow-citizens, who might at first have fixed him
among themselves, with no less honour than advantage
to their city, were now as sensible as others of his su¬
perior merit. A pension was settled upon him for life,
and he was nominated at different times to fill the most
important offices in the state. These occupations, how¬
ever, did not diminish his ardour for usetul improve¬
ments. He was the first president, as well as the
greatest promoter, of the Oeconomical Society at Bern}
and he may be considered as the father and founder ol
the Orphan Hospital of that city. Declining health,
however, restrained his exertions in the more active
scenes
Haller.
—v—^
HAL [ 230 ] HAL
scenes of life, and for many years lie was confined en¬
tirely to his own house. Even this, however, could
not put a period to his utility : for, with indefatigable
industry, he continued his favourite employment of wri¬
ting till within a few days of his death •, which hap¬
pened in the 70th year of his age, on the 12th of De¬
cember 1 777. His Elementa P/u/siologice and Bibliothe¬
ca Medicmcey will afford, to latest posterity, undeniable
proofs of his indefatigable industry, penetrating genius,
and solid judgment. But he was not more distinguished
as a philosopher than beloved as a man ; and he was
not more eminent for his improvement in every depart¬
ment of medical science, than for his piety to God, and
benevolence to all mankind.
HALLERIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia class j and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 40th order, Personatce. See Botany
Index.
HALLEY, Dr Edmund, an eminent astronomer,
was the only son of a soap-boiler in London, and was
born in 1656. He first applied himself to the study of
the languages and sciences, but at length gave himself
up wholly to that of astronomy. In 1676, he went to
the island of St Helena to complete the catalogue of
fixed stars, by the addition of those which lie near the
south pole ; and having delineated a planisphere in
which he laid them all down in their exact places, he
returned to England in 1678. In the year 1680, he
took what is called the grand tour, accompanied by his
friend the celebrated Mr Nelson. In the midway be¬
tween Calais and Paris, Mr Halley had a sight of a re¬
markable comet, as it then appeared a second time that
year, in its return from the sun. He had the Novem¬
ber before seen it in its descent; and now hastened to
complete his observations upon it, in viewing it from
the royal observatory of France. His design in this
part of his tour was, to settle a friendly correspond¬
ence between the two royal astronomers of Greenwich
and Paris j and in the mean time to improve himself
under so great a master as Cassini. From thence he
went to Italy, where he spent great part of the year
1681 j but his affairs calling him home, he returned to
England. In 1683, he published his Theory of the va¬
riation of the magnetical compass; in which he supposes
the whole globe of the earth to be a great magnet, vyith
four magnetical poles, or points of attraction : but af¬
terwards thinking that this theory was liable to great
exceptions, he procured an application to be made to
King YV illiam, who appointed him commander of the
Paramour pink, with orders to seek by observations
the discovery of the rule of variations, and to lay down
the longitudes and latitudes of his majesty’s settlements
in America.—He set out on this attempt on the 24th
of November 1698 : but having crossed the line, his
men grew sickly ; and his lieutenant mutinying, he re¬
turned home in June 1699. Having got the lieutenant
tried and cashiered, he set sail a second time in Sep¬
tember following, with the same ship, and another of
less bulk, of which he had also the command. He now
traversed the vast Atlantic ocean from one hemisphere
to the other, as far as the ice would permit him to
go ; and having made his observations at St Helena
Brazil, Cape Yerd, Barbadoes, the Madeiras, the Ca¬
naries, the coast of Barbary, and many other latitudes
arrived in September 1700 $ and the next year publish-
2
ed a general chart, showing at one view the variation Han
of the compass in all those places. Captain Halley, as U
he was now called, had been at home little more than Halm
half a year, when he was sent by the king to observe'""""7"
the course of the tides, with the longitude and latitude
of the principal head-lands in the British channel :
which having executed with his usual expedition and
accuracy, he published a large map of the British chan¬
nel. Soon after, the emperor of Germany resolving to
make a convenient harbour for shipping in the Adriatic,
Captain Halley was sent by Queen Anne to view the
two ports on the coast of Dalmatia. He embarked on
the 22d of November 1702 j passed over to Holland}
and going through Germany to Vienna, he proceeded
to Istria : but the Dutch opposing the design, it was
laid aside } yet the emperor made him a present of a
rich diamond-ring from his finger, and honoured him
with a letter of recommendation, written with his own
hand, to Queen Anne. Presently after his return, he
was sent again on the same business ; when passing
through Hanover, he supped with King George I. then
electoral prince, and his sister the queen of Prussia. On
his arrival at Vienna, he was the same evening presented
to the emperor, who sent his chief engineer to attend
him to Istria, where they repaired and added new for¬
tifications to those of Trieste. Mr Halley returned to
England in 1703 } and the same year was made pro¬
fessor of geometry in the university of Oxford, in the
room of Dr Wallis, and had the degree of doctor of
laws conferred on him by that university. He is said
to have lost the professorship of astronomy in that city,
because he would not profess his belief of the Christian
religion. He was scarcely settled at Oxford, when he
began to translate into Latin from the Arabic, Apollo¬
nius de sectione rationis ; and to restore the two books
De sectione spatii of the same author, which are lost,
from the account given of them by Pappus } and he
published the whole work in 1706. Afterwards he had
a share in preparing for the press Apollonius’s Conics}
and ventured to supply the whole eighth book, the ori¬
ginal ol which is also lost. He likewise added Serenus
on tlm section of the cylinder and cone, printed from
the original Greek, with a Latin translation, and pub¬
lished the whole in folio. In I7I3> he was made
secretary of the Royal Society} in 17 20, he was ap¬
pointed the king’s astronomer at the royal observatory
at Greenwich, in the room of Mr Flamstead ; and, in
1729, was dhosen as a foreign member of the Academy
of Sciences at Paris. He died at Greenwich in 1742.
His principal works are, 1. (Jatalogus stellarum austra-
hum. 2. Tabula} astronomicce. 3* An abridgement of
the astronomy of comets, &c. "We are also indebted
to him for the publication of several of the works of the
great Sir Isaac Newton, who had a particular friendship
for him,, and to whom he frequently communicated his
discoveries.
Halley's Quadrant. See Quadrant.
HALLIARDS, the ropes or tackles usually employ¬
ed to hoist or lower any sail upon its respective mast or
stay. See Tears.
HALM01E, or Halimote, is the same with
what is now called a court~haron, the word implying a
meeting of the tenants of the same hall or manor. The
name is still retained at Luston, and other places in
Herefordshire. See Mote.
HALMSTADT.
HAL [ 231 ] HAM
]
mstadt HALMSTADT. See Helmstadt.
|| HALO, or Corona, in Natural History, a coloured
alton. circle appearing round the body of the sun, moon, or
any of the large stars. See CORONA.
HALOKAGUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
octandria class. See Botany Index.
HALSTEAD, a town of Essex in England, seated
on the river Coin, 45 miles from London. The town
consists of about 600 houses, and the inhabitants are
about 4000 in number. Here is a good manufactory
of says, bays, callimancoes, &c. and its market is noted
for corn.
HALT, in War, a pause or stop in the march of a
military body.—Some derive the word from the Latin
kalitus, “ breath it being a frequent occasion of halt¬
ing to take breath : others from alto, because in halting
they raised their pikes on end, &c.
HALTER, in the manege, a head-stall for a horse,
of Hungary leather, mounted with one, and sometimes
two straps, with a second throat-band, if the horse is
apt to unhalter himself.
HALTER-Cast, is an excoriation of the pastern, occa¬
sioned by the halter’s being entangled about the foot,
upon the horse’s endeavouring to rub his neck with his
hinder feet. For the cure of this, anoint the place,
morning and evening, with equal quantities of linseed
oil and brandy, well mixed.
HALTERES, or Poisers, in Entomology, two
small round bodies, supported on stalks and attached to
the insect under the wings of dipterous flies, as in the tu
pula genus. They are supposed by some naturalists to
be the rudiments of another pair of wings. See. Ento¬
mology.
HALTERISTiE, in antiquity, a kind of players
at discus $ denominated from a peculiar kind of discus,
called by the Greeks and by the Latins halter.
See Discus.
Some take the discus to have been a leaden weight or
ball which the vaulters bore in their hands, to secure
and keep themselves the more steady in their leaping.
Others will have the halter to be a lump or mass ot lead
or stone, with an hole or handle fixed to it, by which it
might be carried ; and that the halteristse were those
who exercised themselves in removing these masses from
place to place.
Hier. Mercurialis, in his treatise De artegymnastica,
1. ii. c. 1 2. distinguishes two kinds of halteristae j for
though there was but one halter, there were two ways
of applying it. The one was to throw or pitch it in a
certain manner ; the other only to hold it out at arm’s-
end, and in this posture to give themselves divers mo¬
tions, swinging the hand backwards and forwards, ac¬
cording to the engraven figures thereof given us by
Mercurialis.—The halter was of a cylindrical figure,
smaller in the middle where it was held, by one diame¬
ter, than at the two ends. It was above a foot long,
and there was one for each hand : it was either of iron,
stone, or lead.
Galen, He tuend. valetud. lib. i. v. and vi. speaks of
this exercise, and shows of what use it is in purging the
body of peccant humours $ making it equivalent both to
purgation and phlebotomy.
HALTON, or Haulton, i. e. High Town, a
town of Cheshire, 186 miles from^London. It stands
on a hill, where a castle was built anno 1071, and is a
member of the duchy of Lancaster j which maintains a
large jurisdiction in the county round it, by the name
of Halton-Fee, or the honour of Halton, having a court
of record, prison, &c. within themselves. About Mi¬
chaelmas every year, the king’s officers of the duchy
keep a law-day at the castle, which still remains a state¬
ly building. Once a fortnight a court is kept here, to
determine all matters within their jurisdiction; but fe¬
lons and thieves are carried to the sessions at Chester,
to receive their sentence. By the late inland naviga¬
tion, it has communication with the rivers Mersey,-
Dee, Ribble, Ouse, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber,
Thames, Avon, &c.; which navigation, including its
windings, extends above 500 miles, in the counties of
Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Lancaster, Westmoreland,
Stafford, 'Warwick, Leicester, Oxford, Worcester, &c.
Population 894 in 1811.
HALT WHISTLE, a town of Northumberland ia
England, situated in W. Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 55. 2.
HALYMOTE, properly signifies a holy or ecclesi¬
astical court. See Halmote.
There is a court held in London by this name be¬
fore the lord mayor and sherifl's, for regulating the
bakers. It was anciently held on Sunday next before
St Thomas’s day, and for this reason called the Haly~
mote, or Holy-court.
HALYS, in Ancient Geography, the noblest river
of the Hither Asia, through which it had a long course,
was the boundary of Croesus’s kingdom to the east.
Running down from the foot of Mount Taurus, through
Cataonia, and Cappadocia, it divided almost the whole
of the Lower Asia, from the sea of Cyprus down to
the Euxine, according to Herodotus $ who seems to
extend its course too far. According to Strabo, him¬
self a Cappadocian, it had its springs in the Great Cap¬
padocia. It separated Paphlagonia from Cappadocia;
and received its name «7ro rev <£*95, from salt, because
its waters were of a salt and bitter taste, from the na¬
ture of the soil over which they flowed. It is famous
for the defeat of Croesus king of Lydia, who was misled
by the ambiguous word of this oracle :
Xg9io-9$ 'AAw 2ix£tts fctyxEnf dtetXvru.
If Croesus passes over the Halys, be shall destroy
a great empire.
That empire was his own. See Croesus and Lydia.
HALYWERCFOLK, in old writers, were persons
who enjoyed land, by the pious service of repairing
some church, or defending a sepulchre.
This word also signified such persons in the diocese
of Durham as held their lands to defend the corpse of
St Cnthbert, and who from thence claimed the privi¬
lege of not being forced to go out of the bishopric.
HAM, or Cham, in Ancient Geography, the country
of the Zuzims (Gen. xiv. 5.), the situation whereof is-
not known.
Ham, the youngest son of Noah. He was the fa¬
ther of Cush, Mizraim, Phut, and Canaan ; each
whereof had the several countries peopled by them.
With respect to Ham, it is believed that he had all
Africa for his inheritance, and that he peopled it with
his children. As for himself, it is thought by some
that he dwelt in Egypt ; but M. Basnage is rather of
opinion, that neither Ham nor Mizraira ever were im
Egypt**
Ham
u
Hamadrya
des.
HAM [ 232 ]
Egypt, but that their posterity settled in this country, closed
and called it by the name of their ancestors. And as
to Ham’s being worshipped as a god, and called Jupi¬
ter Hammon, he thinks people may have been led into
this mistake by the similitude of names ; and that Ju¬
piter Hammon was the sun, to which divine honours
have been paid at all times in Egypt. However that
may be, Africa is called the land of Ham, in several
places of the psalms, (Psal. Ixxvii. 51. civ. 23. cv. 22.).
In Plutarch, Egypt is called Chemia ; and there are
some footsteps of the name of Hum or Cham observed
in Psochemmis, Psitta-chemmis, which are cantons of
Egypt.
Ham, a Saxon word used for “ a place of dwell¬
ing j” a village or town: hence the termination of
some of our towns, Nottingham, Buckingham, &c. Al¬
so a home close, or little narrow meadow, is called a
ham.
Ham is also part of the leg of an animal; being
the inner or hind part of the knee, or the ply or angle
in which the leg and thigh, when bent, incline to each
other.
Ham, in Commerce, &c. is used for a leg or thigh
of pork, dried, seasoned, and prepared, to make it keep,
and to give it a brisk agreeable flavour.
Westphalia hams, which are so highly esteemed, are
prepared by salting them with saltpetre, pressing them in
a press eight or ten days, then steeping them in juniper-
water, and drying them in the smoke of juniper-wood.
A ham may be salted in imitation of those of West¬
phalia, by sprinkling a ham of young pork with salt
for one day, in order to fetch out the blood $ then
wiping it dry, and rubbing it with a mixture of a pound
of brown sugar, a quarter of a pound of saltpetre, half
a pint of bay salt, and three pints of common salt,
well stirred together in an iron pan over the fire till
they are moderately hot: let it lie three weeks in this
salting, and be frequently turned, and then dry it in a
chimney.
Ham, a city of Germany, in the circle of Westpha¬
lia, capital of the county of Mark, and subject to the
king of Prussia. It is seated on the river Lippe, on
the frontiers of Munster. The adjacent country a-
bounds in corn, hemp, and flax \ and the inhabitants
get a good deal of money by travellers. It was for¬
merly a Hanse town, but it is now reduced. E. Long.
7. 50. N. Lat. 51. 36.
Ham, a town of Picardy, in France, seated on the
river Somme, among marshes. It has three parishes,
and there is here a round tower whose walls are 36
feet thick. It was taken by the Spaniards in 1557,
but restored by treaty. E. Long. 3. 9. N. Lat.
50. 11.
Ham, a village in Surrey, about a mile from Kings¬
ton, near which are the Ham Walks, so much celebra¬
ted by our admirable poet Thomson and others.
Ham, West, a village in Essex, where are the re¬
mains of an opulent abbey, founded in the year 1135.
It is seated on the river Lea, four miles east of Lon¬
don.
HAMAD AN. See Amadan.
^ HAMADRYADES (formed of hpot,, together, and
dryad, of oak,') in antiquity, certain fabu¬
lous deities revered among the ancient heathens, aud
believed to preside over woods and forests, and to be in-
3
Har
HAM
under the bark of oaks. The hamadryades nail,5
were supposed to live and die with the trees they were d
attached to; as is observed by Servius on Virgil,
Eclog. x. ver. 62. after Mnesimachus, the scholiast of,
Apollonius, &c. who mentions other traditions relating
thereto.
The poets, however, frequently confound the Ha¬
madryads with the Naiads, Napaeae, and rural nymphs
in general ; witness Catullus, Carm. Ixviii. ver. 23.
Ovid, Fast. iv. 229. Met. i. ver. 695. xiv. ver. 628.
Propertius, Eleg. xx. 32. Virg, Eel. x. ver. 64. Georg,
iv. ver. 382, 383. Festus calls them Querquetulance,
as being issued or sprung from oaks. An ancient poet,
Pherenicus, in Athenaeus, lib. iii. calls the vine, fig-
tree, and other fruit-trees, hamadryades, from the name
of their mother the oak.
This common idea among the ancients, of nymphs
or intellectual beings annexed to trees, will account for
their worshipping of trees ; as we find they did, not
only from their poets but their historians. Livy speaks
of an ambassador’s addressing himself to an old oak, as
to an intelligent person and a divinity, lib. iii. § 25.
HAMAH, a town of Turkey in Asia, in Syria, si¬
tuated in E. Long. 37. 10. N. Lat. 34. 45. By some
travellers it is corruptly called Amarl and Amant. Some
mistake it for the ancient Apamea ; but this is now
called Afamiyah, and is situated a day’s journey from
Hamah. Hamah is situated among hills, and has a
castle seated on a hill. It has all along been a consi¬
derable place, and in the 13th century had princes
of its own. It is very large, and being seated on the
ascent of a hill, the houses rise above one another, and
make a fine appearance. It is, however, like most
other towns under the Turkish government, going to
decay. Many of the houses are half ruined; but
those which are still standing, as well as the mosques
and castle, have their walls built of black and white
stones, disposed in such a manner as to form various fi¬
gures. The river Assi, the ancient Orontes, runs by
the side of the castle, and fills the ditches round it,
which are cut very deep into the rock. This river,
leaving the castle, passes through the town from south
to north, and has a bridge over it, though it is pretty
broad. In its course through the town it turns 18
great wheels, called by the natives saki, which raise
great quantities of water to a considerable height, and
throw it into canals supported by arches, by which
means it is conveyed into the gardens and fountains.
There are some pretty good bazars or market-places
in Hamah, where there is a trade for linen, which is
manufactured there, and sent to Tripoli to be exported
into Europe.
HAMAMELIS, Witch-hazel; a genus of plants
belonging to the tetrandria class ; and in the natural
method ranking with those of which the order is doubt¬
ful. See Botany Index.
HAMAM Leef, a town 12 miles east from Tunis,
noted for its hot baths, which are much resorted to by
the Tuniseans, and are efficacious in rheumatism and
many other complaints. Here the bey has a verv fine
bath, which he frequently permits the consuls and other
persons of distinction to use.
HAMATH, a city of Syria, capital of a province
of the same name, lying upop the Orontes. “ The
entering into Hamath,” which is frequently spoken of
H ' A M
[
!i imath Scripture, (Josh. xiii. 5. Judges III. 3. 2 Kings xiv.
H 25. and 2 Ch. vii. 8.) is the narrow pass leading from
rabden. the land of Canaan through the valley which lies be-
tween Libanus and Antiiibanus. This entrance into
Hamath is set down as the northern boundary of the
land of Canaan, in opposition to the southern limits,
the Nile or river of Egypt. Josephus, and St Jerome
after him, believed Hamath to be Epiphania. But
Theodoret and many other good geographers maintain
it to be Emesa in Syria. Joshua (xix. 35.) assigns the
city of Hamath to the tribe of Naphtaii. Toi king of
Hamath cultivated a good understanding with David,
(2 Sam. viii. 9.). This city was taken by the kings of
Judah, and retaken from the Syrians by Jeroboam the
second, (2 Kings xiv. 28.). The kings of Assyria
made themselves masters of it upon the declension of
the kingdom of Israel, and transplanted the inhabitants
of Hamath into Samaria, (2 Kings xvii. 24. and xviii.
34*
HAMAXOBII, Hamaxobians, in the ancient
geography, a people who had no houses, but lived in
carriages. The word is formed from kpot\oi, a carriage
or chariot, and life.
The Humaxobii, called also Hamaxobitce, were an
ancient people of Sarmatia Europasa, inhabiting the
southern part of Muscovy, who instead of houses had a
sort of tents made of leather, and fixed on carriages to
be ready for shifting and travel.
HAMBDEN, John, a celebrated patriot, descend¬
ed of the ancient family of Hambden in Buckingham¬
shire, was born in 1594. From the university he went
to the inns of court, where he made considerable pro¬
gress in the study of the law. He was chosen to serve
in the parliament which began at Westminster Feb. 5.
1626 ; and served in all the succeeding parliaments in
the reign of Charles I. In 1636 he became universal¬
ly known, by his refusal to pay ship-money, as being
an illegal tax ; upon which he was prosecuted. His
conduct throughout this transaction gained him a great
reputation. When the long parliament began, the eyes
of all men were fixed on him as \.he‘irpater patrice. Qn
January 3. 1642, the king ordered articles of high
treason and other misdemeanours to be prepared against
Lord Kimbolton, Mr Hambden, and four other me/tn-
bers of the house of commons, and went to that house
to seize them: but they had retired. Mr Hamb¬
den afterwards made a speech in the house to clear him¬
self of the charge laid against him. In the beginning
of the wars he commanded a regiment of foot, and did
good service to the parliament at the battle of Edge-
hill. He received a mortal wound in an engagement
with Prince Rupert, in Chalgrave-field in Oxfordshire,
and died in 1643. sa*c^ to have possessed the So-
cratic art in a high degree, of interrogating, and under
the notion of doubts, insinuating objections, so that he
infused his own opinions into those from whom he pre¬
tended to learn and receive them. He was, say his
panegyrists, a very wise man and of great parts ; and
had the greatest talents for popularity that were ever
possessed by any man : He was master over all his ap¬
petites and passions, and had thereby a very great
ascendant over other men’s : He was of an industry
and vigilance never to be tired out, of parts not to be
imposed upon by the most subtile, and of courage equal
to his best parts.
VOL. X. Part I. f
33 ] HAM
HAMBURG, an imperial city of Germany, seated Hamburg,
in E. Long. 9. 55. N. Lat. 33. 36. Its name is de- -v1 —'■*
rived from the old German word Hanime, signifying a
wood, and Burg, a castle ; and stands on the north side
of the river Elbe. This river is not less than four
miles broad opposite the city. It forms two spacious
harbours, and likewise runs through most part of it
in canals. It flows above Hamburg many miles 5 but
when the tide is accompanied with north-west winds,
a great deal of damage is done by the inundations oc¬
casioned thereby. There are a great many bridges
over the canals, which are mostly on a level with the
streets, and some of them have houses on both sides.
In the year 833, Ludovicus Pius erected Hamburg
first into a bishopric, and afterwards into an archbi¬
shopric j and Adolphus III. duke of Saxony, among
many other great privileges, granted it the right of
fishing in the Elbe, eight miles above and below the
city. The kings of Denmark, since they have suc¬
ceeded to the counts of Holstein, have continually
claimed the sovereignty of this place, and often com¬
pelled the citizens to pay large sums to purchase the
confirmation of their liberties. Nay, it has more than
once paid homage to the king of Denmark ; who, not¬
withstanding, keeps a minister here with credentials,
which is a sort ol acknowledgment of its independency
and sovereignty. Though Hamburg has been con¬
stantly summoned to the diet of the empire ever since
the year 1618, W’hen it was declared a free imperial
city by a decree of the aulic council j yet it waves
this privilege, in order to keep fair with Denmark.
By their situation among a number of poor princes, the
Hamburghers are continually exposed to their rapa¬
ciousness, especially that of the Danes, who have ex¬
torted vast sums from them. The city is very popu¬
lous in proportion to its bulk ; and in 1816 was
estimated to contain 115,000 inhabitants, exclusive
of 15 ,000 in the neighbouring territory under its au¬
thority. Here are a great many charitable founda¬
tions, the regulations of which are greatly admired by
foreigners. All persons found begging in the streets
are committed to the house of correction to hard labour,
such as the rasping of Brazil and other kinds of wood.
There is an hospital into which unmarried women
may be admitted for a small sum, and comfortably
maintained during the residue of their lives. The
number of hospitals in this place is greater in propor¬
tion to its extent than in any other Protestant city
in Europe. The revenue of the orphan-house alone
is said to amount to between 50 and 6o,oool. There
is a large sumptuous hospital for receiving poor tra¬
vellers that fall sick. In one of their work-houses or
houses of correction, those who have not performed
their task are hoisted up in a basket over the table in
the common hall while the rest are at dinner, that
they may be tantalized with the sight and smell of
what they cannot taste. The established religion of
Hamburg is Lutheranism 5 as for the Calvinists and
the Roman Catholics, they go to the ambassadors cha¬
pels to celebrate their divine service and worship.
They have here what they call a private confession,
previous to the holy communion, which differs in no¬
thing from that of the church of England, and the
absolution is the same, only the poorest of the people
here are forced to give a fee to the priests on these oc-
G g casions.
HAM [ 234. ] ' HAM
Hamburg, caslons. Their churches, which are ancient large fabrics,
are open thoroughfares, and in some of them there
are booksellers shops. The pulpit of St Catherine’s is
of marble, curiously carved and adorned with figures
and other ornaments of gold 5 and its organ, reckoned
one of the best ii Europe, has 6000 pipes. The
cathedral is very ancient, and its tower leans as if just
goincr to fall ; yet, on account of the singularity and
beautv of its architecture, the danger attending it has
been hitherto overlooked. There is still a dean and
chapter belonging to this church, though secularized j
from whose court there lies no appeal, but to the im¬
perial chamber at Wetzlar. The chapter consists of a
provost, dean, 13 canons, 8 minor canons, and 30 vicarii
immunes, besides others who are under the jurisdiction
of the city. The cathedral, with the chapter, and a
number of houses belonging to them, were formerly
under the immediate protection of his Britannic majesty
as duke of Bremen, who disposes of the prebends that
fall in six months of the year, not successively, but
alternately with the chapter. Hamburg is almost of a
circular form, and six miles in compass. It has six
gates, and three entrances by water, viz. two from
the Elbe and one from the Alster, being divided into
the old and new, which are strongly fortified with
moats, ramparts, bastions, and outworks. The ramparts
are very lofty and planted with trees; a great part of
which, however, were cut down in 1813 by the French.
In the new town, towards Altena, are several streets of
mean houses inhabited by Jews. Through that entrance
from the Elbe, called the lower Baum, pass all ships
going to or coming from sea. Every morning, at the
opening of it, is seen a multitude of boats and small
barks, whose cargoes consist of milk, fruits, and all kinds
of provisions, rushing in at the same time. There are
some fine chimes here, especially those of St Nicholas,
which play every morning early, at one o’clock in the
afternoon, and on all festivals and solemnities. The
other public structures in this city, besides the churches,
make no great appearance: however, the yard, arsenal,
and two armories, are well worth seeing. There are
several convents or cloisters still remaining; which
having been secularized, are now possessed by the Luthe¬
rans. One of them holds its lands by this tenure,
“ That they offer a glass of wine to every malefactor
who is carried by it for execution.”
There is a fine exchange, though inferior to that
of London. But it was found that the merchants
could not be accommodated with every necessary con¬
venience in transacting their business. To supply
these defects a new Exchange Hall has been built.
This structure is situated near the exchange, in the
street called Bohnenstrasse. The facade is in a style of
great elegance, and the entrance has three arcades sup¬
ported by pillars of the Doric order. The steps run
the whole breadth of the arcades, the intervals between
which are ornamented with genii holding garlands of
fruits and flowers. The doors leading to the ground
floor of the building are on the right and left of the
steps. The porter’s lodge is on the right, and the door
leading to the ball and concert room in the second story,
is on the left. The balcony is vaulted and measures 22
feet in diameter. The facade is terminated by the third
or attic story, which is provided with a row of Doric
pilasters, above which there is a pediment.
The entrance into the hall is behind the central Hambu
arcade, which is ornamented with a row of single—y-
statues, and measures 84 feet by 42. It is appropriated
to the meeting of merchants and men of business. There
are several other saloons or apartments, such as the
Egyptian saloon surrounded with columns of granite,
between which are landscapes in the manner of a pano¬
rama ; and the underwriters have two rooms adjoining
to this. The reading-room is furnished with all kinds
of newspapers and periodical works from every quarter
of the globe. The library is to contain all books neces¬
sary for commerce, in every language, to collect which
must be the work of time. There is an anti-room with
embellishments to the left of the great staircase.
The hall of arts is well adapted to the meetings of
artists, which ought never to be wanting in establish¬
ments of such a nature. Here are five excellent pic¬
tures representing poetry, painting, sculpture, architec¬
ture, and music, together with the portraits of many
celebrated men who have distinguished themselves in the
arts. The ball and concert room measures 64 feet by 42,
and the roof is 30 feet high. The gallery is supported
by 18 pillars or columns of the Composite order, and
the access to it is by the great staircase. The ceiling
represents the firmament studded with stars, and Aurora
dispersing the shades of night. There is also an Ara¬
bic, Turkish, and Grecian saloon, which the subscribers
are at liberty to use as they please. The two spacious
dining rooms may be thrown into one, when necessity
requires it. They are ornamented with basso relievos
in plaster of Paris.
The saloon of the muses and the musical saloon are
on the third floor. A large room, in form of a rotunda,
receives light from above, and may be considered as an
academy of the imitative arts. A complete apparatus
for expeditious printing also belongs to this magnificent
fabric, under the direction of Mr Conrad Muller, an
eminent printer in Hamburg, whose attention will be
chiefly directed to the publishing of books on mercantile
subjects. The whole edifice is finished in a style of
great elegance and taste, and the management given to
one who is fully qualified for the office.
It is the custom of Hamburg, that a citizen, when
he dies, must leave the tenth of his estate to the city;
and foreigners, not naturalized, must pay a certain sum
annually for liberty to trade. The common carts here
are only a long pulley laid upon an axle-tree between
two wheels, and drawn not by horses, but by men, of
whom a dozen or more are sometimes linked to these
machines, with slings across their shoulders. Such of
the senators, principal elders, divines, regular physi¬
cians, and graduates in law, as assist at funerals, have
a fee. The hangman’s house is the common prison for
all malefactors; on whom sentence is always passed on
Fiiday, and on Monday they are executed. As, by
their laws, no criminal is punishable unless he plead
guilty, they have five different kinds of torture to ex¬
tort such confession. The government of this city is
lodged in the senate and three colleges of burghers.
The former is vested with almost every act of sovereign¬
ty, except that of laying taxes and managing the
finances, which are the prerogatives of the latter. The
magistracy is composed of four burgomasters, four syn¬
dics, and 24 aldermen, of whom some are lawyers and
some merchants. Any person elected into the magi¬
stracy.
HAM [ 235 ] HAM
araburg. stracy, and declining the office, must depart the place.
“‘V—,'1 No burgher is admitted into any of the colleges, un¬
less he dwells in a house of his own within the city,
and is possessed of icoo rixdollars in specie, above
the sum for which the house may be mortgaged j or
2000 in moveable goods, within the jurisdiction of the
came. For the administration of justice, here are se¬
veral inferior courts, from which an appeal lies to the
Obergericht, or high court, and from that to the aulic
council and other imperial colleges. For naval causes
here is a court of admiralty, which, jointly with the
city-treasury, is also charged with the care of the navi¬
gation of the Elbe, from the city to the river’s mouth.
In consequence of this, 100 large buoys, some white,
others black, are kept constantly floating in the river
in summer : but in winter, instead of some of them,
there are machines, like those called ice-beaeons, to
point out the shoals and flats. Subordinate to the ad¬
miralty is a company of pilots : and at the mouth of
the Elbe is, or at least ought to be, a vessel always
riding, with pilots ready to put on board the ships. At
the mouth of the river also is a good harbour, called
Cuxhaven, belonging to Hamburg j a light-house ; and
several beacons, some of them very large. For defray¬
ing the expence of these, certain tolls and duties were
formerly granted by the emperors to the city. Besides
the Elbe, there is a canal by which a communication is
opened with the Trave, and thereby with Lubeck and
the Baltic, without the hazard, trouble, and expence,
of going about by the Sound. The trade of Flamburg
is very extensive, in exporting all the commodities
and manufactures of the several cities and states of
Germany, and supplying them with whatever they
want from abroad. Its exports consist of linens of se¬
veral sorts and countries ; as lawns, diapers, osna-
burgs, dowlas, &c. linen-yarn, tin-plates, iron, brass,
and steel-ware, clap-board, pipe-staves,wainscot-boards,
oak-plank, and timber, kid-skins, corn, beer in great
quantities, with flax, honey, wax, aniseed, linseed,
drugs, wine, tobacco, and metals. Its principal im¬
ports are the woollen manufactures and other goods of
Great Britain, to the amount of several hundred thou¬
sand pounds a-year: they have also a great trade with
Spain, Portugal, and Italy, which is carried on mostly
in English bottoms, on account of their Mediterranean
passes. Their whale-fishery is also very considerable,
50 or 60 ships being generally sent out every year in
this trade. Add to these a variety of manufactures,
which are performed here with great success j the chief
of which are, sugar-baking, calico printing, the wea¬
ving of damasks, brocades, velvets, and other rich silks.
The inland trade of Hamburg is superior to that of
any in Europe, unless perhaps we should except that
of Amsterdam and Eondon. There is a paper publish¬
ed here at stated times called tiie Preiscoui’unt, specify¬
ing the course of exchange, with the price which every
commodity and merchandise bore last upon the ex¬
change. T here is also a board of trade, erected ou
purpose for the advancing every project for the im¬
provement of commerce. Another great advantage to
the merchants is, the bank established in 1619, which
has a flourishing credit. To supply the poor with
corn at a low price, here are public granaries, in which
great quantities of grain are laid up. By charters from
several emperors, the Hamburghers have a right of
coinage, which they actually exercise. The English Hamburg
merchants, or Hamburg Company, as it is called, enjoy 1!
great privileges 5 for they hold a court with particular , Iiaini*
powers, and a jurisdiction among themselves, and have
a church and minister of their own.—This city has a
district belonging to it of considerable extent, which
abounds with excellent pastures, intermixed with seve¬
ral large villages and noblemen’s seats. A small baili-
wic, called Bergedorf, belongs to this city and Lu¬
beck. There is a. scholu illustris or gymnasium here,
well endowed, with six able professors, who read lec¬
tures in it as at the universities. There are also several
free schools, and a great number of libraries, public and
private. The public cellar of this town has always a
prodigious stock and vent of old hock, which brings in
a considerable revenue to the state. Besides the mili¬
tia or trained bands, there is an establishment of 12
companies of infantry, and one troop of dragoons, be¬
sides an artillery company, and a night-guard. Flam¬
burg was occupied by the French in 1806, and was in¬
corporated with Napoleon’s empire in 1810, forming
the capital of the department of the mouths of the Elbe.
It suffered greatly from Bonaparte’s commercial prohi¬
bitory decrees, and from the destruction of property oc¬
casioned by Davoust’s preparations to defend it against
the allies. It was evacuated in March 1814, and is
one of the four cities which were allowed votes in the
diet of the empire by the congress of Vienna.
HAMEL, John Baptiste du, a very learned
French philosopher and writer in the 17th century.
At 18 he wrote a treatise, in which he explained in
a very simple manner Theodosius’s three books of
Spherics 5 to which he added a tract upon trigonome¬
try, extremely perspicuous, and designed as an intro¬
duction to astronomy. Natural philosophy, as it was
then taught, was only a collection of vague, puzzling,
and barren questions ; when our author undertook to
establish it upon right principles, and published his
Astronomia Physica. In 1666 M. Colbert proposed
to Louis XIV. a scheme, which was approved of by his
majesty, for establishing a royal academy of sciences ^
and appointed our author secretary of it. He pub¬
lished a great many books j and died at Paris in 1706,
of mere old age, being almost 83. He was regius
professor of philosophy, in which be was succeeded
by M. Varignon. He wrote Latin with purity and
elegance.
HAMELIN, a strong town of Germany, in the
duchy of Calemberg in Lower Saxony. It is situated
at the extremity of the duchy of Brunswick, to which
it is the key, near the confluence of the rivers Hamel
and Weser, in E. Long. 9. 36. N. Lat. 52. 6.
HAMELLIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria class j and in the natural method ranking
with those of which the order is doubtful. See Bo¬
tany Index.
HAMESECKEN. Burglary, or nocturnal house¬
breaking, was by the ancient English law called Ilame-
secken, as it is in Scotland to this day.
HAMI, or Ha-mi, a country of Asia, subject to
the Chinese. It is situated to the north-east of China,
at the extremity of that desert which the Chinese call
Chamo, and the Tartars Cobi; and is only 90 leagues *
distant from the most westerly point of the province of
Chensi. This conntry was inhabited in the early ages
Gg 2 by
HAM [ 236 ] HAM
by a wandering people named long. About tbe year
950 before the Christian era, they sent deputies to pay
homage to the emperor of China, and presented some
sabres by way of tribute. The civil wars by which
China was torn about the end of the dynasty ol Tcheou
having prevented assistance from being sent to these
people, they fell under the dominion of the Hiong-
nou, who appear to have been the same as the Hons,
and who at that time were a formidable nation. I he
Chinese several times lost and recovered the country of
Hami. In 131 (the sixth year of the reign of Chun-
ty, of the dynasty of the eastern Han), the emperor
kept an officer there in quality of governor. Under
the following dynasties, the same vicissitudes were ex¬
perienced ; Hami was sometimes united to the pro¬
vince of Chensi, sometimes independent of it, and
sometimes even of the whole empire. The situation
of these people (separated by vast deserts from China,
to which, besides, they had no relation, either in lan¬
guage, manners, or customs) must have greatly contri¬
buted to facilitate these revolutions. All the tributary
states of the empire having revolted in 610, that of
Hami followed their example ; but it again submitted
to the voke under Tai-tsong, second emperor of the
dynasty of Tang, who had sent one of his generals
with an army to reduce it. This great prince paid
particular attention to his new conquest. He divided
it into three districts, and connected its civil and mi¬
litary government in such a manner to that of the pro¬
vince of Chensi and other neighbouring countries, that
tranquillity prevailed there during his reign and seve¬
ral of those that followed. Through Hami all the cara¬
vans which went from the. west to China, or from
China to the west, were obliged to pass. The empe¬
rors, predecessors of Tai-tsong, were satisfied with cau¬
sing wine to be transported from Hami in skins car¬
ried by camels j but “ Tai-tsong (says the Chinese
history) having subdued the kingdom of Hami, or¬
dered some vine-plants of the species called majou, to
be brought him, which he caused to be planted in his
gardens : he, besides, learned the manner of making
wine, the use of which proved both serviceable and
hurtful to him.” Luxury and effeminacy having weak¬
ened tbe dynasty of Tang, the Mahometans (who
had made a rapid progress in all the countries that are
situated between Persia, Cobi, and the Caspian sea)
advanced as far as Hami, which they conquered. It
appears, that this country afterwards had princes of its
own, but dependent on the Tartars, who successively
ruled these immense regions. The Yuen or Mogul
Tartars again united the country of Hami to the pro¬
vince of Chensi j and this reunion subsisted until 1360,
at which time the emperor formed it into a kingdom,
on condition of its princes doing homage and paying
tribute. The king of Hami was honoured with a
new title in 1404, and obtained a golden seal. After
a contest of several years for the succession to the
throne, the kingdom of Hami fell a prey to the king
of Tou-eulh-fan. This yoke soon became uneasy to
tbe people of Hami : they revolted from their new
masters, and made conquests from them in their turn.
The new king whom they made choice of did not
long possess the throne : he was conquered and killed
in a bloody battle which he fought with the king of
Tou.eulh-f'an, who also perished some time after.
Since this epocha, the country of Hami has been suc¬
cessively exposed to anarchy, or governed by its own v-
princes. The prince who filled tbe throne in 1696
acknowledged himself a vassal of the empire, and sent
as ti’ibute to Peking camels, horses, and sabres. Kang-
hi received his homage with the usual ceremonies, and
published a diploma, which established the rank that
the king of Hami should hold among the tributary
princes, the time when he should come to render ho¬
mage, the nature of the presents necessary for his tri¬
bute, the number of auxiliaries he was bound to fur¬
nish in time of war, and the manner of his appointing a
successor. All these regulations have subsisted till this
time.
The country of Hami, though surrounded by de¬
serts, is accounted one of the most delightful in the
world. The soil produces abundance of grain, fruits,
leguminous plants, and pasture of every kind. The
rice which grows here is particularly esteemed in Chi¬
na } and pomegranates, oranges, peaches, raisins, and
prunes, have a most exquisite taste 5 even the jujubes
are so juicy, and have so delicious a flavour, that the
Chinese call them perfumed jujubes. There is no fruit
more delicate or more in request than the melons of
Hami, which are carried to Peking for the emperor’s
table. These melons are much more wholesome than
those of Europe 5 and have this singular property, that
they may be kept fresh during great part of the win¬
ter.— But the most useful and most esteemed produc¬
tion of this country is its dried raisins. These are of
two kinds : The first, which are most used in the
Chinese medicine, seem to have a perfect resemblance
to those known in Europe by the name of Corinthian.
The second, which are in much greater request for the
table, are smaller and more delicate than those of Pro¬
vence. The Chinese authors perfectly agree with
Messrs Lemery and Geoffrey, respecting the virtue and
qualities of these dried grapes or raisins 5 but they at¬
tribute so much more efficacy to those of Hami than
to those of China, that they prescribe them in smaller
doses. They observe, that an infusion of the first is
of great service in facilitating an eruption of the small¬
pox about the fourth day, when the patient either is
or seems to be too weak j and to promote a gentle
perspiration in some kinds of pleurisies or malignant
fevers. The dose must be varied according to the
age, habit of body, and strength of the patient; great
care must be taken to administer this remedy season¬
ably and with judgment. The emperor caused plants
to be transported from Hami to Peking, which were
immediately planted in his gardens. As these plants
were cultivated with extraordinary care, under his own
eyes, they have perfectly succeeded. The raisins pro¬
duced by them are exceedingly sweet, and have a most
exquisite flavour.
Although the country of Hami (the latitude of
which is 42,0 53' 20") lies farther towards the north
than several of the provinces of France, we are assured
that its climate is more favourable to the culture of
vines, and that it gives a superior degree of quality to
the grapes. It never rains at Hami ; even dews and
fogs are scarcely ever seen there ; the country is wa¬
tered only by the snow which falls in winter, and by
the water of this snow when melted, which is collected
at the bottoms of the mountains, and preserved with
great
HAM [ 237 ] HAM
Ham}, great care and industry. The method of drying grapes
ajnilton in Hami is much simpler than that practised in the
—provinces of China. The people of Chensi hold them
over the steam of hot wine, and even sometimes hoil
them a few seconds in wine in which a little clarified
honey has been diluted. In the kingdom of Hami
they wait until the grapes are quite ripe 5 they then
expose them to the scorching rays of the sun ; after¬
wards pick them, and leave them in that manner until
they are quite dry. How'ever dry these grapes may
be, they become shrivelled, without losing any of their
substance, and without growing flat : good raisins ought
to be almost as crisp as sugar candy.
The kingdom of Hami contains a great number of
villages and hamlets ; but it has properly only one
city, which is its capital, and has the same name. It
is surrounded by lofty walls, which are half a league in
circumference, and has two gates, one of which fronts
the east, and the other the west. These gates are ex¬
ceedingly beautiful, and make a fine appearance at a
distance. The streets are straight, and well laid out j
but the houses (which contain only a ground-floor,
and which are almost all constructed of earth) make
very little show : however, as this city enjoys a serene
sky, and is situated in a beautiful plain, watered by a
river, and surrounded by mountains which shelter it
from the north winds, it is a most agreeable and de¬
lightful residence. On whatever side one approaches
it, gardens may he seen which contain every- thing
that a fertile and cultivated soil can produce in the
mildest climates. All the surrounding fields are en¬
chanting : but they do not extend far; for on several
sides they terminate in dry plains, where a number of
beautiful horses are fed, and a species of excellent
sheep, which have large flat tails that sometimes weigh
three pounds. The country of Hami appears to be
very abundant in fossils and valuable minerals : the
Chinese have for a long time procured diamonds and a
great deal of gold from it j at present it supplies them with
a kind of agate, on which they set a great value. With
regard to the inhabitants of this small state, they are
brave, capable of enduring fatigue, very dexterous in all
bodily exercises, and make excellent soldiers ; but they
are fickle and soon irritated, and when in a passion they
are extremely ferocious and sanguinary.
HAMILTON, a town of Scotland, in Clydesdale,
seated on the river Clyde, eleven miles south-east of
Glasgow ; from whence the noble family of Hamilton
take their name, and title of duke. The town is seated
in the middle of a very agreeable plain ; on one side of
which the Hamilton family has a large park, which is
near seven miles in circumference, enclosed with a high
wall, and well stocked with fallow deer. The rivulet
called Avon runs through the park, and falls into the
river Clyde, over which last there is abridge of free-stone.
W. Long. 4. 16. N. Lat. 55. 58. The original name of
this place, or the lands about it, was Cadzow or Cad-
yow, a barony, granted to an ancestor of the noble
owner, on the following occasion. In the time of Ed¬
ward II. lived Sir Gilbert de Hamilton, or Hampton, an
Englishman of rank who happening at court to speak
in praise of Robert Bruce, received on the occasion an
insult from John de Spenser, chamberlain to the king,
whom he fought and slew. Dreading the resentment
of that potent family, he fled to the Scottish monarch j
who received him with open arms, and established him Hamilton,
at the place possessed by the duke of Hamilton. In '■■■—y ■
aftertimes the name was changed from Cadzow to Ha¬
milton : and in 1445 the lands were erected into a lord-
ship, and the proprietor Sir James sat in parliament as
Lord Hamilton. The same nobleman founded the col¬
legiate church at Hamilton in 1451, for a provost and
several prebendaries. The endowment was ratified at
Rome by the pope’s bull, which he went in person to
procure.—Hamilton house or palace is at the end of the
town ; a large heavy pile, with two deep wings at right
angles with the centre ; the gallery is of great extent j
and furnished, as well as some other rooms, with excel¬
lent paintings. Population 6453 in 1811.
Hamilton, Anthony, Coant of, was descended from
a younger branch of the dukes of Hamilton, and born
in Ireland about the year 1646. His mother was sister
to the duke of Ormond, then viceroy of that country.
The troubles of that period compelled his family to re¬
tire to France while he was only an infant, and he was
brought up in the language and religion of that coun¬
try. He made different visits to England in the reign
of Charles II. but he was prevented from obtaining
any public employment in consequence of his religious
opinions, to which he constantly adhered. He received
from James II. a regiment of infantry in Ireland j but
when that monarch’s affairs came to be in a ruined con¬
dition, Count Hamilton accompanied him back to
France, which he never afterwards quitted. On ac¬
count of his wit and politeness he was very much ad¬
mired, as well as for the many estimable qualities of his
heart. His writings are lively, yet his conversation
was serious, and he perhaps indulged too much his pro¬
pensity to satire. He died in the year 1720 in the 74th
year of his age.
The works of the count in the French language
were printed in 6 vols. 12mo. in I749» which con¬
sist of poems, fairy tales, and his Memoirs of Count
Grammont, the best of all his compositions, of which
Voltaire said, “ it is of all books that in which the
most slender ground-work is set off with the gayest,
most lively and agreeable style.” A splendid edition
of it, adorned with fine engravings from original por¬
traits, was published by the late Lord Orford, at his
own private press.
Hamilton, George, earl of Orkney, and a brave
warrior, was the fifth son of William earl of Selkirk,
and early betook himself to the profession of arms.
Being made colonel in 1689-90, he distinguished him¬
self by his bravery at the battle of the Boyne j and
soon after, at those of Aghrim, Steinkirk, and Landen,
and at the sieges of Athlone, Limerick, and Namur.
His eminent services in Ireland and Flanders, through
the whole course of the war, recommended him so high¬
ly to King William III. that, in 1696, he advanced
him to the dignity of a peer of Scotland, by the title
of earl of Orkney > and his lady, the sister of Edward
Viscount Villiers, afterwards earl of Jersey, had a grant
made to her, under the great seal of Ireland, of almost
all the private estates of the late King James, of very,
considerable value.
Upon the accession of Queen Anne to the throne,
he was promoted, in 1702, to the rank of major-general,
and the next year to that of lieutenant-general, and
was likewise made knight of the Thistle. His lord-
slug
HAM I 238 ] HAM
Hamilton, ship afterwards served under the great duke of Marl-
Hamlet. borough ; and contributed by his bravery and con-
v duet to the glorious victories of Blenheim and Mal-
plaquet, and to the taking several of the towns in
Flanders. '
In the beginning of 17x0, his lordship, as one of the
16 peers of Scotland, voted for the impeachment of Dr
Sacheverel •, and the same year was sworn of the privy-
council, and made general of the foot in Flanders.
In 1712, he was made colonel of the royal regiment
of fusileers, and served in Flanders under the duke of
Ormond. In 1714, he was appointed gentleman-
extraordinary of the bed-chamber to King George I.
and afterwards governor of Virginia. At length he
was appointed constable, governor, and captain of Edin¬
burgh castle, lord-lieutenant of the county of Clydes¬
dale, and field-marshal. He died at his house in
Alhemarle-street, in 1737.
Hamilton, John, the 24th bishop of St Andrew’s,
to which he was translated from Dunkeld. He was
natural son of James the first earl of Arran, and was
in great favour at court whilst his friends remained in
power. He was one of Queen Mary’s privy council,
and a steady friend to that unfortunate princess. He
performed the ceremony of christening her son, and
was at different times lord privy seal and lord treasurer.
The queen had reason to lament her not following
the advice of this prelate, after the fatal battle of Lang-
side, viz. not to trust her person in England. By the
regent earl of Murray, he was declared a traitor, and
obliged to seek shelter among his friends. He was un¬
fortunately in the castle of Dumbarton when that for¬
tress was Taken by surprise, from whence he was carried
to Stirling, where on April i. 1570, he was hanged on
a live tree. The two following sarcastic verses were
written upon this occasion :
Vive diu,felix arbor, semperque vireto
Frondibus, ut nobis talia poma feras.
HAMLET, Hamel, or Hampsel, (from the Saxon
ham, i. e. domus, and the German let, i. e. membrum),
signifies a little village, or part of a village or parish ;
of which three words the first is novv only used, though
Kitchen mentions the two last. By Spelman there is a
difference betu'een villain integram, villam dimidiam,
and hamletam; and Stow expounds it to be the seat of
a freeholder. Several county-towns have hamlets, as
there may be several hamlets in a parish ; and some
particular places may be out of a town or hamlet, Hamli
though not out of the county.
Hamlet, a prince celebrated in the annals of
Denmark j and whose name has been rendered familiar
in this country, and his story interesting, by being the
subject of one of the noblest tragedies of our immortal
Shakespeare.—Adjoining to a royal palace, which stands
about half a mile from that of Cronborg in Elsineur,
is a garden, which, Mr Coxe informs us, is called
Hamlet’s Garden, and is said by tradition to be the
very spot where the murder of his father was perpetrated.
The house is of modern date, and is situated at the foot
of a sandy ridge near the sea. The garden occupies
the side of the hill, and is laid out in terrasses rising one
above another. Elsineur is the scene of Shakespeare’s
Hamlet •, and the original history from which our poet
derived the principal incidents of his play is founded
upon facts, but so deeply buried in remote antiquity
that it is difficult to discriminate truth from fable.
Saxo-Grammaticus, who flourished in the 12th century,
is the earliest historian of Denmark that relates the
adventures of Hamlet. His account is extracted, and
much altered, by Belleforest a French author j an
English translation of whose romance was published
under the title of the Historye of Hamblet: and from
this translation Shakespeare formed the ground-work of
this play, though with many alterations and additions.
The following short sketch of Hamlet’s history, as
recorded in the Danish annals, w'ill enable the reader
to compare the original character with that delineated
by Shakespeare.
Long before the introduction of Christianity into
Denmark, Horwendillus, prefect or king of Jutland,
was married to Geruthra, or Gertrude, daughter of
Ruric king of Denmark, by whom he had a son called
Amlettus, or Hamlet. Fengo murders his brother Hor¬
wendillus, marries Gertrude, and ascends the throne.
Hamlet, to avoid his uncle’s jealousy, counterfeits
folly j and is represented as such an abhorrer of false¬
hood, that though he constantly frames the most eva¬
sive and even absurd answers, yet artfully contrives ne¬
ver to deviate from truth. Fengo, suspecting the reality
of his madness, endeavours by various methods (a) to
discover the real state of his mind : amongst others, he
departs from Elsineur, concerts a meeting between
Hamlet and Gertrude, concluding that the former
would not conceal his sentiments from his own mother;
and orders a courtier to conceal himself, unknown to
both,
(a) Among other attempts, Fengo orders his companions to leave him in a retired spot, and a voting woman
is placed in his way, with a view to extort from him a confession that his folly was counterfeited. Hamlet would
have fallen into the snare, if a friend had not secretly conveyed to him intelligence of this treachery. He carries
the woman to a more secret place, and obtains her promise not to betray him; which she readily consents to,
as she had been been brought up with him from her infancy. Being asked, upon his return home, if he had indulged
his passion, he answers in the affirmative ; but renders himself not believed by the most artful subterfuges, which,
though true, seemed evidently to mark a disordered understanding, and by the positive denial of the woman.
“ Fpon this woman, as Capell observes, “ is grounded Shakespeare’s Ophelia ; and his deliverance from this
snare by a friend suggested his Horatio;”—“ the rude outlines,” as Mr Malone remarks, “ of those characters.
But in this piece there are no traits of the character of Polonius: there is indeed a counsellor, and he places him¬
self in the queen’s chamber behind the arras; but this is the whole. The ghost of the old Hamlet is likewise
the offspring of our author’s creative imagination.” See CapelPs School of Shakespeare, vol. iii. p. 20. ; and
Malone's Supplement, p. 353.
HAM
amlet. both, for the purpose of overhearing their conversation.
-v 'The courtier repairs to the queen’s apartment, and
hides himself under a heap of straw (b). Hamlet, up¬
on entering the cabinet, suspecting the presence of
some spy, imitates, after his usual affectation of folly,
the crow of cock, and, shaking his arms like wings,
jumps (c) upon the heap of straw ; till, feeling the
courtier, he draws his sword, and instantly dispatches
him. He then cuts the body to pieces, boils it, and
gives it to the hogs. He then avows to his mother
that he only personated a fool, reproaches her for her
incestuous marriage with the murderer of her husband ;
and concludes his remonstrances by saying, “ Instead,
therefore, of condoling my insanity, deplore your own
infamy, and learn to lament the deformity of your own
mind (d).” The queen is silent ; but is recalled to
virtue by these admonitions. Fengo returns to Elsi-
neur, sends Hamlet to England under the care of two
courtiers, and requests the king by a letter to put him
to death. Hamlet discovers and alters the letter j so
that, upon their arrival in England, the king orders
the two courtiers to immediate execution, and betroths
his daughter to Hamlet, who gives many astonishing
proofs of a most transcendant understanding. At the
end of the year he returns to Denmark, and alarms
the court by his unexpected appearance ; as a report
of his death had been spread, and preparations w'ere
making for his funeral. Having re-assumed his affected
insanity, he purposely wounds his finger in drawing
his sword, which the bystanders immediately fasten to
the scabbard. He afterwards invites the principal
nobles to an entertainment, makes them intoxicated,
and in that state covers them with a large curtain,
which he fastens to the ground with wooden pegs ; he
HAM
then sets fire to the palace ; and the nobles, being en¬
veloped in the curtain, perish in the flames. During
this transaction he repairs to Fengo’s apartment ; and,
taking the sword which lay by the side of his bed, puts
his own in its place ; he instantly awakens and informs
him, that Hamlet is come to revenge the murder of
his father. Fengo starts from his bed, seizes the sword ;
but being unable to draw it, falls by the hand of
Hamlet. The next morning, when the populace were
assembled to view the ruins of the palace, Hamlet snm-
mons the remaining nobles 5 and in a masterly speech,
which is too long to insert in this place, lays open the
motives of his own conduct, proves his uncle to have
been the assassin of lus father; and concludes in the fol¬
lowing words: “ Tread upon the ashes of the monster,
who, polluting the wife of his murdered brother, join¬
ed incest to parricide } and ruled over you with the
most oppressive tyranny. Receive me as the minister
of a just revenge, as one who felt for the suflerings of
his father and his people. Consider me as the person
who has purged the disgrace of his country ; extin¬
guished the infamy of his mother; freed you from the
despotism of a monster, whose crimes, if he had lived,
would have daily increased, and terminated in your
destruction. Acknowledge my services; and if I have
deserved it, present me with the crown. Behold in me
the author of these advantages : no degenerate person,
no parricide; but the rightful successor to the throne,
and the pious avenger of a father’s murder. I have
rescued you from slavery, restored you to liberty, and
re-established your glory : I have destroyed a tyrant,
and triumphed over an assassin. The recompense is in
your hands : you can estimate the value of my services,
and in your virtue I rest my hopes of reward.” This
speech
[ 239 1
(®) ^ reader will recollect, that straw used formerly to be spread over the floors as an article of great
luxury. °
(c) Ihis part stands thus in the English account: “ The counsellor entered secretly into the queene’s cham¬
ber, and there hid himselfe behind the arras, and long before the queene and Hamlet came thither: who being
craftie and politique, as soone as he w'as within the chamber, doubting some treason, and fearing if he should
speak severely and wisely to his mother touching his secret practises hee should be understood, and by that
means intercepted, used his ordinary manner of dissimulation, and began to come (r. crow) like a cocke, beating
with his arms (in such manner as cockes used to strike with their wings) upon the hangings of the chambers ;
whereby feeling something stirring under them, he cried, Aral! a rat! and presently drawing his sworde,
thrust it into the hangings ; which done, he pulled the counsellor (half deade) out by the heels, made an end
ef killing him ; and, being slain, cut his body in pieces, which he caused to be boiled, and then cast it into an
open vault or privie.” Malone's Supplement, vol. i. p. 357.
(d) The closet-scene, which is so beautiful in Shakespeare’s Hamlet, ;s thus concisely, but not less finely,
described by the Danish historian : “ Cumque mater rnagno ejulatu questa praesentis filii socordiam deliere coe-
pisset; ‘ Quid (inquit) mulierum turpissima gravissimi criminis dissimulationem falso lamenti genere expetis,
quae scorti more lasciviens nefariam ac detestabilem thori conditionem secuta viri tui interfectorem pleno incesti
sinu amplecteris : et ei qui prolis tuae parentem extinxerat obscoenissimis blandimentorum illecebris adularis.
. nempe equae conjugum suorum victoribus maritantur. Brutorum natura hose est ; ut in diversa passim con-
jugia rapiantur: hoc tibi exemplo prioris mariti memoriam exolevisse constat. Ego vero non ab re stolidi spe-v
ciem gero, cum baud dubitem quin is qui fratrem oppresserit, in affines quoque pari crudelitate debacchaturus
sit. unde stoliditatis quae industriae habitum amplecti prsestat, et incolumitatis praesidium ab extrema delira-
mentorum specie mutuari. In animo tamen paternae ultionis studium perseverat; sed rerum occasiones aucupor,
temporum opportunitates opperior. Non idem omnibus locus competit. Contra obscurum immitemque animum
a tioribus ingenii modis uti convenit. Tibi vero supervacuum fit meam lamentari desipientiam quae tuam justius
ignominiam deplorare debueras. Itaque non alienae sed propriae mentis vitium defleas necesse est. Caetera si¬
de memmeris.’ Tali convitio laceratam matrem ad excolendum virtutis habitum revocavit, praeteritosque ignes
prassentibus illecebris praeferre docuit.”
Hamlet.
2
HAM [ 240 ] HAM
Hamlet speech has the desired effect j the greater part of the
jj assembly shed tears, and all who are present unani-
Ilainniock. mousjy proclaim him king amid repeated acclamations.
Hamlet soon after his elevation sails to England,
and orders a shield to be made on which the principal
actions of his life are represented. The king receives
him with feigned demonstrations of joy, falsely assures
him that his daughter is dead, and recommends him to
repair to Scotland as his ambassador, and to pay his
addresses to the queen Hermetruda. He gives this in¬
sidious advice with the hopes that Hamlet may perish
in the attempt ; as the queen, who was remarkable for
her chastity and cruelty, had such an aversion to all
proposals of marriage, that not one ol her suitors had
escaped falling a sacrifice to her vengeance. Hamlet,
in opposition to all difficulties, performs the embassy;
and, by the assistance of his shield, which inspires the
lady with a favourable opinion of his wisdom and cou¬
rage, obtains her in marriage, and returns with her to
England. Informed by the princess to whom he had
been betrothed, that her father meditates his assassina¬
tion, Hamlet avoids his fate by wearing armour under
his robe ; puts to death the king of England; and
sails to Denmark with his two wives, where he is soon
afterwards killed in a combat with Vigletus son of
IIuric. Hamlet, adds the historian, was a prince,
who, if his good fortune had been equal to his deserts,
would have rivalled the gods in splendour, and in his
actions would have exceeded even the labours of Her¬
cules.
HAMMER, a well known tool used by mechanics,
consisting of an iron head, fixed crosswise upon a handle
cf wood. There are several sorts of hammers used by
blacksmiths ; as, I. The hand-hammer, which is of
such weight that it may be wielded or governed with
one hand at the anvil. 2. The up-hand sledge, used
with both hands, and seldom lifted above the head.
3. The about-sledge, which is the biggest hammer of
all ; and held by both hands at the farthest end of the
handle ; and being swung at arms length over the head,
is made to fall upon the work with as heavy a blow as
possible. There is also another hammer used by smiths,
called a rivetting hammer ; which is the smallest of all,
and is seldom used at the forge unless upon small work.
—Carpenters and joiners have likewise hammers accom¬
modated to their several purposes.
HAMMERING, the act of heating or extending
and fashioning a body under the hammer. When this
operation is performed on iron heated for the purpose,
it is usually called forging.
Hammering, in coining. A piece of money or a
medal is said to be hammered when struck, and the im¬
pression given, with a hammer and not with a mill.
HAMMERSMITH, four miles west from London,
is a hamlet belonging to Fulham, has two charity-
schools, a workhouse, a Presbyterian meeting-house,
and a fair May I. There are a number of handsome
seats about it, especially towards the Thames ; among
which the most remarkable is the late Lord Melcombe’s,
which is a very elegant house, and contains a marble
gallery. Population 7393 10 I8II>
HAMMOCK, or Hamac, a kind of hanging bed,
suspended between two trees, posts, books, or the like,
much used throughout the West Indies, as also on
board of ships. The Indians hang their hammocks to
5
trees, and thus secure themselves from wild beasts and Hammjt,
insects, which render lying on the ground there veryHamni|i
dangerous. According to F. Plumier, who has often^
made use of the hammock in the Indies, it consists of
a large strong coverlet or sheet of coarse cotton, about
six feet square : on two opposite sides are loops of the
same stuff, through which a string is run, and thereof
other loops are formed, all which are tied together
with a cord ; and thus is the whole fastened to two
neighbouring trees in the field, or two hooks in houses.
This kind of couch serves at the same time for bed
quilts, sheets, pillow, &c.
The hammock used on board of ships is made of a
piece of canvas six feet long and three feet wide, ga¬
thered or drawn together at the two ends. There are
usually from fourteen to twenty inches in breadth al¬
lowed between decks for every hammock in a ship of
war ; but this space must in some measure depend on
the number of the crew, &c. In time of battle the
hammocks and bedding are firmly corded and fixed in
the nettings on the quarter-deck, or wherever the
men are too much exposed to the view or fire of the
enemy.
HAMMOND, Henry, D. D. one of the most
learned English divines in the 17th century, was born
in 1605. He studied at Oxford, and in 1629 entered
into holy orders. In 1633 he was inducted into the
rectory of Penshurst in Kent. In 1643 he was made
archdeacon of Chichester. In the beginning of 1645
he was made one of the canons of Christ-church, Oxford,
and chaplain in ordinary to King Charles I. who was
then in that city ; and he was also chosen public orator
of the university. In 1647 he attended the king in
his confinement at Woodburn, Cavesham, Hampton-
Court, and the isle of Wight, where he continued till
his majesty’s attendants were again put from him. He
then returned to Oxford, where he was chosen sub-dean;
and continued there till the parliament-visitors first
ejected him, and then imprisoned him for several weeks
in a private house in Oxford. During this confinement
he began his Annotations on the New Testament. At
the opening of the year 1660, when every thing visibly
tended to the restoration of the royal family, the doctor
was desired by the bishops to repair to London to assist
there in the composure of the breaches of the church,
his station in which was designed to be the bishopric of
Worcester ; but on the 4th of April he was seized by
a fit of the stone, of which he died on the 25th of that
month, aged 55. Besides the above work, he wrote,
many others ; all of which have been published together
in four volumes folio.
HaMMOND, Anthony, Esq. an ingenious English
poet, descended from a good family of Somersham Place
in Huntingdonshire, was born in 1668. After a libe¬
ral education at St John’s college, Cambridge, he was
chosen member of parliament, and soon distinguished
himself as a fine speaker. He became a commissioner
of the royal navy, which place he quitted in 1712. He
published A Miscellany of original Poems by the most
eminent hands.; in which himself, as appeal's by the
poems marked with his own name, had no inconsider¬
able share. He wrote the life of Walter Moyle, Esq.
prefixed to his works. He was the intimate friend of
that gentleman, and died about the year 1726.
Hammond, James, known to the world by the Love-
Elegies,
HAM [
K: pshirC'Elegies, which some years after his death, were pub-
^ V**1 lished by the earl of Chesterfield, was the son of Antho¬
ny Hammond above mentioned, and was preferred to a
place about the person of the late prince of Wales, which
he held till an unfortunate accident deprived him of
his senses. The cause of this calamity was a passion
he entertained for a lady, who would not return it :
upon which he wrote those love-elegies which have been
so much celebrated for their tenderness. The editor
observes, that he composed them before he was 21 years
•of age : a period, says he, when fancy and imagination
commonly riot at the ex pence of judgment and correct¬
ness. He was sincere in his love as in his friendship j
and wrote to his mistress, as he spoke to his friends,
nothing but the genuine sentiments of his heart. Ti¬
bullus seems to have been the model our author judi¬
ciously preferred to Ovid $ the former writing directly
from the heart to the heart, the latter too often yield¬
ing and addressing himself to the imagination. Mr
Hammond died in the year 1743, at Stow, the seat of
Lord Cobham, who, as well as the earl of Chesterfield,
honoured him with a particular intimacy.
HAMPSHIRE, or Hants, a county of England,
bounded on the west by Dorsetshire and Wiltshire, on
the north by Berkshire, on the east by Surrey and Sus¬
sex, and on the south by the English channel. It extends
35 miles in length from north to south, and 40 in breadth
from east to west, and is about 220 miles in circum¬
ference. It is divided into 39 hundreds ; and contains
9 forests, 29 parks one city, 20 market-towns, 253
parishes. In 1811 the number of houses was 44,240,
and of inhabitants 245,080, who elect 26 members of
parliament, two for the county, tw'o for the city of
W inchester, and two for each of the following towns,
Southampton, Portsmouth, Petersfield, Yarmouth, New¬
port, Stockbridge, Andover, Whitechurch, Lymington,
Christ-church, and Newton.—The air is very pure and
pleasant, especially upon the downs, which are covered
with sheep to the amount, it is said, of 350,000. In
the champaign part of the county, where it is free of
wood, the soil is very fertile, producing all kinds of
grain. The country is extremely well wooded and
watered ; for besides many woods on private estates,
in which there are vast quantities of well grown timber,
there is the New forest of great extent, belonging to
the crown, well stored with venerable oak. In these
woods and forests, great numbers of hogs run at large
and feed on the acorns j and hence it is that the Hamp¬
shire bacon so far excels that of most other counties.
The rivers are the Avon, Anton, Aide, Test, Stowre,
and Itchin j besides several smaller streams, all abound¬
ing in fish, especially trout. As its sea-coast is of a
considerable extent, it possesses many good ports and
harbours, and is well supplied with salt-water fish.
Much honey is produced in the county, and a great
deal of mead and metheglin made. Here is also plenty
of game, and on the downs is most delightful hunting.
'I he manufacture of cloth and kersies in this county,
though not so extensive as that of some others, is yet
far from being inconsiderable, and employs great num¬
bers of the poor, as well as contributes to the enrich¬
ing of the manufacturers by what is sent abroad. The
canal in this county, from Basingstoke to the Wey in
ourrey, and from thence to the Thames, cannot but be
a great advantage to the county in general, and the
Vol. X. Part I. -|-
241 ] HAM
parishes it passes through in particular j to carry this Ham
canal into execution above 86,oocl. were raised amongst
150 proprietors in 1789. It extends 53 miles, and
was completed in 1796. See Hampshire, Supple¬
ment.
New Hampshire, one of the states of the North
American republic. It is bounded on the north by
Lower Canada, on the west by Vermont, on the south
by Massachusets, and on the east by Maine, except
at one corner where it is washed by the Atlantic ocean
for a space of eighteen miles. Its length from north to
south is 168 miles, its greatest breadth 90, and its
area is 9491 square miles. Near the sea the country
is generally pretty level, but at some distance from the
shore it becomes hilly, and afterwards swells into moun¬
tains. Mount Washington, one of the White mountains
in this state, has an elevation of 7000 feet, and is the
highest land in the United States. The winter is long
and severe, the thermometer sometimes sinking to 120
or 140 below ssero. But the climate is in other re¬
spects healthy, and the inhabitants enjoy a vigorous
constitution, and alford some remarkable instances of
longevity.
The principal rivers are the Connecticut, which
bounds the state on the west; the Merrimak, about a
hundred miles long; and the Piscataqua, fifty miles
long, which forms part of the eastern boundary of the
state. The navigation of all these rivers is interrupted
by frequent falls.
Bog iron ore, and black lead, are the only metals
worked in the state. The former affords iron of an
excellent quality. Freestone, soapstone, and mica,
are found at particular places. The variety of forest
trees in the state is great, and many of them furnish
excellent wood. The mast pine rises to the height of
150 or 200 feet, with a trunk remarkably straight.
Of animals, the black bear is the most mischievous.
It makes great havock in the fields of Indian corn.
The wolf is still common, and commits ravages among
the sheep, though a price is set on his bead. The
beaver and the wild turkey have become rare.
The population of New Hampshire in 1749 was es¬
timated at 30,000. In 1790 it was found bv the cen¬
sus to be 141,885 ; in 1800, it amounted to 183,858 ;
and in 1810 to 2x4,460. Even tin’s last number gives
only 22 inhabitants to each square mile. The climate,
as already observed, is healthy ; and the people of this
state are generally distinguished by vigour, activity,
and perseverance. Marriage is so general, that it is
rare to find an unmarried man of thirty years of age.
Many women are grandmothers at forty ; and it is not
uncommon to see the father, son, and grandson, work¬
ing together in the same field. Dancing is a favourite
amusement, and is indulged in on all occasions, which
brings numbers together.
The leading occupation in this state is agriculture.
The banks of the rivers, and the vallies, produce fine
crops of wheat, maize, and rye, with hemp, flax, and
culinary plants. Good lands yield from thirty to forty
bushels of Indian corn per acre. Every agriculturist
has an orchard, which supplies him with fruit in abun¬
dance. A great proportion of the land is in pasture,
and the produce of the dairy is reckoned excellent.
The black cattle are numerous and good, but the breed
of horses is not much esteemed. In 1799 the appro-
, H h priated
HAM [ 242 ] HA M
pmted lands in this state were valued at 19,028,108
dollars, and the houses at 4,146,938, making together
23.175,046 dollars. In 1814, their value was found
to be 36,957,825, being an increase of more than one
half in 15 years. The manufactures and commerce
of this state are trifling. Its exports by sea in 1817
amounted to 197,424 dollars. Its only port is Ports¬
mouth, which possessed shipping to the amount ot
29,745 t°ns 'n 1^I5>
The legislative power resides in a senate and house
of representatives, each of which has a negative on the
other. The senators, 13 in number, are elected an¬
nually by citizens paying taxes, every person, 21 years
of age, not a pauper, having a vote. The representa¬
tives are elected in the same manner: their number is
variable, as it depends on the number of rateable polls.
The governor is chosen annually by the same electors.
The judiciary is composed of a superior court, with
four judges, who make two circuits annually through
the counties ; of an inferior court in each county, with
the same number of judges, who sit four times a-year;
of a court of general sessions ; and of a justice of peace
court. The judges are appointed by the governor and
council, and remain in office to the age of 70, subject
to impeachment on the address of the legislature. The
salary of the chief jim/jce is 1500 dollars, and that of
the associate judges 1200 dollars. As all political in¬
stitutions are liable to corruption, it is provided, that
the constitution of this state shall, every seven years,
be submitted to the revision of the whole qualified vo¬
ters, that it may be purged of any abuses which have
crept in, and brought back to its first principles. Com¬
plete liberty is established in matters of religion. No
separate sect is decorated with the title of a national
church, and endowed with privileges which enable it
to tyrannize over the others. The prevailing religious
denominations are, the Presbyterians, Episcopalians,
Baptists, Quakers, Congregationalists, and Universa-
lists. Slavery is not prohibited by any law, but there
are almost no slaves in the state.
In the township of Hanover, in the western part of
this state, is Dartmouth College, situated on a beau¬
tiful plain, about half a mile east of Connecticut river,
in latitude 430 33'. It was named after the right ho¬
nourable William earl of Dartmouth, who was one of
its principal benefactors. It was founded in 1769,
for the education and instruction of youth, of the In¬
dian tribes, in reading, writing, and all parts of learn¬
ing which should appear necessary and expedient for
civilizing and christianizing the children of Pagans, as
well as in all liberal arts and sciences, and also of Eng¬
lish youths and any others. Its situation, in a frontier
country, exposed it during the late war to many incon¬
veniences, which prevented its rapid progress. It flou¬
rished, however, amidst all its embarrassments, and is
now one of the most growing seminaries in the United
States. It has about 150 students, under the direction
of a president, two professors, and two tutors, and its
annual revenue is about 2000 dollars a-year, exclusive
of class fees. It has 12 trustees^ who are a body cor¬
porate, invested with the powers ‘necessary for such a
body. The library is elegant, containing a large col¬
lection of the most valuable books. Its apparatus con¬
sists of a competent number of useful instruments, for
making mathematical and philosophical experiments. Hais||j(,E
There are three buildings for the use of the students. i j.
Such is the salubrity of the air, that no instance of ^ N ('
mortality has happened among the students since the
first establishment of the college.
The first discovery made by the English of any part t
of New Hampshire was in 16x4, by Captain John |n
Smith, who ranged the shore from Penobscot to Cape je
Cod ; and in this route discovered the river Piscata-
qua. On his return to England, he published a de¬
scription of the country, with a map of the coast,
which he presented to Prince Charles, who gave it the e
name of New England. The first settlement was made 8
in 1623.
New Hampshire was for many years under the ju- L
risdiction of the governor of Massachusets, yet they v
had a separate legislature. They ever bore a proper-
tionable share of the expences and levies in all enter¬
prises, expeditions, and military exertions, whether r
planned by the colony or the crown. In every stage e
of the opposition that was made to the encroachments I s
of the British parliament, the people, who ever had a a
high sense of liberty, cheerfully bore their part.
HAMPSTEAD, a pleasant village of Middlesex,
five miles north-west of London, stands in a healthy v
air, on a fine rise, at the top of which is a heath of
about a mile everyway, that is adorned with several u
pretty seats, in a most irregular romantic situation, ,
and has a most extensive prospect over London, into 0
the counties all round it, viz. Bucks and Hertford- 1
shire, and even Northamptonshire, Essex, Kent, Sur¬
rey, Berks, &c. with an uninterrupted view of Shooter’s ,
Hill, Bansted Downs, and Windsor Castle. Its church
was anciently a chapel of ease to Hendon, till about |t
1478. This village used to be resorted to formerly
for its mineral waters, which have lately been neglect- ..
ed: hut the wells are still frequented. It is now „
crowded with good buildings, even on the very steep
of the hill, where there is no walking six yards toge¬
ther without meeting a hillock j but in the reign of ^
Henry VIII. it was chiefly inhabited by the laundres- !
ses who washed for the Londoners. Its old ruinous
church, the lord of the manor’s chapel, was pulled down
many years ago, and a new one erected in its room.
There is, besides, a handsome chapel near the wells,
built by the contribution of the inhabitants, who are i
chiefly citizens and merchants of London. Population 1
5483 in 181 r.
HAMPTON, a town of Gloucestei’shire in Eng¬
land, seated on the Cotswold hills, and had formerly a |
nunnery. W. Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 51. 38. !
Hampton, a town of Middlesex in England, seated ,
on the river Thames, 15 miles west of London, and
two from Richmond and Kingston. It is chiefly fa¬
mous for the royal palace there, which is the finest in
Britain. It was built by Cardinal Wolsey, who had
280 silk beds for strangers only, and furnished it rich¬
ly with gold and silver plate. The buildings, gar¬
dens, and the two parks, to which William III. made
considerable additions, are about four miles in circum¬
ference, and are watered on three sides by the Thames.
The inward court, built by King William, forms a
piazza, the pillars of which are so low, that it looks
more like a cloister than a palace $ however, the apart¬
ments
HAN [ 243 ] HAN
"■ j upton merits make ample amends, being extremely magnifi-
^|| cent, and more exactly disposed than in any other pa-
jf, lace in the world, and adorned with most elegant fur-
e ^ ^ niture. Since the accession of his present majesty,
however, this palace hath been much neglected, as the
t king has generally made choice of Windsor for his sum-
11 mer retreat. Those inimitable paintings of Raphael
Urbin, called the cartoons, which were placed there by
King William, have been removed to the queen’s pa¬
lace at Westminster. For these pieces Louis XV. is
I , said to have offered loo,oool.
e HAMESOKEN, or Hamesecken. See Hame-
e SECKEN.
HANAPER, or Hamper, an office in chancery,
I - under the direction of a master, his deputy and clerks,
J answering, in some measure, to the Jiscus among the
• Romans.
• Hanaper, clerk of the, sometimes styled warden of
r the hanaper, an officer who receives all money due to
U the king lor seals of charters, patents, commissions,
15 and writs, and attends the keeper of the seal daily in
a term time, and at all times of sealing, and takes into
his custody all sealed charters, patents, and the like,
which he receives into bags, but anciently, it is supposed,
iy into hampers, which gave denomination to the office,
if There is also an officer who is comptroller of the
il hanaper.
), HANAU, a town of Germany, and capital of a
0 county ot the same name, is pleasantly situated on the
|. river Kenzig near its confluence with the Mayne. The
river divides it into the old and new towns, both of
I s which are fortified. The new town, which was built
h at first by French and Flemish refugees, who had great
it privileges granted them, is regular and handsome. The
y castle, in which the counts used to reside, and which
I [• stands in the old towm, is fortified, and has a fine
jy flower-garden with commodious apartments, but makes
p no great appearance. The magistracy of the new
1. town, and the disposal of all offices in it, belong to the
if French and Hutch congregations. Here is an univer-
j. sity, with several manufactures. At this town a san-
i5 guinary battle was fought between the French and Ba-
o varians in 1813, in which the latter were defeated.
E. Long. 9. o. N. Lat. 50. 9.
i( HA^AU-Munzenberg, a county of Germany. The
e greatest part of it is surrounded by the electorate of
n Mentz, the bishopric of Fulda, the lordships of Rei-
neck, Isenburg, and Solms; as also by the territories
of Hesse-Homburg, Burg-Friedburg, and Frankfort,
a Its length is near 40 miles, but its greatest breadth,
not above 12. It is exceeding fertile in corn, wine,
j and Iruits *, has some salt springs, and some mines of
j copper, silver, and cobalt. The chief rivers are, the
Mayne, the Kenzig, and the Nidda. The prevailing
, religion is Calvinism, but Lutherans and Catholics are
[ tolerated. The country is populous, and trade and
manufactures flourish in it. In 1736, the whole male
line of the counts of Hanau failing in John Reinard,
, M iliiam VIII. landgrave of Hesse Cassel, by virtue
°1 a treaty of mutual successsion between the families
of Hanau and Hesse Cassel, took possession of the coun¬
ty, satisfaction having been first made to the house of
1 Saxony for their claims •, and in the year 1754, trans¬
ferred it to Prince William, eldest son to the heredi¬
tary prince Frederic, afterwards landgrave. The re¬
venues of the last count, arising from this and other ter¬
ritories, are said to have amounted to 300,000 florins.
The principal places are Hanau, Bergen, Steinau, and
Glenhausen.
HANCES, Hanches, Haunches, or Hanses, in
Aichitecture, certain small intermediate parts of arches
between the crown and the spring at the bottom, being
probably about one-third of the arch, and placed nearer
to the bottom than the top, which are likewise denomi¬
nated the spandrels,
HAND, a part or member of the body of man,
making the extremity of the arm. See AnatomT.
N° J3> &c-
The mechanism of the hand is very curious ex¬
cellently contrived to fit it for the various uses and oc¬
casions we have for it, and the great number of arts and
manufactures it is to be employed in. It consists of a
compages ol nerves, and little bones joined into each
other, which give it a great degree of strength, and at
the same time an unusual flexibility, to enable it to
handle adjacent bodies, lay hold of them, and grasp
them, in order either to draw them toward us or thrust
them off. Anaxagoras is represented by ancient authors,
as maintaining, that man owes all his wisdom, know¬
ledge, and superiority over other animals, to the use of
his hands. Galen represents the matter otherwise j man,
according to him, is not the wisest creature because he
has hands 5 but he had hands given him because he was
the wisest creature : for it was not our hands that
taught us arts, but our reason. The hands are the
organs of reason, &c.
In scripture, the word hand was variously applied.
To pour water on any one’s hand, signifies to serve
him. lo wash the hands was a ceremony made use of
to denote innocency from murder or manslaughter. To
kiss the hand was an act of adoration. To fill the
hand signified taking possession of the priesthood, and
performing its functions. To lean upon any one’s hand
was a mark of familiarity and superiority. To give the
hand signifies to grant peace, swear friendship, promise
security, or make alliance. The right hand was the
place of honour and respect Amongst the Greeks and
Romans it was customary for inferiors to walk on the
left hand of superiors, that their right hand might be
ready to afford protection and defence to their left side,
which was, on account of the awkwardness of the left
hand, more exposed to danger.
Imposition, or laying on of Hands, signifies the con¬
ferring of holy orders $ a ceremony wherein the hands
are laid on the head of another, as a sign of a mission, or
of a power given him to exercise the functions of the
ministry belonging to the order.
The apostles began to appoint missionaries by the im¬
position of hands. See Imposition.
Hand, in falconry, is used for the foot of the hawk.
To have a clean, strong, slender, glutinous hand, well
clawed, are some of the good qualities of a hawk or
falcon.
Hand, in the manege, sometimes stands for the
fore-foot of a horse. It is also used for a division
of the horse into two parts with respect to the ri¬
der’s hand. The fore-hand includes the head, neck,
and fore quarters j the hinfl-hand is all the rest of the
horse.
Hand is likewise used for a measure of four inches,
H h 2 or
HAN [ 244 ] HAN
Hand, or of a clenched fist, by which the height of a horse is
Handel, computed.
 Hand is also figuratively used in painting, sculp¬
ture, &c. for the manner or style of this or that
master.
Hands are borne in coat-armour, dexter and sinister ;
that is, right and left, expanded or open j and alter
other manners. A bloody hand in the centre of the
escutcheon is the badge of a baronet of Great Britain.
Hand-Breadth, a measure of three inches.
HANDEL, George Frederic, a most eminent
master and composer of music, was born at Hall, a city
of Upper Saxony in Germany. His father was a phy¬
sician and surgeon of that place, and was upwards of
60 years of age when Handel was born. During his
infancy young Handel is said to have amused himself
with musical instruments, and to have made consider¬
ably progress before he was seven years of age, without
anv instructions. Plis propensity for music at last be¬
came so strong, that his father, who designed him for
the study of the civil law, thought proper to forbid
him, even at this early period of life, to touch a musi¬
cal instrument, and would suffer none to remain in his
house. Notwithstanding this prohibition, however,
Handel found means to get a little clavichord privately
conveyed to a room in the uppermost story of the
house, to which room he constantly stole when the fa¬
mily were asleep *, and thus made such advances in his
art, as enabled him to play on the harpsichord. He
was first taken notice of by the duke of Saxe Weisen-
sels on the following occasion. His father went to pay
a visit to another son by a former wife, who was valet
de chambre to the duke, and resided at his court.
Young Handel, being then in his seventh year, ear¬
nestly desired permission to go along with him *, but
being refused, he followed the chaise on foot, and over¬
took it, the carriage being probably retarded by the
roughness of the way. His father at first chid him for
his disobedience, but at last took him into the chaise
along with him. While he was in the duke’s court,
he still continued to show the same inclination for mu¬
sic $ it was impossible to keep him from harpsichords y
and he used sometimes to get into the organ-loft at
church, and play after service was over. On one of
these occasions, the duke happening to go out later
than usual, found something so uncommon in Handel’s
manner of playing, that he inquired of his valet who
it was ; and receiving for answer that it was his brother,
he desired to see him. This nobleman was so much
taken with the musical genius shown by young Handel,
that he persuaded his father to let him follow the bent
of his inclination. He made the boy a present y and
told him, that if he minded his studies, no encourage¬
ment should be wanting.
On his return to Hall, Handel was placed under
one Zackaw, the organist of the cathedral church *, and
our young musician was even then able to supply his
master’s place in his absence. At nine years of age he
began to compose church-services for voices and instru¬
ments, and continued to compose one such service every
week for three years successively. At the age of 14,
he far excelled his master, as he himself owned j and he
was sent to Berlin, where he had a relation in some
place about the court, on whose care and fidelity his
parents could rely. The opera was then in a flourish¬
ing condition, being encouraged by the grandfather Handd,
of the late king of Prussia, and under the direction ■ ^ .
of many eminent persons from Italy, among whom
were Buononcini and Attilio. Buononcini, being of
a haughty disposition, treated Handel with contempt :
but Attilio behaved to him with great kindness, and he
profited much by his instructions. His abilities soon
recommended him to the king, who frequently made
him presents, and at last proposed to send him to Italy
under his own patronage, and to take him under his
immediate protection as soon as his studies should he
completed. But Handel’s parents not thinking proper
to submit their child to the caprice of the king, declined
the offer j upon which it became necessary for him to
return to Hall.
Handel having now obtained ideas in music far ex¬
celling every thing that could be found in Hall, conti¬
nued there very unwillingly, and it was resolved to
senA him to Italy : but as the expence of this journey
could not then be spared, he went to Hamburg, where
the opera was little inferior to that of Berlin. Soon
after his arrival in this city, his father died y and
his mother being left in narrow circumstances, her
son thought it necessary to procure some scholars, and
to accept a place in the orchestra} by which means,,
instead of being a burden, he became a great relief
to her.
At this time, the first harpischord in Hamburg was
played by one Keser, a man who also excelled in com¬
position } but he, having involved himself in some debts,
was obliged to abscond. Upon this vacancy, the per¬
son who had been used to play the second harpsichord
claimed the first by right of succession } but was oppo¬
sed by Handel, who founded a claim to the first harpsi¬
chord upon his superior abilities. After much, dispute,
in which all who supported or directed the opera en¬
gaged with much vehemence, it was decided in favour
of Handel } but this good success had almost cost him
his life. His antagonist resented the supposed affront
so much, that, as they were coming out of t he orchestra
together, he made a push at Handel’s breast with a
sword, which must undoubtedly have killed him,, had
there not fortunately been a music-book in the bosom of
his coat.
Handeh, though yet but in his 15th year, became
composer to the house } and the success of Almeria, his
first opera, was so great, that it ran 30 nights without
interruption. Within less than a twelvemonth after
this, be set two others called Florinda and Horene^
which were received with the same ajxplause. During
his stay here, which was about four or five years, he al¬
so composed a considerable number of sonatas, which
are now lost. Here his abilities procured him the ac¬
quaintance of many persons of note, particularly the
prince of Tuscany, brother to John Gaston de Medi-
cis the grand duke. This prince pressed him to go
with him to Italy, where he assured him that no con¬
venience would be wanting} but this ofler Handel
thought proper to decline, being resolved not to give
up his independency for any advantage that could be
offered him.
In the 19th year of his age, Handel took a journey
to Italy on his own account } where he was received
with the greatest kindness by the prince of Tuscany,
and had at all times access to the palace of the grand
dukt.
H A , N [ 245 ] HAN
ndel. Juke. His Serene Highness was impatient to have
something composed by so great a master; and not¬
withstanding the difference between the style of the
Italian music and the German, to which Handel had
hitherto been accustomed, he set an opera called Rode-
n'go, which pleased so well that he was rewarded with
IOO sequins and a service of plate. After staying about
a year in Florence, he went to Venice, where he is said
to have been first discovered at a masquerade. He was
playing on a harpsichord in his visor, when Scarlatti, a
famous performer, cried out, that the person who play¬
ed could be none but the famous Saxon or the devil.
But a story similar to this is reported of many eminent
persons whose abilities have been discovered in disguise.
Here he composed his opera called Agrippina, which
was performed 27 nights successively, with the most
extravagant applause.
From Venice our musician proceeded to Rome,
where he became acquainted with Cardinal Ottoboni
and many other dignitaries of the church, by which
means he was frequently attacked on account of his re¬
ligion ; but Handel declared he would live and die in
the religion in which he had been educated, whether it
was true or false. Here he composed an oratorio call¬
ed Resurrectione, and 150 cantatas, besides some sona¬
tas, and other music. Ottoboni also contrived to have
a trial of skill between him and Dominici Scarlatti,
who was considered as the greatest master on that
instrument in Italy. The event is differently report¬
ed. Some say that Scarlatti was victorious, and others
give the victory to Handel ; but when they came to
the organ, Scarlatti himself ascribed the superiority to
Handel.
From Rome, Handel went to Naples ; after which,
he paid a second visit to Florence ; and at last, having
spent six years in Italy, set out for his native country.
In his way thither, he was introduced at the court of
Hanover with so much advantage by the baron Kilman-
seck, that his Electoral Highness (afterwards George I.)
offered him a pension of 1500 crowns a-year as an in¬
ducement to continue there. This generous offer he
declined on account of his having promised to visit the
court of the Elector Palatine, and likewise to come over
to England in compliance with the repeated invitations
of the duke of Manchester. The elector, however,
being made acquainted with this objection, generously
ordered him to be told, that his acceptance of the pen¬
sion should neither restrain him from his promise nor re¬
solution : but that he should be at full liberty to be ab¬
sent a year or more if he chose it, and to go wherever
he thought fit. Soon after, the place of master of the
chapel was bestowed upon Handel; and our musician
having visited his mother, who was now extremely aged
and blind, and his old master Zackaw, and staid some
time at the court of the Elector Palatine, set out for
England, where he arrived in 1710.
At that time operas were a new entertainment in
England, and were conducted in a very absurd man¬
ner: but Handel soon pat them on a better footing;
and set a drama called Rinaldo, which was performed
with uncommon success. Having staid a year in Eng¬
land, he returned to Hanover; but in 171 2 he again
came over to England ; and the peace of Utrecht be¬
ing concluded a few months afterwards, he composed a
grand Te Deum and Jubilate on the occasion. He now
found the nobility very desirous that he should resume Handel,
the direction of the opera-house in the Hay-market; 1 ■■ ■-—
and the queen having added her authority to their so¬
licitations, and conferred on him a pension of 200I.
a-year, he forgot his engagements to the elector of Ha¬
nover, and remained in Britain till the death of the
queen in 1714. On the arrival of King George I.
Handel, conscious of his ill behaviour, durst not ap¬
pear at court ; but he was extricated from his dilemma
by the baron Kilmanseck. Having engaged several of
the English nobility in his behalf, the baron persuaded
the king to a party of pleasure on the water. Handel
was apprised of the design, and ordered to prepare some
music for the occasion. This he executed with the ut¬
most attention, and on the day appointed it was per¬
formed and conducted by himself. The king with plea¬
sure and surprise inquired whose it was, and how the
entertainment came to be provided without his know¬
ledge. The baron then produced the delinquent ; and
asked leave to present him to his majesty as one too sen¬
sible of his fault to attempt an excuse, but sincerely de¬
sirous to atone for it. This intercession was accepted.
Handel was restored to favour, his water music was
honoured with the highest approbation, and the king
added a pension of 200I. a-year to that formerly bestow¬
ed on him by Queen Anne ; which he soon after in¬
creased to 400I. on his being appointed to teach the
young princesses music.
In the year 1715, Handel composed his opera of A-
tnadige; but from that time to the year 1720 he com¬
posed only Teseo and Pastor Pi do, Buononcini and At-
tilio being then composers for the operas. About this
time a project was formed by the nobility for erecting
a kind of academy at the Hay Market, with a view to
secure to themselves a constant supply of operas to be
composed by Handel, and performed under his direc¬
tion. No less than 50,000!. was subscribed for this
scheme, of which the king himself subscribed 1000L
and it was proposed to continue the undertaking for 14
years. Handel went over to D resden, in order to en¬
gage singers, and returned with Senesino and Duri-
stanti. Buononcini and Attilio had still a strong party
in their favour, but not equal to that of Handel ; and
therefore in 1720 he obtained leave to perform his ope¬
ra of, Radamisto. The house was so crowded, that many
fainted through excessive heat ; and 40s. were ofiered
by some for a seat in the gallery, after having in vain
attempted to get one elsewhere. The contention, how¬
ever, still ran very high between Handel’s party and
that of the two Italian masters ; and at last it was de¬
termined that the rivals should be jointly employed in
making an opera, in which each should take a distinct
act, and he who by the general suffrage was allowed to
have given the best proof of his abilities should be put
in possession of the house. This opera was called Mu-
sio Sccevola, and Handel set the last act. It is said that
Handel’s superiority was owned even in the overture
before it; but when the act came to be performed,
there remained no pretence of doubt or dispute. The
academy was now therefore firmly established, and Han¬
del conducted it for nine years with great success ; but
about that time an irreconcileable enmity took place
between Handel himself and Senesino. Senesino ac¬
cused Handel of tyranny, and Handel accused Senesi¬
no of rebellion. The merits of the quarrel are not
known s
HAN [ 246 ] HAN
Handel, known : the nobility, however, became mediators for
 v ' some time j and having failed in that good design, they
became parties in the quarrel. Handel was resolved to
dismiss Senesino, and the nobility seemed also resol¬
ved not to permit him to do so. The haughtiness of
Handel’s temper would not allow him to yield, and
the. affair ended in the total dissolution of the aca¬
demy.
Handel now found that his abilities, great as they
were, could not support him against the powerful op¬
position he met with. After the dismission of Senesino,
his audience sensibly dwindled away, and Handel en¬
tered into an agreement with Mr Heidegger to carry
on operas in conjunction with him. New singers were
engaged from Italy j but the offended nobility raised a
subscription against him, to carry on operas in the play¬
house in Liucoln’s-Inn fields. Handel bore up four
years against this opposition j three in partnership with
Heidegger, and one by himself: but though his mu¬
sical abilities were superior to those of his antagonists,
the astonishing powers of the voice of Farinelli, whom
the opposite party had engaged, determined the vic¬
tory against him. At last Handel, having spent all he
was worth in a fruitless opposition, thought proper to
desist. His disappointment had such an effect upon
him, that for some time he was disordered in his un¬
derstanding, and at the same time his right arm was
rendered useless by a stroke of the palsy. In this
deplorable situation, it was thought necessary that he
should go to the baths of Aix-la-Chapel!e ; and from
them he received such extraordinary and sudden relief,
that his cure was looked upon by the nuns as miracu¬
lous.
In 1736, Handel again returned jo England j and
soon after his return his Alexander’s Feast was per¬
formed with applause at Covent Garden. The success
and splendour of the Hay Market was by this time so
much reduced by repeated mismanragements, that Lord
Middlesex undertook the direction of it himself, and
once more applied to Handel for composition. He
accordingly composed two operas called Faromondo,
and Alessandro Severo, for which in 1737 he received
1000I. In 17381 be received 1500I. from a single
benefit, and nothing seemed wanting to retrieve his
affairs, excepting such concessions on his part as his op¬
ponents had a right to expect. These concessions, how¬
ever, he could not be prevailed upon to make ; and
that he might no longer be under obligations to act as
he was directed by others, he refused to enter into any
engagements upon subscription. After having tried a
few more operas at Covent Garden without success, he
introduced another species of music called oratorios^
which he thought better suited to the native gravity of
an English audience. But as the subjects of these pieces
were always taken from sacred history, it was by some
thought to be a profanation to set them to music and
perform them at a playhouse. In consequence of this
prejudice, the oratorios met with very indifferent suc¬
cess ; and in 1741 Mr Handel found his affairs in such
a bad situation, that he was obliged to quit England,
and go to Dublin.
He was received in Ireland in a manner suitable to
his great merit j and his performing his oratorio called
the Messiah, for the benefit of the city prison, brought
him into universal favour. In nine months time he had
3
brought his affairs into a better situation ; and on Ins
return to England in 1742, he found the public much
more favourably disposed. His oratorios w'ere now per¬
formed with great applause : his Messiah, which before
had been but coldly received, became a favourite per¬
formance j and Handel, with a generous humanity, de¬
termined to perform it annually for the benefit of the
foundling hospital, which at that time was only sup¬
ported by private benefactions. In 1743> he had a re¬
turn of his paralytic disorder; and in 1751 became
quite blind by aguttaserena in his eyes. This last mis¬
fortune for some time sunk him into the deepest de¬
spondency j but at last he was obliged to acquiesce in
his situation, after having without any relief undergone
some very painful operations. Finding it now impos¬
sible to manage his oratorios alone, he was assisted by
Mr Smith, who at his request frequently played for
him, and conducted them in his stead ; and with this
assistance they were continued till within eight days of
his death. During the latter part of his life, his mind
was often disordered ; yet at times it appears to have
resumed its full vigour, and he composed several
songs, choruses, &c. which from their dates may be
considered almost as the last sounds of his dying voice.
From about October 1758 his health declined very
fast; his appetite, which had been remarkably keen,
and which he had gratified to a great degree, left him;
and he became sensible of the approach of death. On
the 6th of April 1759, his last oratorio was perform¬
ed, at which he was present, and died on the 14th
of the same month. On the 20th he was buried by
the right reverend Dr Pearce, bishop of Rochester,
in Westminster abbey ; where, by his own order, and
at his own expence, a monument was erected to his
memory.
With regard to the character of this most eminent
musician, he is universally allowed to have been a great
epicurp : In his temper he was very haughty, but
was seldom or never guilty of mean actions. His pride
was uniform : he was not by turns a tyrant and a slave.
He appears to have had a most extravagant love for li¬
berty and independence ; insomuch, that he would, for
the sake of liberty, do things otherwise the most preju¬
dicial to his own interest. He was liberal even when
poor, and remembered his former friends when he was
rich. His musical powers can perhaps be best express¬
ed by Arbuthnot’s reply to Pope, who seriously asked
his opinion of him as a musician ; “ Conceive (said
he) the highest you can of his abilities, and they are
much beyond any thing you can conceive.”
Commemoration of Handel; a musical exhibition in¬
stituted some years ago, and the grandest of the kind
ever attempted in any nation. Of the rise and pro¬
gress of the design, together with the manner in which
the first celebration was executed, an accurate and au¬
thentic detail is given, as might be expected, by Dr
Burney in the 4th and last volume of his History of
Music, from which the following account is ex¬
tracted.
“ In a conversation between Lord Viscount Fitzvvil-
liam, Sir Watkin Williams Wynn, and Joah Bates,
Esq. commissioner of the victualling-office, the begin¬
ning of last year, 1783, at the house of the latter; af¬
ter remarking that the number of eminent musical
performers of all kinds, both vocal and instrumental,
with
HAN [ 247 ] HAN
indcl. with which London abounded, w'as far greater than in
any other city of Europe, it was lamented that there
was no public periodical occasion for collecting and
consolidating them into one band ; by which means a
performance might be exhibited on so grand and mag¬
nificent a scale as no other part of the world could equal.
The birth and death of Handel naturally occurred to
three such enthusiastic admirers of that great master ;
and it was immediately recollected, that the next year
(1784) would be a proper time for the introduction
of such a custom, as it formed a complete century since
his birth, and an exact quarter of a century since his
decease.
“ The plan was soon after communicated to the
governors of the Musical Fund, who approved it, and
promised their assistance. It was next submitted to
the directors of the concert of Ancient Music; who,
with an alacrity which does honour to their zeal for
the memory of the great artist Handel, voluntarily un¬
dertook the trouble of managing and directing the
celebrity. At length, the design coming to the know¬
ledge of the king, it was honoured with his majesty’s
sanction and patronage. Westminster Abbey, where
the bones of the great musician were deposited, was
thought the properest place for the performance ; and
application having been made to the bishop of Ro¬
chester for the use of it, his lordship finding that the
scheme was honoured with the patronage of his ma¬
jesty, readily consented ; only requesting, as the per¬
formance would interfere with the annual benefit for
the Westminster Infirmary, that part of the profits
might be appropriated to that charity, as an indemni¬
fication for the loss it would sustain. To this the pro¬
jectors of the plan acceded ; and it was afterwards
settled, that the profits of the first day’s performance
should be equally divided between the Musical Fund
and the Westminster Infirmary ; and those of the sub¬
sequent days be solely applied to the use of that fund
which Handel himself so Jong helped to sustain, and to
which he not only bequeathed a thousand pounds, but
which almost every musician in the capital annually
contributes his money, his performance, or both, to sup¬
port. Application was next made to Mr James Wyatt,
the architect, to furnish plans for the necessary deco¬
rations of the abbey ; dravvings of which having been
shown to his majesty, were approved. The general
idea was to produce the effect of a royal musical
chapel, with the orchestra terminating one end, and
the accommodation for the royal family, the other.
The arrangement of the performance of each day wras
next settled j and it was at his majesty’s instigation
that the celebrity was extended to three days in¬
stead of two, which he thought would not be sufficient
for the display of Handel’s powers, or fulfilling the
charitable purposes to which it was intended to devote
the profits. It was originally intended to have cele¬
brated this festival on the 20th, 22d, and 23d of A-
pril j and the 20th being the day of the funeral of
Handel, part of the music was, in some measure,
so selected as to apply to that incident. But, in con¬
sequence of the sudden dissolution of parliament, it
vvas thought proper to defer the festival to the 26th,
27th, and 29th of May, which seems to have been for
its advantage j as many persons of tender constitutions,
who ventured to go to Westminster Abbey in warm IJamfeJ.
weather, would not have had the courage to go thither —v—-
in cold. Impressed with a reverence for the memory of
Handel, no sooner was the project known, but most
of tlte practical musicians in the kingdom eagerly ma¬
nifested their zeal for the enterprise $ and many of the
most eminent professors, waving all claims to prece¬
dence in the band, offered to perform in any subor¬
dinate station in whicb their talents could be most
useful.
“ In order to render the band as powerful and com¬
plete as possible, it was determined to employ every
species of instrument that was capable of producing
grand effects in a great orchestra and spacious build-
ing. Among these the sacbut, or double trumpet,
was sought; but so many years had elapsed since it
had been used in this kingdom, that neither the instru¬
ment, nor a performer upon it, could easily be found.
It was, however, discovered, after m«ch useless in¬
quiry, not only here, but by letter, on the continent,
that in his majesty’s military band there were six mu¬
sicians who played the three several species of sacbut,
tenor, base, and double base.
“ The double bassoon, which was so conspicuous in
the orchestra, and powerful in its effect, is likewise a
tube of 16 feet. It was made, with the approbation
of Mr Handel, by Stainsby the flute-maker, for the
coronation of his late majesty George II. The late
ingenious Mr Lampe, author of the justly admired
music of The Dragon of Wantley, was the person in¬
tended to perform on it; but, for want of a proper
reed, or for some other cause, at present unknown,
no use was made of it at the time ; nor indeed, though
it has been often attempted, was it ever introduced in¬
to any band in England, till now, by the ingenuity and
perseverance of Mr Aslily of the Guards.
“ The double-base kettle-drums were made from
models of Mr Ashbridge, of Drury Lane orchestra, in
copper, it being impossible to procure plates of brass
large enough. The Tower drums, which, by permis¬
sion of his grace the duke of Richmond, were brought
to the abbey on this occasion, are those which belong
to the ordnance stores, and were taken by the duke of
Marlborough at the battle of Malplaquet in 1709.
These are hemispherical, or a circle divided ; but those
of Mr Ashbridge are more cylindrical, being much
longer, as well as more capacious, than the common
kettle-drum; by which he accounts for the superiority
of their tone to that of all other drums. These three
species of kettle-drums, which may be called tenor, base,
and double base, were an octave below each other.
“ The excellent organ, erected at the west end of
the abbey for the commemoration performances onlv,
is the workmanship of the ingenious Mr Samuel Green
in Islington. It was fabricated for the cathedral of
Canterbury ; but before its departure for the place of
its destination, it was permitted to be opened in the
capital on this memorable occasion. The keys of com¬
munication with the harpsichord, at which Mr Bates
the conductor was seated, extended 19 feet from the
body of the organ, and 20 feet 7 inches below the
perpendicular of the set of keys by which it is usually
played. Similar keys were first contrived in this coun¬
try for Handel himself at bis oratorios ; but to convey
them
HAN [ 248 ] HAN
Handel, them to so great a distance from the instrument, vvith-
—-Y——' out rendering the touch impracticably heavy, required
uncommon ingenuity and mechanical resources.
fr* In celebrating the disposition, discipline, and ef¬
fects of this most numerous and excellent band, the
merit of the admirable architect, who furnished the
elegant designs for the orchestra and galleries, must not
be forgotten j as, when filled, they constituted one of
the grandest and most magnificent spectacles which
imagination can delineate. All the preparations for re¬
ceiving their majesties, and the first personages in the
kingdom, at the east end ; upwards of 500 musicians at
the west; and the public in general, to the number of
between 3000 and 4000 persons, in the area and galle¬
ries ; so wonderfully corresponded with the style of ar¬
chitecture of this venerable and beautiful structure,
that there was nothing visible either for use or orna¬
ment, which did not harmonize with the principal tone
of the building, and which may not metaphorically
have been said to have been in perfect tune with it.
But, besides the wonderful manner in which this con¬
struction exhibited the band to the spectators, the or¬
chestra was so judiciously contrived, that almost every
performer, both vocal and instrumental, was in full
'view of the conductor and leader; which accounts, in
some measure, for the uncommon ease with which the
performers confess they executed their parts.
“ At the east end of the aisle, just before the hack,
of the choir-organ, some of the pipes of which were
visible below, a throne was erected in a beautiful Go¬
thic style, corresponding with that of the abbey, and a
centre box, richly decorated and furnished with crim¬
son satin, fringed with gold, for the reception of their
majesties and the royal family : on the right hand of
which was a box for the bishops, and on the left, one
for the dean and chapter of Westminster; immediately
•below these two boxes were two others, one on the
right for the families and friends of the directors, and
the other for those of the prebendaries of Westminster.
Immediately below the king’s box was placed one'-for
the directors themselves, who were all distinguished
by white wands tipped with gold, and gold medals,
struck on the occasion, appending from white ribbands.
These their majesties likewise condescended to wear
at each performance. Behind, and on each side of
the throne, there were seats for their majesties suite,
maids of honour, grooms of the bed-chamber, pages,
&c.—The orchestra was built at the opposite extremi¬
ty, ascending regularly from the height of seven feet
from the floor to upwards of forty from the base of the
pillars, and extending from the centre to the top of the
side aisle.—The intermediate space below was filled up
with level benches, and appropriated to the early subscri¬
bers. The side aisles were formed into long galleries
ranging with the orchestra, and ascending so as to con¬
tain 12 rows on each side ; the fronts of which projected
before the pillars, and were ornamented with festoons of
crimson moiine.—At the top of the orchestra was placed
the occasional organ, in a Gothic frame, mounting to,
and mingling with, the saints and martyrs represented
in the painted glass on the west window. On each
side of the organ, close to the window, were placed
the kettle-drums described above. The choral bands
were principally placed in view of Mr Bates, on steps
seemingly ascending into the clouds, in each of the
side aisles, as their termination was invisible to the au- Handel. jB1
dience. The principal singers were ranged in the front y —
of the orchestra, as at oratorios, accompanied by the
choirs of St Paul, the abbey, Windsor, and the chapel ^
royal.
“ Few circumstances will perhaps more astonish ve¬
teran musicians, than to be informed, that there was
but one general rehearsal for each day’s performance :
an indisputable proof of the high state of cultivation
to which practical music is at present arrived in this
country ; for if good performers had not been found
ready made, a dozen rehearsals would not have been
sufficient to make them so. Indeed, Mr Bates, in ex¬
amining the list of performers, and inquiring into their
several merits, suggested the idea of what lie called a
drilling rehearsal, at Tottenham-street concert room,
a week before the performance ; in order to hear such
volunteers, particularly chorus singers, as were but
little known to himself, or of whose abilities his assist¬
ant was unable to speak with certainty. At this re¬
hearsal, though it consisted of 120 performers, not more
than two of that number were desired not to attend any
more.
“ At the general rehearsal in the abbey, mentioned
above, more than 500 persons found means to obtain
admission, in spite of every endeavour to shut out all
but the performers; for fear of interruption, and per¬
haps of failure in the first attempts at incorporating and
consolidating such a numerous band, consisting not
only of all the regulars, both native and foreign, which
the capital could furnish, but of all the irregulars, that
is, dilettanti, and provincial musicians of character, who
could be mustered, many of whom had never heard
or seen each other before. This intrusion, which was
very much to the dissatisfaction of the managers and
conductor, suggested the idea of turning the eagerness
of the public to some profitable account for the charity,
by fixing the price of admission to half a guinea for each
person.
“ But, besides the profits derived from subsequent
rehearsals, the consequences of the first were not with¬
out their use; for the pleasure and astonishment of the
audience, at the small mistakes, and great effects of
this first experiment, which many had condemned by
anticipation, were soon communicated to the lovers of
music throughout the town, to the great increase of
subscribers and solicitors for tickets. For though the
friends of the directors were early in subscribing, per¬
haps from personal respect, as much as expectation of
a higher musical repast than usual; yet the public in
general did not manifest great eagerness in securing
tickets till after this rehearsal, Friday May 21. which
was reported to have astonished even the performers
themselves by its correctness and effects. But so in¬
teresting did the undertaking become bv this favourable
rumour, that from the great number of tickets it was
found necessary to close the subscription.
“ Many families, as well as individuals, were at¬
tracted to the capital by this celebrity ; and it was
never remembered to have been so full, except at the
coronation of his present majesty. Many of the per¬
formers came, unsolicited, from the remotest parts of
the kingdom at their own expence: some of them,
however, were afterwards reimbursed, and had a small
gratuity in consideration of the time they were kept
from
HAN [ 249 ] HAN
I ,del from their families by the two unexpected additional
1 performances.
1 tig- <« Foreigners, particularly the French, must be
^ ,~t00'. much astonished at so numerous a band moving in such
exact measure, without the assistance of a coryphaeus
to heat the time, either with a roll of paper, or a noisy
baton or truncheon. Rousseau says, that ‘ the more
time is beaten, the less it is kept and it is certain,
that when the measure is broken, the fury of the mu¬
sical general or director, increasing with the disobedi¬
ence and confusion of his troops, he becomes more vio¬
lent, and his strokes and gesticulations more ridiculous,
in proportion to their disorder.
“ As this commemoration is not only the first in¬
stance of a band of such magnitude being assembled to¬
gether, but of any band at all numerous, performing
in a similar situation, without the assistance of a manu-
ductor to regulate the measure, the performances in
Westminster abbey may be safely pronounced no less
remarkable for the multiplicity of voices and instru¬
ments employed, than for accuracy and precision.
When all the wheels of that huge machine, the orche¬
stra, were in motion, the effect resembled clock-work
in every thing but want of feeling and expression.
And as the power of gravity and attraction in bodies is
proportioned to their mass and density, so it seems as if
the magnitude of this band had commanded and impel¬
led adhesion and obedience beyond that of any other
of inferior force. The pulsations in every limb, and
ramifications of veins and arteries in an animal, could
not be more reciprocal, isochronous, and under the
regulation of the heart, than the members of this bo¬
dy of musicians under that of the conductor and leader.
The totality of sound seemed to proceed from one
voice and one instrument j and its powers produced not
only new and exquisite sensations in judges and lovers
of the art, but were felt by those who never received
pleasure from music before. These effects, which will
be long remembered by the public, perhaps to the dis¬
advantage of all other choral performances, run the risk
of being doubted by all but those who heard them, and
the present description of being pronounced fabulous, if
it should survive the present generation.”
HANDSPIKE, or Handspec, a wooden bar used
as a lever to heave about the windlass, in order to draw
up the anchor from the bottom, particularly in mer¬
chant ships. The handle is round and tapering, and
the other end is square, to conform to the shape of
the holes in the windlass. It is also employed as a lever
on many other occasions, as stowing the anchors, provi¬
sions, or cargo, in the ship’s hold. The gunner’s hand¬
spike is shorter and flatter than the above, and armed
with two claws for managing the artillery, &c.
HANG-TCHOQ-FOO, the capital of the province
of Tche-Kiang in China, is situated between the bason of
the grand canal, and the river Chen-tang-chaung, which
falls into the sea about 60 miles to the eastward, and in
N. Lat. 30® 21'. E. Long. 120° 20'. Hang-tchoo-foo ex¬
ports and receives vast quantities of merchandise to and
from the southern provinces by means of this river.
There is no communication by water between the river
and the bason of the grand canal, in consequence of
) which all goods brought by sea into the river from the
southward, must be landed at this city, in their way to
the north. Its population is immense, being computed
Yol. X. Part I. f
to be nearly as numerous as in Pekin, which contains Hang-
about 3,000,000 of inhabitants. The houses are low, tchoo-ifoo,
none exceeding two stories; and the streets, the middle Hanging,
of which is paved with smooth flags, and the sides with v~——'
small flat stones, are very narrow. The principal streets
contain nothing but shops and warehouses, many of
which are equally splendid with those of the kind in
London. Sir George Staunton informs us, that it is
extremely difficult to pass along the streets, on account
of the prodigious numbers of people, all engaged in
their own concerns. Several men, but no women, at¬
tend in these shops behind the counters. The women
are employed in the manufacture of silk, every part of
which is done by them alone. In their dress they are
not regulated by fancy or fashion, but by what is con¬
ducive to health, and the season of the year. Even
among the ladies, there is little variety in their dress,
except in the disposition of the ornaments of the head.
The fair sex esteem corpulency in a man to be a beauty,
but they aim at preserving a delicacy of shape as to
themselves. They allow their nails to grow, and re¬
duce their eyebrows to an arched line.
The natural and artificial beauties of the lake of
Hang-tchoo-foo, in the opinion of Barrow, far ex¬
ceeded any thing which he had the opportunity of
seeing in the vast empire of China. The surrounding
mountains are highly picturesque, and the valleys cover¬
ed with trees of various kinds, among which are the
laurus camphora, croton sebiferum, and thuya orientalise
In the middle of the lake are two islands, to which com¬
pany generally resort after having amused themselves
with rowing, and in which a temple and several plea¬
sure-houses have been built for their reception. The
emperor has a small palace in the neighbourhood. This
city has a garrison of 3000 Chinese, under the command
of the viceroy, and 3000 Tartars, commanded by a ge¬
neral of the same nation. It has under its jurisdiction
seven cities of the second and third class.
HANGING, a common name given to the me¬
thod of inflicting death on criminals by suspending
them by the neck.—Physicians are not agreed as to
the manner in which death is brought on by hanging.
De Haen hanged three dogs, which he afterwards
opened. In one, nothing remarkable appeared in the
lungs. In another, from whom half an ounce of blood
was taken from the jugular vein, the dura and pia
mater were of the natural appearance; but the lungs
were much inflamed. In the third, the meninges were
sound, and there was no effusion of blood in the ven¬
tricles of the brain, but the left lobe of the lungs was
turgid with blood. Wepfer, Littraeus, Alberti, Bru-
hierius, and Boerhaave, affirm that hanged animals die
apoplectic. Their arguments for this are chiefly drawn
from the livid colour of the face; from the turgescency
of the vessels of the brain ; the inflammation of the
eyes; and from the sparks of fire which those who
have survived hanging allege they have seen before their
eyes. On the contrary, Bonetus, Petit, Haller, and
Lancisi, from observing that death is occasioned by
any small body falling into the glottis, have ascribed it
to the stoppage of respiration. Others, deeming both
these causes ill-founded, have ascribed it to a luxation
of the vertebrae of the neck.—De Haen adduces the
authority of many eminent authors to prove the possibi¬
lity of recovering hanged persons; and observes, in ge-
I i neral,
HAN [ 250 ] HAN
Harigitig neral^ that with bleeding in the jugular vein, and
ft anointing the neck with warm oil, the same remedies
Ilanmfjal. are (0 [,€ employed in this case as for the recovery of
 jj-ownefi people. See Drowning.
HANGINGS, denote any kind of drapery hung op
against the walls or Wainseotting of a room.
Paper-Hangings. See Pa per-Hangings.
IFove-Hangings. See Tapestry.
HANGCLIFF, a remarkable point of land on the
east coast of the largest of the Shetland islands. It is
frequently the first land seen by ships in northern voy¬
ages. Captain Phipps determined its situation to be in
W. Long. 56' jo". N. Lat. 6o° 9'.
HANNIBAL, a famous Carthaginian general, of
whose exploits an account is given under the articles
Carthage and Rome. After having had the mis¬
fortune to lose a sea-fight with the Rhodians, through
the cowardice of Apollonius one of the admirals of
Antiochus the Great, he was forced to fly into Crete,
to avoid falling into the hands of the Romans. On
his arrival in this island, he took sanctuary among the
Gortynii j but as he had brought great treasure along
with him, and knew the avarice of the Cretans, he
thought proper to secure his riches by the following
stratagem. He filled several vessels with melted lead,
just covering them over with gold and silver* These
he deposited in the temple of Diana, in the presence
of the Gortynii, with whom, lie said, he trusted all
his treasure ; Justin tells us, that he left this with
them as a security for his good behaviour, and lived
for some time very quietly in these parts. He took
care, however, to conceal his riches in hollow statues
of brass 5 which, according to some, he always carried
along with him 5 or, as others will have it, exposed in
a public place as things of little value. At last he
retired to the court of Prusks king of Bithynia, where
he found means to unite several of the neighbouring
states with that prince in a confederacy against Eu*
menes king of Pergamus, a professed friend to the Ro¬
mans 5 and during the ensuing war gave Eumenes se¬
veral defeats, more through the force of his own ge¬
nius than the valour of his troops* The Romans
having received intelligence of the important services
performed by Hannibal, immediately dispatched T.
Quintius Fiamiftius as an ambassador to Prusias, in
order to procure his destruction. At his first audience,
he complained of the protection given to that famous
general; representing him 44 as the most inveterate and
implacable enemy the Romans ever had y as one who
had ruined both his own eountry and Antiochus, by
drawing them into a destructive war with Rome.”—
Prusias, in order to ingratiate himself with the Romans,
immediately sent a party of soldiers to surround Han¬
nibal’s house, that he might find it impossible to make
his eseape. The Carthaginian, having before disco¬
vered that no confidence was to be reposed in Prusias
had contrived seven secret passages from his house, in
order to evade the machinations of his enemies, even
if they should earry their point at the Bithynian’eourt.
But guards being posted at these, he could not fly^
though, according to Livy, he attempted it. Pei-r
eeiving, therefore, no possibility of escaping, he had
recourse to poison, which he had long reserved for such
a melancholy occasion. Then taking it in his hand,
u Let us (said he) deliver the Romans from the dis¬
quietude with which they have long been tortured,
since they have not patience to wait for an old man’s
death. Flaminius will not acquire any reputation or
glory by a victory gained over a betrayed and defence¬
less person. This single day will be a lasting testimo¬
ny of the degeneracy of the Romans. Their ances¬
tors gave Pyrrhus intelligence of a design to poison
him, that he might guard against the impending dan¬
ger, even when be was at the head of a powerful ar¬
my in Italy ; but they have deputed a person of con¬
sular dignity to excite Prusias impiously to murder
one who has taken refuge in his diminions, in viola¬
tion of the laws of hospitality.” Then having de¬
nounced dreadful imprecations against Prusias, he
drank the poison, and expired at the age of 70 years*
Cornelius Nepos acquaints us, that he put an end to
his life by a subtile poison which he carried about with
him in a ring. Plutarch relates, that, according te
some writers, he ordered a servant to strangle him with
a cloak wrapped about his neck ; and others say, that,
in imitation of Midas and Themistocles, he drank bull’s
blood.
With respect to the character of this general, it
appears to have been in military affairs what Demos¬
thenes was in oratory, or Newton in mathematics j
namely, absolutely perfect, in which no human wisdom
could discover a fault, and to which no man could add
a perfection. Rollin hath contrasted his character
with that of Scipio Africanus. He enumerates the
qualities which make a complete general j and having
then given a summary of what historians have related
concerning both commanders, is inclined to give the
preference to Hannibal. “ There are, however, (be
says), two difficulties which hinder him from deciding 5,
one drawn from the characters of the generals whom
Hannibal vanquished $ the other from the errors he
committed. May it not be said (continues our author),
that those victories which made Hannibal so famous,
were as much owing to the imprudence and temerity
of the Roman generals, as to his bravery and skill?
When a Fabius and a Scipio were sent against him,
the former stopped his progress, the latter conquered
him.”
These reasons have been answered by Mr Hooke,
who bath taken some pains to vindicate Hannibal’s
character, by fully and fairly comparing it with that
of Scipio Africanus, and other Roman commanders.
“ I do not see (says he) why these difficulties should
cheek our author’s inclination to declare in favour of
the Carthaginian. That Fabius was not beaten by
Hannibal, we cannot much wonder, when we remem¬
ber how steadily the old man kept to his resolution
never to fight with him. Bu-t from Fabius’s taking
this method to put a stop to the victories of the ene-
my, may we not conclude that lie knew no other, and
thought Hannibal an overmatch for him ? And why
does our author forget Publius Scipio (Africanus’s
father), a prudent and able general, whom Hannibal
vanquished at the Ticin ? Livy relates some victories
of Hannibal over the celebrated Marcellas ; but nei¬
ther Marcellas nor any other general ever vanquished
Hannibal before the battle of Zama, if we may be¬
lieve Polybius (lib. xv. c. 16.). Terentius Varro, in¬
deed, is represented as a headstrong rash man ; but the
battle of Cann?e was not lost by his imprudence. The
order
Hanniba C
E,'. j
111 a
HAN [ 251 ] HAN
mibal order in wlncli lie drew up his army is nowhere con-
(1 demned ; and Chevalier Folard thinks it excellent,
over. And as to the conduct of the battle, ^Flmilius Paulas, a
renowned captain, and a disciple of Fabius, had a greater
share in it than his colleague. The imprudence with
which Varro is taxed, was his venturing, contrary to
his colleague’s advice, with above 90,000 men, to en¬
counter in a plain field an enemy who had only 50,000,
but was superior in horse. And does not the very advice
ofiEmilius, and the charge of temerity on Varro for not
following it, imply a confession of Hannibal’s superio¬
rity in military skill over ^Emilius as well as Varro ?
It ought likewise to be observed, that Hannibal’s inr
fantry had gained the victory over the Roman infan¬
try, before this latter suffered any thing from the Car¬
thaginian cavalry. It was otherwise when Scipio
gained the victory at Zama. His infantry would pro¬
bably have been vanquished but for his cavalry. Han¬
nibal, with only his third line of foot (bis Italian army),
maintained a long fight against Scipio’s three lines of
foot ; and seems to have had the advantage over them,
when Masinissa and Laelius, with the horse, came to
their assistance. Polybius indeed says, that Hannibal’s
Italian forces were equal in number to all Scipio’s in¬
fantry $ but this is contradicted by Ljvy, and is not
very probable. The authority of Polybius, who was
an intimate friend of Scipio ZEmilianus, is, I imagine,
of little weight in matters where the glory of the
Scipios is particularly concerned. His partiality and
flattery to them are, in many instances, but too vi¬
sible.”
Our author then proceeds to show, that Hannibal
was not guilty of any of the faults laid to his charge
as a general j and having contrasted the moral cha¬
racters of the two generals with each other, makes it
evident, that as a man, as well as a general, Hannibal
had greatly the advantage of his rival. See Hooke's
Roman History, vol. iv. p. 151. et. seq.
HANNO, general of the Carthaginians, was com¬
manded to sail round Africa. He entered the ocean
through the straits of Gibraltar, and discovered several
countries. He would have continued his navigation, had
it not been for want of provisions. He wrote an account
•of his voyage, which was often quoted, but not much
credited. Sigismund Gelenius published it in Greek
at Basil, by Frohenius, in 1533. -^e lived, according
to Pliny, when the affairs of the Carthaginians were
in the most flourishing condition j but this is a very
indeterminate expression.
HANOVER, formerly an electoral state, now a
kingdom of Germany, of which the king of Great Bri¬
tain is king.—-Though the house of Hanover is the last
that was raised to the electoral and kingly dignity in
the empire, it may vie with any in Germany for the
antiquity and nobleness of its family.
The present kingdom of Hanover is bounded on the
north by the duchy of Oldenburg, by Holstein and
Lunenburg, on the east by Prussian Saxony, on the
south by the Prussian dominions and Hesse-Cassel,
and on the west by the kingdom of the Netherlands.
It contains about 14,720 square English miles, and in
1818 its population was 1,333,632 souls.
The principalities of Kalenburg, Gottingen, and
Grubenhagen, are very mountainous, especially in their
southern divisions. The other provinces form a part
of the extensive plain which commences on the shores
of the German ocean, and terminates on the frontiers of
Russia. The whole plain is a sandy soil, resting on a
bed of granite, and is generally sterile, except on the
banks of the rivers. The most considerable mountains
are those of the Hartz Forest, which extend beyond
the limits ol the kingdom. The Bruchberg, the high¬
est summit of these, has an elevation of 3020 feet.
I hese mountains are covered with wood, and abound
in minerals.
In consideration of the great services performed by
Ernest Augustus, duke of Brunswic-Hanover, in the
wars which the emperor Leopold had with Louis XIV,
that emperor conferred the dignity of an elector of the
holy Roman empire upon him and his heirs male, of
which he received the investiture on the 19th of De¬
cember 1692. This new creation met with great
opposition both in the electoral college and the col¬
lege of princes: at last, by a conclusion of the three
colleges on the 30th of January 1708, it was unani¬
mously determined, that the electoral dignity should be
confirmed to the duke of Hanover and his heirs male j
but it was added, that if, while that electoral dignity
subsisted, the Palatine electorate should happen to fall
into the hands of a Protestant prince, the first Catholic
elector should have a supernumerary vote.
The princes of this house had their seat in the col¬
lege of princes, immediately after those of the elec¬
toral houses j each branch having a vote. The elec¬
tor, besides his seat in the electoral college, was invest¬
ed with the office of arch standard-bearer of the em¬
pire ; but this being disputed with him by the duke of
Wirtemberg, the elector Palatine having obtained the
office of arch-steward, yielded that of arch-treasurer
to the elector of Hanover, who was confirmed in this
dignity by a decree of the diet of the 13th of Janu¬
ary 1710.
The government of Hanover is a monarchy, and the
prince is deemed to be of age at 18. The legislative
power is shared between the prince and the assembly
of the states, consisting of 102 deputies chosen from the
three bodies of the clergy, nobility, and burgesses.
The ministers are known, however, to have the nomi¬
nation of the greater number of the members 5 and to
make sure of their servility, three-fourths of them have
places under the crown. No government can be more
mild ; and an air of content is spread over all the in¬
habitants. The High Court of Justice, and the Re¬
gency, are the principal courts of justice ; besides
which, every province has its municipal administra¬
tion with the inferior divisions into bailiwics, &c.
The police is excellent, and justice fairly administered.
Lutheranism is the established religion j but all others
enjoy a perfect toleration, and are publicly exercised.
Difference in religious sentiments here gives no inter¬
ruption to that harmony which should subsist among
fellow citizens. There are 750 Lutheran parishes,
14 Reformed communities, a Romish college, a con¬
vent, and some Catholic churches.
Literature is in a very advanced state throughout
these dominions. The university of Gottingen is de¬
servedly celebrated j and contains about 800 students
of different nations, and 60 professors. There are be¬
sides several colleges, and a number of well established
schools, throughout the electorate. In general, edu¬
cation is much attended to.
Although there are various tracts of heath and
I i 2 marshy
HAN [2
Hanover marshy ground, the soil in general produces abundance
U of corn, fruits, hemp, flax, tobacco, madder, and some
Hause- wine. There are several large salt-works. A good
u>wns- deal of cattle are reared, and a great number of excel-
' lent horses. Most metals and minerals are found here.
The forests furnish sufficient timber, and large quanti¬
ties of pitch and tar. The natural productions of the
electorate furnish ample materials for commerce, so as
to prevent the balance being against them, although
their manufactures are not sufficient for consumption.
Cattle, horses, salt, wrought iron, and fuel, are princi¬
pal articles of export. Bremen is one of the greatest
commercial towns in Germany.
The king of Hanover is descended from the an¬
cient family of the Guelphs, dukes and electors of Ba¬
varia *, one of whom, Henry the Lion, in 1140, mar¬
ried Maude, eldest daughter of King Henry (Planta-
genet) II. of England. Their son William succeeded
te Brunswic-Lunenburg, and his son Otho was created
duke thereof. The dominions descended in a direct
line to Ernest, who divided them upon his death in
1546 into two branches, that of Brunswick-Lunenburg
Wolfenbuttle, and Brunswic-Lunenburg Zell. The
possessor of the latter, Ernest Augustus, was in 1692
raised to the dignity of an elector ; before which lie
was head of the college of German princes. Ernest
married Sophia, daughter of Frederic, elector Palatine
and king of Bohemia, by Elizabeth, daughter of
James I. king of England. Sophia being the next
Protestant heir to the house of Stuart, the parliament
fixed the crown of Great Britain upon her on Queen
Anne’s demise ; and George Louis, her elder son, be¬
came king of Great Britain in consequence thereof j
since which the electors of Hanover have filled the Bri¬
tish throne. See Hanover, Supplement.
Hanover, is also the name of the capital of the
above electorate ; and is agreeably situated in a sandy
plain on the river Leyne, in E. Long. 10. 5. N. Lat.
52. 5. It is a large well-built town, pretty well forti¬
fied, and contains about 24,000 inhabitants. It is noted
for a particular kind of beer, reckoned excellent in
these parts. In 1803, when war between Britain
and France broke out, this capital, as well as the elec¬
torate, was seized by the French, and subsequently
given up to Prussia. It was afterwards in part annex¬
ed to the kingdom of Westphalia, but was delivered
from the French yoke in 1813, and raised to the rank
of a kingdom the following year.
HANSE, or Hans, an ancient name for a society
or company of merchants 5 particularly that of certain
cities in Germany, &c. hence called Hanse-towns. See
Hanse-Towtis.—The word hanse is obsolete High
Dutch or Teutonic j and signifies “ alliance, confede¬
racy, association,” &c. Some derive it from the two
German words, arn-see, that is, “ on the seaby rea¬
son the first hanse-towns were all situated on the sea-
coast •, whence the society is said to have been first
called am zee ste?}eny that is, “ cities on the sea j” and
afterwards, by abbreviation, hansee, and hanse.
Hanse-Towhs. The hanseatic society was a league
between several maritime cities of Germany, for the
mutual protection of their commerce. Bremen and
Amsterdam were the two first that formed it j whose
trade received such advantage by their fitting out two
men of war in each to convoy their ships, that more
52 ] HAN
cities continually entered into the league : even kings Hfin>e
and princes made treaties with them, and were often ‘owns
glad of their assistance and protection ; by which means
they grew so powerful both by sea and land, that they
raised armies as well as navies, enjoyed countries in
sovereignty, and made peace or war, though always in
defence of their trade, as if they had been an united
state or commonwealth.
At this time also abundance of cities, though they
had no great interest in trade, or intercourse with the
ocean, came into their alliance for the preservation of
their liberties : so that in I 200 we find no less than
72 cities in the list of the towns of the Hanse j parti¬
cularly Bremen, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Rotterdam,
Doit, Bruges, Ostend, Dunkirk, Middleburgh, Calais,
Rouen, Rochelle, Bourdeaux, St Malo, Bayonne, Bil-
boa, Lisbon, Seville, Cadiz, Carthagena, Barcelona,
Marseilles, Leghorn, Naples, Messina, London, Lu-
bec, Rostock, Stralsund, Stetin, Wismar, Konigsberg,
Dantzig, Elbing, Marienburg.
The alliance was now so powerful, that their ships
of war were often hired by other princes to assist them
against their enemies. They not only awed, but often
defeated, all that opposed their commerce ; and par¬
ticularly in 1358, they took such revenge of the Da¬
nish fleet in the Sound, for having interrupted their
commerce, that Waldemar III. then king of Denmark,
for the sake of peace, gave them up all Schonen for
16 years ; by which they commanded the passage of
the Sound in their own right.—In 1428 they made
war on Erick king of Denmark with 250 sail, carry¬
ing on board 12,000 men. These so ravaged the coast
of Jutland, that the king was glad to make peace with
them.
Many privileges were bestowed upon the hanse-towns
by Louis XI. Charles VIII. Louis XII. and Francis I.
kings of France ; as well as by the emperor Charles V.
who had divers loans of money from them j and by
King Henry III. who also incorporated them into a
trading body, in acknowledgment for money which
they advanced to him, as well as for the good services
they did him by their naval forces in 1206.
These towns exercised a jurisdiction among them¬
selves $ for which purpose they were divided into four
colleges or provinces, distinguished by the names of
their four principal cities, viz. Lubec, Cologne, Bruns¬
wick, and Dantzic, wherein were held their courts of
judicature. They had a common stock or treasury at
Lubec, and power to call an assembly as often as ne¬
cessary.—-They kept magazines or warehouses for the
sale of their merchandises in London, Bruges, Ant¬
werp, Berg in Norway, Revel in Livonia, Novogorod
in Muscovy, which were exported to most parts of
Europe, in English, Dutch, and Flemish bottoms.
One of their principal magazines was at London,
where a society of German merchants was formed, call¬
ed the steelyard company. To this company great
privileges were granted by Edward I. but revoked by
act of parliament in 1552 in the reign of Edward VI.
on a complaint of the English merchants that this
company had so engrossed the cloth-trade, that in the
preceding year they had exported 50,000 pieces, while
all the English together had shipped off but H00.
Queen Mary, who ascended the throne the year follow¬
ing, having resolved to marry Philip, the emperor’s son,
suspended
p
r
HAN [ 253 ] HAN
b ^ j nse. suspended the execution of the act for three years : but
t us, after that term, whether by reason of some new statute,
way. or in pursuance of that of King Edward, the privi-
leges of that company were no longer regarded, and all
efforts of the hanse-towns to recover this loss were in
vain.
Another accident that happened to their mortifica¬
tion was while Queen Elizabeth was at war with the
Spaniards. Sir Francis Drake happening to meet 60
ships in the Tagus, loaded with corn belonging to the
hanse-towns, took out all the corn as contraband goods,
which they were forbidden to carry by their original
patent. The hanse-towns having complained of this to
the diet of the empire, the queen sent an ambassador
thither to declare her reasons. The king of Poland
likewise interested himself in the affair, because the city
of Dantzic wTas under his protection. At last, though
the queen strove hard to preserve the commerce of the
English in Germany, the emperor excluded the Eng¬
lish company of merchant-adventurers, who had con¬
siderable factories at Stade, Embden, Bremen, Ham¬
burgh, and Elbing, from all trade in the empire. In
short, the hanse-towns, in Germany in particular, were
not only in so flourishing, but in so formidable a state,
from the 14th to the 16th century, that they gave
umbrage to all the neighbouring princes, who threaten¬
ed a strong confederacy against them ; and, as the first
step towards it, commanded all the cities within their
dominion or jurisdiction to withdraw from the union or
hanse, and be no farther concerned therein. This im¬
mediately separated all the cities of England, I ranee,
and Italy, from them. The hanse, on the other hand,
prudently put themselves under the protection of the
empire •, and as the cities just now mentioned had with¬
drawn from them j so they withdrew from several more,
and made a decree among themselves, that none should
be admitted into their society but such as stood within
the limits of the German empire, or were dependent
thereon : except Dantzic, which continued a member,
though in nowise dependent on the empire, only it had
been summoned formerly to the imperial diet. By this
means they maintained their confederacy for the protec¬
tion of their trade, as it was begun, without being any
more envied by their neighbours. Hereby likewise
they were reduced to Lubec, Bremen, Hamburgh, and
Dantzic ; in the first of which they kept their register,
and held assemblies once in three years at least. But
this hanse or union has for some time been dissolved j
and now every one of the cities carries on a trade sepa¬
rately for itself, according to the stipulation in such
treaties of peace, &c. as are made for the empire be¬
twixt the emperor and other potentates.
HANWAY, Jonas, eminent for his benevolent de¬
signs and useful writings, was born at Portsmouth in
Hampshire on the 12th of August 1712. His father,
Mr Thomas Hanway, was an officer in the naval ser¬
vice, and for some years store-keeper to the dockyard
at that place. He was deprived of his life by an acci¬
dent ; and left his widow with four children, Jonas,
William, Thomas, and Elizabeth, all ol a very tender
age. Mrs Hanway coming to London after the death
of her husband, put Jonas to school, where he learned
writing and accounts, and made some proficiency in
Latin. At the age of ly he was sent to Lisbon, where
he arrived in June 1729, and was bound apprentice to
a merchant in that city. His early life, we are in- Hanway.
formed, was marked with that discreet attention to bu- -*v—•-
siness, and love of neatness and regularity, which after¬
wards distinguished his character. At Lisbon his af¬
fections were captivated by a lady, then celebrated for
her beauty and mental accomplishments : but she, pre¬
ferring another for her husband, returned to England,
and spent the latter part of her life in London with her
family, on terms of friendship with Mr Hanway.—On
the expiration of Mr Hanway’s apprenticeship, lie en¬
tered into business at Lisbon as a merchant or factor j
but did not remain there long before he returned to
London.
He soon after connected himself as a partner in Mr
Dingley’s house in St Petersburgh j where he arrived
on the 10th of June 1743. The trade of the English
nation over the Caspian sea into Persia at this period
had been entrusted to the care of Mr Elton, who, not
content with the pursuit of commercial affairs, had in¬
judiciously engaged in the service of Nadir Shah to
build ships on the Caspian after the European manner.
This had alarmed the merchants in the Russian trade,
and a resolution was formed that one of their body
should make a journey into Persia. On this occasion
Mr Hanway offered his service, and was accepted.
He set out on the 10th of September; and after ex¬
periencing a variety of hazards in that kingdom du¬
ring a course of 12 months, returned to St Petersburgh
January 1. 1745, without being able to establish the
intended trade by the Caspian, partly through the
jealousy of the Russian court on account of EltoiPs
connections with the Persians, and partly by the
troubles and revolutions of the latter kingdom.
Though Mr Hanway’s conduct during this expe¬
dition seems to have been directed by the strictest
rules of integrity, yet some difficulties arose in settling
his demands on his employers. These, however, in
the end were referred to the determination of impar¬
tial arbitrators, who at length decided in his favour.
“ I obtained (he says) my own ; and as to any other
personal advantage, it consisted in exercising my mind
in patience under trials, and increasing my know¬
ledge of the world.” He now settled at St Peters¬
burgh ; where he remained five years, with no other
variations in his life than such as may he supposed to ^
occur in the dull roun'd of a mercantile employment.
During this time he interested himself greatly in the
concerns of the merchants who had engaged in the
Caspian trade : but the independence he had acquired
having excited a desire to see his native country, he,
after several disappointments which prevented him from
accomplishing his wish, left St Petersburgh on the 9th
of July 1750. On his arrival in his native country,
he did not immediately relinquish his mercantile con¬
nections, though he seems to have left Russia with
that view. He employed himself some time as a
merchant; but afterwards, more beneficially to the
world, as a private gentleman. In 1753 i,e published
“ An Historical Account of the British trade over
the Caspian sea; with a Journal of Travels Irom Lon¬
don through Russia into Persia; and back again through
Russia, Germany, and Holland. To which are add¬
ed, the Revolutions of Persia during the present cen¬
tury, with the particular History of the meat Usur¬
per Nadir Kouii,” 4 vols 410 : a work which was re¬
ceived, .
H AN [ 254 1 HAN
* Hanway. celved, as it deserved to be, with great attention from
l-—v—^ the public. In 1754, we find Mr Hanway commend-
. ing a plan offered for the advantage of Westminster,
and suggesting bints for the further improvement of it,
in “ A Letter to Mr John Spranger, on his excellent
Proposal for Paving, Cleansing, and Lighting the
Streets of Westminster, &c.” 8vo. A few years after¬
wards, when a scheme of the like kind was carried into
effect, many of Mr Hanway’s ideas, thrown out in
this pamphlet, were adopted. In 1756, he printed
“ A journal of Eight Days Journey from Portsmouth
to Kingston upon Thames, with an Essay upon Tea j”
which was afterwards reprinted in two volumes 8vo,
I757- . . ...
At this juncture, Great Britain being on the eve
of a war with France, the event of which was very
important to the nation at large, and required every
effort of patriotism and prudence to ward off the im¬
pending danger, Mr Hanway published “ Thoughts on
the Duty of a good Citizen with regard to War and
Invasion, in a Letter from a Citizen to his Friend,”
8vo. About the same time, several gentlemen form¬
ed a plan which was matured and made perfect by
the assiduity of Mr Hanway, for providing the navy
with sailors, by furnishing poor children with necessa¬
ries to equip them for the service of their country.
The success and propriety of this scheme soon became
apparent. Mr Hanway wrote apd published three
pamphlets on this occasion *, and the treasurer of the
Society, accompanied by Mr Hanway, having waited
on the king, the Society received 1000I. from his ma¬
jesty, 400I. from the prince of Wales, and 200I. from
the princess dowager. This excellent institution
through life was the favourite object of Mr Hanway’s
care, and continued to flourish under his auspices great¬
ly to the advantage of the community. In 1758 he
became an advocate for another charitable institution,
which derived considerable emolument from his patro¬
nage of it. This was the Magdalen Charity ; and to
assist it he published “ A Letter to Robert Dingley,
Esq. being a proposal for the Relief and Employment
of friendless Girls and repenting Prostitutes,” 4to.
He also printed other small performances on the same
subject.
In 1759, Mr Hamvay wrote “ Reasons for an Aug¬
mentation of at least Twelve Thousand Mariners, to be
employed in the Merchants Service and Coasting Trade,
in 33 Letters to Charles Gray, Esq. of Colchester,
4to.” The next year he published several performances,
viz. I. “ A candid historical Account of the Hospital
for the reception of exposed and deserted young Chil¬
dren *, representing the present Plan of it as productive
of many Evils, and not adapted to the Genius and
Happiness of this Nation,” 8vo j which being answer-
ed by an anonymous Letter from Halifax in “ Candid
Remarks, 8vo 1760,” Mr Hanway replied to it, and
the Remarker rejoined. 2. “ An Account of the So-
city for the Encouragement of the British Troops in
Germany and North America, fee.” 8vo. 3. “ Eight
Letters to Duke of , on the Custom of Vails
giving in England,” 8vo. This practice of giving
vails had arrived at a very extravagant pitch, especial¬
ly among the servants of the great. It was Mr Han¬
way who answered the kind reproach of a friend in
a high station for not coming oftener to dine with
him, by saying, “Indeed I cannot afford it.” The Hanv
nobleman to whom the above letters were addressed -y
was the duke of Newcastle. The letters are written
in that humorous style which is most attractive of ge¬
neral notice, and vva^ best adapted to the subject. It was
Sir Timothy Waldo that first put Mr Hanway on this
plan. Sir Timothy had dined with the duke of N ,
and, on his leaving the house, was contributing to the
support and insolence of a train of servants who lined
the hall ; and at last put a crown into the hand of the
cook, who returned it, saying, “ Sir, I do not take
silver.”—“ Don’t you indeed !” said the worthy ba¬
ronet, putting it in his pocket: “ then I do not give
gold.” Among the ludicrous circumstances in Mr
Hanway’s letters is one which happened to himself
H e was paying the servants of a respectable friend for
a dinner which their master had invited him to, one by
one as they appeared j “ Sir, yopr great coat j” a shilling
—“ Your hat $” a shilling—“ Stick j” a shilling 
“ Umbrella 5” a shilling—” Sir, your gloves
“ Why, friend, you may keep the gloves ; they are
not worth a shilling.” In 1761, Mr Hanway produ¬
ced “ Reflections, Essays, and Meditations on Life and
Religion j with a collection of Proverbs, and 18 Let¬
ters written occasionally on several subjects,” in 2 vols
8vo.
The many useful and public-spirited plans which Mr
Hanway had promoted for the welfare of the communi¬
ty, had now rendered his character most respectably
popular, while his disinterestedness, and the sincerity of
his intentions, were conspicuous to all. Five citizens
of London, of whom Mr Hoare the banker was one,
waited on Lord Bute, at that time the minister : and,
in their own names, and in the names of their fellow-
citizens, requested that some notice might be taken of
a man, who, at the expence of his own private fortune,
and unremitting application, had rendered so many and
such meritorious services to his country. In consequence
of this request, he was in July 1762 appointed by a
patent one of the commissioners for victualling the navy;
a post which he held above 21 years. The next act of
public beneficence in which we find him engaged is the
collection of money for the sufferers by the fire which
happened at Montreal, in the province of Quebec, in
May 1765, when a fourth part of the city was consumed.
On this occasion Mr Hanway, in conjunction with two
other gentlemen, collected 8415I.—The very next year
a dreadful fire broke out in Bridge-Town in Barbadoes,
which consumed buildings and property to the amount
of near ioo,oool. A subscription was opened, in
which Mr Hanway was a principal actor, and 14,886!.
were collected, and transmitted to a committee appoint¬
ed at Barbadoes to distribute it to the unfortunate suf¬
ferers. At subsequent periods he continued to interest
himself in various other plans for relieving the distres¬
ses, and promoting the good, of different classes of
the community. His attention was particularly di¬
rected towards alleviating the miseries of young chim¬
ney-sweepers. Besides the distresses of these helpless
beings, which are open to general observation, such
as a contortion of the limbs, and the prevention of
their growth, they are liable to a disease peculiar to
their occupation, now known by the name of the chim¬
ney-sweepers cancer. Four children have been brought
together into a workhouse, all afflicted with this dread¬
ful
HAN [ 255 ] H' A N
vayt ful and incurable disease. After much inquiry and
wconsideration he published, in 1773, “The State of
the Chimney-sweepers Young Apprentices •, showing
the wretched Condition of these distressed Boys ; the
ill Conduct of such masters as do not observe the Ob¬
ligation of Indentures; the Necessity of a strict Inqui¬
ry in order to support the civil and religious Rights of
these apprentices,” i2mo. This small pamphlet has
already been productive of some advantages to the ob¬
jects intended to be benefited by it. The succeeding
year, I774> l,e enlarged a former publication, entitled
“ Advice from a Farmer to his Daughter, &c. and
republished it under the title of “ Virtue in Humble
Life: containing Reflections on the reciprocal Duties,
of the Wealthy and Indigent, the Master and the
Servant,” 2 vols 8vo ; a work deserving the particular
consideration of every magistrate. This edition in a
few months being sold, he reprinted it in two quarto
volumes, with a dedication to Mrs Montagu.
In 1783, finding his health decline, he determined
to resign his office at the victualling board, which he
did on the 2d of October that year; and immediately
received a grant of his whole salary by way of a pen¬
sion, to continue for life. This favour he oived to
the esteem which his majesty, to whom he w-as person¬
ally known, entertained for him ; excited by his various
exertions in behalf of his country and mankind.—Fie
was now released from his most material business, but
did not think it would conduce to his happiness to
lead an idle life. He engaged again in behalf of the
chimney-sweepers boys ; and promoted, by every means
in his power, the establishment of Sunday-schools,
which are now in a fair way to be adopted in every
County in England. He likewise promoted a subscrip¬
tion for the relief of the many black poor people who
wandered about the metropolis in extreme distress ;
and the lords of the treasury seconded the design, by
directing money, as far as 14I. a head, to be issued to
the committee, to enable them to send the blacks to
such places abroad as might be fixed on. After en¬
countering many obstacles, about 300 negroes were
sent, properly accommodated with provisions and ne¬
cessaries, to Africa, under the conduct of a person ap¬
proved for that station. The object of this plan, be¬
sides relieving the misery of these poor people, was to
prevent in time the unnatural connections between
black persons and white, the disagreeable consequences
of which make their appearance but too frequently in
our streets.
In the summer of 1786 Mr Hanway’s health de¬
clined so visibly that he thought it necessary to attend
only to that. He had long felt the approach of a dis¬
order in the bladder, which, increasing by degrees,
caused a strangury; and at length, on the 5th of Sep¬
tember 1786, put a period to a life spent almost en¬
tirely in the service of his fellow-creatures. On the
13U1 he was interred in the family-vault at Hanwell,
being attended to the grave by a numerous retinue of
friends; and after his death the public regard to his
virtues was displayed by a subscription of several hun¬
dred pounds towards erecting a monument to perpetuate
his memory.
Mr Hanway in his person was of the middle size, of
a thin spare habit, but well shaped : his limbs were
fashioned with the nicest symmetry. In the latter years
of his life he stooped very much ; and when he walked Hanwav.
found it conduce to ease to let his head incline towards
one side : but when he went first to Russia at the age of
30, his face was full and comely, and his person alto¬
gether such as obtained for him the appellation of the
Handsome Englishman. In his dress, as far as was consist¬
ent with his health and ease, he accommodated himself
to the prevailing fashion. As it was frequently neces¬
sary for him to appear in polite circles on unexpected
occasions, lie usually wore dress clothes, with a large
French bag. His bat, ornamented with a gold button,
was ot a size and fashion to be worn as well under the
aim as on the head. When it rained, a small parapluie
defended his face and wig. Ihus he was always pre-
pared to enter into any company without impropriety
or the appearance of negligence. His dress for sec
public occasions was a suit of rich dark brown ; the
coat and waistcoat lined throughout with ermine,
which just appeared at the edges; and a small gold-
hilted sword. As he wras extremely susceptible of cold,
he wore flannel under the linings of all his clothes, and
usually three pairs of stockings. He was the first man
who ventured to walk the streets of London with an
umbrella over bis head. After carrying one near 30
years, he saw them come into general use. The pre¬
carious state of his health when he arrived in England
from Russia, made it necessary for him to use the ut¬
most caution ; and his perseverance in following the
advice of the medical practitioners was remarkable.
After Dr Lieberkyn physician to the king of Prussia
had recommended milk as a proper diet to restore his
strength, he made it the chief part of his food for 30
years ; and though it at first disagreed with him, he
persisted in trying it under every preparation that it
was capable of till it agreed with his stomach. By
this rigid attention and care, his health was established ;
his lungs acquired strength and elasticity, and it is '
probable he would have lived several years longer, if
the disorder which was the immeoiate cause of his
death had left him to the gradual decay of nature.
Flis mind was the most active that it is possible to con¬
ceive; always on the wing, and never appearing to be
weary. He rose in the summer at four or five, and in
the winter at seven. Having always business before him,
he was every day employed till the time of retiring to
rest; and, when in health, was commonly asleep with¬
in two minutes after his lying down in bed.
Writing was bis favourite emplyoyment, or rather
amusement; and when the number of his literary
works is Considered, and that they were the produce
only of those hours which he was able to snatch from
public business, an idea may be formed of his applica¬
tion. But by leaving bis work to transact Ins ordinary
business, and afterwards recurring to it with new ideas,
all his literary labours are defective in the arrangement
of the matter, and appear to have too much of the
miscellaneous in tiieir composition. The original idea
is sometimes left in the pursuit of one newly started,
and either taken up again when the mind of the
reader has almost lost it, or it is totally deserted. Yet
those who are judges of literary composition say, that
his language is well calculated to have the effect he
desired on the reader, and impress him with the idea
that the author was a man of inflexible integrity, and
wrote from the pure dictates of the heart. It is plain
and
HAN [256] HAP
Hanwav. ani^ unornamented, without the appearance of art or
^ the aftectation of singularity. Its greatest defect (say
they) is a want of conciseness*, its greatest beauty, an
unaffected and genuine simplicity. He spoke French
and Portuguese, and understood the Russ and modern
Persic imperfectly. Latin he had been taught at school,
but had not much occasion to cultivate it after he enter¬
ed into life.
Mr Hanway, although never married himself, was
yet an advocate for marriage, and recommended it
to all young people. He thought it the most effectual
restraint on licentiousness, and that an increase of un¬
happiness was by no means the natural consequence of
an increase of domestic cares. A “ local habitation,”
with the society of a sensible woman, the choice of un¬
biassed affection, he esteemed as the most engaging
persuasive to the love of order and economy j without
which he thought life, in whatever station, must he
disjointed, perturbed, and unhappy. The lady who
engaged his first affection was uncommonly handsome $
and it is probable he was prevented from marrying on¬
ly by h is failing to obtain her, and the unsettled man¬
ner in which the first years of his life were spent: for
he loved the society of women ; and in the parties which
frequently breakfasted at his house, the ladies usually
made the greater portion of the company.
In his transactions with the world, he was always
open, candid, and sincere. Whatever he said might
be depended on with implicit confidence. He adhered
to the strict truth, even in the manner of his relation j
and no brilliancy of thought could induce him to vary
from the fact: but although so frank in his own pro¬
ceedings, he had seen too much of life to be easily de¬
ceived by others j and he did not often place a confi¬
dence that was betrayed. He did not, however, think
the world so degenerate as is commonly imagined :
“ And if I did (he used to say), I would not let it
appear 5 for nothing can tend so effectually to make a
man wicked, or to keep him so, as a marked suspicion.
Confidence is the reward of truth and fidelity, and these
should never be exerted in vain.” In his department
of commissioner for victualling the navy he was uncom¬
monly assiduous and attentive j and kept the contractors
and persons who had dealings with the office at a great
distance. He would not even accept a hare or pheasant
or the smallest present, from any of them ; and when
any were sent him, he always returned them, not in a
morose manner, as if he affected the excess of disinterest¬
edness, but with some mild answer j such as, “ Mr Han¬
way returns many thanks to Mr for the present
be intended him 5 but he has made it a rule not to ac¬
cept any thing from any person engaged with the office :
A rule which, whilst he acknovrledges Mr ———’s good
intentions, he hopes he will not expect him to break
through.” With all this goodness, Mr Hanway had a
certain singularity of thought and manners, which was
perhaps the consequence of his living the greater part
of his life in foreign countries, and never having been
married. He was not by any means an inattentive
observer of the little forms of politeness: but as he had
studied them in various realms, selecting those which
he approved, his politeness differed from that of other
people ; and his conversation had an air of originality
in it that was very pleasing.
Besides the works already mentioned in the course
3
of this article, Mr Hanway was the author of a great Hamva]
number of others ; his different publications amounting |j
altogether to between sixty and seventy. A complete Happi™ **
list of them is given by his biographer Mr Pugh, from v~'r"
whose grateful and well-written performance this article
has been chiefly extracted.
HAP, or Happ, in Law, signifies to catch or snatch
a thing. Thus we meet with, to hap the possession of
a deed-poll. Littleton, fol. 8. also, to hap the rent.
If partition be made between two parceners, and more
land be allowed the one than the other, she that hath
most of the land charges it to the other, and happeth
the rent whereon assize is brought.
HAPPINESS, or Felicity, absolutely taken, de¬
notes the durable possession of perfect good without
any mixture of evil j or the enjoyment of pure pleasure
unalloyed with pain j or a state in which all the wishes
are satisfied : In which senses, Happiness is known only
by name upon the earth. The word happy, when ap¬
plied to any state or condition of human life, will ad¬
mit of no positive definition, but is merely a relative
term : that is, when we call a man happy, we mean
that he is happier than some others with whom we
compare him ; than the generality of others 5 or than
he himself was in some other situation.
This interesting subject has been treated by many
eminent writers, and in a great variety of ways $ but
by none does it appear to have been set in a clearer
and more definite point of view than by Archdeacon
Paley in the sixth chapter of his Principles of Philosophy.
“ In strictness (says that elegant writer), any condition
may be denominated happy in which the amount or
aggregate of pleasure exceeds that of pain j and the
degree of happiness depends upon the quantity of this
excess. And the greatest quantity of it, ordinarily
attainable in human life, is what we mean by happiness,
when we inquire or pronounce what human happiness
consists in.
If any positive signification, distinct from what we
mean by pleasure, can be affixed to the term happiness,
it may be taken to denote a certain state of the ner¬
vous system in that part of the human frame in which
we feel joy and grief, passions and affections. Whe¬
ther this part be the heart, which the turn of most
languages would lead us to believe ; or the diaphragm,
as Buflon, or the upper orifice of the stomach, as \an
Helmont thought j or rather be a kind of fine net¬
work, lining the whole region of the praecordia, as
others have imagined j it is possible not only that every
painful sensation may violently shake and disturb the
fibres at the time, but that a series of such may at
length so derange the very texture of the system, as to
produce a perpetual irritation, which will shew itself
by fretfulness, restlessness, and impatience. It is pos¬
sible also, on the other hand, that a succession of plea¬
surable sensations may have such an effect upon this
subtle organization, as to cause the fibres to relax,
and return into their place and order j and thereby to
recover, or if not lost to preserve, that harmonious con¬
formation which gives to the mind its sense of com¬
placency and satisfaction. This state may be denomi¬
nated happiness: And is so far distinguishable fiom
pleasure, that it does not refer to any particular object
of enjoyment, or consist like pleasure in the gratifica¬
tion of one or more of the senses 5 but is rather the se¬
condary
W J
HAP [ 257 ] HAP
>me<s c°ndary effect which such objects and gratifications
(‘* produce upon the nervous system, or the state in which
they leave it. The comparative sense, however, in
which we have explained the term happiness, is more
popular; and in prosecuting the subject, we may con¬
sider, I. What human happiness does not consist in;
and, 2. What it does consist in.
I. First, then, happiness does not consist in the plea¬
sures of sense, in whatever profusion or variety they be
enjoyed. By the pleasures of sense are meant, as well
the animal gratifications of eating, drinking, and that
by which the species is continued, as the more refined
pleasures of music, painting, architecture, gardening,
splendid shows, theatric exhibitions, and the pleasures,
lastly, of active sports, as of hunting, shooting, fishing,
&c. For, I. These pleasures continue but for a little
while at a time. This is true of them all, especially
of the grosser sort. Laying aside the preparation and
the expectation, and computing strictly the actual sen¬
sation, we shall be surprised to find how inconsiderable
a portion of our time they occupy, how few hours in
the four and twenty they are able to fill up. 2. By re¬
petition, they lose their relish. It is a property of the
machine, for which we know no remedy, that the or¬
gans by which we perceive pleasure are blunted and
benumbed, by being frequently exercised in the same
way. There is hardly any one who has not found the
dift'erence between a gratification when new and when
familiar, and any pleasure which does not become in¬
different as it grows habitual. 3. The eagerness for
high and intense delights takes away the relish from all
others ; and as such delights fall rarely in our way, the
greater part of our time becomes from this cause empty
and uneasy. There is hardly any delusion by which
men are greater sufferers in their happiness, than by
their expecting too much from what is called pleasure;
that is, from those intense delights which vulgarly en¬
gross the name of pleasure. The very expectation
spoils them. When they do come, wre are often enga¬
ged in taking pains to persuade ourselves how much we
are pleased, rather than enjoying any pleasure which
springs naturally out of the object. And whenever we
depend upon being vastly delighted, we always go
home secretly grieved at missing our aim. Likewise,
as hath been observed just now, when this humour of
being prodigiously delighted has once taken hold of the
imagination, it hinders us from providing for acquies¬
cing in those gently soothing engagements, the due va¬
riety and succession of which are the only things that
supply a continued stream of happiness.
The truth seems to be, that there is a limit at which
these pleasures soon arrive, and from which they ever
afterwards decline. They are by necessity of short
duration, as the organs cannot hold on their emotions
beyond a certain length of time ; and if you endeavour
to compensate for this imperfection in their nature by
the frequency with which you repeat them, you lose
snore than you gain by the fatigue of the faculties and
the diminution of sensibility. We have in this ac¬
count said nothing of the loss of opportunities or the
decay of faculties, which whenever they happen leave
the voluptuary destitute and desperate; teased by de¬
sires that can never be gratified, and the memory of
pleasures which must return no more. It will also be
Vot. X. Part I.
allowed by those who have experienced it, and perhaps Happiness4
by those alone, that pleasure which is purchased by the -y—j
encumbrance of our fortune is purchased too dear ; the
pleasure never compensating for the perpetual irrita¬
tion of embarrassed circumstances.
These pleasures, after all, have their value : and as
the young are always too eager in their pursuit of
them, the old are sometimes too remiss: that is, too
studious of their ease to be at the pains for them which
they really deserve.
Secondly, Neither does happiness consist in an exemp¬
tion from pain, labour, care, business, suspense, moles¬
tation, and “ those evils which are without 5” such a
state being usually attended not with ease, but with
depression of spirits, a tastelessness in all our ideas,
imaginary anxieties, and the whole train of hypochon¬
driacal affections. For which reason it seldom answers
the expectations of those who retire from their shops
and counting-houses to enjoy the remainder of their
days in leisure and tranquillity ; much less of such as
in a fit of chagrin shut themselves up in cloisters and
hermitages, or quit the world and their stations in it,
for solitude and repose.
Where there exists a known external cause of unea¬
siness, the cause may be removed, and the uneasiness
will cease. But those imaginary distresses which men
feel for want of real ones (and which are equally tor¬
menting, and so far equally real), as they depend upon
no single or assignable subject of uneasiness, so they ad¬
mit oft-times of no application or relief. Hence a mo¬
derate pain, upon which the attention may fasten and
spend itself, is to many a refreshment ; as a fit of the
gout will sometimes cure the spleen. And the same of
any moderate agitation of the mind, as a literary con¬
troversy, a law-suit, a contested election, and above all
gaming ; the passion for which, in men of fortune and li¬
beral minds, is only to he accounted for on this principle.
Thirdly, Neither does happiness consist in greatness,
rank, or elevated station.
Were it true that all superiority afforded pleasure, it
would follow, that by how much we are the greater,
that is, the more persons we were superior to, in the
same proportion, so far as depended upon this cause, we
should be the happier; but so it is, that no superiority
yields any satisfaction, save that which w7e possess or
obtain over those w'ith whom we immediately compare
ourselves. The shepherd perceives no pleasure in his
superiority over his dog ; the farmer in his superiority
over the shepherd ; the lord in his superiority over the
farmer; nor the king, lastly, in his superiority over
the lord. Superiority, where there is no competition,
is seldom contemplated; what most men indeed are
quite unconscious of. But if the same shepherd can
run, fight, or wrestle, better than the peasants of his
village ; if the farmer can show better cattle, if he
keeps a better horse, or be supposed to have a longer
purse than any farmer in the hundred ; if the ford
have more interest in an election, greater favour at
court, a better house, or larger estate, than any noble¬
man in the county ; if the king possess a more exten¬
sive territory, a more powerful fleet or army, a more
splendid establishment, more loyal subjects, or more
weight and authority in adjusting the affairs of nations,
than any prince in Europe ; in all these cases, the
K k parties
t
H A P
Happiness, parties feel an actual satisfaction in their superiority.
1' No superiority appears to be of any account but a supe¬
riority over a rival. This, it is manifest, may exist
wherever rivalships do ; and rivalships fall out amongst
men of all ranks and degrees. The object of emula¬
tion, the dignity or magnitude of this object, makes no
difference 5 as it is not what either possesses that consti¬
tutes the pleasure, but what one possesses more than the
other. Philosophy smiles at the contempt with which
the rich and great speak of the petty strifes and com¬
petitions of the poor ; not reflecting that these strifes
and competitions are just as reasonable as their own,
and the pleasure which success affords the same.
It appears evident then, that happiness does not con¬
sist in greatness j since what are supposed to he the pe¬
culiar advantages of greatness, the pleasures ofambition
and superiority, are in reality common to all conditions.
But whether the pursuits of ambition be ever wise,
whether they contribute more to the happiness or mi¬
sery of the pursuers, is a different question ; and a
question concerning which we may be allowed to en¬
tertain great doubt. The pleasure of success is exqui¬
site *, so also is the anxiety of the pursuit, and the pain
of disappointment ; and what is the worst part of the
account, the pleasure is short-lived. We soon cease to
look back upon those whom we have left behind j new
contests are engaged in, new prospects unfold them¬
selves j a succession of struggles is kept up, whilst there
is a rival left within the compass of our views and pro¬
fession ; and when there is none, the pleasure with the
pursuit is at an end.
II. We have seen what happiness does not consist in.
We are next to consider in what it does consist. In the
conduct of life, the great matter is, to know before
hand what will please us, and what pleasures will hold
out. So far as we know this, our choice will be justi¬
fied by the event. And this knowledge is more rare
and difficult than at first sight it may seem to be : for
sometimes pleasures, which are wonderfully alluring
and flattering in the prospect, turn out in the possession
extremely insipid j or do not hold out as we expected :
at other times pleasures start up, which never entered
into our calculation, and which we might have missed
of by not foreseeing ; from whence we have reason to
believe, that we actually do miss of many pleasures
from the same cause.
The original diversity of taste, capacity, and consti¬
tution, observable in the human species, and the still
greater variety which habit and fashion have introdu¬
ced, render it altogether impossible to propose any plan
of happiness which will succeed to all, or any method
of life which is universally eligible or practicable. All
that can be said is, that there remains a presumption
in favour of those conditions of life in which men
generally appear most cheerful and contented. For
though the apparent happiness of mankind be not al¬
ways a true measure of their real happiness, it is the
best measure we have.
Upon this principle, then, happiness appears to con¬
sist,
1. In the exercise of the social affections Those
persons commonly possess good spirits who have about
them many objects of affection and endearment ; as
wife, childi’en, kindred, friends: and to tbs want of
HAP
these may he imputed the peevishness of monks and of Happinc:
such as lead a monastic life. Of the same nature with  ^ [ r 1
the indulgence of our domestic affections, and equally
refreshing to the spirits, is the pleasure which results
from acts of bounty and beneficence, exercised either
in giving money, or in imparting to those who want it
the assistance of our skill and profession.
I. Another main article of human happiness is, the
exercise of our faculties, either of body or mind, in the
pursuit of some engaging end.
It seems to be true, that no plenitude of present gra¬
tifications can make the possessor happy for a continu¬
ance, unless he have something in reserve, something to
hope for and look forward to. This may be inferred
from comparing the alacrity and spirits of men who are
engaged in any pursuit which interests them, with the
dejection and ennui of almost all who are either horn to
so much that they want nothing more, or who have
used up their satisfactions too soon and drained the
sources of them. It is this intolerable vacuity of mind
which carries the rich and great to the horse-course
and the gaming table j and often engages them in
contests and pursuits, of which the success bears no pro¬
portion to the solicitude and expence with which it is
sought.
The question now occurs, How we are to provide
ourselves with a succession of pleasurable engagements ?
This requires two things : Judgment in the choice of
ends adapted to our opportunities $ and a command of
imagination, so as to be able, when the judgment has
made choice of an end, to transfer a pleasure to the
means ; after which the end may be forgotten as soon
as we will. Hence those pleasures are most valuable,
not which are most exquisite in the fruition, hut most
productive of engagement and activity in the pursuit.
A man who is in earnest in his endeavours after the
happiness of a future state, has in this respect an ad¬
vantage over all the world. For he has constantly be¬
fore his eyes an object of supreme importance, produc¬
tive of perpetual engagement and activity, and of which
the pursuit (which can be said of no pursuit besides)
lasts him to his life’s end. Yet even he must have ma¬
ny ends beside the far end ; but then they will conduct
to that, be subordinate, and in some way or other ca¬
pable of being referred to that, and derive their satis¬
faction, or an addition ©f satisfaction, from that.
Engagement is every thing. The more significant,
however, our engagements are, the better j such as the
planning of laws, institutions, manufactures, charities,
improvements, public works, and the endeavouring by
our interest, address, solicitations, and activity, to carry
them into effect: or upon a smaller scale, the procu¬
ring of a maintenance and fortune for our families, by
a course of industry and application to our callings,
which forms and gives motion to the common occupa¬
tions of life; training up a child ; prosecuting a scheme
for his future establishment ; making ourselves masters
of a language or a science ; improving or managing an
estate ; labouring after a piece of preferment : and,
lastly, any engagement which is innocent is better than
none ; as writing a book, building a house, laying out
a garden, digging a fish-pond ; even raising a cucum¬
ber or a tulip. Whilst the mind is taken up with the
objects or business before it, we are commonly happy,
whatever
[ 258 ]
HAP [ 259 ] HAP
jgt iness. whatever the object or business be : when the mind is
' absent, and the thoughts are wandering to something
else beside what is passing in the place in which we are,
we are often miserable.
3. The art in which the secret of human happiness
in a great measure consists, is to set the habits in such
a manner, that every change may be a change for the
better. The habits themselves are much the same 5
for whatever is made habitual becomes smooth, and
easy, and indifferent. T he return to an old habit is
likewise easy, whatever the habit be. Therefore the
advantage is with those habits which allow of indul¬
gence in the deviation from them. Tbs; luxurious re¬
ceive no greater pleasure from their dainties than the
peasant does from his bread and cheese ; but the pea¬
sant whenever he goes abroad finds a feast, whereas the
epicure must be well entertained to escape disgust.
Those who spend every day at cards, and those who
go every day to plough, pass their time much alike 5
intent upon what they are about, wanting nothing,
regretting nothing, they are both in a state of ease:
But then, whatever suspends the occupation of the card-
player distresses him; whereas to the labourer every
interruption is a refreshment: and this appears in the
different effect that the Sabbath produces upon the
two, which proves a day of recreation to the one, but
a lamentable burden to the other. The man who lias
learned to live alone, feels his spirits enlivened when¬
ever he enters into company, and takes his leave with¬
out regret: another, who has long been accustomed to
a crowd or continual succession of company, experien¬
ces in company no elevation of spirits, nor any greater
satisfaction than what the man of a retired life finds in
his chimney-corner. So far their conditions are equal:
but let a change of place, fortune, or situation, sepa¬
rate the companion from his circle, his visitors, his
club, common-room, or coffee-house, and the differ¬
ence of advantage in the choice and constitution of
the two habits will show itself. Solitude comes to the
one clothed with melancholy : to the other it brings
liberty and quiet. You will see the one fretful and
restless, at a loss how to dispose of his time, till the
hour comes round that he can forget himself in bed :
the other easy and satisfied, taking up his book or his
pipe as soon as he finds himself alone ; ready to admit
any little amusement that casts up, or to turn his
hands and attention to the first business that presents
itself; or content without either to sit still, and let his
trains of thought glide indolently through his brain,
without much use perhaps or pleasure, but without
hankering after any thing better, and without irrita¬
tion. A reader who has inured himself to books of
science and argumentation, if a novel, a well-written
pamphlet, an article of news, a narrative of a curious
voyage, or the journal of a traveller, fall in his way,
sits down to the repast with relish, enjoys his entertain¬
ment while it lasts, and can return when it is over
to his graver reading without distaste. Another,
with whom nothing will go down but works of humour
and pleasantry, or whose curiosity must be interested
by perpetual novelty, will consume a bookseller’s win¬
dow in half a forenoon ; during which time he is rather
in search of diversion than diverted: and as books
to his taste are few and short, and rapidly read over,
the stock is soon exhausted, when he is left without re- T1 5negJ
source from this principal supply of innocent amuse- [|
ment. , Harangue.
So far as circumstances of fortune conduce to happi-  
ness, it is not the income which any man possesses, but
tire increase of income that affords the pleasure. Two
persons, of whom one begins with look and advances
his income to 1000I. a-year ; and the other sets off
with 1000!. and dwindles down to icol. may, in the
course of their time, have the receipt and spending of
the same sum of money : yet their satisfaction, so far
as fortune is concerned in it, will be very different:
the series and sum total of their incomes being tire
same, it makes a wide difference which end they be¬
gin at.
4. Happiness consists in health ; understanding by
health, not only freedom from bodily distempers^ but
also that tranquillity, firmness, and alacrity of mind,
which we call good spir its. For the sake of health, ac¬
cording to this notion of it, no sacrifices can be too
great. Whether it requires us to relinquish lucrative
situations, to abstain from favourite indulgences, to
controul intemperate passions, or undergo tedious regi¬
mens ; whatever difficulties it lays us under, a man,
who pursues his happiness rationally and resolutely,
will be content to submit to. When we are in perfect
health and spirits, we feel in ourselves a happiness in¬
dependent of any particular outward gratification what¬
ever, and of which we can give no account. This is
an enjoyment which the Deity has annexed to life ; and
probably constitutes, in a great measure, the happiness
of infants and brutes, especially of the lower and seden¬
tary orders of animals, as of oysters, periwinkles, and
the like.
The above account of human happiness will justify
these two conclusions, which, although found in most
books of morality, have seldom been supported by any
sufficient reasons : 1. “ That happiness is pretty equally
distributed amongst the different orders of civil soci¬
ety ; and, 2. That vice has no advantage over virtue,
even with respect to this world’s happiness.”
HAQUE, in our old writers, a little hand-gun, prohr-
bited to be used for destruction of game, &c. by statute
33 Hen. VIII. cap. 6. and 2 and 3 Ed. VI. cap. 14.
There is also the half-haque, or demi-haque, within the
said acts.
HARAM. See Seraglio.
HARAN, Charran, or Charr^e, in Mesopotamia,
a city celebrated for having been the place where Abra¬
ham first retreated after he left Ur (Gen. xi. 31,32.);
and where Terah, Abraham’s father, died and was bu¬
ried. Thither it was likewise that Jacob retired to La¬
ban when he fled from the indignation of his brother
Esau (id. xxvii. 45. xxviii. 10, &c.). Lastly, at Ha-
ran or Charrae in Mesopotamia, Crassus the Roman ge¬
neral was defeated and killed by the Parthians. Haran
was situated between the Euphrates and the river Che-
bar, at a considerable distance from the place where
these two rivers join.
HARANGUE, a modern French name for a speech
or oration made by an orator in public.—Menage de¬
rives the word from the Italian arenga, which signifies
the same; formed, according to Ferrari, from arringo,
“ a just, or place of justing.” Others derive it from
K k 2 the
H A R [ 260 ] H A R
Harangue ^ie ara, “ altar j” by reason the first harangues
|| were made before altars 5 whence the verse of Juvenal,
Harder-
wick. Aut Lvgdunensis rhetor dicturus ad aram.
' Harangues were usually made by the generals, pre*
vious to an engagement, both amongst the Greeks and
Romans. An harangue on such occasions was called
allocutio. See Allocutio.
The word is also frequently used in an ill sense, viz.
for a too pompous, prolix, or unseasonable speech or
declamation.
HARBINGER, an officer of the king’s household,
having four yeomen under him, who ride a day’s jour¬
ney before the court when it travels, to provide lodg¬
ings, &c.
HARBOROUGH, a town of Leicestershire, 84
miles from London. It is a great thoroughfare in the
road to Derby, near the source of the river Welland $
and was famous, in Camden’s time, for its beast fair,
where the best horses and colts are still sold. Its fairs
are April 29. and Oct. 19. The market is on Tues¬
day, for the use of which the earl of Harborough built
a neat market-house, at his own expence. Population
1704. W. Long. o. 56. N. Lat. 52. 20.
HARBOUR, a general name given to any sea-port
or haven 5 as also to any place convenient for mooring
shipping, although at a great distance from the sea.
The qualities requisite in a good harbour are, that the
bottom be entirely free from rocks or shallows ; that the
opening be of sufficient extent to admit the entrance
or departure of large ships without difficulty ; that it
should have good anchoring ground, and be easy of ac¬
cess j that it should be well defended from the violence
of the wind and sea ; that it should have room and con¬
venience to receive the shipping of different nations,
and those which are laden with dift’erent merchandises j
that it be furnished with a good light-house, and have
variety of proper rings, posts, moorings, &c. in order
to remove or secure the vessels contained therein ; and,
finally, that it have plenty of wood, and other materials
for firing, besides hemp, iron, mariners, &c.
HARBURG, a small town of Germany, in the circle
of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Lunenburg, seated on
the river Elbe opposite to Hamburg. It was surround¬
ed with walls in 1355; and 30 years after, a strong
castle, which still remains, was built by the bishop.
E. Long. 9. 56. N. Lat. 53. 28.
HARCOURT, a town of 1 ranee, in the depart¬
ment of Calvados, about 12 miles south of Caen. From
it a once noble family in France, derived their ducal
title j and from it also, it is said, sprang the noble fa¬
mily of the same name in England.
HA.RDBERG, a town of Germany, in the duchy
of Stiria, 52 miles south of Vienna. E. Long. 1 c. 46.
N. Lat. 47. 22. S ^
HARDENBERG, a town of Westphalia, in the
duchy of Berg, 13 miles east-north-east of Dusseldorffi.
E. Long. 6. 50. N. Lat. 51. 19.
HARDENING, the giving a greater degree of
hardness to bodies than they had before.
There are several ways of hardening iron and steel,
as by hammering them, quenching them in cold water,
&c. See Steel.
Case- Hardening. See CASE-Hardening.
HARD Ell WICK, a town of the United Provinces,
in Dutch Guelderland. It is a well-built town, and Har^,
the chief of tiie sea ports of this province. It has se- wia,
veral good buildings, particularly the great church, fUrdne
which is much admired. In 1648 the public school W’v'“
here was turned into an university. The French did
it a great deal of damage in 1672; since which time
it has been on the decline. E. Long. 5, 31. N. Lat.
5 2- 34-
HARDNESS, in bodies, a property directly oppo¬
site to fluidity j by which they resist the impression of
any other substance, sometimes in an extreme degree.
As fluidity lias been found to consist in tbe motion of
the particles of a body upon one another in consequence
of a certain action of the universal fluid or elementary
fire among them j we must conclude that hardness con¬
sists in the absence of this action, or a deficiency of
what is called latent heat. This is confirmed by obser¬
ving, that there is an intermediate state betwixt hard¬
ness and fluidity, in which bodies will yield to a certain
force, though tiiey still make a considerable resistance.
This is principally observed in tbe metals, and is the
foundation of their ductility. It appears indeed that
this last property, as well as fluidity, is entirely depen¬
dent on a certain quantity of latent heat absorbed, or
otherwise acting within tbe substance itself j for all the
metals are rendered hard by hammering, and soft by
being put again into the fire and kept there for some
time. The former operation renders them hot as well
as hard ; probably, as Dr Black observes, because the
particles of metal are thus forced near one another,
and those of fire squeezed out from among them. By
keeping them for some time in the fire, that element
insinuates itself again among the particles, and arranges
them in the same manner as before, so that the ducti¬
lity returns. By a second hammering this property is
again destroyed, returning on a repetition of the heat¬
ing or annealing as it is called ; and so on, as often as
we please.
Hardness appears to diminish the cohesion of bodies
in some degree, though their fragility does not by any
means keep pace with their hardness. Thus, glass is
very hard and very brittle ; but flint, though still hard¬
er than glass, is much less brittle. Among the metals,
however, these two properties seem to be more connect¬
ed, though even here the connection is by no means
complete. Steel, the hardest of all tbe metals, is in¬
deed the most brittle ; but lead, tbe softest, is not the
most ductile. Neither is hardness connected with the
specific gravity of bodies ; for a diamond, the hardest
substance in nature, is little more than half the weight
of the lightest metal. As little is it connected with
the coldness, electrical properties, or any other quality
with which we are acquainted ; so that though the prin¬
ciple above laid down may be accepted as a general
foundation for our inquiries, a great number of parti¬
culars remain yet to be discovered before we can offer
any satisfactory explanation.
AllLodies become harder by cold; but this is not
the only means of their doing so, for some become hard
by heat as well as cold. Thus, water becomes hard
by cold when it is frozen, but it becomes much harder
when its steam is passed over red-hot-iron, and it enters
the substance of the metal,, by an union with which it
becomes almost as bard as glass.
Dr Quist and others have constructed tables of the
hardness
H A R [ 261 ]
hardness of different substances. The method pursued
in constructing these tables was by observing the order
in which they were able to cut or make any impression
upon one another. The following table, extracted from
M. Magellan’s edition of Cronstedt’s Mineralogy, was
taken from JDr Quist, Bergman, and Mr Kirwan. The
first column shows the hardness, and the second the spe¬
cific gravity.
H A R
D iamond from Ormus
Pink diamond
Bluish diamond
Yellowish diamond
Cubic diamond
Ruby
Pale ruby from Brazil
Ruby spinel 1
Deep blue sapphire
Ditto paler
Topaz
M hitish ditto
Bohemian ditto
Emerald
Garnet
Agate
Onyx
Sardonyx
Occidental amethyst
Crystal
Cornelian
Green jasper
Reddish yellow ditto
Schoerl
Tourmaline
Quartz
Opal
Chrysolite
Zeolite
Fluor
Calcareous spar
Gypsum
Chalk
20
*9
I9
J9
18
J7
16
J3
16
*7
14
11
12
12
12
12
12
11
11
11
11
9
10
10
10
10
10
8
7
• 6
5
3
3-7
3-4
3-3
3-3
3-2
4.2
3-5
3-4
3-8
3-8
4.2
3-5
2.8
2.8
4.4
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.7
2.6
2.7
2.7
2.6
3-6
3-°
2.7
2.6
3-7
2.1
3-5
2.7
2-3
2.7
HARDOUINj John, a learned French Jesuit in
the beginning of the 18th century, known by the re¬
markable paradoxes be advanced in bis writings j this
in particular, That all the works of the ancient pro¬
fane writers, except Cicero’s works, Virgil’s Georgies,
Horace’s satires and epistles, and Pliny’s natural histo¬
ry, are mere forgeries. He died at Paris in 1729,
aged 83. His principal works are, 1. An edition of
Pliny’s natural history, with notes, which is much
esteemed. 2. An edition of the councils, which’ made
much noise. 3. Chronology restored by medals, 4(0.
4- A commentary on the New Testament, folio; in
which he pretends that our Saviour and his apostles
preached in Latin, &c.
HARDWICKE. See York.
HARE. See Lepus, Mammalia Index.
I he hare is a beast of venary, or of the forest, but
peculiarly so termed in the second year of her age.
There are reckoned four sorts of them, from the place
«f their abode: some live in the mountains, some in the
fields, some in marshes, and some wander about every¬
where. The mountain-hares are the swiftest, the fuild-
5
hares are not so nimble, and those of the marshes are
the slowest ; hut the wandering hares are the most cun¬
ning in the paths and mazes of the fields, for, knowing
the nearest ways, they run up the hills and rocks, to
the confusion of the dogs. See Hunting.
Hares and rabbits are very mischievous to new plant¬
ed orchards, by peeling ofl the bark of the young trees
for food. rI hey do also the same sort of mischief to
nuiseries ; for the prevention of which, some bind ropes
about the trees up to a sufficient height; some daub
them with tar; but though this keeps off the hares, it
is itself mischievous to the trees; but this hurtful pro¬
pel ty of it is in some degree taken off by mixing any
kind of fat or grease with it, and incorporating them
well over the fire. This mixture is to be rubbed over
the lower part of the trees in November, and will pre¬
serve them till that time the next year, without any
danger from these animals. It is only in the hard wea¬
ther in the winter season, when other food is scarce,
that these creatures feed on the barks of trees.
1 eople who have the care of warrens, pretend to
make hares fat by stopping up their ears with wax, and
rendering them deaf. The hare is so timorous a crea¬
ture, that she is continually listening after every noise,
and will run a long way on the least suspicion of dan¬
ger ; so that she always eats in terror, and runs herself
out of flesh continually. These are both prevented by
her feeding without apprehension.
Java Hare. See Mus, Mammalia Index.
Hares Ear. See Bupleurum, Botany. Index.
Hare, Dr Francis, an English bishop, of whose
birth we have no particulars, was bred at Eton school,
and from that foundation became a member of King’s
college, Cambridge ; where he had the tuition of the
marquis of Blandford, only son of the illustrious duke
of Alarlborough, who appointed him chaplain-general
to tlie army. He afterwards obtained the deanery of
Worcester, and from thence was promoted to the bi¬
shopric of Chichester, which he held with the deanery
of St Paul’s to his death, which happened in 1740.
Tie was dismissed from being chaplain to George I. in
I7i8, by the strength of party prejudices, in company
with Dr Moss and Dr Sherlock, persons of distinguish¬
ed rank for parts and learning. About the latter end
of Queen Anne’s reign be published a remarkable
pamphlet, intitled, The difficulties and discourage¬
ments which attend the study of the Scriptures, in
the way of private judgment: in order to show, that
since such a study of the Scriptures is an indispensable
duty, it concerns all Christian societies to remove, as
much as possible, those discouragements. In this work,
his manner appeared to be so ludicrous, that the con¬
vocation fell upon him, as if he were really against the
study ot the Holy Scriptures : and Whiston says, that
finding this piece likely to hinder that preferment he
was seeking for, he aimed to conceal his being the au¬
thor. He published many pieces against Bishop Hoad-
ley, in the Bangorian Controversy, as it is called ; and
also other learned works, which were collected after
his death, and published in four vols 8vo. 2. An edi¬
tion of Terence, with notes, in 4to. 3. The book of
Psalms in the Hebrew, put into the original poetical
metre, 410. In this last work, he pretends to have dis¬
covered the Hebrew metre, which was supposed to be
irretrievably lost. But his hypothesis, though defend- .
ei?
H A B T 262 ] H A B
-jinre ed by some, yet has been confuted by several learned
|| men, particularly by Dr Lowtb in bis Metrtcce Har-
H arid fin. eance brevis confutation annexed to his lectures Ue Sacra
' * Poesi Hebrceorum.
HARESBURY, a town of Wiltshire, on the Willy,
near Warminster, 94 miles from London, is in old re¬
cords called Heightsbm'i/n or Hejtsbury; and now it is
written Hatcbbury. It was once the seat of the empress
Maud. Here are fairs on May 14th and September
15th ; and it has sent members to parliament ever since
Henry VI. it being an ancient borough by prescrip¬
tion.
Hx^RFLEUR, an ancient town of France, in the
department of the Lower Seine ; but is now a poor place,
on account of its fortifications being demolished, and its
harbour choked up. It was taken by the English, by
assault, in the year 1415. It is seated on the river Li-
zarna, near the Seine, five miles from Havre de Grace,
and 106 north-west of Paris. The number ot inhabit¬
ants is about 1800. E. Long. o. 17. N. Lat. 49. 30.
HARIOT, or Heriot, in Late, a due belonging
to a lord at the death of his tenant, consisting of the
best beast, either horse or cow, or ox, which he had
at the time of his death ; and in some manors the best
goods, piece of plate, &c. are called hariots.
Hariot, Thomas. See Harriot.
HARLECH, a town of Merionethshire, in North
Wales. It is seated on a rock, on the sea-shore $ and
is but a poor place, though the shire-town, and sends a
member to parliament. It had formerly a strong
handsome castle, which was a garrison for Charles I.
in the civil wars, for which reason it was afterwards
demolished by the parliament. W. Long. 4. O. N.
Lat. 54. 47.
HARLEIAN COLLECTION, a most valuable col¬
lection of useful and curious manuscripts, begun near
the end of the 17th century, by Robert Harley of Bram-
ton Bryan, Esq. in Herefordshire, afterwards earl of
Oxford and lord high-treasurer j and which was con¬
ducted upon the plan of the great Sir Robert Cotton.
He published his first considerable collection in August
1705, and in less than ten years he got together near
2500 rare and curious MSS. Soon after this, the ce¬
lebrated Dr George Hicks, Mr Anstis garter king at
arms, Bishop Nicolson, and many other eminent anti¬
quaries, not only offered him their assistance in procur¬
ing MSS. but presented him with several that were very
valuable. Being thus encouraged to perseverance by
his success, he kept many persons employed in purcha¬
sing MSS. for him abroad, giving them written in¬
structions for their conduct. By these means the MS.
library was, in the year 1721, increased to near 6000
books, 14,000 original charters, and 500 rolls.
On the 21st of May 1724 Lord Oxford died: but
his son Edward, who succeeded to his honours and
estate, still farther enlarged the collection ; so that when
he died, June 16th 1741, it consisted of 8000 volumes,
several of them containing distinct and independent trea¬
tises, besides many loose papers which have been since
arranged and bound up in volumes j and above 40,000
original rolls, charters, letters patent, grants, and other
deeds and instruments of great antiquity.
The principal design of making this collection was
the establishment of a MS. English historical library,
and the rescuing from destruction such national records
2
as had eluded the diligence of preceding collectors: Harleian
but Lord Oxford’s plan was more extensive ; for his ||
collection abounds also with curious MSS. in every sci- Harley,
ence. This collection, which was purchased by govern- ’ ^
ment for 10,000k is now in the British Museum j
and an enumeration of its contents may be seen in the
Annual Register, vi. I4°> &c*
HARLEM, a town of the United Provinces, in
Holland, situated on the river Sparren, in E. Long.
4. 29. N. Lat. 52. 22. It is a large and populous
city, and stands near a lake of the same name, with
which it has a communication, as well as with Amster¬
dam and Leyden, by means of several canals. Schemes
have been often formed for draining of this lake, but
were never put in execution. To the south of the town
lies a wood, cut into delightful walks and vistas. The
town is famous for the siege which it held out against
the Spaniards for ten months in 1573 J the townsmen,
before they capitulated, being reduced to eat the vilest
animals, and even leather and grass. The inhabitants
corresponded with the prince of Orange for a consider¬
able time by means of carrier-pigeons. Harlem, as is
well known, claims the invention of printing $ and in
fact, the first essays of the art are indisputably to be at¬
tributed to Laurentius, a magistrate of that city. [See
Laurentius, and o/") Printing.] Before
the Reformation, Harlem was a bishop’s see $ the inha¬
bitants amount to 40,000. An academy of sciences
was founded here in 1752. Vast quantities of linen
and thread are bleached here $ the waters of the lake
having a peculiar quality, which renders them very fit
for that purpose.—A sort of phrensy with regard to
flowers, particularly tulips, once prevailed here, in con¬
sequence of which they were sold at extravagant prices.
The owner of a hyacinth which Dutens saw in flower
in May 1771, refused 10,000 florins for it.
HARLEQUIN, in the Italian comedy, a buffoon,
dressed in party-coloured clothes j answering much the
same purpose as a merry-andrew or jack-pudding in
our drolls, on mountebanks, stages, &c. We have al¬
so introduced the harlequin upon our theatres ; and
this is one of the standing characters in the modern
grotesque or pantomime entertainments. The term
took its rise from a famous Italian comedian who
came to Paris under Henry III. and who frequenting
the house of M. de Harlay, his companions used to call
him Harlequino, q. d. little Harlay j a name which has
descended to those of the same rank and profession.
HARLEY, Robert, earl of Oxford and Mortimer,
was the eldest son of Sir Edward Harley, and born in
1661. At the Revolution, Sir Edward and his son
raised a troop of horse at their own expence j and after
the accession of King William and Queen Mary, he
obtained a seat in parliament. His promotions were
rapid. In 1702, he was chosen speaker of the house
of commons j in 1704, he was sworn of Queen Anne’s
privy council, and the same year made secretary of
state j in 1706, he acted as one of the commissioners
for the treaty of union; and in 171a was appointed a
commissioner of the treasury, and chancellor and under¬
treasurer of the exeequer. A daring attempt was made
on his life, March 8. 1711, by the marquis of Guiscard
a French Papist; who, when under an examination be¬
fore a committee of the privy council, stabbed him with
a penknife. Of this wound, however, he soon recover-
HAH [ 263 ] HAH
j jey ed ; and was the same year created earl of Oxford, and
| lord high-treasurer, which office he resigned just before
I lot. the queen’s death. He was impeached of high treason
in 1715, and committed to the Tower j but was cleared
by trial, and died in 1724. His character has been
variously represented, but cannot be here discussed. He
was not only an encourager of literature, but the great¬
est collector in his time of curious books and MSS.
his collection of which makes a capital part of the Bri¬
tish Museum. See Harleian Collection.
HAULING. See Herling.
HARLINGEN, a sea port town of the United Ne¬
therlands, in West Friesland. It stands on the coast of
the Zuyder sea, at the mouth of a large canal, in E.
Long. 5. 22. N. Lat. 53. 9. It was only a hamlet
till about the year I 234, when it was destroyed by the
sea $ and being afterwards rebuilt, became a consider¬
able town. In x579, it was considerably enlarged by
the care of William prince of Orange. It is now very
well fortified, and is naturally strong, as the adjacent
country can very easily be laid under water. The city
is square j and the streets are handsome, straight, and
clean, with canals in the middle of them. It has five
gates ; four towards the land, and one towards the sea;
but though the harbour is good, yet vessels of great bur¬
den cannot get into it until they are lightened, for
want of water. The admiralty college of Friesland has
its seat here. The manufactures are salt, bricks, and
tiles, a considerable trade is also carried on in all sorts
of linen cloth, and the adjacent country yields abun¬
dance of corn and good pastures.
HARLOCH, or Harleich, a town of Merioneth¬
shire, in North Wales, 223 miles from London, on
the sea coast, near the north-west point of the county.
It is naturally strong, a garrison being kept here for
the security of the coast. Its castle lies now in ruins.
The town, though a corporation and governed by a
mayor, makes but a very mean appearance. It has a
market on Saturdays, and four fairs in the year.
HARLOT, a woman given to incontinency, or
that makes a habit or a trade of prostituting her body.
—The word is supposed to be used for the diminutive
whorelet, a “ little whore.”—Others derive it from
Arietta, mistress to Robert duke of Normandy, and
mother to William the Conqueror: Camden derives
it from one Arlotha, concubine to William the Con¬
queror : Others from the Italian Arietta, “ a proud
whore.”
Harlots were tolerated amongst Jews, Greeks, and
Romans. Fornication indeed was prohibited among
the Jews, under severe penalties ; but those they ex¬
plained as extending only to women of their own na¬
tion. The public stews were therefore stocked with
foreign prostitutes, who seem to have been taken under
the protection of government. Lienee appears the rea¬
son why the word strange woman is often found to sig¬
nify a harlot. Prostitutes at first wore veils or masks ;
but by and by their modesty was entirely put to flight,
and they went abroad bare-faced. At Athens the pro¬
stitutes were generally strangers j and such as debauch¬
ed an Athenian female were liable to a penalty. To
frequent the public stews was not held disgraceful ! The
wisest of the Heathen sages allowed it ! Solon permitted
common whores to go publicly to the young men who
had engaged them, and encouraged the youth of A*
thens to gratify their lust with these, rather than seduce Harlot,
and debauch the wives or daughters of citizens. CatoHarmaUa't.
the censor was of the same sentiments; and Cicero chal- »'
lenges all persons to name a time when men were either
reproved for this practice, or not countenanced in it.
Amongst the Jews, the harlots used to ply in the high¬
ways and streets of cities; at Athens they frequented
the ceramicus, sciros, and the old forum.—In some
places they were distinguished by their dress from other
women. Corinth was a remarkable nursery of harlots,
and gave birth to the noted Lais. Their accomplish¬
ments were oftentimes great, in all the polite and ele¬
gant parts of female education, viz. philosophy, dan-
cing, singing, rhetoric, &c. Aspasia, the mistress of
Pericles, was admired by Socrates for her learning.
The more accomplished prostitutes frequently amassed
large fortunes : a remarkable instance of which we have
in Phryne, who offered to rebuild the walls of Thebes,
when destroyed by Alexander, on condition that they
would perpetuate her memory and profession by an in¬
scription. Prostitutes at Rome u'ere obliged to fix a
bill over their doors, indicating their character and pro¬
fession. It was also customary for them to change their
name, after they had signified to the praetor their in¬
tention of leading such a dissolute life : this they did,
because their trade was unbecoming their birth and con¬
dition ; but they reassumed their family names when
they quitted their infamous mode of living. Women
whose grandfather, father, or husband, had been a Ro¬
man knight, were forbidden by the laws to make a pub¬
lic profession of lewdness.
HARMATTAN, the name of a remarkable perio¬
dical wind which blows from the interior parts of Africa
towards the Atlantic ocean. Of this wind w’e have the
following account in the Phil. Trans, vol. Ixxi. fur¬
nished by Mr Norris, a gentleman who had frequent
opportunities of observing its singular properties and ef¬
fects.
On that part of the coast of Africa which lies be¬
tween Cape Verd and Cape Lopez, an easterly wind
prevails during the months of December, January, and
February, which, by the Fantees, a nation on the Gold
coast, is called the Harmattan. Cape Verd is in 150
N. Lat. and Cape Lopez in 1° S. Lat. ; and the coast
between these two capes runs, in an oblique direction,
nearly from W. S. W. to E. S. E. forming a range of
upwards of 2IOO miles. At the isles de Los, which
are a little to the northward of Sierra Leone, and to
the southward of Cape Verd, it blows from the E. S. E.
on the Gold coast from the N. E. and at Cape Lopez,
and the river Gabon, from the N. N. E. This wind
is by tire French and Portuguese, who frequent the
Gold coast, called simply the north-east wind, the
quarter from which it blows. The English, who some¬
times borrow words and phrases from the Fantee lan¬
guage, which is less guttural and more harmonious than
that of their neighbours, adopt the Fantee word Har¬
mattan.
The harmattan comes on indiscriminately at any
hour of the day, at any time of the tide, or at any pe¬
riod of the moon, and continues sometimes only a day
or two, sometimes five or six days, and it has been
known to last fifteen or sixteen days. There are gene¬
rally three or four returns of it every season. It blows
with a moderate force, pot quite so strong as the sea-
breeze
H A R [ 264 ] H A R
Hanuattan. breeze (which every day sets in during the fair season
from the W., W. S. W., and S. W.) ; but somewhat
stronger than the land wind at night from the N. and
N. N. W.
1. A fog or haze is one of the peculiarities which
always accompanies the harmattan. The gloom occa¬
sioned by this fog is so great, as sometimes to make
even near objects obscure. The English fort at Why-
dah stands about the midway between the French and
Portuguese forts, and not quite a quarter of a mile from
either, yet very often from thence neither of the other
forts can be discovered. The sun, concealed the great¬
est part of the day, appears only a few hours about
noon, and then of a mild red, exciting no painful sen¬
sation on the eye.
2. Extreme dryness makes another extraordinary
property of this wind. No dew' falls during the con¬
tinuance of the harmattan j nor is there the least ap¬
pearance of moisture in the atmosphere. Vegetables of
every kind are very much injured j all tender plants,
and most of the productions of the garden, are de¬
stroyed j the grass withers, and becomes dry like hay $
the vigorous evergreens likewise feel its pernicious in¬
fluence j the branches of the lemon, orange, and lime
trees droop, the leaves become flaccid, wither, and if
the harmattan continues to blow for 10 or 12 days,
are so parched, as to be easily rubbed to dust between
the Angers : the fruit of these trees, deprived of its
nourishment, and stinted in its growth, only appears
to ripen, for it becomes yellow and dry, without ac¬
quiring half the usual size. The natives take this op¬
portunity of the extreme dryness of the grass and young
trees to set fire to them, especially near their roads,
not only to keep those roads open to travellers, but to
destroy the shelter which long grass, and thickets of
young trees, would afford to skulking parties of their
enemies. A fire thus lighted flies with such rapidity,
as to endanger those who travel: in that situation, a
common method ol escape is, on discovering a fire to
windward, to set the grass on fire to leeward, and
* then follow your own fire. There are other extraor¬
dinary effects produced by the extreme dryness of the
harmattan.
The parching effects of this wind are likewise evi¬
dent on the external parts of the body. The eyes, no¬
strils, lips, and palate, are rendered dry and uneasy,
and drink is often required, not so much to quench
thirst, as to remove a painful aridity in the fauces.
I he lips and nose become sore, and even chapped ; and
though the air be cool, yet there is a troublesome sen¬
sation of prickling heat on the skin. If the harmattan
continues four or five days, the scarf skin peels off, first
from the hands and face, and afterwards from the other
parts of the body if it continues a day or two longer.
Mr Norris observed, that when sweat was excited by
exercise on those parts which were covered by his clothes
from the weather, it was peculiarly acrid, 'and tasted,
on applying his tongue to his arm, something like spil
fits of hartshorn diluted with water.
3. Salubrity forms a third peculiarity of the harmat¬
tan. Though this wind is so very prejudicial to vege¬
table life, and occasions such disagreeable parching ef¬
fects on the human species, yet it is highly conducive
to health. Those labouring under fluxes and intermit¬
ting fevers generally recover in an harmattan. Those Hanna
weakened by fevers, and sinking under evacuations for |1
the cure of them, particularly bleeding, which is often Kar111
injudiciously repeated, have their lives saved, and vi- * r'
gour restored, in spite of the doctor. It stops the pro¬
gress of epidemics j the smallpox, remittent fevers, &c»
not only disappear, but those labouring under these dis¬
eases, when an harmattan comes on, are almost certain
of a speedy recovery. Infection appears not then tojbe
easily communicated even by art, In the year 1770,
there were on board the Unity, at Whydah, above 300
slaves; the smallpox broke out among them, and it
was determined to inoculate ; those who vvere inocula¬
ted before the harmattan came on, got very well
through the disease. About 70 vvere inoculated a day
or two after the harmattan set in, but no one of them
had either sickness or eruption. It was imagined that
the infection was effectually dispersed, and the ship clear
of the disorder; but in a very few weeks it began to
appear among those seventy. About 50 of them were
inoculated the second time ; the others had the disease
in a natural way : an harmattan came on, and they all
recovered, excepting one girl, who had an ugly ulcer
on the inoculated part, and died some time afterwards
of a locked jaw.
This account differs remarkably from that given by
Dr Lind, who calls the harmattan a malignant and fa¬
tal wind : (See his Diseases of Hot Climates'). As to
the nature of the soil over which it blows, it appears
that, excepting a few rivers and some lakes, the coun¬
try about and beyond Whydah is covered for 4c©
miles hack with verdure, open plains of grass, clumps
of trees, and some woods of no considerable extent.
The surface is sandy, and below that a rich reddish
earth. It rises with a gentle ascent for 150 miles from
the sea, before there is the appearance of a hill, with¬
out affording a stone of the size of a walnut. Beyond
these hills there is no account of any great ranges of
mountains.
HARMODIUS, a friend of Aristogiton, who deli¬
vered his country from the tyranny of the Pisistratidre.
(See Aristogiton). The'Athenians, to reward the
patriotism of these illustrious citizens, made a law that
no one should ever after bear the name of Aristogiton
or Harmodius.
HARMONIA, in fabulous history, the wife of Cad¬
mus, both of whom were turned into serpents. See
Cadmus.
Though many of the ancient authors make Harmo-
ma a princess of divine origin, there is a passage in
Atheneeus from Euhemerus, the Vanini of his time,
which tells us, that she was by profession a player on
the flute, and in the service of the prince of Zidon
previous to her departure with Cadmus. This cir¬
cumstance, however, might encourage the belief, that
as Cadmus brought letters into Greece, his wife
brought harmony thither; as the word harnio*
nitty has been said to have no other derivation than from
her name : which makes it very difficult to ascertain
the sense in which the Greeks made use of it in their
music * ; for it has no roots by which it can he decom-^ - ..
pounded, in order to deduce from them its etymology.^1.
The common account of the word, however, that is
given by lexicographers, and generally adopted by
the
1
H AS, [ 2g- ]
HAH
monia ^ie learned, does not confirm tins opinion. It is gene-
jj rally derived from «££««£«, and this from the old verb
ionics, apto, in fit or join.
v HARMONIC. As an adjective it signifies in ge¬
neral any thing belonging to harmony ; though in onr
language the adjective is more properly written 7iar-
monical. In this case it may be applied to the harmo-
nical divisions or a monochord ; or, in a word, to con¬
sonances in general. As a substantive neuter, it im¬
ports all the concomitant or accessary sounds which, up¬
on the principles resulting from the experiments made
on sonorous bodies, attend any given sound whatever,
and render it appretiable. Thus all the aliquot parts
of a musical string produce harmonical sounds, or har¬
monics.
HARMONICA. This word, when originally ap¬
propriated by Dr Franklin to that peculiar form or
mode of musical glasses, which he himself, after a num¬
ber of happy experiments, had constituted, was written
Armonica. In this place, however, we have ventured
to restore it to its native plentitude of sound, as we have
no antipathy against the moderate use of aspirations.
It is derived from the Greek word agptdnct. The ra¬
dical word is ec^uv, to suit or fit one thing to another.
By the word i^»nn the Greeks expressed aptitudes of
various kinds ; and from the use which they made of
that expression, we have reason to conclude, that it
was intended to import the highest degree of refine¬
ment and delicacy in those relations which it was
meant to signify. Relations or aptitudes of sound, in
particular, were understood by it *, and in this view,
Dr Franklin could not have selected a name more ex¬
pressive of its nature and genius, for the instrument
which wre are now to describe 5 as, perhaps, no mu¬
sical tones can possibly be finer, nor consequently sus¬
ceptible of juster concords, than those which it pro¬
duces. ’
In an old English book, whose title we cannot at
present recollect, and in which a number of various
amusements were described, we remember to have seen
ihe elements or first approaches to music by glasses.
The author enjoins his pupil to choose half a dozen of
such as are used in drinking 5 to fill each of them with
water in proportion to the gravity or acuteness of the
sound which he intended it should produce j and having
thus adjusted them one to another, he might entertain
the company with a church-tune. These, perhaps were
the rude and barbarous hints which Mr Puckeridge af¬
terwards improved. But, for a farther account of him,
of the state in which he left the instrument, and of the
state to which it has afterwards been carried, we must
refer our readers to the following extracts from Dr
Iranklin’s letters, and from others who have written
upon the same subject.
_ The Doctor, in his letter to Father Beccaria, has
£iven a minute and elegant account of the Harmonica.
Nor does it appear that his successors have either more
sensibly improved, or more accurately delineated, that
angelic instrument. The detail of his own improve-
tnents, therefore, shall be given in his own words.
“ Perhaps (says he) it may be agreeable to you, as
you live in a musical country, to have an account of
the new instrument lately added here to the great
number that charming science was possessed of before.
As jt is an instrument that seems peculiarly adapted
Vol. x. Part I. f
to Italian music, especially that of the soft and plain-Harmonica,
tive kind, I will endeavour to give you such a descrip- -y——
tion ol it, and of the manner of constructing it, that
you or any of your friends may be enabled to imitate
it, if you incline so to do, without being at the
expence and trouble of the many experiments I have
made in endeavouring to bring it to its present per¬
fection.
“ You have doubtless heard the sweet tone that is
drawn from a drinking-glass, by pressing a wet finger
round its brim. One Mr Puckeridge, a gentleman
fi om Ireland, was the first who thought of playing
tunes formed of these tones. Fie collected a number
of glasses of different sizes 5 fixed them near each other
on a table j and tuned them, by putting into them wa¬
ter, more or less as each note required. The tones
were brought out by pressing his fingers round their
brims. He was unfortunately burnt here, with his in¬
strument, in a fire which consumed the house he lived in.
Mr E. Delaval, a most ingenious member of our Royal
Society, made one in imitation of it with a better
choice and form of glasses, which was the first I saw or
heard. Being charmed with the sweetness of its tones
and the music he produced from it, I wished to see the
glasses disposed in a more convenient form, and brought
together in a narrower compass, so as to admit of a
greater number of tones, and all within reach of hand
to a person sitting before the instrument j which I ac¬
complished, after various intermediate trials, and less
commodious forms, both of glasses and construction, in
the following manner.
“ The glasses are blown as near as possible in the
form of hemispheres, having each an open neck or
socket in the middle. The-thickness of the glass near
the brim is about the tenth of an inch, or hardly quite
so much, but thicker as it comes nearer the neck 5
which in the largest glasses is about an inch deep, and
an inch and a half wide within j these dimensions les¬
sening as the glasses themselves diminish in size, ex¬
cept that the neck of the smallest ought not to be
shorter than half an inch. The largest glass is nine
inches diameter, and the smallest three inches. Be¬
tween these there are 23 different sizes, differing from
each other a quarter of an inch in diameter. To make
a single instrument there should he at least six glasses
blown of eacli size j and out of this number one may
probably pick 37 glasses (which are sufficient for three
octaves with all the semitones) that will be each either
the note one wants, or a little sharper than that note,
and all fitting so well into each other as to taper pretty
regularly from the largest to the smallest. It is true
there are not 37 sizes j but it often happens that two of
the same size differ a note or half a note in tone, by
reason of a difference in thickness, and these may be
placed one in the other without sensibly hurting the
regularity of the taper form.
“ The glasses being chosen, and every one marked
with a diamond the note you intend it for, they are
to be tuned by diminishing the thickness of those
that are too sharp. This is done by grinding them
round from the neck towards the brim, the breadth
of one or two inches as may he required ; often try¬
ing the glass by a well tuned harpsichord, comparing
the note drawn from the glass by your finger with the
note you want, as sounded by that string of the harp-
L l sichord.
H A R r 266 ] H A R
Jlarnioaica. sichord. "When you come near the matter, be careful
w—  to wipe the glass clean and dry before each trial, be¬
cause the tone is something flatter when the glass is
wet than it will he when dry 5—and grinding a very
little between each trial, you will thereby tune to great
exactness. The more care is necessary in this, because
if you go below your required tone, there is no sharp¬
ening it again but by grinding somewhat off the brim,
which will afterwards require polishing, and thus in¬
crease the trouble.
“ The glasses being thus tuned, you are to be
provided with a case for them, and a spindle on which
they are to be fixed. My case is about three feet long,
eleven inches every way wide within at the biggest
end, and five inches at the smallest end ; for it tapers
all the way, to adapt it better to the conical figure of
the set of glasses. This case opens in the middle of
its height, and the upper part turns up by hinges fixed
behind. The spindle is of hard iron, lies horizontally
from end to end of the box within, exactly in the
middle, and is made to turn on brass gudgeons at each
end. It is round, an inch diameter at the thickest
end, and tapering to a quarter of an inch at the smallest.
—A square shank comes from its upper end through
the box, on which shank a wheel is fixed by a screw.
This wheel serves as a fly to make the motion equable,
when the spindle, with the glasses, is turned by the
foot like a spinning-wheel. My wheel is of mahogany,
18 inches diameter, and pretty thick, so as to conceal
near its circumference about 251b. of lead.—An ivory
pin is fixed in the face of this wheel, about four inches
from the axis. Over the neck of this pin is put the
loop of the string that comes up from the moveable step
to give it motion. The case stands on a neat frame
with four legs.
u To fix the glasses on the spindle, a cork is first to
be fitted in each neck pretty tight, and projecting a
little without the neck, that the neck of one may not
touch the inside of another when put together, for
that would make a jarring. These corks are to be
perforated with holes of different diameters, so as to
suit that part of the spindle on which they are to
be fixed. When a glass is put on, by holding it stiffly
between both hands, while another turns the spindle,
it may be gradually brought to its place. But care
must be taken that the hole be not too small, lest in
forcing it up, the neck should split ; nor too large,
lest the glass, not being firmly fixed, should turn or
move on the spindle, so as to touch or jar against its
neighbouring glass. The glasses thus are placed one in
another j the largest on the biggest end of the spindle,
which is to the left hand : the neck of this glass is to¬
wards the wheel; and the next goes into it in the same
position, only about an inch of its brim appearing be¬
yond the brim of the first; thus proceeding, every glass
when fixed shows about an inch of its brim (or three
quarters of an inch, or half an inch, as they grow small¬
er) beyond the brim of the glass that contains it; and
it is from these exposed parts of each glass that the tone
is drawn, by laying a finger on one of them as the spin¬
dle and glasses turn round.
My largest glass is G a little below the reach of a
common voice, and my highest G, including three com¬
plete octaves.—To distinguish the glasses more readily
to the eye, I have painted the apparent parts of the
glasses within-side, every semitone white, and the other Harnur
notes of the octave with the seven prismatic colours:
viz. C, red ; I), orange ; E, yellow j F, green ; G,
blue; A, indigo; B, purple; and G, red again;—so
that the glasses of the same colour (the white excepted)
are always octaves to each other.
“ This instrument is played upon by sitting before
the middle of the set of glasses, as before the keys of
a harpsichord, turning them with the foot, and wetting
them now and then with a spunge and clean water.
The fingers should be first a little soaked in water, and
quite free from all greasiness; a little fine chalk upon
them is sometimes useful, to make them catch the glass
and bring out the tone more readily. Both hands are
used, by which means different parts are played toge¬
ther. Observe, that the tones are best drawn out when
the glasses turn from the ends of the fingers, not when
they turn to them.
“ The advantages of this instrument are, that its
tones are incomparably sweet beyond those of any
other; that they may be swelled and softened at plea¬
sure by stronger or weaker pressures of the finger, and
continued to any length; and that the instrument, be¬
ing once well tuned, never again wants tuning.”
Such was the state in which this learned and inge¬
nious author found, and such the perfection to which
he carried that celestial instrument of which we now
treat. We call it celestial; because, in comparison with
any other instrument which we know, the sounds that
it produces are indeed heavenly. Some of them, how¬
ever, are still constructed in the same imperfect man¬
ner as the instrument of Mr Puckeridge. They are
contained in an oblong chest; their positions are either
exactly or nearly rectilineal; the artificial semitones by
which the full notes are divided form another paral¬
lel line ; but the distances between each of them are
much greater than those between the notes of the na¬
tural scale, as they take their places, not directly op¬
posite to the notes which they are intended to heighten
or depress, but in a situation between the highest and
lowest, to show, that in ascending they are sharps to
the one, and in descending flats to the other. This
structure, however, is doubly inconvenient; for it not
only increases the labour and difficulty of the performer,
but renders some musical operations impracticable,
which upon the Harmonica, as constituted by Dr Frank¬
lin, may be executed with ease and pleasure. In this
fabric, if properly formed and accurately tuned, the
instrument is equally adapted to harmony and melody.
But as no material structure could ever yet be brought
to the perfection even of human ideas, this instrument
still in some measure retains the perverse nature of its
original stamina. Hence it is not without the utmost
difficulty that the glasses can be tuned by grinding ;
and the least conceivable redundancy or defect render's
the discord upon this instrument more conspicuous and
intolerable than upon any other. Hence likewise
that inexpressible delicacy to be observed in the man¬
ner of the friction by which the sound is produced :
for if the touch be too gentle, it cannot extort the
tone; and if too strong, besides the mellow and deli¬
cate sound which ought to be heard, we likewise per¬
ceive the finger jarring upon the glass, which, mingled
with those softer sounds by which the senses had been
soothed, gives a feeling similar to iron grating upon
iron,
H A R [ 267 ] H A R
ionica. ,ron» out more disagreeable. In wind-instruments the
y—' operation of the tongue, in harpsicords the stroke of
the quill, and on the violin the motion of the bow,
gives the strong and sensible interruption of sound
which may be called articulation, and which renders
the rhythmus or measure of an air more perceptible $ but
upon the glasses, the touch of the finger is too soft to
divide the notes with so much force; so that, unless the
mind be steadily attentive, they seem to melt one into
another, by which means the idea of rhythmus is almost
lost. There is no way of performing a slur but by
forbearing to stop the first sound, when that which is
immediately subsequent commences. Thu^ when the
slur is of any length, and regularly descends or rises
by the interval of a second, all the notes in the slur
must be heard together, and produce no disagreeable
dissonance j yet if it rises or descends by perfect chords,
the effect is pleasing. The open shake, or trill, is ano¬
ther unhappy operation upon musical glasses j which
can only be performed by the alternate pulsations of
two continued sounds, differing from each other only
by a note or semitone. But as these pulsations thus
managed cannot be distinct, the result is far from be¬
ing pleasant j nor is there any succedaneum for the
dose shake, which in the violin is performed by alter¬
nately depressing the string to the finger-board, and
suffering it to rise without entirely removing the finger
from it, and which, by giving the note that tremulous
sound produced by the human voice affected with grief,
is a grace peculiarly adapted to pathetic and plaintive
airs.
We proceed, however, to a farther account of the
same instrument, extracted from the Annual Register,
vol. iv. p. 149.
“ Besides those tones, (says the author of that
account) which every elastic string produces by a vi¬
bration of all its parts, it is capable of another set of
tones in which only a part of the string is supposed
to vibrate. These sounds are produced by the lightest
touches, either by air, as in Oswald’s lyre, or by
rubbing the bow in the softest manner on the string of
a fiddle.
“ Analogous to these sounds are those produced by
bells: in these last, besides those tones produced by
their elliptical vibrations, there are a set of tones which
may be brought by gently rubbing their edges, and in
which the whole instrument does not appear to vibrate
in all its parts as before.
“ Take, for instance, a bell finely polished at the
edges; or, what will perhaps be more convenient, a
drinking-glass : let the edges be as free from any thing
oily as possible j then, by moistening the finger in wa¬
ter (I have found alum-water to be best), and rubbing
it circularly round the edge of the glass, you will at
length bring out the tone referred to.
“ This note is possessed of infinite sweetness $ it has
all the excellencies of the tone of a bell without its
defects. It is loud, has a sufficient body, is capable
of being swelled and continued at pleasure; and, be¬
sides, has naturally that vibratory softening which mu¬
sicians endeavour to imitate by mixing with the note to
be played a quarter-tone from below.
“ To vary these tones, nothing more is required
than to procure several bells or glasses of different tones,
tuned as nearly as possible, which may be done by thin¬
ning the edges of either j or, for immediate satis-Harmonica,
faction, the glasses may be tuned by pouring in water: —-v—
the more water is poured in, the graver the tone will
be.
“ Let us suppose then a double octave of those
glasses, thus tuned, to be procured. Any common
tune may be executed by the fingers rubbing upon
each glass successively $ and this I have frequently
done without the least difficulty, only choosing those
tunes which are slow and easy. Here then are num¬
bers of delicate tones, with which musicians have been
till very lately unacquainted} and the only defect is,
that they cannot be made to follow each other with
that celerity and ease which is requisite for melody. In
order to remedy this, I took a large drinking-glass,
and by means of a wheel and gut, as in the electrical,
machine, made it to turn upon its axis with a mode¬
rately quick but equable motion 5 then moistening the
finger as before, nothing more was required than merely
to touch the glass at the edge, without any other mo¬
tion, in order to bring out the tone.
“ Instead of one glass only turning in this manner, if
the whole number of glasses were so fixed as to keep
continually turning by means of a wheel, it follows,
that upon every touch of the finger a note would be
expressed j and thus, by touching several glasses at once,
a harmony of notes might be produced, as in a harpsi¬
chord.
“ As I write rather to excite than satisfy the cu¬
rious, I shall not pretend to direct the various ways
this number of glasses may be contrived to turn ; it
may be sufficient to say, that if the glasses are placed
in the segment of a circle, and then a strap, as in a
cutler’s wheel, be supposed to go round them all, the
whole number will by this means be made to turn by
means of a wheel.
“ Instead of the finger, I have applied moistened
leather to the edge of the glass, in order to bring out
the tone : but, for want of a proper elasticity, this did
not succeed. I tried cork, and this answered every
purpose of the finger; but made the tone much louder
than the finger could do. Instead, therefore, of the
finger, if a number of corks were so contrived as to
fall with a proper degree of pressure on the edge of
the glass, by means of keys like the jacks of an organ,
it is evident, that in such a case a new and tolerably
perfect instrument would be produced; not so loud
indeed as some, but infinitely more melodious than
any.
“ The mouths of the glasses or hells used in this ex¬
periment should not resemble the mouth of a trumpet,
but should rather come forward with a perpendicular
edge. The corks used in this case should be smooth,
even free from those blemishes which are usually found
in them, and at the same time the more elastic the
better.”
In the two accounts here given seems to be compre¬
hended every thing valuable which has been said upon
the subject. It remains, however, our permanent opi¬
nion, that the form and structure designed and consti¬
tuted by Dr Franklin is by much the most eligible ;
nor can we admit, that a cork, however successfully
applied, will produce the same mellowness and equality
of tone in general with the finger. It appears to us,
that, by this kind of voluntary attrition, a note may be
L 1 2 sunk
H A R [ 268 ] H A R
Harmonica, sunk or swelled with much more art and propriety than
'■ ■■'"v—— hy the substitution of any thing else extrinsic to the
hand 5 and when chords are long protracted, that de¬
gree of friction, which renders every sound in the chord
sensible to the ar, without harshness, must be the most
agreeable. For this reason, likewise, we should recom¬
mend alum-water in preference to chalk.
From what has already been said, it will easily be
perceived, that this instrument requires to be tuned with
the nicest degree of delicacy which the laws of tempe¬
rament will possibly admit. For these law's the reader
*Chap. vli. will naturally have recourse to the article Music *, in
art. 64. t|,js Dictionary ; where, from M. D’Alembert, is gi¬
ven a plain and satisfactory account, both of the me¬
thod proposed by Rameau, and of that established in
common practice, without anticipating the experience
and taste of the reader, by dictating which of these
plans is preferable. To those who have occasion to
tune the instrument, it may likewise be useful to per¬
use the detached article TEMPERAMENT in this Work.
Without recapitulating the different rules of alteration
prescribed in these accounts, we shall presuppose the
reader acquainted with them ; and proceed to describe
how, under their influence, the Harmonica may he tu¬
ned. But it is previously expedient to observe, that
the same rules which conduct the process of tuning a
harpsichord, will be equally effectual in tuning the
Harmonica ; with this only difference, that greater de¬
licacy in adjusting the chords should, if practicable, he
attempted.
There are different notes from whence the procedure
of tuning may commence. La or A, which is the key
that pretty nearly divides the harpsichord, is chosen by
some $ this la in common spinets is 24 natural keys
from the bottom, and 13 from the top •, and the nt a-
hove it, or second C upon the G cliffs, by others. This
last we should rather advise, because we imagine those
intervals which we have called seconds major to he more
just through the whole octave, when the course of tu¬
ning is begun by a natural semitone. The initiate,
therefore, may begin by tuning the second ut of his
Harmonica, or C above the treble cliff, unison with
its correspondent C upon the harpsichord or any other
instrument in concert-pitch ; then, descending to its
octave below, adjust it with the lit above, till every
pulsation if possible he lost, and the sounds rendered
scarcely distinguishable when simultaneously heard. To
the lowest note of this octave he must tune the so/or G
immediately above it by a fifth, still observing the laws
of temperament : To this G, the re, or D immediately
above it, hy the same chord : To the re, or D above,
its octave below: To this, hy a fifth, the la or A im¬
mediately above it: To/a, the mf or E ascending in
the same proportion : To mi, its octave below : To
this, the si or B immediately above it hy a fifth : To
the first ut, or C, which was tuned, the fa or F imme¬
diately below by the same chord.
That the practitioner may be still more secure in the
justice and propriety of his procedure, he may try the
thirds of the notes already adjusted, and alter, as much
as is consistent with the fifths and octaves, such among
these thirds as may seem grating and disagreeable to hfs
ear. Thus far having accomplished his operation, he
may tune all the other natural notes whether above or
below by octaves. His next concern is with the semi¬
tones. And here it will be suggested by common Harmet
sense, that as in all instruments with fixed scales, the v
sharp of a lower must likwise answer for the flat of a
higher tone, the semitone ought as nearly as possible
to divide the interval. He may begin with la or A
sharp*, which la in its natural state is a third minor be¬
neath the ut or C, from whence lie began in the natu¬
ral scale. This semitone should correspond with the F
natural immediately above by a fifth. To it may be
tuned the re or D sharp immediately below hy a similar
chord : To D sharp, its octave above : To si or B na¬
tural, immediately above the la or A first mentioned,
may be adjusted the Y ov fa sharp immediately above
it: To this its octave below ; To that octave, the C
or tit sharp above by a fifth : To the C sharp, its octave
below : To this, by a fifth, the G or sol sharp above.
Between this G sharp and the D sharp immediately
above it, the fifth will probably he too sharp j but if
the others are justly tuned, that discord will not be ex¬
tremely offensive 5 and it is a necessary consequence of
temperament. The rest of the sharps and flats, like their
naturals, whether ascending or descending, may he tu¬
ned hy their octaves.
The notes, with their chords, may be expressed bv
letters and figures, thus*, where, however, it must be
observed, that the higher notes of any chord are marked
with larger capitals. It should likewise be remarked,
that the figures are not expressive of the different ratios
which the notes bear to one another, considered with
respect to their vibrations j hut only significant of
their nominal distances, according to the received de-
nominations of the intervals. Cc cG cD dD dA
5 s 5 r 5
aE Ee eB Cf. The sharps and flats thus, A^Fij,
asm, d$D!£, bJf^, FSM. F^CSfc, C%c%,
c^G^;. In running over the sharps and flats as the
naturals, it will likewise he necessary to try the thirds,
and to alter such as may offend the ear j which, if cau¬
tiously done, will not sensibly injure the other chords.
—Though this article has been protracted to a length
which we did not originally intend, we have how¬
ever the satisfaction to find, that it comprehends
every thing essential j so that any person who under¬
stands the nature of chords, and the practical prin¬
ciples of music as universally taught, may not only he
able to tune his instrument, but to acquire its whole
manoeuvre, without the least assistance from a master.
On Plate CCL. is represented an instrument of this
kind.
Though this topic appeared in itself complete in
the former edition of this extensive work, yet having
since received from Dr Edmund Cullen of Dublin the
following observations, and reflecting that men of mu¬
sical talents have not only different tastes, but different
powers of mechanical operation, we have thought it
proper to submit to the choice of our readers, either
Dr Franklin’s form and arrangement of the glasses, or
that which was adopted by Dr Cullen ; hut in either
case, we would recommend it to the initiate in this in¬
strument, to distinguish by colours, according to Dr
Franklin, the notes and semitones..—We likewise can¬
not forbear to think, that the complete bass practicable
on the harmonica, is by many degrees preferable to the
chords with which Dr Cullen proposed to grace every
emphatic
f w
H A R ' [ 269 ] H A R
louica,emphatic note, with which, from the structure and ar-
^ rangement of his instrument, he was tinder the neces¬
sity of deluding instead of satisfying the ear, with the
full effect of the regular procedure of the treble and
bass upon the same instrument.
This instrument the doctor describes as consisting
“ of 35 glasses of different sizes, answering to so many
distinct sounds, and ranged in the manner hereafter to
be described. They are exactly of the form of a cocoa
nut when the usual quantity of the top is cut off j or the
sugar-bowls made of cocoa-nut shells so much in use
will give a precise idea of their figure. They are blown
with plain long stalks, which are fitted to 'wooden feet
screwed on a board at proper distances, 1n such a man¬
ner that the circular tops of all may be in the same hori¬
zontal plane, at the distance of about an inch asunder.
Of these 35, 10 only are allotted for half tones; there
remain therefore 25 for the diatonic scale. The lowest
note corresponds to G in the bass clifi ; hence it extends
upward to the octave above C in alt. For uniformity,
take the glasses which are chosen gradually and regu¬
larly diminishing in size as they ascend in tone. This,
however, is not absolutely necessary, as the tone of the
glass does not entirely depend upon its size, but in a
great measure upon the proportion of its different parts
to one another: hence the glass corresponding to one
note may be smaller than a glass corresponding to a
note three or four times higher : however, where it is
practicable, they should always be chosen gradually
diminishing as they ascend, both on account of the ele¬
gance of appearance, and that an equality in point of
loudness may be preserved ; for, as every body knows,
an instrument may be liable to great inequality in point
of strength, though perfectly in tune. This must have
a very bad effect; and therefore we find performers on
the violin and other instruments of that kind very soli¬
citous about the proportional thickness of their strings.
The glasses being chosen in the best manner circumstan¬
ces will permit, we proceed to arrange them. Here
let me observe, that in general the diameter of the
largest glass at its mouth is about seven inches, and its
solid contents about five English pints, while the high¬
est is of about one-fourth of an inch, and its contents
about one-third of a gill : this, however, is arbitrary,
and depends upon the pitch of the instrument. In ar¬
ranging the glasses, we shall, to avoid confusion, take
the diatonic scale first, and afterwards the half tones will
be easily understood. The wooden feet before men¬
tioned are to be screwed on a strong board of a proper
size, and they are disposed at convenient intervals in
rows perpendicular to the longest sides of the rectan¬
gular board on which they stand. In these feet the
glasses are disposed in tbe following manner : Beginning
with the lowest note G, we fix that on the foot which
stands in the nearest angle of the board on the left
hand, A in the next bottom in the same perpendicular
line, B in the third : when we come to C, however,
we do not place it in the same perpendicular line, but
in the nearest bottom of the second perpendicular row
to the left hand, D in the second of the same row, E
in the third ; F again in the .nearest bottom of the third
row, G in the second of the same row, A in the third ;
B again in the nearest bottom of the fourth row, C in
Bie second of the same, and so on. By this contri¬
vance it is easy to see an immense compass is obtain-
5
ed : so great a one indeed, that if the glasses were dis-Harmonica,
posed according to the old method, regularly ascending * ^
in a line parallel to the front of the instrument, to take
in the same compass, it must stretch to a considerable
length, no less than a length equal to the sum of all
the perpendiculars we before spoke of, which in ordi¬
nary size of the glasses would amount to upwards of 16
feet; the inconvenience of which it is unnecessary to
dwell upon. As to the half tones, perhaps a more ju¬
dicious and convenient arrangement may he thought of
for them : but the present mode is far from incon¬
venient, except in some keys; and it is sufficiently
commodious for performing such airs as are best suited
to the nature and design of the instrument. After ex¬
plaining the arrangement,we shall speak somewhat more
exactly of them. Ejj on the first line of the treble stave
stands in the fourth bottom of the first perpendicular
row to the left hand; Ftj on the first space stands in
the fourth place of the second row ; Gt| on the se¬
cond line of the treble stave stands in the fourth of the
third row ; Cl| on the third space of the same stave
stands in the same manner in the fourth row, ami
so on, ascending FI} in the fifth row, Gtj in the
sixth, Alj in the seventh, Cll in the eighth. In the ninth
perpendicular row, that is, the last to the right hand
in the diatonic scale, stands C alone ; but immediately
behind is placed of the middle line of the treble
stave, and again behind it Dt] of the fourth line of the
treble stave, which finishes the whole. There is some¬
thing singular, and perhaps whimsical, in the distribu¬
tion of the half tones: but it is found sufficiently con¬
venient; and if abetter is thought of, it may easily be
adopted. In the mean time I must observe, that two
of them, viz. Clj and Ft], standing immediately behind
tbe D and G respectively above them, are singularly
well fitted for performing running passages either up or
down in the key of G. Ex gr. let us suppose that we
have that very common A, G, It], E, semiquavers.
H ere the performer touches A, which is in the first place
of the sixth row, with his left hand, G with the fore-fin¬
ger of his right, FI] with the middle, and E again with
the left hand ; in the same manner may E, D, Cl], and
B, be played, or upwards by inverting the motion :
Thus we can with the utmost ease run either up or
down two very frequent passages, in a key which might
naturally be supposed difficult upon this instrument, and
that with any given rapidity. I wish as much could
be said of all the other bait' tones, of which, by the
bye, some are altogether wanting: it is obvious, how¬
ever, that they may easily be added, if we can find
convenient places ; and I apprehend even that very
practicable. Be that as it may, notwithstanding the
seemingly inconvenient situation of some half tones, and
the total want of others, pieces may be performed on
this instrument of considerable rapidity. I myself,
though very far from being an accomplished player,
can with great ease go through all the parts of
Fisher’s celebrated rondeau; nay, I have heard the
fifth concerto of Vivaldi played upon it with as much
distinctness as upon a violin. The glasses are not ne¬
cessarily chosen perfectly in tune, but are tuned by the
help of a quantity of water. Here, however, two cau¬
tions are necessary: 1st, By no means to take a glass
which is, when without water, flatter than the note you
intend 5 as in that case you cannot remedy it, the water
making r
H A R [ 270 ] H A R
, making the tone still flatter : rather let it be somewhat
sharper, and you may tune it to the utmost nicety by a
little water. The second caution is, not to choose a
glass which is very much sharper than the note requir¬
ed; as in that case, so large a quantity of water
will be required to tune it as will entirely smother the
tone.
“ This instrument is to he played somewhat in the
manner of the harmonica, viz. the fingers are to be well
wetted ; and by the application of them to the side,
assisted by a proper motion, the sound is produced.
And here I would observe, that the proper motion is,
to make the fingers follow the thumb, not the thumb
follow the fingers, in going round the glass : it is neces¬
sary also to preserve the circular motion very exactly,
as the least deviation from it produces the most horrible
sound that can be conceived. It is likewise to be obser¬
ved, that you must touch the smaller glasses upon the
very top of the brim ; and for that purpose the palm of
the hand must be nearly parallel to the top of the glass :
but in coming to the larger glasses, it is absolutely ne¬
cessary to make the fingers touch the side, not the top
of the glass ; and the larger the glass, the more distant
from the top must they be touched. Practice alone can
determine this matter.
“ From this disposition of the glasses, it is easy to see
that the perfect chord of C is always most completely
in our power, namely, by using different fingers to the
different notes at the same time : and although a full
bass cannot be executed upon this instrument, we have
always a great number of accompaniments which can
easily be introduced 5 more perhaps than upon any in¬
strument, the organ and others of that species excepted.
Ihe thirds or fifths occasionally can be introduced}
and when done with taste and judgment, will scarcely
yield to a middling bass. If to this is added the thril¬
ling softness ot the tones, inimitable by any other sub¬
stance, it will readily appear to be an instrument more
in the true style of music, of that music which the heart
acknowledges, than any that either chance or ingenuity
has hitherto produced. It is indeed incapable of that
whimsical subdivision to which the taste of modern com¬
posers, that sworn enemy to harmony and real music,
leads j which serves no end but to exhibit the wonder¬
ful executions of a favourite performer, and to over¬
whelm his hearers with stupid admiration. This is not
music ; and upon these occasions, though I acknowledge
the difficulty of doing what I see done, I lament that
the honest man has taken so much pains to so little pur¬
pose. Our instrument is not capable of this (at least
not in so exquisite a degree as the harpsichord, violin,
and a few others) : yet if the true and original intent
of music is not to astonish but to please, if that instru¬
ment which most readily and pleasingly seizes the heart
thiough tne ears is the best, I have not a moment’s
hesitation in setting it down the first of all musical in-
sti uments. There is but one which will in any degree
bear the comparison, or rather they are the same instru¬
ment, I mean Dr Franklin’s harmonica: but I am in¬
clined to think that the instrument we have been speak¬
ing of has some superiority over the harmonica. The
first striking diflerence is in the impracticability of ex¬
ecuting quick passages on the latter} whereas it is in
most cases extremely easy on the other. Again, the
veiy long continued vibration of the glass, inevitably
3
must produce horrible discord, or at least confusion, ex- Harmon
cept the piece played be so slow that the vibration of y- !
one glass be nearly over before the other is heard. Now,
in our instrument, this may be remedied by laying
pieces of sponge lightly between the glasses, so as to al¬
low them only the proper extent of vibration. This,
however, is an exceptionable method : and it is much
better done by the touch of the performer’s finger,
which instantly stops the vibration } and the use of this
may be learned by a very little practice, the motion
here being entirely voluntary : But in the harmonica,
the motion being partly mechanical, v. g. the rotation
of the glasses, this cannot be done j and for the same
reason, in the execution of the crescendo the harmonica
is not so perfect as this instrument. Besides, the incon¬
venience of tuning the half tones, as sharps or flats, se¬
parately, is as great in the harmonica as in the harpsi¬
chord. This is a very great imperfection ; as half tone?,
being tuned at the medium, are false both as sharps and
as flats. The learned Dr Smith says, there is no less
than one-fifth of the interval difi’erence between the
sharp of one note and the flat of the next above ; and for
this purpose proposes to have an harpsichord constructed
with a stop, so as to direct the jacks to the sharps or
flats according to the prevalence of either in the piece
to be played: but in our instrument, from its very con¬
struction, this inconvenience is avoided. As to matters
of convenience, the harmonica is exceedingly apt to be
out of order > the glasses frequently break, plainly on
account of the great strain upon them where they join
the spindle, and are thus with much difficulty renew¬
ed ; whereas with us the loss of a glass is nothing. Add
to all this, that the harmonica, in point of original ex¬
pence, is about five times as high as the other: although
I apprehend it possesses no one advantage, except that
the performer may sit at it} whereas with our instru¬
ment it is convenient, if not necessary, to stand } but
he must be a laxy musician that gives himself much con¬
cern about that : And if he will sit at our instrument,
he may, though at the expence of much ease in point
of execution.
“ Let us now consider some objections that have
been made to this instrument. One is, that necessity of
standing, in order to do any thing capital upon it. But
is not that the case in all instruments, except where
the performer sits of necessity ? Did ever any one
see Giardini or Fisher play a solo sitting ? But for
the satisfaction of these torpid gentlemen, I can faith¬
fully assure them, I knew a lady who performed on this
instrument' perfectly well, though she had lost the use
of both her legs. A more serious and important ob¬
jection lies both to this and the harmonica, viz. the
want of a shake. How this is supplied upon the harmo¬
nica, I cannot say, as I never saw it even attempted :
but on our instrument, although a very perfect shake can
scarcely be produced, something so like it may he done
as will fairly excuse the want; and that is, by whirling
the two stands round the note concerned with the shake
with the utmost velocity, beginning the lower note a
little sooner than the other. By this means, except in
very large glasses where the vibrations are too distant
in time, such an intermixture of the two sounds is pro¬
duced, as extremely well imitates a fine shake, and the
dexterous performer will make the beat in a tuined
shake with a spare finger. This operation requires some
dexterity}
H A R [ 271 ] H A R
■Jionica,^exter‘ty > ^ut t*1'3 13 a charge common to all musical
j niony.’instruments ; and I question not but that the Highland
u y——bagpipe itself requires some sort of skill.
“ Upon the whole, 1 am clearly of opinion, that the
harmonica, and more especially this instrument which
has yet got no name, is the most exquisite and noble
present that the lovers of true harmony have ever yet
• received j and it is with much astonishment I lind this
invaluable treasure almost entirely confined to Ireland,
a country not very remarkable for musical taste or ta¬
lents : But I hope soon to see this elegant species of
music very generally known and practised over all Eu¬
rope.”
HARMONY. The sense which the Greeks gave
to this word in their music, is so much less easy to be
determined, because, the word itself being originally a
substantive proper, it has no radical words by which
we might analyse it, to discover its etymology. In the
ancient treatises which remain to us, harmony appears
to be that department whose object is the agreeable suc¬
cession of sounds, merely considered as high or low j
in opposition to the two others called rhylhmica and
metric", which have their principle in time and mea¬
sure. This leaves our ideas concerning that aptitude of
sound vague and undetermined ; nor can we fix them
without studying for that purpose all the rules of the
art; and even after we have done so, it will be very
difficult to distinguish harmony from melody, unless
we add to the last the ideas of rhythmus and mea¬
sure ; without which, in reality, no melody can have
a distinguishing character: whereas harmony is cha¬
racterised by its own nature, independent of all other
quantities except the chords or intervals which com¬
pose it.
It appears by a passage of Nicomachus, and by
others, that they likewise gave the name oiharmony to
the chord of an octave, and to concerts of voices and
instruments, which performed in the distance of an oc¬
tave one from the other, and which is more commonly
called antiphone.
Harmony, according to the moderns, is a succession
of chords agreeable to the laws of modulation. For a
long time this harmony had no other principle, but such
rules as were almost arbitrary, or solely founded on
the approbation of a practised ear, which decided con¬
cerning the agreeable or disagreeable succession of
chords, and whose determinations were at last reduced
to calculation. But Father Mersenne and M. Saveur
having found that every sound, however simple in ap¬
pearance, was always accompanied with other sounds
less sensible, which constitute with itself a perfect
chord-major ; with this experiment M. Rameau set out,
and upon it formed the basis of his harmonic system,
which he has extended to a great many volumes, and
which at last M. D’Alembert has taken the trouble
of explaining to the public.
Signior Tartini, taking his route from an experi¬
ment which is newer and more delicate, yet no less
certain, has reached conclusions similar enough to those
of Rameau, by pursuing a path whose direction seems
quite opposite. According to M. Rameau, the treble
is generated by the bass ; Signior Tartini makes the
bass result from the treble. One deduces harmony
from melody, and the other supposes quite the con¬
trary. To determine from which of the two schools
the best performances are likely to proceed, no more is Harmony,
necessary than to investigate the end of the composer,' , ■ *
and discover whether the air is made for the accom¬
paniments, or the accompaniments for the air. At
the word System in Rousseau’s Musical Dictionary,
is given a delineation of that published by Signior
Tartini. Here he continues to speak of M. Rameau,
whom he has followed through this whole work, as
the artist of greatest authority in the country where he
writes.
He thinks himself obliged, however, to declare,
That this system, however ingenious it may be, is far
from being founded upon nature j an affirmation which
he incessantly repeats : “ That it is only established
upon analogies and congruities, which a man of inven¬
tion may overturn to-morrow, by substituting others
more natural : that, in short, of the experiments from
whence he deduces it, one is detected fallacious, and
the other will not yield him the consequences which
he would extort from it. In reality, when this author
took it in his head to dignify with the title of demon¬
stration the reasoning upon which he established his
theory, every one turned the arrogant pretence into
ridicule. The Academy of Sciences loudly disapproved
a title so ill founded, and so gratuitously assumed j and
M. Estive, of the Royal Society, at Montpelier, has
shown him, that even to begin with this proposition,
That according to the law of nature, sounds are repre¬
sented by their octaves, and that the octaves may be
substituted for them, there was not any one thing de¬
monstrated, or even firmly established, in his pretended
demonstration.” He returns to his system.
“ The mechanical principle of resonance presents us,
with nothing but independent and solitary chords j
it neither prescribes nor establishes their succession.
Yet a regular succession is necessary; a dictionary of
selected words is not an oration, nor a collection of
legitimate chords a piece of music : there must be a
meaning, there must be connections in music as well
as in language : it is necessary that what has preceded
should transmit something of its nature to what is sub¬
sequent, so that all the parts conjoined may form a
whole, and be stamped with the genuine character of
unity.
“ Now, the complex sensation which results from a
perfect chord must be resolved into the simple sensa¬
tion of each particular sound which composes it, and
into the sensation of each particular interval which
forms it, ascertained by comparison one with another.
Beyond this there is nothing sensible in any chord ;
from whence it follows, that it is only by the relation
between sounds, and by the analogy between intervals,
that the connexion now in question can be established ;
and this is the genuine, the only,source, from whence
flow all the laws of harmony and modulation. If, then,
the whole of harmony were only formed by a succession ;
of perfect chords-major, it would be sufficient to pro¬
ceed by intervals similar to those which compose such >
a chord ; for then some one or more sounds of the pro¬
ceeding chord being necessarily protracted in that which .
is subsequent, all the chords would be found sufficiently ,
connected j and the harmony would, at least in this sense,.
be one.
“ But besides that these successions must exclode all
melody by excluding the diatonic series which forms its
foundation,
H A R [ 272 ] H A R
Harmony* foundation, it would not arrive at the real end of the
■ —t- art j because, as music is a system of meanings like a
discourse, it ought, like a discourse, to have its periods,
its phrases, its suspenses, its cadences, its punctuation
of every kind ; and because the uniformity of a harmo-
nical procedure implies nothing of all this, diatonic pro¬
cedures require that major and minor chords should be
intermixed j and the necessity of dissonaftces Iras been
felt in order to distinguish the phrases, and render the
cadences sensible. Now, a connected series of perfect
chords-major can neither be productive of perfect
chords-minor nor of dissonances, ncr can sensibly mark
any musical phrase, and the punctuation must there be
found entirely defective.
“ M. Rameau being absolutely determined, in his
system, to deduce from nature all the harmony prac¬
tised among us, had recourse, for this effect, to ano¬
ther experiment of his own invention, of which I have
formerly spoken, and which by a different arrangement
is taken from the first. H« pretended, that any simple
sound whatever afforded in it multiplies a perfect minor
or flat'chord, of which it was the dominant or fifth, as
it furnished a perfect chord-major by the vibration of
its aliquot parts, of which it is the topic or fundamen¬
tal sound. He has affirmed as a certain fact, that a
Vocal string caused two others lower than itself to vi¬
brate through their whole extent, yet without making
them produce any sound, one to its twelfth major and
the other to its seventeenth j and from this joined to
the former fact, he has very ingeniously deduced not
only the application of the minor mode and of disso¬
nances in harmony, but the rules of harmonic phrases
«nd of all modulation, such as they are found at the
words Chord, Accompaniment, Fundamental Bass, Ca¬
dence, Dissonance, Modulation.
“ But first (continues Rousseau), the experiment is
false. It is discovered, that the strings tuned beneath
the fundamental sound do not entirely vibrate when
this fundamental sound is given $ but that they are di¬
vided in such a manner as te return its unison alone,
which of consequence can have no harmonics below. It
is moreover discovered, that the property of strings in
dividing themselves, is not peculiar to those which are
tuned by a twelfth and seventeenth below the principal
sound j but that oscillations are likewise produced in
the lower strings by all its multiples. Whence it fol¬
lows, that, the intervals of the twelfth and seventeenth
below not being singular phenomena of their kind, no¬
thing can be concluded in favour of the perfect minor
chord which they represent.
“ Though the truth of this experiment were grant¬
ed, even this would by no means remove the difficulty.
If, as M. Rameau alleges, all harmony is derived from
the resonance of sonorous bodies, it cannot then be de¬
rived only from the vibrations of such bodies as do not
resound. In reality, it is an extraordinary theory,
to deduce from bodies that do not resound the prin¬
ciples of harmony •, and it is a position in natural phi¬
losophy no less strange, that a sonorous body should
vibrate without resounding, as if sound itself were any
thing else but the air impelled by these vibrations.
Moreover, sonorous bodies do not only produce, be¬
sides the principal sound, the other tones which with
kself compose a perfect chord ; but an infinite number
of other sounds, formed by all the aliquot parts cf the
bodies in vibration, which do not enter into that per-narn.i0
feet harmony. Why then should the former sounds S—y*
produce consonances, and why should the latter not
produce them, since all of them equally result from
nature ?
“ Every sound exhibits a chord truly perfect, since
it is composed of all its harmonics, and since it is by
them that it becomes a sound. Yet these harmonics are
not heard, and nothing is distinguished but a simple
sound, unless it be exceedingly strong j whence it fol¬
lows, that the only good harmony is an unison •, and
that, as soon as the consonances can be distinguished,
the natural proportion being altered, the harmony has
lost its purity.
“That alteration is in this case produced two differ¬
ent ways. First, by causing certain harmonics to re¬
sound, and not the others, the proportions of force
which ought to prevail in all of them is altered, for
producing the sensation of a single sound j whence the
unity of nature is destroyed. By doubling these har¬
monics, an effect is exhibited similar to that which
would be produced by suppressing all the others ; for
in that case we cannot doubt, but that, along with the
generating sound, the tones of the other harmonics
which were permitted to sound would be heard : where¬
as, in leaving all of them to their natural operations,
they destroy one another, and conspire together in
forming and strengthening the simple sensation of the
principal sound. It is the same effect which the full
sound of a stop in the organ produces, when, by suc¬
cessively removing the stopper or register, the third and
fifth are permitted to sound with the principal; for
then that fifth and third, which remained absorbed in
the other sounds, are separately and disagreeably di¬
stinguished by the ear.
“ Moreover, the harmonics which we cause to sound
have other harmonics pertaining to themselves, which
cannot be such to the fundamental sound. It is by
these additional harmonics that the sounds which pro¬
duce them are distinguished with a more sensible degree
of harshness ; and these very harmonics which thus
render the chord perceptible, do not enter into its
harmony. This is the reason why the most perfect
chords are naturally displeasing to ears whose relish
for harmony is not sufficiently formed ; and I have
no hesitation, in thinking, that even the octave itself
might be displeasing, if the mixture of male and fe¬
male voices did not inure us to that interval from our
infancy.
“ With dissonance it is still worse, because, not only
the harmonics of the sound by which the discord is pro¬
duced, but even the sound itself, is excluded from the
natural harmony of the fundamental; which is the cause
why discord is always distinguished amongst all the
other sounds in a manner shocking to the sense.
“ Every key of an organ, with the stop fully open¬
ed, gives a perfect chord with its third major, which are
not distinguished from the fundamental sound, if the
hearer is not extremely attentive, and if he does not
sound the whole stop in succession ; but these harmonic
sounds are never observed in the fundamental, but on
account of the prodigious noise, and by such a situation
of the registers as may cause the pipes which produce
the fundamental sound to conceal by their force the
other sounds which produce these harmonics. Now,
no
hah L 273 ] HAH
fitiiony. no Per!?on observes, nor can observe, tins continual pro
it, portion in a concert; since, by the manner of invert
ing the harmony, its greatest force must in every instant
be transferred from one part to another; which is not
practicable, and would destroy the whole melody.
“ When we play upon the organ, every key in the
bass causes to resound the perfect chord-major ; but
because that bass is not always fundamental, and be¬
cause the music is often modulated in a perfect minor
chord, this perfect chord-major is rarely struck with
the right hand ; so that we hear the third minor with
the major, the fifth with the triton, the seventh redun¬
dant with the octave, and a thousand other cacophonies,
which, however, do not much disgust our ears, because
habit renders them tractable : but it is not to be ima¬
gined that an ear naturally just would prove so patient
of discords, when first exposed to the test of this har¬
mony.
“ M. Rameau pretends, that trebles composed with
a certain degree of simplicity naturally suggest their
own basses ; and that any man having a just, though
unpractised ear, would spontaneously sing that bass.
This is the prejudice of a musician, refuted by univer¬
sal experience. Not only would he, who has never
heard either bass or harmony, be of himself incapable
of finding either the bass or the harmony of M.
Rameau, but they would be displeasing to him if he
heard them, and he would greatly prefer the simple
unison.
“ When we consider, that, of all the people upon
earth, who have all of them some kind of music and
melody, the Europeans are the only people who have
a harmony consisting of chords, and who are pleased
with this mixture of sounds: when we consider that
the world has endured for so many ages, whilst, of all
the nations which cultivated the fine arts, not one has
found out this harmony; that not one animal, not one
bird, not one being in nature, produces any other chord
but the unison, nor any other music but melody; that
the eastern languages, so sonorous, so musical ; that
the ears of the Greeks, so delicate, so sensible, prac¬
tised and cultivated with so much art, have never con¬
ducted this people, luxurious and enamoured of plea¬
sure as they were, towards this harmony which we
imagined so natural; that without it their music pro¬
duced such astonishing effects ; that with it ours is so
impotent; that, in short, it was reserved for the people
of the north, whose gross and callous organs of sensa¬
tion are more affected with the noise and clamour of
voices, than with the sweetness of accents and the me¬
lody of inflections, to make this grand discovery, and
to vend it as the essential principle upon which all the
rules of the art were founded ; when, in short, atten¬
tion is paid to all these observations, it is very difficult
Bot to suspect that all our harmony is nothing but a
Gothic and barbarous invention, which would never
have, entered into our minds, bad we been truly sensi¬
ble to the genuine beauties of art, and of that music
which is unquestionably natural.
“ M. Rameau asserts, however, that harmony is the
source of the most powerful charms in music. But
this notion is contradictory both to reason and to mat¬
ter ot fact. To fact it is contradictory, because, since
the invention of counter-point, all the wonderful ef¬
fect* of music have ceased, and it has lost its whole
Vol. X. Part I. +
force and energy. To which may be added, that such HaifnonV.
beauties as purely result from harmony are only per- —y—
ceived by the learned ; that they affect none with
transport but such as are deeply conversant in the art;
whereas the real beauties of music, resulting from na¬
ture, ought to be, and certainly are, equally obvious
to the adept and the novice. To reason it is contra¬
dictory ; since harmony affords us no principle of imi¬
tation by which music, in forming images and expres¬
sing sentiments, can rise above its native excellence till
it becomes in some measure dramatic or imitative,
which is the highest pitch of elevation and energy to
which the art can aspire ; since all the pleasures which
we can receive from the mere mechanical influence of
sounds are extremely limited, and have very little
power over the human heart.”
Thus far we have heard IVT. Rousseau, in his obser¬
vations on harmony, with patience ; and we readily
grant, that the system of harmony by M. Rameau is
neither demonstrated, nor capable of demonstration.
But it will not follow, that any man of invention can
so easily and so quickly subvert those aptitudes and an¬
alogies on which the system is founded. Every hypo¬
thesis is admitted to possess a degree of probability pro¬
portioned to the number of phenomena for which it
offers a satisfactory solution. The first experiment of
M. Rameau is, that every sonorous body, together
with its principal sound and its octave, gives likewise
its twelfth and seventeenth major above ; which being
approximated as much as possible, even to the chords
immediately represented by them, return to the third,
fifth, and octave, or, in other words, produce perfect
harmony. This is what nature, when solicited, spon¬
taneously gives ; this is what the human ear, unpre¬
pared and uncultivated, imbibes with ineffable avidity
and pleasure. Could any thing which claims a right
to our attention and acceptance from nature, be im¬
pressed with more genuine or more legible signatures
of her sanction than this ? We do not contend for the
truth of M. Rameau’s second experiment. Nor is it
necessary we should. The first, expanded and carried
into all its consequences, resolves the phenomena of
harmony in a manner sufficient to establish its authen¬
ticity and influence. The difficulties for which it af¬
fords no solution are too few and too trivial either to
merit the regard of an artist, or a philosopher, as M.
D’Alembert in his elements lias clearly shown. The
facts with which M. Rousseau confronts this principle,
the armies of multiplied harmonics generated in infini-
tum, which he draws up in formidable array against it,
only show the thin partitions which sometimes may di¬
vide philosophy from whim. For, as bodies are infi¬
nitely divisible, according to the philosophy now esta¬
blished, or as, according to every philosophy, they
must be indefinitely divisible, each infinitesimal of any
given mass, which are only harmonics to other princi¬
pal sounds, must have fundamental tones and harmo¬
nics peculiar to themselves: so that, if the reasoning of
Rousseau has any force against M. Rameau’s experi¬
ment, the ear must be continually distracted with a
chaos of inappretiable harmonics, and mefody itself
must be lest in the confusion. But the truth of the
matter is, that by the wise institution of nature, there
is such a conformity established between our senses and
their proper objects, as must prevent all these disagree-
M in able
H A R [ 274 ] H A R
lunnonv. able effrcts. Rousseau and his opponent are agreed in
 v   this, that the harmonics conspire to form one predomi¬
nant sound ; and are not to be detected but by the
nicest organs, applied with the deepest attention. It is
equally obvious, that, in an artiiicial harmony, by a
proper management of tins wise precaution of nature,
dissonances themselves may be either entirely conceal¬
ed or considerably softened. So that, since by nature
sonorous bodies in actual vibration are predisposed to
exhibit perfect harmony ; and since the human ear is,
by the same wise regulation, fabricated in such a man¬
ner as to perceive it 5 the harmonical chaos of M.
Rousseau may be left to operate on his own brain,
where it will probably meet with the warmest recep-
* M. Rows-tion it can expect to find*. Nor does it avail him to
seau was pretend, that before the harmonics can be distinguished,
this article sonorous bodies must be impelled with a force which
alters the chords, and destroys the purity of the har¬
mony : for this position is equally false both in theory
and practice ;—in theory, because an impulse, however
forcible, must proportionally operate on all the parts of
any sonorous body, so far as it extends j in practice,
because the human ear actually perceives the harmony
to be pure. What effects his various manoeuvres upon
the organ may have, we leave to such as have leisure
and curiosity enough to try the experiments; but it is
apprehended, that when tried, their results will leave
the system of Rameau, particularly as remodelled by
D’Alembert, in its full force.
Of all the whims and paradoxes maintained by this
philosopher, none is more extravagant than his as¬
sertion, that every chord, except the simple unison, is
displeasing to the human ear j nay, that we are only
reconciled to octaves themselves by being inured to
hear them from our infancy. Strange, that nature
should have fixed this invariable proportion between
male and female voices, whilst at the same time she in¬
spired the hearers with such violent prepossessions
against it as were invincible but by long and confirm¬
ed habit! The translator of D"1 Alembert'1 s Elements, as
given under the article Music in this Dictionary, has
been at peculiar pains to investigate his earliest recol¬
lections upon this subject j and has had such opportu¬
nities, both of attending to his original perceptions,
and of recognising the fidelity of his memary, as are
not common. He can remember, even from a period
of early childhood, to have been pleased with the sim¬
plest kinds of artificial harmony ; to have distinguished
the harmonics of sonorous bodies with delight j and to
have been struck with horror at the sound of such bo¬
dies as, by their structure, or by the cohesion of their
parts, exhibited these harmonics false. This is the
chief, if not the only cause, of the tremendous and
disagreeable sensation which we feel from the sound of
the Chinese ghong. The same horrible cacophony is
fiequently, in some degree, produced by a drum une¬
qually braced : from this sound the translator often re¬
members to have started and screamed, when carried
through the streets of the town in which he was born
in the arms of his nursery-maid j and as be is consci¬
ous, that the acoustic organs of many are as exquisite as
his own, he cannat doubt but they may have had the
same sensations, though perhaps they do not recol¬
lect the facts. So early and so nicely may the sensa¬
tions of harmony and discord be distinguished. But
after all, it seems that harmony is no more than a mo- Hatm
dein invention, and even at this late period only ''““v
known to the Europeans. We should, however, be
glad to know, from what oracle our philosopher learned
that harmony was not known to antiquity. From what
remains of their works, no proof of his position can be
derived ; and we have at least mentioned one probabi¬
lity against it in our notes to the Preliminary Discourse
to the article Music, (see note b). But though
Rousseau’s mighty objections were granted, that har¬
mony can only he endured by such ears as are habi¬
tually formed and cultivated ; that the period of its
prevalence has been short, and the extent of its em¬
pire limited to Europe ; still his conclusion, that it is a
Gothic and barbarous invention, is not fairly deduci-
ble even from these premises. Must we affirm, that
epic poetry has no foundation in nature, because, du¬
ring the long interval which happened from the begin¬
ning of the world to the destruction of Troy, no epic
poem seems to have appeared ? Or because a natural
and mellifluous versification is less relished by an unpo¬
lished taste, than the uncouth rhimes of a common bal¬
lad, shall we infer, that the power of numbers is mere¬
ly supposititious and arbitrary ? On the contrary, we
will venture to affirm, that though harmony cannot, as
Rameau supposes, be mathematically demonstrated
from the nature and vibrations of sonorous bodies ; vet
the idea of its constituent parts, and of their coales¬
cence, is no less established, no less precise and defi¬
nite, than any mode or property of space or quantity
to be investigated by geometrical researches or alge¬
braical calculations. It is certain, that the mimetic
or imitative power of music chiefly consists in melody ‘7
but from this truth, however evident, it cannot be fair¬
ly deduced that harmony is absolutely unsusceptible
of imitation. Perhaps every musical sound, even to
the most simple, and all modulations of sound, are more
or less remotely connected with some sentiment or pas¬
sion of the human heart. We know, that there are in¬
stinctive expressions of pain or pleasure in their various
modes and degrees, which, when uttered by any sensi¬
tive, and perceived by any conscious being, excite in
the miad of the percipient a feeling sympathetic with
that by which they are prompted. We likewise know
from experience, that all artificial sounds modulated in
the same manner, have similar, though not equal, ef¬
fects. We have seen that, in order to render harmony
compatible with itself, the melody of each part must
be congenial^ and, for that reason, one kindred melo¬
dy results from the whole. So far, therefore, as any
composer has it in his power to render the general me¬
lody homogeneous, so far the imitation may be preser¬
ved, and even heightened : for such objects as are ma¬
jestic and august, or the feelings which they excite, are
more aptly expressed by a composition of kindred sounds,
than by any simple tone whatever. Those who sup¬
pose the mimetic powers of music to be consummated
in the imitation of mere unmeaning sounds or degrees
of motion, must entertain limited and unworthy ideas
of its province. It is naturally a representative almost
of every sentiment or affection of the soul; and, when
this end is gained, the art must have reached its highest
perfection, and produced its noblest effects. But these
effects, however sensible among the ancients, may in
us be superseded by other causes which remain yet uiv-
uoex'plored.
H A R [2
■mony explored. Theatrical performances are likewise, by
|| them, said to have produced the most wonderful effects;
rness. these we do not recognise amongst ourselves, though
~v we have dramatic entertainments perhaps not inferior
to theirs.
Rousseau proceeds to tell us, that among the ancients
the enharmonic species of music was sometimes called
harmony.
Direct Harmony, is that in which the bass is fun¬
damental, and in which the upper parts preserve among
themselves, and with that fundamental bass, the natu¬
ral and original order which ought to subsist in each of
the chords that compose this harmony.
Inverted Harmony, is that in which the fundamen¬
tal or generating sound is placed in some of the upper-
parts, and when some other sound of the chord is trans¬
ferred to the bass beneath the others.
Harmony oj the Spheres, or Celestial Harmony, a
sort of music much talked of by many of the ancient phi¬
losophers and fathers, supposed to be produced by the
sweetly tuned motions of the stars and planets. This
harmony they attributed to the various proportionate
impressions of the heavenly globes upon one another,
acting at proper intervals. It is impossible, according
to them, that such prodigious large bodies, moving
with so much rapidity, should be silent: on the con¬
trary, the atmosphere, continually impelled by them,
must yield a set of sounds proportionate to the impres¬
sion it receives 5 consequently, as they do not all run
the same circuit, nor with one and the same velocity,
the dilf rent tones arising from the diversity of motions,
directed by the hand of the Almighty, must form an
admirable symphony or concert.
They therefore supposed, that the moon, as being
the lowest of the planets, corresponded to ?ni; Mer¬
cury to/a; Venus to sol; the Sun to la; Mars, to
si; Jupiter to ut; Saturn to re; and the orb of the
fixed stars, as being the highest of all, to mi, or the
octave.
HARMOSTES, or Harmosta, in antiquity, a
sort of magistrate among the Spartans, whereof there
were several, whose business was to look to the build¬
ing of citadels, and repairing the forts and fortifica¬
tions of the cities.—J he word is formed of
opto, concino, “ I adapt, concert,” &c.
HARMOSYNIANS, Ugpotrvjoi, in antiquity, were
magistrates among the Spartans, who, after the death
of Lycurgus, were appointed to enforce the observance
of that law of the Spartan legislator which required
married women to wear a veil when they appeared in
the streets, whereby they were distinguished from sin¬
gle females, who were allowed to appear abroad with
their faces uncovered.
HARNESS, a complete armour, or the whole equi¬
page and accoutrements of a cavalier heavily armed j
as casque, cuirass, &c. The word is formed of the
■trench harnois; which some derive from the Greek
“ a lamb’s skin,” because they anciently co¬
vered themselves therewith. Hu Cange observes, that
the word harnesium is used in the corrupt Latin in the
same sense, and that it comes from the High Hutch
haj'nas or harnisch. Others derive it from the Italian
arnese ; others from the Celtic harnes, “ a cuirass.”
Under King Richard II. it was expressly forbidden
all men to ride in harness with launcegays. Vide stat. 7.
75 ] H A R
Richard II. cap. 13. In the statute 2 Henry VI. cap.
14* harness seems to include all kinds of furniture for
offence as well as defence, both of men and horse j as
swords, buckles for belts, girdles, &c.
Harness is also used for the furniture put on a
horse to draw in a coach or waggon, or other carriage 5
such as collars, leathers, traces, &c.
HARO, a small town of Spain in Old Castile, on
the Ebro, surrounded with walls. W. Long. 2. 25.
N. Lat. 42. 40.
Haro, Harou, or Harol, in the Norman customs.
—Clamour de haro is a cry or formula of invoking the
assistance of justice against the violence of some offend¬
er, who upon hearing the word haro is obliged to de¬
sist, on pain of being severely punished for his outrage,
and to go with the party before the judge.
I'he word is commonly derived of ha and roul, as be¬
ing. supposed an invocation of the sovereign power, to
assist the weak against the strong, on occasion of Raoul
first duke of Normandy, about the year 912, who ren¬
dered himself venerable to his subjects by the severity
of his justice j so that they called on him even after
his death when they suffered any oppression. Some
derive it from Harola king of Hen mark, who in the
year 826 was made grand conservator of justice at
Mentz. Others from the Banish aa ran, q. d. “ help
me j” a cry raised by the Normans in living from a
king of Benmark named Roux, who made himself
duke of Normandy. The letters of the French chan¬
cery have usually this clause, Nonobstant clameur de
haro, &c.
The haro had anciently such vast power, that a poor
man of the city of Caen named Asselin, in virtue here¬
of, arrested the corpse of William the Conqueror, in
the middle of the funeral procession, till such time as
his son Henry had paid the value of the land in que¬
stion, which was that on which the chapel was built in
which he was interred.
HAROLH, the name of two English kings. See
England, N° 77, 83.
HARONIA, a town of Turkey, in the xirabian
Irak, 45 miles north of Bagdad.
HAROUE, a town of France, in the department of
Meurthe, 12^ miles south-west of Luneville.
HARP, a musical instrument of the stringed kind,
of a triangular figure, and held upright between the
legs of the performer.
Papias, and Hu Cange after him, will have the harp
to have taken its name from the Arpii, a people of
Italy, who were supposed the first that invented it ;
and from whom, they say, it was borrowed by other
nations. Menage, &c. derive the word from the Latin
harpa, and that from the German herp or harp. Others
bring it from the Latin carpo, because touched or
thrummed with the fingers. Hr Hickes derives it
from harpa or hearpa, which signify the same thing j
the first in the language of the Cimbri, the second in
that of the Anglo-Saxons. The English priest who
wrote the life of St Hunstan, and who lived with him
in the tenth century, says, cap. ii. n. 12. Sump sit secum
ex more citharamsuam, quampaterna lingua hearpam vo-
camus ; which intimates the word to be Anglo-Saxon.
The harp was the favourite musical instrument of
the Britons and other northern nations in the middle
ages j as is evident from their laws, and from every
Mm2 passage
HAH [2
Harp, passage in their history, in which there is the least al-
v ■l ’ lusion to music. By the laws of Wales, a harp was one
of the three things that were necessary to constitute a
gentleman, i. e. a freeman ; and none could pretend
to that character who had not one of these favourite
instruments, or could not play upon it. By the same
Taws, to prevent slaves from pretending to he gentle¬
men, it was expressly forbidden to teach, or to permit,
them to play upon the harp 5 and none but the king,
the king’s musicians, and gentlemen, were allowed to
have harps in their possession. A gentleman’s harp
was not liable to be seized for debt j because the want
of it would have degraded him from his rank, and re¬
duced him to a slave. The harp was in no less esti¬
mation and universal use among the Saxons and Danes.
Those who played upon this instrument were declared
gentlemen by law ; their persons were esteemed invio¬
lable, and secured from injuries by very severe penal¬
ties ; they were readily admitted into the highest com¬
pany, and treated with distinguished marks of respect
wherever they appeared.
There is some diversity in the structure of harps.
That called the triple harp has 97 strings or chords in
three rows, extending from C in the tenor cliff to
double G in alt, which make five octaves : the middle
row is for the semitones, and the two outside rows are
perfect unisons. On the bass side, which is played with
the right hand, there are 36 strings : on the treble
side, 26 ; and in the middle row, 35 strings. There
are two rows of pins or screws on the right side, serving
to keep the strings tight in their holes, which are fa¬
stened at the other end to three rows of pins on the
upper side. The harp, within the last 40 years, has
been in some degree improved by the addition of eight
strings to the unison, viz. from E to double F in alt.
This instrument is struck with the finger and thumb
of both hands. Its music is much like that of the spinet,
all its strings going from semitone to semitone; whence
some call it an inverted spinet. It is capable of a much
greater degree of perfection than the lute.
There are among us two sorts of this instrument,
viz. the Welsh harp, being that just described ; and the
Irish harp. Plate CCL. N° 1. represents the harp of
Brian Boiromh, king of all Ireland, slain in battle
with the Danes A. D. 1014, at Clontarf.. His son
Donagh having murdered his brother Teige, A. D.
1023, and being deposed by his nephew, retired to
Borne, and carried with him the crown, harp, and
other regalia of his father, which he presented to the
Pope in order to obtain absolution. Adrian IV. siir-
named Breakspear, alleged this circumstance as one
of the principal titles he claimed to this kingdom in
bis bull transferring it to Henry It. These regalia
were kept in the Vatican till the Pope sent the harp to
Henry VIII. with the title of Defender of the Faith j
but kept the crown, which was of massive gold. Henry
gave the harp to the earl of Clanricard, in whose
family it remained,till the beginning of the i8th cen¬
tury, when it came by a lady of the De Burgh family
into that of Mac Mahon of Clenagh in the county of
Clare, after whose death it passed into the possession of
Commissioner Mac Namara of Limerick. In 1782 it
was presented to the right honourable William Conyng-
llam, who deposited it in Trinity college library. It is
32 inches high, and of extraordinary good workmanship j
>6 ] HAH
the sounding-board is of oak, the arms of red sally Hat S t
the extremity of the uppermost arm in part is capt with ''—>4
silver extremely well wrought and chiseled. It con¬
tains a large crystal set in silver, and under it was ano¬
ther stone now lost. The buttons or ornamental knobs
at the sides of this arm are of silver. On the front arm
are the arms chased in silver of the O’Brien family, the
bloody hand supported by lions. On the side of tire
front arm within two circles are two Irish wolf dogs
cut in the wood. The holes of the sounding hoard
where the strings entered are neatly ornamented with
escutcheons of brass carved and gilt ; the larger sound¬
ing-holes have been ornamented, probably with silver,
as they have been the object of theft. This harp has
28 keys, and as many string-holes, consequently there
were as many strings. The foot piece or rest is bro¬
ken off, and the parts round which it was joined are very
rotten. The whole bears evidence of an expert artist.
King David is usually painted with a harp in his
hands ; but we have no testimony in all antiquity that the
Hebrew harp, called chinnor, was any thing like ours.
On a Hebrew medal of Simon Maccabaeus we see
two sorts of musical instruments j hut they are both
of them very different from our harp, and only consist
of three or four strings. All authors agree, that our
harp is very different from the lyra, cithara, or barbi-
ton of the Homans. Fortunatus, lib. vii. carm. 8.
witnesses, that it was an instrument of the barbarians :
Romanusque lyra, plaudat tibi barbarus harpa,
Grcecus Achilliacha, ci'otla JBritanna canat.
Of ancient harps, two are represented on the same
plate.—N° 2. is a trigonum or triangular harp. It is
taken from an ancient painting in the museum of the
king of Naples, in which it is placed on the shoulder
of a little dancing Cupid, who supports the instrument
with his left hand and plays upon it with his right. The
trigonum is mentioned by Athenseus, lib. xv. and by
Julius Pollux, lib. iv. cap. 9. According to Athenseus,
Sophocles calls it a Phrygian instrument; and one of his
dipnosophists tells us, that a certain musician, named
Alexander Alexandrinus, was such an admirable perform¬
er upon it, and had given such proofs of his abilities at
Borne, that he made the inhabitants pwopuniv, “ musi¬
cally mad.” N° 3. and 4. are varieties of the same
instrument. N° 5. is the Theban harp according to a
drawing made from an ancient painting in one of the
sepulchral grottoes of the first kings of Thebes, and
communicated by Mr Bruce to Dr Burney*. The^f.
performer is clad in a habit made like a shirt, such aswys;J |
the women still wear in Abyssinia, and the men in Nubia, J
It reaches down to bis ancles j his feet are without p-|
sandals, and hare ; his neck and arms are also harej his
loose white sleeves are gathered above his elbowsand
his head is close shaved. His left hand seems employed
in the upper part of the instrument among the notes in
alto, as if in an arpeggio *, while, stooping forwards he
seems with his right hand to he beginning with the
lowest string, and promising to ascend with the most
rapid.execution : this action, so obviously rendered by
an indifferent artist, shows that it was a common one in
his time j or, in other words, that great hands were
then frequent j and consequently that music was well
understood and diligently followed.
On this instrument Dr Burney makes the following
observations:
H A R [ 277 ] H A R
observations : “ The number of strings, the size and
•'form of this instrument, and the elegance of its orna¬
ments, awaken reflections, which to indulge would lead
us too far from our purpose, and indeed out of our
depth. The mind is wholly lost in the immense anti-
q.uity of the painting in which it is represented. In¬
deed the time when it was executed is so remote, as to
encourage a belief, that arts, after having been brought
to great perfection, were again lost and again invented
long after this period.—-With respect to the number of
strings upon this harp, if conjectures may be allowed
concerning the method of tuning them, two might be
offered to the reader’s choice. The first idea that pre¬
sented itself at the sight of 13 strings was, that they
would furnish all the semitones to be found in modern
instruments within the compass of an octave, as from
C to c, D to cl, or E to e. The second idea is more
Grecian, and conformable to antiquity, which is, that
if the longest string represented prostambanomenos, or
D, the remaining 12 strings would supply all the tones,
semitones and quarter-tones, of the diatonic, chroma¬
tic, and enharmonic genera of the ancients, within the.
compass of an octave: but for my part, I would rather
incline to the first arrangement, as it is more natural
and more conformable to the structure of our organs,
than the second. For with respect to the genera of the
Greeks, though no historic testimony can be produced
concerning the invention of the diatonic and chromatic,
yet ancient writers are unanimous in ascribing to Olym¬
pus the Phrygian the first use of the enharmonic: and
though in the beginning the melody of this genus was
so simple and natural as to resemble the wild notes and
rude essays of a people not quite emerged from barba¬
rism ; yet in after-times it became overcharged with
finical fopperies and fanciful beauties, arising from such
minute divisions of the scale as had no other merit than
the great difficulty of forming them. It seems a mat¬
ter of great wonder, with such a model before their
eyes as the Theban harp, that the form and manner of
using such an instrument should not have been perpe¬
tuated by posterity ; but that, many ages after, ano¬
ther of an inferior kind, with fewer strings, should
take place of it. Yet if we consider how little we are
acquainted with the use and even construction of the
instruments which afforded the greatest delight to the
Greeks and Romans, or even with others in common
use in a neighbouring part of Europe, only a few cen¬
turies ago, our wonder will cease j especially if we re¬
flect upon the ignorance and barbarism into which
it is possible for an ingenious people to be plunged
by the tyranny and devastation of a powerful and cruel
invader.
BcII-Haup, a musical instrument of the string kind,
thus called from the common players on it swinging it
about, as a bell on its basis.
It is about three feet long its strings, which are of
no determinate number, are of brass or steel wire, fixed
at one end, and stretched across the sound-board by
screws fixed at the other. It takes in four octaves,
according to the number of the strings, which are
struck only with the thumbs,, the right hand playing
the treble and the left hand the bass and in order to
draw the sound the clearer, the thumbs are armed
with a little wire pin. This may perhaps be the lyra
or cythara of the ancients y but we find no mention
made of it under the name it now bears, which must be Harp
allowed to be modern. |j
Harp of JEolus. See Acoustics, p. 149. Harpies..
HARPAGINES, in antiquity, were hooks of iron,' v
hanging on the top ol a pole, which, being secured
with chains to the masts of ships, and then let down
with great velocity into the enemy’s vessels, caught
them up into the air. By way of defence against these
machines, they covered their ships with hides, which
broke and blunted the force of the iron. The harpa-
gines, by the Greeks called agaraysf, owe their inven¬
tion to Anacharsis the Scythian philosopher.
HARPAGIUS. See Arpagius.
HARPALUS, a Greek astronomer, who flourished
about 480 B. C. corrected the cycle of eight years in¬
vented by Cleostratus y and proposed a new one of nine
years, in which he imagined the sun and moon returned
to the same point. But Harpalus’s cycle was after¬
wards altered by Meton, who added ten full years to it.
See Chronology, N° 27.
HARPIES (APIIYIAI, Harpyia£), in antiquity, a.
rapacious impure sort of monsters of the bird kind,
mentioned among the poets. They are represented *
with wings, ears like bears, bodies like vultures, faces11!’
like women, and feet and hands hooked like the talons
of birds of prey.
The ancients looked on the harpies as a sort of
genii or demons. Some make them the daughters of
lellus and Oceanus, the earth and ocean; whence, savs
Servius, it is, that they inhabit an island, half on land
and half in water. Valerius Flaccus makes them the
daughters of Typhon.
There were three harpies, Aello, Ocypete, and Ce-
laeno, which last Homer calls Fodarge. Hesiod, in his
Theogony, ver. 267. only reckons two, Aello and Ocy¬
pete, and makes them the daughters of Thaumas and
Electra, affirming that they had wings, and went with
the rapidity of the wind. Zephyrus begat of them
Balius and Xanthus, Achilles’s horses. Pherecydes
relates, that the Boreades expelled them from the
Hlgean and Sicilian seas, and pursued them as far as
the islands which he calls Flotce and Homer Calynce;
and which Lave since been called the Strophades.
Vossius, He Idol. lib. iii. cap. 99. p. 63. thinks, .
that what the ancients have related of the harpies,
agrees to no other birds so well as the bats found in
the territories of Harien in South America. These
animals kill not only birds, but dogs and cats, and
prove very troublesome to men by their peckings. But
the ancients, as the same Vossius observes, knew no¬
thing of these birds. By the harpies, therefore, he
thinks, they could mean nothing else but the winds y
and that it was on this account they were made daugh¬
ters of Electra, the daughter of Oceanus. Such is
the opinion of the scholiasts of Apollonius, Hesiod,
and Eustathius. Their names, Aello, Ocypete, Ce-
lamo, are supposed to suggest a farther argument of
this.
Mr Bryant supposes that the harpies were a college
of priests in Bithynia, who, on account of their repeat¬
ed acts of violence and cruelty, were driven out of the
country: their temple was called Arpi, and the en¬
virons Arpiai, whence the Grecians formed A^nvixi-y
and he observes farther, that Harpya, Ag?rw«, was cer¬
tainly of old the name of a place.
HARPING-
H A R [ 278 ]
Harping- HARPING-IROK. See HARPOON.
I! HARP1NGS, the fore parts of the wales which
Harpoon, encompass the bow of a ship, and are fastened to the
■ stem, being thicker than the after part of the wales,
in order to reinforce the ship in this place, where she
sustains the greatest shock of resistance in plunging in¬
to the sea, or dividing it, under a great pressure of sail.
HARPOCRATES, in Mythology^ the son of Isis
and Osiris. This is an Egyptian deity, whose distin¬
guishing attribute is, that he is represented with his
fingers applied to his mouth, denoting that he is the
god of silence. The statue of this idol was fixed in
the entrance of most of the Egyptian temples, and he
was commonly exhibited under the figure of a young
man naked, crowned with an Egyptian mitre, holding
•in one hand a cornucopia, and in the other the flower
of lotus, and sometimes bearing a quiver.
HARPOCRATION, Valerius, a celebrated an¬
cient rhetorician of Alexandria, who has left us an ex¬
cellent Lexicon vpon the ten orators of Greece. Aldus
first published this lexicon in the Greek at Venice in
1603. Many learned men have laboured upon it; but
the best edition was given by James Gronovius at Ley¬
den in 1696.
HARPOON or Harping-iron, a spear or javelin
used to strike the whales in the Greenland fishery.
The harpoon, which is sometimes called the harp-
ing-iron, is furnished with a long staff, having at one
end a broad and flat triangular head, sharpened at both
edges, so as to penetrate the whale with facility : to
the head of this weapon is fastened a long cord, called
the whale-line, which lies carefully coiled in the boat,
v.i such a manner as to run out without being interrupt¬
ed or entangled. See Whale-fishery, Cetology
Index.
Gtin-HAilPOON, a kind of fire-arm for discharging
harpoons at whales, and thereby killing them more
easily and expeditiously than formerly when the har¬
poons were thrown by the hand. Though this me¬
thod was projected a good many years ago, it has but
lately come into use; and premiums have been annually
offered by the society for encouraging arts, &c. to the
persons who first struck a fish in this manner. In the
Transactions of that Society for 1786, we have an ac¬
count of the first fish struck in this manner in 1784.
The gun was of the blunderbuss construction, loaded
with four common tobacco pipes full of glazed powder;
the fish was shot at the distance of ten fathoms, the
harpoon going into her back up to the ring ; and she
was killed in about an hour. In 1785 three whales
were killed in this manner ; four in 1786, and three in
3787. Since that time the gun-harpoon has come
more into use, and will probably soon supersede the
other method entirely. In the Transactions of the
Society for 1789, We have accounts of a number of
whales killed in this manner. The instrument appears
to be extremely useful in calm still weather, as the
whale, though a timorous creature, will frequently al¬
low a boat to approach it to the distance of 20, 15, or
even 10 fathoms, all of which distances are within reach
of the gun-harpoon, though not within the reach of
that thrown by the hand. The greatest inconvenience
Was in case of rain or Snow, by which the lock was
apt to get wet. To remedy this, a case of leather was
made to fit round the gun and over the lock, lined
3
H A R
with tin, and big enough to fire the gun when it was Harpw..
on. The fish struck with an harpoon discharged in (j
this manner are soon killed, by reason of its penetra-Hamogto
ting their bodies to a great depth, not less than five or '■““Y'-
six feet, which no man’s strength would be able to ac¬
complish. In the volume just quoted, we have an ac¬
count of one which was shot through the tail. The
harpoon broke in the slit, but five fathoms of line
went through the tail. The fish was killed in eight
hours, which is perhaps the only instance of a fish
struck in that part being caught. In another, the
harpoon carried six feet of line into its body ; the
creature died in ten minutes. Others were killed in
15 minutes or half an hour, and one had a rib broken
by the violence of the stroke. In the Transactions of
of the Society for 1790, there are other accounts simi¬
lar to the foregoing, and all agreeing as to the great
usefulness of the instrument both for striking the fish
at a considerable distance, and for killing them in a
very short time.
HARPSICHORD, the most harmonious of all the
musical instruments of the string kind. It is played on
after the manner of the organ, and is furnished with
a set, and sometimes with two sets of keys; the touch¬
ing or striking of these keys moves a kind of little
jacks, which also move a double row of chords or
strings, of brass or iron, stretched over four bridges on
the table of the instrument.
HARQUEBUSS, a piece of fire-arms, of the
length of a musket, usually cocked with a wheel. It
carried a ball that weighed one ounce seven-eighths.
There was also a larger sort, called the great har-
quebuss, used for the defence of strong places, which
carried a ball of about three ounces and a half: but
they are now but little used, except in some old castles,
and by the French in some of their garrisons.
HARRIER, a kind of hound, endowed with an
admirable gift of smelling, and very bold in the pursuit
of his game. See Canis.
HARRINGTON, Sir John, an ingenious Eng¬
lish poet, was the son of John Harrington, Esq. who
was committed to the Tower by Queen Mary for hold¬
ing a correspondence with her sister Elizabeth ; who,
when she came to the crown, stood-godmother to this
son. Before he was 30, he published a translation of
Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso, a work by which he was
principally known ; for though he afterwards pub¬
lished some epigrams, his talent did not seem to have
lain that way. He was created knight of the Bath
by James I.; and presented a MS. to Prince Henry,
levelled chielly at the married bishops. Pie is sup¬
posed to have died about the latter end of James’s
reign.
Harrington, James, a most eminent English wri¬
ter in the 17th century, bred at Oxford, travelled
into Holland, France, Dehttiark, and Germany, and
learned the languages of those countries. Upon his
return to England, he was admitted one of the privy-
chamber extraordinary to King Charles I. He served
the king with great fidelity, and made use of his inte¬
rest with his friends in parliament to procure matters
to be accommodated with all parties. The king loved
his company except when the conversation happened
to turn upon commonwealths. He found means to
see the king at St James’s ; and attended him on the
gcaflold,
H A R [ 279 ] H A R
Hi ngton, scaffold, where, or a little before, lie received a token
l I of his majesty’s affection. After the death of King
* J Charles, he wrote his Oceana; a kind ot political ro¬
mance, in imitation of Plato’s Commonwealth, which
he dedicated to Oliver Cromwell. It is said, that
when Oliver perused it, he declared, that “ the gentle¬
man had wrote very well, but must not think to cheat
him out of his power and authority ; for that what
he had won by tbe sword, he would not suffer himself
to be scribbled out of. This work was attacked by
several writers, against whom he defended it. Beside
his writings to promote republican principles, he in¬
stituted likewise a nightly meeting of several ingenious
men in the New Palace-Yard, Westminster j which
dub was called the Rota, and continued till the se¬
cluded members of parliament were restored by Ge¬
neral Monk. In 1661, he was committed to the
Tower for treasonable designs and practices ; and
Chancellor Hyde, at a conference with the lords
and commons, charged him with being concerned
in a plot. But a committee of lords and commons
could make nothing of that plot. He was convey¬
ed to St Nicholas’s island, and from thence to Ply¬
mouth, where he fell into an uncommon disorder of
the imagination. Having obtained his liberty by means
of the earl of Bath, he was carried to London, and
died in 1677* He published, besides the above works,
several others, which were first collected by Toland,
in one volume folio, in 1700 : but a more complete
edition was published in I737> ^7 ^ie reverend Hr
Birch.
HARRIOT, T HOMAS, a celebrated algebraist, was
born at Oxford in 1560, where he was also edu¬
cated. In 1579 he completed his bachelor’s degree ,
and, being already distinguished for his mathematical
learning, was soon after recommended to Sir Walter
Raleigh, as a proper person to instruct him in that
science. He was accordingly received into the family
of that gentleman ; who, in 1585, sent him with the
colony, under Sir Richard Granville, to Virginia ; of
which country, having remained there about a year,
he afterwards published a topographical description.
About the year 1588, Mr Harriot was introduced by
his patron Sir Walter Raleigh, to Henry Percy earl
of Northumberland, who allowed him a pension of
120I. per annum. He spent many years of his life
m Sion college where he died in July 1621, of a
cancer in his lip, and was buried in tbe church of St
Christopher, where a handsome monument was erected
to his memory. Anthony Wood tells us, he was a
deist, and that the divines looked upon his death as as
judgment. Be his religious opinions what they might,
be was doubtless one of the first mathematicians of the
Rge in which he lived, and will always he remembered
8* the inventor of the present improved method of
Hlgebraical calculation. His improvements in algebra
were adopted by lies Cartes, and for a considerable
time imposed upon the French nation as his own in¬
vention $ but the theft was at last detected, and ex¬
posed by Dr Wallis, in his history of Algebra, where
the reader will find our author’s invention accurately
specified. His works are, x. A brief and true re-
P°rt of the new-found land of Virginia 5 of the com¬
modities there found, and to he raised, &c. 2. Artis
analyticce praxis ad aquationcs algebraicas vova expc-
clita, ct gene rail methodo resolvendas e posthumis Tho- Harriot
■mce Harriott, &c. 3. Ephemeris chyrometrica. Ma- Harris.*
nuscript, in the library of Sion college. He is said to —v—-
have left several other manuscripts, which are probably
lost.
Dr Zach, who fully established tbe truth of Des
Cartes having pilfered from the Artis anulyticce praxis,
&c. of Harriot, and given it to the world as his own,
speaks thus ol our celebrated mathematician and alge¬
braist : “ It is remarkable, that the fame and the ho¬
nour of this truly great man, were constantly attacked
by the French mathematicians, who could not endure
that Harriot should in any way diminish the fame of
their Vieta and Des Cartes, especially the latter, who
was openly accused of plagiarism from our author.
“ Des Cartes published his Geometry six years after
Harriot’s work appeared, viz. in the year 1637. Sir
Charles Cavendish, then ambassador at the French court,
observed to tbe famous geometrician Roverval, that these,
improvements in analysis had been already made these
six years in England ; and shewed him afterwards
Harriot's Artis Analyticce Praxis : which, as Roverval
was looking over, at every page be cried out, yes ! yes !
he lias seen it ! Des Cartes had also been in England
before Harriot’s death, and had heard of his new im¬
provements and inventions in analysis.
“ I found likewise (says Dr Zach) among the papers
of Harriot a large set of observations on the satellites
of Jupiter, with drawings of them, their positions, and
calculations of their revolutions and periods. His first
observation of these discovered satellites, I find to be
of January 16. 1610, and they go till February 26.
1612. Galileo pretends to have discovered them Ja¬
nuary 7. 16x0 j so that it is not improbable that Har¬
riot was likewise the first discoverer of these attendants
of Jupiter.”
HARRIS, James, Esq. an English gentleman ol
very uncommon parts and learning, was the son of
James Harris, Esq. by a sister of Lord Shaftesbury
author of The Characteristics. He was born in tbe
Close at Salisbury 1709 j and educated at the gram¬
mar-school there. In 1726, he was removed to Wad-
ham-college in Oxford, but took no degree. He cul¬
tivated letters, however, most attentively j and also
music, in the theory and practice of which he is said
to have had few equals. He was member for Christ¬
church, Hants, which he represented in several succes¬
sive parliaments. In 1763, he was appointed one of
the lords commissioners of the admiralty, and soon af¬
ter removed to the board of treasury. In 1774 he was
made secretary and comptroller to the queen, which
post he held until his death. He died Dec. 21. 1780,
in his 72d year, after a long illness, which he bore with
calmness and resignation.—He is the author of some
valuable works. 1. Three Treatises, concerning Art 5
Music, Painting, and Poetry j and Happiness, 1745,
8vo. 2. Hermes j or, A Philosophical Enquiry con¬
cerning Universal Grammar. 3. Philosophical Ar¬
rangements. 4, Philological Inquiries, 1782, 2 vois
8vo, finished just before his death, and published since.
These Inquiries show much ingenuity and learning j
but being the amusement of his old age rather than an
exertion of genius, they have not the philosophic tone
of his former productions.
Harris, one of the Hebrides or Western Islands
of
H A R [ 280 ] H A R
Harris, of Scotland. It is about 25 miles in length, ami from 6
Harrison, to 8 in breadth. Upon the east side it is rocky ; but
on the west there are some tolerable farms, and the
population in 1801 was estimated at nearly 3000. It
has Lewis on the north, and North Uist on the south,
from which it is separated by a channel of four miles in
width, called the Sound of Harris. This channel is na¬
vigable for vessels of burden, but it requires a skilful
pilot. It is the only passage between the Butt of the
Lewis and Bara for vessels of burden passing to and from
the west side of the Long Island. The sound is gene¬
rally encumbered with rocks and islands, some of which
are considerable, as Bernera, Pabbay, Ensay, Kille-
gray. These, with Scalpay, Taransay, and Scarp, com¬
pose the inhabited islands on the coast of Harris. Some
of them produce good crops of grain, and all of them
good pasture. Harris and its islands sell from 400 to
500 tons of kelp annually j it abounds on the east side
in excellent lochs or bays, and its shores on both sides
form one continued fishery. The fish on this coast,
and along the whole shores of the Long Island, are
more numerous, and of larger dimensions, than those
on the opposite continent; on which account, two
royal fishing stations were begun in the reign of
.Charles I. one in Loch Maddie, and the other in the
Sound of Harris.
HARBISON, William, a writer much esteemed
and patronised by the literati of his time, was fellow
of New-college, Oxford, and had no other income than
40I. a-year as tutor to one of the duke of Queensberry’s
sons. In this employment he fortunately attracted
the favour of Dr Swift, whose solicitations with Mr
.St John obtained for him the reputable employment
of secretary to Lord Baby, ambassador at the Hague,
and afterwards earl of Strafford. A letter of his whilst
at Utrecht, dated Dec. 16. 1712, is printed in the
Dean’s works. Mr Harrison, who did not long en¬
joy his rising fortune, was dispatched to London with
the Barrier treaty •, and died Feb. 14. 1712-13. See
the Journal to Stella, of that and the following day $
where Dr Swift laments his loss with the most unaf¬
fected sincerity. Mr Tickel has mentioned him with
respect in his Prospect of Peace j in English Poets,
vol. xxvi. p. 1135 and Dr Young in the beautiful
close of an Epistle to Lord Lansdowne, vol. liii.
p. 183. most pathetically bewails his loss. Dr Birch,
who has given a curious note on Mr Harrison’s Letter
to Swift, has confounded him with Thomas Harrison,
M. A. of Queen’s-college. In Nichols’s Select Col¬
lection are some pleasing specimens of his poetry :
which, with Woodstock-Park in Dodsley’s Collection,
and an Ode to the duke of Marlborough, 1707, in
Duncombe’s Horace, are all the poetical writings that
are known of this excellent young man j who figured
both as an humorist and a politician in the fifth vo¬
lume of the Taller, of which (under the patronage of
Bolingbroke, Henley, and Swift) he was professedly
the editor. See the Supplement to Swift.-—There
was another William Harrison, author of The Pilgrim,
or the happy Convert, a Pastoral Tragedy, 1709.
Harrison, John, an ingenious mechanic, the cele¬
brated inventor of the famous time-keeper for ascertain¬
ing the longitude at sea, and also of the compound,
or, as it is commonly called, the gridiron-pendulum ;
was born at Foulby, in the parish of Wragby, near
Pontefract in Yorkshire, in 1693. The vigour of his Harrisoi
natural abilities, if not even strengthened by the want
of education, which confined his attention to few ob¬
jects, at least amply compensated the deficiencies of
it 5 as fully appeared from the astonishing progress
he made in that branch of mechanics to which he de¬
voted himself. His father was a carpenter, in which
profession the son assisted •, occasionally also, according
to the miscellaneous practice of country artists, sur¬
veying land, and repairing clocks and watches. Hs
was, from his early childhood, attached to any ma¬
chinery moving by wheels, as appeared while he lay
sick of the small pox about the sixth year of his age,
when he had a watch placed open upon his pillow
to amuse himself by contemplating the movement. In
1700, he removed with his lather to Barrow in Lin¬
colnshire $ where though his opportunities of acquiring
knowledge were very few, he eagerly improved every
incident from which he might collect information ; fre¬
quently employing all or great part of his nights in wri¬
ting or drawing : and he always acknowledged his obli¬
gations to a clergyman who came every Sunday to offi¬
ciate in the neighbourhood, who lent him a MS. copy
of Professor Saunderson’s Lectures; which he carefully
and neatly transcribed, with all the diagrams. His na¬
tive genius exerted itself superior to these solitary dis¬
advantages ; for in the year 1726, he had constructed
two clocks, mostly of wood, in which he applied the
escapement and compound pendulum of his own inven¬
tion : these surpassed every thing then made, scarcely
erring a second in a month. In 1728, he came up
to London with the drawings of a machine for deter¬
mining the longitude at sea, in expectation of being
enabled to execute one by the board of longitude.
Upon application to Dr Halley, he referred him to
Mr George Graham; who, discovering he had un¬
common merit, advised him to make his machine be¬
fore he applied to the board of longitude. He re¬
turned home to perform this task ; and in 1735 came
to London again with his first machine ; with which
he was sent to Lisbon the next year for a trial of
its properties. In this short voyage, he corrected the
dead reckoning about a degree and a half; a success
that proved the means of his receiving both public
and private encouragement. About the year I739>
he completed his second machine, of a construction
much more simple than the former, and which an¬
swered much better; this, though not sent to sea,
recommended Mr Harrison yet stronger to the pa¬
tronage of his private friends and of the public.
H is third machine, which he produced in 1749, was
still less complicated than the second, and superior
in accuracy, as erring only three or four seconds in
a week. This he conceived to be the ne plus ul¬
tra of his attempts ; but in an endeavour to improve
pocket-watches, he found the principles he applied to
surpass his expectations so much, as to encourage him
to make his fourth time-keeper, which is in the form
of a pocket watch, about six inches diameter. With
this time-keeper his son made two voyages, the one
to Jamaica, and the other to Barbadoes: in both
which experiments it corrected the longitude within
the nearest limits required by the act of the 12th of
Queen Anne; and the inventor therefore, at different
times, though not, without infinite trouble, received
* ' the
H A n [ 281 ] H A R
rison, the proposed reward of 20,oool. These four ma-
)gate. chines were given up to the board of longitude. The
three former were not of any use, as all the advanta¬
ges gained by making them were comprehended in
the last ; they were worthy, however, of being carefully
preserved as mechanical curiosities, in which might be
traced the gradations of ingenuity executed with the
most delicate workmanship j whereas they now lie
totally neglected in the royal observatory at Green¬
wich. The fourth machine, emphatically distinguished
by the name of the time-keeper, has been copied by
the ingenious Mr Kendal ; and that duplicate, during
a three years circumnavigation of the globe in the
southern hemisphere by Captain Cook, answered as
well as the original. The latter part of Mr Harri¬
son’s life was employed in making a fifth improved
time-keeper on the same principles with the prece¬
ding one ; which, at the end of a ten weeks trial, in
1772, at the king’s private observatory at Richmond,
erred only 4^ seconds. Within a few years of his
death, his constitution visibly declined j and he had
frequent fits of the gout, a disorder that never attacked
him before his 77^ year •’ he died at his house in
Red-Lion square, in 1776, aged 83. The recluse
manner of his life in the unremitted pursuit of his fa¬
vourite object, was by no means calculated to qualify
him as a man of the world 5 and the many discourage¬
ments he encountered in soliciting the legal reward
of his labours, still less disposed him to accommodate
himself to the humours of mankind. In conversing
on his profession, he was clear, distinct, and modest j
yet, like many other mere mechanics, found a diffi¬
culty in delivering his meaning by writing j in which
he adhered to a peculiar and uncouth phraseology.
This was but too evident in his Description concerning
such mechanism as will afford a nice or true mensura¬
tion of time, &c. 8vo, 1775; which his well-known
mechanical talents will induce the public to account
for from his unacquaintance with letters, from his
advanced age, and attendant mental infirmities, a-
mong which may he reckoned his obstinate refusal to
accept of any assistance whatever in this publication.
This small work includes also an account of his new
musical scale, or mechanical division of the octave,
according to the proportion which the radius and dia¬
meter of a circle have respectively to the circumference.
He had in his youth been the leader of a distinguished
band of church-singers j had a very delicate ear for
music j and his experiments on sound, with a most cu¬
rious monochord of his own improvement, are reported
to have been not less accurate than those he was en¬
gaged in for the mensuration of time.
HARROGATE, a village in the west riding of
Yorkshire, in the parish of Knaresborough, remarkable
for its medicinal springs. These are three in number,
all different in their qualities, notwithstanding their
contiguity. 1. The Tewet water or Sweet Spa, a vi¬
triolic spring, of a sort of milky taste, used in gravelly
cases, was discovered by Mr Slingsby in 1638. 2. The
stinking or sulphur spring, useful in dropsical, scorbu¬
tic, and gouty cases, rises in the town, and is received
in four basons under four different buildings; at one it
is drunk, at the others used for hot or cold baths. It
is perfectly clear ; but the taste and smell a composition
of rotten eggs, sea-water, and sulphur, and extremely
Vol. X. Part I. f
salt. Bathing is the most general method of using it. Harrogate
It is the strongest sulphur water in Great Britain ; [1
and from the superior strength of the impregnating Haitfoid.
sulphur, it does not lose the sulphureous smell even v~” ' *
when exposed to a scalding and almost boiling heat;
and in distilling it, when three pints had been taken off
from a gallon of it, the last was as strong as the first,
and stunk intolerably. It is discutient and attenu¬
ating ; and a warm hath of it is of great benefit in pains
and aches, strains and lameness, dissolving hard swell¬
ings, curing old ulcers and scrophulous complaints, and
is a powerful cleanser of the stomach and bowels.
3. St Mungo’s well is so called from Kentigern a
Scotch saint, much honoured hereabouts, whom his
tutor Servanus bishop of Orkney, out of affection for
him, called Mongah, which in the Norish or Norway
language signifies a dear friend.—The Harrogate sea¬
son is from May to Michaelmas ; and the company as¬
semble and lodge in five or six large houses or inns on
the heath, a mile from the village, each house having
a long room and an ordinary : the best company
used to lodge at Knaresborough, which is three miles
off.
HARROW-on-the-Hill, a town of Middlesex,
so called from its situation on the highest hill in the
county, is 10 miles north-west of London. This parish
is noted for a free school, founded in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth. A silver arrow is shot for here once a-year,
viz. August 4. by a select number of the scholars, who
are dressed for the purpose in the habit of archers.
Harrow, an instrument in Agriculture. See A-
GRI CULTURE, N° I58.
HART, a stag, or male-deer, in the sixth year.
See Cervus, Mammalia Index.
HAHT-Beest, or Quanga. See Capra, Mammalia
Index.
Hart's Horns, the horns of the common male
deer.—The scrapings or raspings of the horn of this
animal are medicinal, and used in decoctions, ptisans,
&c.
Hartshorn jelly is nutritive and strengthening, and
is sometimes given in diarrhoeas ; hut a decoction of
burnt hartshorn in water is more frequently used for
this purpose, and is called hartshorn drink.
The coal of hartshorn, by being calcined with a
long continued and strong fire, is changed into a very
white earth, called hartshorn calcined to whiteness.
This earth is employed in medicine as an absorbent,
and administered in dysenteries and labour pains, which
are supposed to be caused by acrid and ill-digested mat¬
ters. This earth levigated is the basis of Sydenham’s
white decoction, which is commonly prescribed in these
diseases.
The salt of hartshorn is a great sudorific, and given
in fevers with success; and hartshorn also yields, by
distillation, a very penetrative volatile Spirit.
HARTFORD, the capital of the county of the
same name, signifying, as is commonly thought, the
“ ford of harts,” stands on the river Lea, 21 miles
from London ; and is of considerable antiquity. Here
the East-Saxon kings often kept their court; and here,
in 1673, was held a synod. King Alfred built a castle
here, by which the Danish vessels were destroyed, that
came up from the Thames by its river as far as Ware,
where the Danes had erected a fort, from which they
N n ’ made
H A R [ 282 ] H A R
made frequent sallies to plunder and destroy the coun¬
try. The present castle consists of a gate-house or lodge
of brick, and a range of brick buildings, which seem of
the time of James or Charles I. and also of a very an¬
cient wall of ruble stone, with angular towers, supposed
to have been standing ever since its first foundation. The
manor of this town was all along the king’s, of whom
both the town and castle were formerly held in capite.
The barons took the latter from King John, but Henry
III. recovered it. Edward III. gave the town a char¬
ter for markets on Thursday and Saturday, and in his
grant of it to John of Gaunt it is called The Honour of
Hartford. It sent members to parliament in the reign
of Edward I. but after the 7th of Henry V. on the pe¬
tition of the bailiff and burgesses to be exempted by
reason of their poverty, that privilege was discontinued
till the 22d of James I. Henry VI. who kept his Easter
here in 1429, ordained by his charter, confirming their
market, that no other should be kept on the same days,
within seven miles, on pain of having the goods seized
by the bailiffs of Hartford. This manor being then
part of Queen Margaret’s jointure, the courts were
held in her name, and she appointed a horse fair to be
kept in what part of the town the bailiff and con¬
stables thought fit. The standard of weights and mea¬
sures was fixed here in the reign of Henry VII.; and
Mary I. made this a corporation by the name of bailiffs
and burgesses, of whom the latter were 16 by her char¬
ter. In the 25th and 35th of Elizabeth, Michael¬
mas-term was kept here, by reason of the plague at
both times in London ; and that queen, who sometimes
resided in its castle, and declared the borough as parcel
of her duchy of Lancaster, granted it a new charter,
by the style of a bailiff, 11 capital burgesses, and 16
assistants, with a market on Saturday. James I. grant¬
ed it a new charter, with the style of mayor, burgesses,
and commonalty, to have iq capital burgesses and 16
assistants, the mayor to be chosen out of the former
by both of them ; and a fair was then appointed here
on May 12. Here was once a monastery, founded by
a nephew of William the Conqueror ; and here were
formerly five churches, which are now reduced to two.
In St Andrew’s there is a seat not only for the mayor
and aldermen, but another for the governors of Christ
church hospital in London, who have erected a house
in this town on account of its healthy air and dry
situation, to receive such children as wanted either
health or room in that hospital j and they have built
a gallery in the church, wherein 200 of their children
may be accommodated. The town is governed by a
mayor, high-steward, who is generally a nobleman, a
recorder, 9 aldermen, a town-clerk, chamberlain, iq
capital burgesses, and 16 assistants, and has 2 Ser¬
jeants at mace. In 1S11, the number of inhabitants
was 3900. The chief commodities of its market are
wheat, malt, and wool; and it is said to send 5000
quarters of malt to London weekly by the river Lea.
Besides the above mentioned, here are two fairs on
July 5. and November 8. and two others for cattle, viz.
the Saturday fortnight before Easter, and its Midsum¬
mer fair is chiefly for horses. Here is a handsome
free grammar-school, besides 3 charity schools j but the
splbndour of the place is much diminished since the
north road from London was turned through Ware.
The county gaol, however, is still kept in the town,
2-
and the gaol-delivery in the castle. It gives the title Hartfwd
of earl to the noble family of Seymour-Conway. ||
HARTFORDSH1RE, a county of England, de- Hartty.
riving its name from Hartford the capital j and that 1 ^
from the harts with which it anciently abounded, be¬
ing then overrun with woods. It is bounded on the
east by Essex, on the west by Bedfordshire and Buc¬
kinghamshire, on the south by Middlesex, and on the
north by Cambridgeshire. This county is much in¬
dented by those that surround it 1 the longest part is
about 35 miles, and the broadest about 27 j and
the circumference is 190, containing about 451,000
acres. It is divided into eight hundreds, which con¬
tain 19 market towns, 54 vicarages, 120 parishes, and
near 950 villages, and in 1811, contained 111,654.
inhabitants. It sends six members to parliament,
two knights for the shire, with two burgesses lor
St Alban’s, and as many for Hartford. Before the
reign of Queen Elizabeth, one sheriff served both for
this shire and Essex j but in the ninth year of her
reign, it had one allotted for itself. With regard to
ecclesiastical jurisdiction, it belongs partly to the dio¬
cese of Lincoln, and partly to that of London.
Though the soil in general, especially in the Chil-
tern and southern parts, is but very indifferent, and
much inferior to that of the neighbouring counties j
yet the air is so much superior, that lands in this shire
generally sell at three or four years purchase more than
in many others on that account. But it must be
owned, that the soil of Hartfordshire has been much
improved of late, by draining, sowing grass seeds, and
other methods. There are few or no manufactures in
the county $ but its markets are much frequented, in
consequence of its being near London, for malt and
all sorts of grain. See Hertfordshire, Supple¬
ment.
HARTLAND, a town in Devonshire, near the
Bristol channel, with a market on Saturdays, much
frequented by the people of Cornwall, who come hi¬
ther in boats. It gives its name to a point, called
Hart land Point, at the entrance of Bristol channel.
W. Long. 4. 45. N. Lat. 51.9.
HARTLEPOOL, a sea-port town in the county
of Durham. It is commodiously seated on a promon¬
tory, and is almost encompassed by the sea. It is an
ancient corporation, governed by a mayor and aider-
men, with other subordinate officers. It is a pretty
large, but poor place, and had 1047 inhabitants in 1811.
It depends chiefly on the fishing trade; and its harbour
is much frequented by colliers passing to and from New¬
castle. W. Long. I. 5. N. Lat. 54. 48.
HARTLEY, a town of Northumberland, on the
coast, situated north-west of Tynemouth, where. Lord
Delaval has constructed a pretty haven, whence coals
are shipped for London. Here are large salt works
and copperas works, and likewise considerable glass
works; and there is here a canal cut through a solid
rock to the harbour, 52 feet deep, 30 broad, and 900
long. The inhabitants in 1811 were estimated at 1872*-
W. Long. 1. 3. N. Lat. 55. 6.
Hartley, David, M. A. born at Hingworth,
where his father was curate, received his academic
cal education at Jesus college, Cambridge, of which
he was a fellow. He first began to practise physic at
Newark, in Nottinghamshire; from whence he remo-
*
|i:
H A R [ 283 ] H A R
" 'i
" u.
■*!
phi
p, di(
,tley ved to St Edmund’s Bury, in Suffolk. After this,
|| he settled for some time in London j and lastly went
fcch. to live at Bath, where he died in 1757, aged 53,
' leaving two sons and a daughter. He published “ A
view of the present evidence for and against Mrs Ste-
Ste- phens’a * medicines as a solvent for the stone, contain-
sMe-iug 155 cases, with some experiments and observa-
s‘ tions j” London 1739* He is said to have also writ¬
ten against Dr Warren, of St Edmund’s Bury, in de¬
fence of inoculation ; and some letters of his are to be
met with in the Philosophical Transactions. The doc¬
tor was certainly a man of learning, and reputed a
good physician j but too fond of nostrums. But his
most considex-able literary production is a work entitled,
*l Observations on man, his frame, his duty, and his
expectations, in two parts j” London, 1749, 2 vols.
8vo. The first part contains observations on the frame
of the human body and mind, and on their mutual
connections and influences. The second part contains
observations on the duty and expectations of man¬
kind.
HARTOGIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
monoecia class, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 48th order, Aggregatce. See Botany In¬
dex.
HARUSPICES, pretenders to divination by cer¬
tain signs or omens among the Romans.—The Ro¬
man haruspices were at first all taken from Hetruria,
where their art had most credit. Afterwards young
Romans were sent into Hetruria, in order to be brought
up in the science. It consisted in foretelling future
events by attending to various circumstances of the vic¬
tims. First, It was an ill omen when the victim would
not come to the altar without dragging, when it broke
its rope, fled away, avoided the stroke, struggled
much after it, made a great bellowing, was long a-
dying, or bled but little. Secondly, Presages were
drawn from inspecting the noble parts of the victim
when opened j as the heart, lungs, spleen, and espe¬
cially the liver. If all these were sound, if the top
of the liver was large and well made, and if its fibres
were strong, it presaged well for the affair in question.
Thirdly, Knowledge was also drawn by the haruspices
from the manner in which the fire consumed the victim.
If the flame brightened immediately, was pure and
■clear, rose up in a pyramid without noise, and did not
go out till the victim was consumed, these were happy
signs. Fourthly, The smoke also was considered, whe¬
ther it whirled about in curls, or spread itself to the
right or the left, or gave a smell different from the
common one of broiled meat. Fifthly, It was a lucky
omen if the incense they burned melted all at once, and
gave a most agreeable smell.
HARUSPICY. See Haruspices and Divina¬
tion.
HARUTSCH, a mountainous region in the interior
of Alrica, which MrHorneman calls the most remark¬
able region which came under his observation during
his journey. It presents such a rugged, broken and
terrific scene, as naturally leads to the supposition, that
its surface has been, at some remote period, convulsed
by volcanic eruptions. The face of the whole country
exhibits continued ranges of hills, some not more than
12 feet above the plain, and others extremely lofty.
Contiguous to tb« Region, which is called Harutsch-
el-assuat, or Black Ilarutsch, lies the White Harutsch
or Harutsch-el-abiut. This latter country is a vast
plain which spreads to the mountains rising towards
Fezzan, and is interspersed with isolated mountains.
Many of the hills contain petrifactions, and the mat¬
ter of which they are composed is friable limestone, in
which the petrifactions are very loosely imbedded, and
may be taken out with ease. In these Mr Horneman
found, among other marine productions, the heads of
fishes so large, that one of them would have been a suf¬
ficient burden for an ordinary man. Vast numbers of
shells are likewise found in the adjacent valleys, which
have the appearance of being glazed, and have a vi¬
treous fracture. It is not the abode of man, but the
Arabian caravans frequently pass through it. The ex¬
tent ot this region is said to be seven days journey from
north to south, and five days from east to west. It lies
between 150 and 20° E. Long, and between 28° and
30° N. Lat. Horneman's Travels, p. 48.
HARVES P, probably derived from a Saxon word
signifying herb feast, is that season of the year when
the corn is ripe and fit to be reaped and gathered into
barns.
HARVEST-Fly, a large four-winged fly of the cicada
kind, very common in Italy, and erroneously supposed
to be a grashopper. See Cicada, Entomology
Index.
HARVEST-Home, denotes the feast often observed at
the close of harvest, and also the song used on that oc-
cesion. See DECEMBER.
HARVEY, Dr William, an eminent English
physician in the 17th century, was incorporated doctor
of physic in Cambridge, afterwards admitted into the
college of physicians in London, and was appointed
lecturer of anatomy and chirurgery in that college.
In these lectures he opened his discovery relating to
the circulation of the blood ; which, after a variety of
experiments, he communicated to the world in his Ex-
ercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis. He
was physician to King James I. and to King Charles I.
and adhered to the royal cause. His works have eter¬
nized his memory. In 1651, he published his Exerci-
tationes degeneratione animalium, a very curious work ;
but it would have been more so, had not his papers been
destroyed during the civil wars. In 1654, he was cho¬
sen president of the college of physicians in his absence :
but his age and weakness were so great, that he could
not discharge the duty of that office ; and therefore
desired them to choose Dr Pringle. As he had no
children, he settled his paternal estate upon the col¬
lege. He had three years before built a combination-
room, a library, and a museum; and in 1656 he
brought the deeds of his estate, and presented them to
the college. He was then present at the first feast, in¬
stituted by himself, to be continued annually, together
with a commemoration speech in Latin, to be spoken
on the 18th of October, in honour of the benefactors
to the college-, he having appointed a handsome sti¬
pend for the orator, and also for the keeper of the li¬
brary and museum, which are still called by his name.
He died in 1657.
This great physician had the happiness, in his life¬
time, to find the clamours of ignorance, envy, and
prejudice, against his doctrine, totally silenced, and to
see it universally established. It has by length of
N n 2 time,
Harulsch
II
Harvev.
H A R [ 284 ] HAS
Harvey time, been more anti more confirmed, and every man
II now sees and knows it from liis own experience. It
Harwich appears to be of the utmost importance in medicine •,
v as it is perhaps impossible to define health and sickness
in fewer words, than that the one is a free, and the
other an obstructed, circulation. Dr Harvey was not
only an excellent physician, but an excellent man j his
modesty, candour, and piety, were equal to his know¬
ledge j the farther he penetrated into the wonders of
nature, the more he was inclined to venerate the Author
of it.
HARWICH, a town of Essex, in England, 72
miles from London. It is not large; but is well built,
has a good maritime trade, is almost encompassed by
the sea, and has strong works. It is walled in ; and
the streets are paved for the most part with clay, which
tumbling down from the cliff, where is a petrifying
water between the town and Beacon-Hill, soon grows
as hard as stone ; and the inhabitants boast the wall
is as strong and the streets are as clean as those that
are of real stone. The harbour or bay is very large,
safe, and deep ; and is commanded by a strong fort on
the Suffolk side, though not in that county. Here is
a dock belonging to the government, with all conve¬
niences for building, cleaning, and refitting men of
war. A little way from the town, on a high hill cal¬
led Beacon hill, is a very fine light-house, which is
seen at a great distance, and is very useful on this
dangerous coast. At this place the packet boats which
pass between England and Holland are stationed, and
the town is much benefited by the passengers. The
bay is so spacious, by the influx of the Stour from Ma-
ningtree, and the Orwell from Ipswich, and such use
was made of it in the Dutch war, that roo sail of
men of war have been seen there at one time, with
their tenders, besides 300 or 400 sail of eolliers ; for it
is a perfect harbour to within two miles of Ipswich,
and able to receive ships of 100 guns all the way. The
inns here are very good ; but the accommodations dear,
by reason of the great concourse of passengers to and
from Holland, which was the motive of fitting up sloops
to go thither directly from the Thames, when the
stage-coaches that used to ply two or three times a
week between this place and London were laid down.
This place was first made a free borough in the reign
ol Edward IT. Its government was settled by charter
of King James I. in a mayor, chosen yearly, Novem¬
ber 30. out of eight aldermen, who with 24 capital
burgesses, the electors, and the recorder, make the cor¬
poration. By this charter it had also a power to elect
two burgesses to parliament, the grant of its Friday
market, and its two fairs on May-day and October 18.
which are each for three days. The town has also an
admiralty jurisdiction within its liberties, &c. The
inhabitants in 1811 amounted to 3732. Though the
entrance into the sea here is between two and three
miles wide at high-water, yet the channel where the
ships must keep to come to the harbour, which is on
the Suffolk side, is deep and narrow ; so that all ships
that come in or go out are commanded by the guns of
Languard-Fort on lhat side. This town was former¬
ly fortified on the land side, but in the reign of King
Charles I. the fortifications were demolished. It has
since been ordered to be refortified. The church here,
ever since the Reformation, has beeiffa chapel to the
mother-church at Dover Court. E. Long. I* 7. N. jjgnv-
Lat. 51. 56. _ _ ||“
HARWOOD, a small town in the north riding of Basse
Yorkshire. Near it are the ruins of an ancient castle,
and also Harwood-House, one of the first in the county
for elegance. In the church are some ancient monu¬
ments, particularly that of lord chief-justice Gascoigne,
who committed the prince of Wales to prison for strik¬
ing him on the bench.
Harwood, Great and Little, the name of two vil¬
lages in Lancashire, and of a small village in Northum¬
berland.
HARZ, or Hartz, a forest and mountain in the
principality of Grubenhagen in Germany, in length
48 miles, and in breadth about 20. The forest which
covers the mountain consists of a great variety of wood,
which is of much importance to the numerous forges
and manufactories of iron, which have been long esta¬
blished in this district. Beside abundance of the ores
of iron, the Hartz yields other metallic ores in consi¬
derable quantity, as those of copper, lead, silver, zinc;
and sometimes gold. The mining operations have been
long carried on to a very great extent in this moun¬
tainous region.
HASLEMERE, a town of Surrey, in England,
seated on the edge of the county next Hampshire, 43
miles from London, is an ancient place, and was once
destroyed by the Danes. It is a borough by prescrip¬
tion, and has sent members to parliament ever since the
reign of Edward IV. who are chosen by a bailiff and
burgage-teeners. It is said to have had seven parish-
churches formerly, though hut one church now, which
is a chapel of ease to Chidinfold ; and that it stood
heretofore upon a hill more to the south than the pre¬
sent town. Population 756 in 1811.
HASSELQUTST, Frederic, was a native of East
Gothland, and born in the year 1722. He prosecuted
his medical and botanical studies at Upsal. The great
Linnaeus having represented in his lectures what impor¬
tant advantages might he gained by a young student,
by travelling through the country of Palestine, at that
time but little known, Hasselquist felt the fire of ambi¬
tion burn within him at the declaration of his master.
The crown giving no pecuniary encouragement for un¬
dertakings of this magnitude, extensive collections were
made by private individuals, especially from the coun¬
try of our author, and stipends were granted him by all
the faculties in the university of Upsal.
Protected in this manner, he began his journey in
1749 during the summer season, and he obtained a pas¬
sage to Smyrna in a Swedish East-Indiaman, through
the influence ol Lagerstroem. The Swedish consul at
Smyrna received him in the most friendly manner, at'
which place he arrived about the latter end of the
yeart In the beginning of 1750 he set out for Egypt,
and remained in the metropolis of that country for
about nine months, from which place he transmitted to
Linnaeus some specimens of his researches, which ob¬
tained the approbation of the public after they were
published. By the influence of Dr Wargentin, a col¬
lection of 10,000 dollars of copper currency was made
for the encouragement of young Hasselquist in the pro¬
secution of his researches. In the spring of 1751, h*
passed through Jaffa to Jerusalem, and returned after¬
wards to Smyrna by the way of Rhodes and Scio, com¬
pletely
HAS [ 285 ] - HAS
fie Iquist pletely fulfilling the expectation ofhis country $ but he
IJ (lid not live long enough to reap the fruits of his la-
^ hours. His lungs were affected by the burning deserts
of Arabia, and after languishing for some time in great
distress, he expired in February 1752, before he had
finished the 30th year of his age.
Having been under the necessity of contracting debt
to the amount of 350I. all his collections were seized
upon by the Turks, who threatened to expose them to
sale j but Queen Louisa Ulrica redeemed them by the
payment of 14,000 dollars of copper money, and they
arrived at Stockholm in a state of excellent preserva¬
tion. They were composed of Arabian manuscripts,
shells, birds, serpents, insects, &c. An account ofhis
voyage was published by Linnaeus, by whom his me¬
mory was honoured with a plant which he called Has-
selquistia.
HASSELQUISTIA, a genus of plants belonging
to the pentandria class, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 45th order, Umbellatce. See Botaty
Index.
HASSELT, a handsome town of the United Pro¬
vinces, in Overyssel, seated on the river Wecht, in E.
Long. 6. 5. N. Lat. 23. 46.
Hasselt, a town of Germany, in the circle of West¬
phalia, and in the territory of Liege, situated on the
river Demer, in E. Long. 4. 49. N. Lat. 50. 55.
HASS1DEANS, or Assideans. See Assideans.
HASSOCK, a bass made of rushes, to kneel or rest
the feet upon in churches.
HASP and StapXiE, in Scots Law, the symbol com¬
monly used in burgage tenements for entering and in-
fefting an heir, by delivering into his hands the hasp
and staple of the door.
HASTA, or Hasta Pt/ra, among medalists, signi¬
fies a kind of spear or javelin, not shod or headed with
iron ; or rather an ancient sceptre, somewhat longer
than ordinary, occasionally given to all the gods.
The hasta is supposed a symbol of the goodness of the
gods, and of the conduct of providence, which is equal¬
ly mild and forcible.
Hasta, in some countries, is a measure or quantity
of ground amounting to thirty paces: thus called, ac¬
cording to M. Du Cange, from the hasta or rod where¬
with it was measured.
HASTATED leaf, in Botany, a leaf of the shape
of a spear.
HASTING-pear, a name given by the gardeners
to a species of pear, called also by some green chissel
pear. This is a moderately large pear, and is longish
towards the pedicle j its skin is thin, and of a whitish
green ; the pulp is melting, and of a sugary flavour.
It ripens in July.
HASTINGS, a town of Sussex in England, 64
miles from London. It is the chief of the cinque-
ports 5 and was formerly obliged to find 21 ships, with¬
in 4.0 days after the king’s summons, well furnished
and armed for service, and to maintain the crews a
fortnight at its own charge. The town is supposed to
have taken its name from Hastings, the famous Danish
pirate, who used to build fortresses when he went
ashore for his prey, to cover his men, and secure his re¬
treat. In King Athelstan’s reign here was a mint.
This town had charters from Edward the Confes«or,
William I. and II. Henry II. Richard I. Henry III,
Edward I. and Charles II. exempting it from toll, and
empowering it to hold courts of judicature on life and
death. It is incorporated by the style of mayor, ju¬
rats, and commonalty. It has handsome houses, and
customhouse officers ; but frequent storms have render¬
ed it an indifferent harbour, though a vast sum of mo¬
ney has been laid out at times to make it a good one. It
has sent members to parliament ever since Edward III.
London is supplied from hence with abundance of fish
that are taken on the coast. The town lies between
two high cliffs towards the sea, and as high a hill on
the land side, having two streets, and in each a parish-
church, divided by a stream of fresh water called the
Bourne. About the year 1377, this town was burnt
by the French j and after it was rebuilt, it was divi-
ded into the two parishes. Here are two charity-
schools, erected for the teaching of 200 or 300 chil¬
dren. There was a castle on the hill, which overlook¬
ed the town, but it is now in ruins. The markets here
sire on Wednesdays and Saturdays: the fairs are on
Tuesday and Wednesday in Whitsun-week, and July
26. October 23* and 24. Here was formerly a priorv.
Hastings was a barony in the Huntingdon family, now
in the Rawdon family. Population 3848 in i8rr.
This town is remarkable for a battle fought in its
neighbourhood, between Harold king of England and
William duke of Normandy, on the 15th of October
1066, in which the former was defeated and killed 5
and by his death William, surnamed the Conqueror,
became king of England : (see England, N° 86.) 
The night before the battle, the aspect of things was
very different in the two camps. The English spent
the time in riot, jollity, and disorder 5 the Normans in
prayer and other duties of religion. The next day
both armies prepared for battle. The duke divided his
army into three lines : the first, headed by Montgo¬
mery, consisted of archers and light-armed infantry :
the second, commanded by Martel, was composed of
his bravest battalions, heavy-armed, and ranged in close
order: his cavalry, at whose head he placed himself,
formed the third line; and were so disposed, that they
stretched beyond the infantry, and flanked each wing
of the army. He ordered the signal of battle to sound :
and the whole army, moving at once, and singing the
hymn or song of Roland the famous peer of Charle-
magne, advanced, in order and with alacrity, towards
the enemy.
Harold had seized the advantage of a rising ground,
and having besides drawn some trenches to secure his
flanks, he resolved to stand upon the defensive, and to
avoid all action with the cavalry, in which he was
inferior. The Kentish men were placed in the van,
a post which they had always claimed as their due ;
the Londoners guarded the^ standard; and the king
himself, accompanied by his two valiant brothers,
Gurth and Leofwin, dismounting from horseback, pla¬
ced himself at the head of his infantry, and expressed
his resolution to conquer or to perish in the action.
The first attack of the Normans was desperate, but was
received with equal valour by the English : and after
a furious combat, which remained long undecided, the
former, overcome by the difficulty of the ground, and
bard pressed by the enemy, began first to relax their
vigour ; then to give ground ; and confusion was spread¬
ing among the ranks, when William, who found him-
seli
H A S [ 286 ] HAT
. Ha*Ung?. «eif on the brink of destruction, hastened, VMih a select
v—'v~-/ band, to the relief of his dismayed forces. His pre¬
sence restored the action ; the English were obliged to
retreat with loss ; and the duke, ordering his second
line to advance, renewed the attack with fresh forces
and with redoubled courage. Finding that the enemy,
aided by advantage of the ground, and animated by
the example of their prince, still made a vigorous resist¬
ance, he tried a stratagem, which was very delicate in
its management, but which seemed advisable in his des¬
perate situation, when, if he gained not a decisive vic¬
tory, he was totally undone : he commanded his troops to
make a hasty retreat, and to allure the enemy from their
ground by the appearance of flight. The artifice suc¬
ceeded against these unexperienced troops j who heat¬
ed by the action, and sanguine in their hopes, precipi¬
tately followed the Normans into the plain. William
gave orders, that at once the infantry should face about
upon their pursuers, and the cavalry make an assault
upon their wings, and both of them pursue the advan¬
tage which the surprise and terror or the enemy must
give them in that critical and decisive moment. The
English were repulsed with great slaughter, and driven
back to the hill ; where being rallied again by the bra¬
very of Harold, they were able, notwithstanding their
loss, to maintain the post and continue the combat.
The duke tried the same stratagem a second time with
the same success; but even after this double advantage,
he still found a great body of the English who, main¬
taining themselves in firm array, seemed determined
to dispute the victory to the last extremity, He ordered
his heavy-armed infantry tomake the assault upon them;
while his archers, placed behind, should gall the ene¬
my, who were exposed by the situation of the ground,
and who were intent in defending themselves against
the swords and spears of the assailants. By this disposi¬
tion he at last prevailed. Harold was slain by an arrow,
while he was combating with great bravery at the head
of his men. His two brothers shared the same fate ;
and the English discouraged by the fall of these
princes, gave ground on all sides, and were pursued
with great slaughter by the victorious Normans. A
few troops, however, of the vanquished dared still to
turn upon their pursuers; and taking them in deep and
miry ground, obtained some revenge for the slaughter
and dishonour of the day. But the appearance of the
duke obliged them to seek their safety by flight, and
darkness saved them from any farther pursuit by the
enemy.
Thus was gained by William duke of Normandy,
the great and decisive victory of Hastings, after a
battle which was fought from morning till sunset, and
which seemed worthy, by the heroic feats of valour
displayed by both armies, and by both commanders,
to decide the fate of a mighty kingdom. William
had three horses killed under him ; and there fell near
15,000 men on the side of the Normans. The loss was
still more considerable on that of the vanquished ; be¬
sides the death of the king and his two brothers. The
dead body of Harold was brought to William, who re¬
stored it without ransom to his mother.
HASTIVE, a French term, sometimes used in Hastire
English for early, forward, or something that comes H
before the ordinary time or season. The hastive fruits bhu-
are strawberries and cherries. We have haslive peas,,
&c.
HAT, a covering for the head, worn by the men
throughout the western part of Europe. Hats are said
to have been first seen about the year 1400, at which
time they became of use for country wear, riding, &c.
F. Daniel relates, that when Charles VIE made his pub¬
lic entry into Rouen, in 1449, he had on a hat lined
with red velvet, and surmounted with a plume or tuft
of feathers: he adds, that it is from this eniry, or at
least under this reign, that the use of hats and caps is
to be dated, which henceforward began to take place of
the chaperoons and hoods that had been worn before.
In process of time, from the laity, the clergy also took
this part of the habit ; but it was looked on as a
great abuse, and several regulations were published,
forbidding any priest or religious person to appear
abroad in a hat without coronets; and enjoining them
to keep to the use of chaperoons, made of black cloth,
with decent coronets ; if they were poor, they were at
least to have coronets fastened to their hats, and this
upon penalty of suspension and excommunication. In¬
deed the use of hats is said to have been of a longer
standing among the ecclesiastics of Britanny, by 200
years, and especially among the canons ; but these were
no other than a kind of caps, and from hence arose the
square caps worn in colleges, &c. Lobineau observes,
that a bishop of Dol, in the 12th century, zealous for
good order, allowed the canons alone to wear such
hats ; enjoining, that if any other person came with
them to church, divine service should immediately be
suspended.
Hats make a very considerable article in commerce :
the finest, and those most valued, are made of pure hair
of an amphibious animal, called the castor or beaver,
frequent in Canada and other provinces of North Ame¬
rica.
HAT-Making. Great improvements have been made
in this art of late years by ingenious and intelligent
manufacturers. For the following account of the differ¬
ent processes of this manufacture we are indebted to
Mr Nicholson, from whose Journal it is extracted, and
to John Clennell, Esq. of Newcastle, Mr Nicholson’s
correspondent on this subject, who has highly favoured
us with some valuable corrections of this account.
“ The materials for making hats are rabbits and
hares fur cut off from the skin, after the hairs have
been plucked out, together with wool and beaver. The
former are mixed in various proportions, and of differ¬
ent qualities, according to the value of the article in¬
tended to be made ; and the beaver is universally used
for facing the finer articles, and never for the body or
main stuff. Experience has shewn, that these materials
cannot be evenly and well felted together, unless all
the fibres be first separated, or put into the same state
with regard to each other. This is the object of the
first process, called bowing. The material, without any
previous preparation (a), is laid upon a platform ot
wood,
(a) Some writers mention a partial wetting of the fur while on the skin, by lightly smearing it with a solution
of nitrate of mercury to give it a curl. Messrs Collinsons do not use it, or any other preparation.
HAT [2
at- wood, or of wire, somewhat more than four feet square,
* dng. called a hurdle, which is fixed against the wall of the
u work-shop, and is enlightened by a small window, and
separated by two side partitions from other hurdles,
which occupy the rest of the space along the wall. The
hurdle, if of wood, is made of deal planks, not quite
three inches wide, disposed parallel to the wall, and at
the distance of one-fortieth or one-fiftieth of an inch
from each other, for the purpose of suffering the dust,
and other impurities of the stuff, to pass through ; a
purpose still more effectually answered by the hurdle of
wire.
“ The workman is provided with a bow, a bow-pin,
a basket, and several cloths. The bow is a pole of
yellow deal wood, between seven and eight feet long,
to which are fixed two bridges, somewhat like that
which receives the hair in the bow of the violin (b).
Over these is stretched a catgut, about one-twelfth part
of an inch in thickness. The bow-pin is a stick with a
knob at each end, and is used, for striking or catching
the bow-string, by the vibration of which, as we shall
shortly see, the stuff is thoroughly mixed. The basket is
a square piece of oz,ier work, consisting of open strait
bars with no crossing or interweaving. Its length across
the bars may be about two feet, and its breadth eigh¬
teen inches. The sides into which the bars are fixed
are slightly bended into a circular curve, so that the
basket may be set upright on one of these edges near
the right hand end of the hurdle, where it usually
stands. The cloths are linen. Besides these imple¬
ments, the workman is also provided with brown
paper.
“ The bowing commences by shovelling the material
towards the right hand partition with the basket, upon
which, the workman holding the bow horizontally in
his left hand, and the bow-pin in his right, lightly
places the bow-string, and gives it a pluck with the pin.
The string, in its return, strikes part of the fur, and
causes it to rise, and fly partly across the hurdle in a
light open form. By repeated strokes, the whole is
thus subjected to the bow $ and this beating is repeated
till all the original clots or masses of the filaments are
perfectly opened and obliterated. The quantity thus
treated at once is called a batt, and never exceeds half
the quantity required to make one hat.
“ When the batt is sufficiently bowed, it is ready for
hardening ; which terra denotes the first commencement
87 ] H A T
of felting, The material, thus far prepared, is seen on Hat
the hurdle swelling in the centre, and lessening gra- Making
dually towards the eges. The reason of this is obvi- ' v—
ous ; the hat is formed of two of these batts joined to¬
gether, and by their union the whole becomes equally
compact. It is now pressed down by the convex side
of the basket, then covered with a cloth, and pressed
successively^ in its varions parts by the hands of the
workman. The pressure is gentle, and the hands are
very slightly moved back and forwards at the same time
through a space of perhaps a quarter of an inch, to fa¬
vour the hardening or entangling of the fibres. In a
very short time, indeed, the stuff acquires sufficient firm¬
ness to bear careful handling. The cloth is then taken
off, and a sheet of paper, with its corners doubled in,
so as to give it a triangular outline, is laid upon the
• batt, which last is folded over the paper as it lies, and
its edges, meeting one over the other, form a conical
cap. The joining is soon made good by pressure with
the hands on the cloth. Another batt, ready harden¬
ed, is in the next place laid on the hurdle, and the cap
here mentioned placed upon it, with tha joining down¬
wards : By this means, as we before stated, the mass
becomes uniform in thickness, and assumes the form of
a flannel bag. This last batt being also folded up, will
consequently have its place of junction diametrically op¬
posite to that of the inner felt, which it must therefore
greatly tend to strengthen. The principal part of the
hat is thus put together, and now requires to be work¬
ed with the hands a considerable time upon the hurdle,
the cloth being also occasionally sprinkled with clear
water. During the whole of this operation, which is
called basoning, (c), the article becomes firmer and
firmer, and contracts in its dimensions. It may easily
be understood, that the chief use of the paper is to pre¬
vent the sides from felting together.
“The basoning is followed by a still more effectual
continuation of the felting, called working (d). This
is done in another shop, at an apparatus called a bat¬
ten/, consisting of a kettle (containing water slightly
acidulated with sulphuric acid, to which, for beaver
hats, a quantity of the grounds of beer is added, or else
plain water for rinsing out), and eight planks of wood
joined together in the form of a frustum of a pyramid,
and meeting in the kettle at the middle. The outer or
upper edge of each plank is about two feet broad, and
rises a little more than two feet and a half above the
ground;
(b) The bow is best made of ash ; it is composed of the stang or handle : the bridge at the smaller end, or that
which is nearest the window in the act of bowing, is called the cock ; and the other bridge, which is nearer to
the workman’s hand, is called the breech.
(c) After bowing, and previous to the basoning, a hardening skin, that is, a large piece of skin, about four
feet long and three feet broad, of leather alnmed or half tanned, is pressed upon the batt, to bring it by an easier
gradation to a compact appearance ; after which it is basoned, being still kept upon the hurdle. This operation,
the basoning, derives its name from the process or mode of working, being the same as that practised upon a wool
hat after bowing ; the last being done upon a piece of cast metal, four feet across, of a circular shape, called a
bason : the joining of each batt is made good here by shuffling the hand, that is, by rubbing the edges of each
batt folded over the other to excite the progressive motion of each of the filaments in felting, and to join the two
together.
(d) Before this operation is begun, the hat is dipped into the boiling kettle, and allowed to lie upon the plank
until cold again ; this is called soaking ; that is, being perfectly saturated with the hot liquor: if they are put
»n too hastily in this state, for they are then only bowed and basoned, they would burst from the edges, each batt.
not being sufficiently felted into the other.
HAT [ 288 ] HAT
Hat- 'ground j and the slope towards the kettle is consider-
Making. ably rapid, so that the whole battery is little more than
——y——' six feet in diameter. The quantity of sulphuric acid
added to the liquor is not sufficient to give a sour taste,
but only renders it rough to tlie tongue. In this li¬
quor, heated rather higher than unpractised hands could
bear, the article is dipped from time to time, and then
worked on the planks with a roller, and also by fold¬
ing or rolling it up, and opening it again j in all which,
a certain degree of care is at first necessary, to prevent
the sides from felting together j of which, in the more
advanced stages of the operation, there is no danger.
The imperfections of the work now present themselves
to the eye of the workman, who picks out knots and
other hard substances with a bodkin, and adds more felt
upon all such parts as require strengthening. This
added felt is patted down with a wet brush, and soon
incorporates with the rest. The beaver is laid on to¬
wards the conclusion of this kind of working. Mr
Nicholson could not distinctly learn why the beer
grounds were used with beaver hats. Some workmen
said, that by rendering the liquor more tenacious, the
hat was enabled to hold a greater quantity of it for a
longer time ; but others said, that the mere acid and
water would not adhere to the beaver facing, but would
roll off immediately when the article was laid on the
plank. It is probable, as he observes, that the manu¬
facturers who now follow the established practice, may
not have tried what are the inconveniences this addi¬
tion is calculated to remove.
“ The journeymen tel! me (says Mr Clennell), that
the dregs are to hold or fill the body, whilst a little
vitriol cleanses it of the dirt, &cc. that may be on the
rabbit or other wool; too much vitriol would make the
whole that was weighed out to the journeymen work
into the hats, but by the mutual action of the vitriol
and the dregs, the quantity of the first being small, a-
bout a wine glassfull, the dirt and the strong hairs get
purged out (the last from the shrinking in being slow,
as well as their being straight j for was the lessening of
the size at plank rapid, they would, in defiance of their
straightness, get entangled, and even as it is, they are
slightly so-, but care is taken to get them out by rub¬
bing the body of the bat well with the hand in a circu¬
lar manner) whilst, at the same time, the dregs keep
the hats plump. Another advantage attending the use
of dregs, whether of beer, porter, or wine, is that as
the boiling in the dregs does not draw out much of the
mucilage from each hat, when they come to be stiffen¬
ed the dregs form a body within the hat sufficiently
strong or retentive to keep the glue from coming
through amongst the nap ; vitriol alone would purge or
weaken the hats too much, consequently, half the quan¬
tity does better with the addition of dregs, and they
disallow the body to be closer from its getting more
work : many journeymen, however, to hurry this part
of the process, use a quantity of vitriol, and open the
body again by throwing in a handful or two of oat¬
meal j by this means they get a great many made,
though at the same time they are left quite grainyyi-om
the want of labour. This, in handling the dry grav
hat, when made, may be in part discovered, but in part
only j in wearing the effect is shining spots, as if of
•grease, but is, in reality, the glue lodging upon the
grainy parts.”
Of these reasons for the use of dregs, the last only
appears to be perspicuous or at all satisfactory. Acid Makin
of any kind, by taking out the greasy substances on■v-
each pile of hair, allows the roughnesses on the surface
of each to operate with their full effect, and thus faci¬
litates the mechanical action of-felting j and Mr Col-
linson informed Mr Nicholson, that in a process, called
carotting, they make use of nitrous acid. Jn this ope¬
ration, the material is put into a mixture of the nitrous
and sulphuric acids in water, and kept in the digesting
heat of a stove all night J by which means the hair ac¬
quires a ruddy or yellow colour, like the inner part of
a carrot, from which it derives its name, and though it
loses part of its strength it receives a curl which more
readily promotes the action of felting.
“ It must be remembered, that our hat still possesses
the form of a cone, and that the whole of the several
actions it has undergone have only converted it into a
soft flexible felt, capable of being extended, though
with some difficulty, in every direction. The next
thing to be done is to give it the form required by the
wearer. For this purpose, the workman turns up the
edge or rim to the depth of about an inch and a half,
and then returns the point back again through the cen¬
tre or axis of the cap, so far as not to take out this
fold, but to produce another inner fold of the same
depth. The point being returned back again in the
same manner, produces a third fold j and thus the
workman proceeds, until the whole has acquired the
appearance of a flat circular piece, consisting of a num¬
ber of concentric undulations or folds, with the point in
the centre. This is laid upon the plank, where the
workman, keeping the piece wet with the liquor, pulls
out the point with his fingers, and presses it down with
his hand, at the same time turning it round on its cen¬
tre in contact with the plank, til! he has, by this means,
rubbed out a flat portion equal to the intended crown
of the hat. In the next place, he takes a block, to the
crown of which he applies the flat central portion of
the felt, and by forcing a string down the sides of the
block, he causes the next part to assume the figure of
the crown, which he continues to wet and work, until
it has properly disposed of itself round the block. The
rim now appears like a flounced or puckered appendage
round the edge of the crown ; but the block being set
upright on the plank, the requisite figure is soon given
by working, rubbing, and extending this part. Water
only is used in this operation of fashioning or block¬
ing j at the conclusion ot which it is pressed out by the
same copper implement by which he drove down the
card.
“ Previous to the dyeing, the nap of the hat is raised
or loosened out with a wire brush, or carding instru¬
ment. The fibres are too rotten after the dyeing to
bear this operation } or it they uould bear the opera¬
tion, the colour ol the hat would not be uniform, from
a part of the nap having been confined, and consequent¬
ly not receiving the full action of the dye liquor. The
dyeing materials are logwood, and a mixture of the sul¬
phates of iron and of copper, known in the market by
the names of green copperas and blue vitriol. As the
time of Mr Collinson was limited, and my attention,
says Mr Nicholson, was more particularly directed to
the mechanical processes, I did not go into the dye-
house ; but I have no doubt that the hats are boiled
with
5
HAT
at-
i ung
U v~-
with the logwood, and afterwards immersed in the sa¬
line solution, I particularly asked whether galls were
- used, and was answered in the negative.
“ The dyed hats are, in the next place, taken to the
stifi’ening shop. One workman, assisted by a boy, does
this part of the business. He has two vessels, or boil¬
ers, the one containing the grounds of strong beer,
which costs seven shillings per barrel, and the other
vessel containing melted glue, a little thinner than it is
used by carpenters. Our author particularly asked,
whether this last solution contained any other ingre¬
dient besides glue, and was assured that it did not. The
beer grounds are applied in the inside of the crown to
prevent the glue from coming through to the face, and
also, as he supposes, to give the requisite firmness at a
less expence than could be produced by glue alone. If
the glue were to pass through the hat in different places,
it might, he imagines, be more difficult to produce an
even gloss upon the face in the subsequent finishing.
The glue stiffening is applied after the beer grounds
are dried, and then only upon the lower face of the
flap, and the inside of the crown. For this purpose,
the hat is put into another hat, called a stiffening hat,
the crown of which is notched, or slit open in various
directions. These are then placed in a hole in a deal
board, which supports the flap, and the glue is applied
with a brush.
“ The dry hat, after this operation, is very rigid, and
its figure irregular. The next operation, therefore, is
clearing with soap and boiling water to cleanse the glue
from the nap or pile $ it is then dried. The last dres¬
sing is given by the application of moisture and heat,
and the use of the brush, and a hot iron, somewhat in
the shape of that used by tailors, but shorter and broader
on the face. The hat being softened by exposure to
steam, is drawn upon a block, to which it is securely ap¬
plied by the former method of forcing a string down
from the crown to the commencement of the rim. The
judgment of the workman is employed in moistening,
brushing, and ironing the hat, in order to give and pre¬
serve the proper figure. When the rim of the hat is
not intended to be of an equal width throughout, it is
cut by means of a wooden, or perhaps metallic pattern $
but as no such hats are now in fashion, Mr Nicholson
saw only the tool for cutting them round. The con¬
trivance is very ingenious and simple. A number of
notches are made in one edge of a flat piece of wood
for the purpose of inserting the point of a knife,
and from one side or edge of this piece of wood there
proceeds a straight handle, which lies parallel to the
notched side, forming an angle somewhat like that of
a carpenter’s square. When the legs of this angle
are applied to the outside of the crown, and the board
lies flat on the rim of the hat, the notched edge will
lie nearly in the direction of the radius, or line point¬
ing to the centre of the hat. A knife being there-
lore inserted in one of the notches, it is easy to draw
it round by leaning the tool against the crown, and it
will cut the border very regular and true. This cut
1$ made before the hat is quite finished, and is not car¬
ried entirely through ; so that one of the last opera¬
tions consists in tearing oft the redundant part, which
by that means leaves an edging of beaver round the ex¬
ternal face of the flap. When the hat is completely
finished, the crown is tied up in gauze paper, which is
> OL. X. Part I. f
[ 289 ]
HAT
Hat-
makhia'
* Nic/tofo
neatly ironed down. It is then ready for the subse¬
quent operations of lining,” &c.
This valuable memoir on the fabrication of hats is
concluded with some observations on the probable gain
or loss of employing machinery in the manufacture.
These observations we recommend to the serious atten¬
tion of every judicious hat-maker, who carries on his
business on a large scale ; for he will find them not the
reveries of a rash speculatist, but the cool reflections of a
real philosopher, who is at the same time no stranger to
the arts of life. They suggest the following subjects of
enquiry: Whether carding, which is rapidly and me¬
chanically done, be inferior to bowing, which does not
promise much facility for mechanical operation ? Whe¬
ther a succession of batts or cardings might be thrown
round a fluted cone, which rapidly revolving, in contact
with three or more cylinders, might perform the harden-
ing, and even the working, with much more precision and
speed than they are now done by hand ? Whether block¬
ing or shaping be not an operation extremely well calcu¬
lated for the operation of one or more machines? Whe¬
ther loose weaving and subsequent felting might not pro¬
duce a lighter, cheaper, and stronger article ? And how
far the mechanical felting, which is not confined merely
to the hairs of animals, might be applied to this art* ?j
Mr Dunnage has proposed a method of making wa~ Journ. 4to,
ter-proof hats, in imitation of beaver, for which, in No-v°b iv- 73*
vember i/94» ^ie obtained a patent. This method is as
follows : Let a shag be woven, of such count in the reed,
and cut over such sized wire, as will give the hats to be
manufactured from it that degree of richness, or appear¬
ance of fur, which may be thought necessary. The ma¬
terials of which this shag may be composed are various,
and should be accommodated to different kinds of hats,
according to the degree of beauty and durability to be
given them, and the price at which they are designed
to be sold 5 that is to say, silk, mohair, or any other
hair that is capable of being spun into an end fine
enough for the purpose, cotton, inkle, wool, or a mix¬
ture of any, or all the above materials, as mav suit the
different purposes of the manufacturer. Those answer
best, (says our author), which are made with two
poles, either of Bergam, Piedmont, or Organzine silly,
rising alternately, in a reed of about nine hundred count
to eighteen inches wide, with three shoots over each
wire. This method of weaving distributes the silk
(as it may be put single into the harness), and pre¬
vents any ribby appearance which it might have if the
silk were passed double, and the whole of the pole cut
over each wire. This may be made either on a two
or four thread ground of hard silk, shot with fine cot¬
ton, which he thinks preferable for shoots, to silk, inkle,
or any other material, as it forms both a close and fine
texture. An inferior kind of hats may be made from
any of the before-mentioned materials, and with cheap¬
er silk. This shag should be stretched on a frame,
such as dyers use to rack cloth j then (having previ¬
ously set the pile upright with a comb, to prevent its
being injured or stuck together), go over the ground
with thin size, laid on with a soft brush. For black, or
dark colours, common size will do ; with white or any
light colour, use isinglass, or a size made from white
kid leather. These, or gum, or any other mucilagi¬
nous matter, which, without altering the colour, will
prevent oil from getting through the ground so as to
0 0 injure
Hat-
making.
HAT [ 290 ] HAT
injure the pile, will answer the purpose. Take care
not to apply more of any material, as a preparation,
than may be fully saturated with oil or varnish, so that
water will not discharge it from the ground. The
size or rather glutinous matter, being dry, the pile
must be teaseled, or carded with a fine card, till
the silk is completely taken out of the twist or throw¬
ing when it will lose its coarse shaggy look, and as¬
sume the appearance of a very fine fur. It must n?w
be once more set upright with a comb, and you may
proceed to lay on your water-proof material ; this too
may be varied according to circumstances. For black,
or any dark colour, linseed oil well boiled with the u-
sual driers, and thickened with a small quantity of any
good drying colour, will do for white, or very fine co¬
lours, poppv or nut oil, or copal or other varnishes, may
be used. In this particular the manufacturer must
judge what will best answer his purpose, taking care
never to use any tiling that will dry hard, or be subject
to crack. M/ Dunnage has found good drying lin¬
seed oil preferable to any other thing which he has
used, and, with the precaution of layirtg on very little
the first time, it will not injure the finest colours. When
the first coat of oil is dry, go over it a second and
a third time, if necessary, till you are convinced the
pores of the ground are fully closed up, and the stuff
rendered impervious to water. It should now stand
several days, till the smell is sufficiently gone off, and
before it is taken from the frame, should be gone over
with some ox gall or lime-water, to take off the greasi¬
ness, which would otherwise prevent the stiffening from
adhering to the oil. The material being now ready to
be formed into hats, should be cut into proper shapes
for that purpose. The crown should be made up over
a block, with needle and silk, the oiled side outwards.
The seams should then be rubbed with a piece of hard
wood, bone, or ivory, to make them lie flat, and the
edges of the stuff pared off very near the stitches, that
no joint may appear on the right side. The seams
should then be carefully gone over with the prepared
oil, till every crevice or hole made by the needle is
completely filled up, and the crown rendered perfectly
water-proof. The crown may then he turned and stiff¬
ened, by sticking linen, leather, paper, or any other
material that may be found to answer the purpose, to
the inner or painted side, till it acquires about the same
degree of stiffness, or resistance to the touch, as a good
beaver. The mucilaginous matter which he used to
attach the stiffening to the crown, and the upper and
under parts of the brim to each other, was composed
of one pound of gum-arabic or senega, one pound of
starch, and half a pound of glue, boiled up with as
much water as reduced the whole to the consistence of
a thick paste. A greater or less proportion of any of
these ingredients may be used, and other glutinous and
adhesive substances may answer the same purposes ; or
drying-oils may be made use of instead of this or other
mucilage; or any of the resinous gums dissolved in
oil or spirits : only it should be observed, in this case,
the hats will require more time in the preparation, as
the oily matter, unless exposed to the air, will not rea¬
dily dry ; but he found by experience that the above-
mentioned composition does not dry hard or brittle,
but retains that pleasant flexibility which is agreeable
to, the touch, while U communicates to the other mate¬
rials a sufficient degree of elasticity. Before the brim Hat.
is perfectly dry, care should be taken to form a neck makin
or rising round the hole where it is to be attached to
the crown, by notching it round with a pair of scis-
sars, and then forcing it over a block something larger
than you have made the hole, so that the uncut stuff may
turn up, under the lower edge of the crown, about a
quarter of an inch. Before you join the crown and brim
together, go over the outside of the neck of the brim*
and the inside of the crown, as high as the neck will
come (which should be about half an inch), with the
prepared oil ; and when they are nearly dry, so as to
adhere to the finger on touching them, put the crown
over the neck of the brim, and let them be sewed
strongly together, taking care to sew down as little of
the pile as possible, and using the same precaution of
oiling, where the needle has been through, as was ob¬
served in making up the crown. The hat is now rea¬
dy for dressing; which operation may be performed
over a block, with a hot iron, brush, &c. in the same
manner as those commonly called felts. When putting
in the lining, be very careful to let the needle only take
hold of the under surface of the brim ; for should it
perforate the upper one, the water will find its way
through, and the hat he of no value. Though we have
already declared how little we are acquainted with the
operation of hat-making, we cannot help suggesting the
enquiry, whether these water-proof hats might not be
improved both in strength and beauty, by a slight felt¬
ing before the application of the size by the brush.
Such of them as are composed of wool or hair, or con¬
tain a mixture of these materials, are unquestionably
susceptible of felting.
Ttyeing of Hats. The instructions of Colbert di¬
rect hats to be first strongly galled, by boiling them
a long time in & decoction of galls with a little log¬
wood, that the dye may penetrate the better into their
substance ; after which a proper quantity of vitriol,,
and decoction of logwood, with a little verdigrise, are
added, and the hats continued in this mixture also for
a considerable time. They are afterwards to be put
into a fresh liquor of logwood, galls, vitriol, and ver¬
digrise ; and where the hats are of great price, or of
a hair which difficultly takes the dye, the same pro¬
cess is to be repeated a third time. For obtaining the
most perfect colour, the hair or wool is to be dyed
blue previously to its being formed into hats. But the
following shorter process is generally practised.
A hundred pounds of logwood, 12 pounds of gum,
and six pounds of galls, are boiled in a proper quan¬
tity of water for some hours ; after which, about six-
pounds of verdigrise and ten of green vitriol are add¬
ed, and the liquor kept just simmering, or of a heat
a little below boiling. Ten or twelve dozen of hats-
are immediately put in, each on its block, and kept
down by cross bars for about an hour and an half
they are then taken out and aired, and the same num¬
ber of others put in their room. The two sets of hats
are thus dipped and aired alternately, eight times each
the liquor being refreshed each time with more of tke
ingredients, but in less quantity than at first..
This process (says Dr Lewis) affords a very good
black on woollen and silk stuffs as well as on hats, as
we may see in the small pieces of both kinds which am
sometimes dyed by the hatters. The workmen lay-
great
H:
k',
•j,
^ H
I*- w
HAT [ 291 ] HAT
;at great stress upon the verdigrise, and affirm that they known to the Inhabitants of a single village named Hatching
H cannot dye a black hat without it: it were to be wished Benue, and to those that live at a small distance from —v—^
■hing» that the use of this ingredient were more common in the it. Towards the beginning of autumn they scatter
* ^ other branches of the black dye; for the hatters dye, themselves all over the country; where each person
both on silk and woollen, is reckoned a finer black than among them is ready to undertake the management of
what is commonly produced by the woollen and silk dyer, an oven, each of which is of a different size ; but, in
But the general practice among hatters is to leave general, they are capable of containing 1'rom forty to
out the galls and verdigrise, on account of the advance fourscore thousand eggs. The number of these ovens
in price, and to use blue vitriol instead of them, in the placed up and down the country is about 386, and they
proportion of jib. to 12 dozen of hats, which is found usually keep them working for about six months : as,
to answer the purpose equally well. therefore, each brood takes up in an oven, as under a
Hats are also made for women’s wear, not only hen, only 21 days, it is easy in every one of them to
of the above stuffs, but of chips, straw, or cane, by hatch eight different broods of chickens. Every Ber-
plaiting, and sewing the plaits together ; beginning mean is under the obligation of delivering to the per-
with the centre of the crown, and working round till son who intrusts him with an oven, only two-thirds of
the whole is finished. Hats for the same purpose are as many chickens as there have been eggs put under
also woven and made of horse-hair, silk, &c. his care ; and he is a gainer by this bargain, as more
Hat is also figuratively used for the dignity of car- than two-thirds of the eggs usually produce chickens,
dinal, or a promotion to that dignity. In this sense In order to make a calculation of the number of chic-
they say, “ to expect the hat; to claim, or have pre- kens yearly so hatched in Egypt, it has been supposed
tensions to, the hat,” &c. that only two-thirds of the eggs are hatched, and that
Pope Innocent IV. first made the hat the symbol or each brood consists of at least 30,000 chickens; and
cognizance of the cardinals, enjoining them to wear a thus it would appear that the ovens of Egypt give life
red hat at the ceremonies and processions, in token of yearly to at least 92,640,000 of these animals,
their being ready to spill their blood for Jesus Christ. This useful and advantageous method of hatching
HATCH, or Hatchway, a square or oblong open- eggs has been lately discovered in France by the in-
ing in the Heck of a ship, of which there are several, genious Mr Reaumur ; who, by a number of experi-
forming the passages from one deck to another, and into ments, has reduced the art to certain principles. He
the hold or lower apartments. See Plate CLXIX. found by experience, that the heat necessary for this
where A represents the main-hatchway of the lower purpose is nearly the same with that marked 32 on his
deck; NN the fore-hatchway; and 00 the after- thermometer, or that marked 96 on Fahrenheit’s. This
hatchway.—There are likewise hatches of a smaller degree of heat is nearly that of the skin of the hen, and
kind, called scuttles. See UU in the same figure ; as what is remarkable, of the skin of all other domestic
also the article Scuttle. Hatches is also, though fowls, and probably of all other kinds of birds. The
improperly, a name applied by the sailors to the covers degree of heat which brings about the developement
or lids of the hatchway. of the cygnet, the gosling, and the turkey-pout, is the
HATCHEL, or Hitchel, in the manufactory of same as that which fits for hatching the canary-song-
flax, hemp, &c. a tool, not unlike a card, for dressing ster, and, in all probability, the smallest humming-
and combing them into fine hairs. bird : the difference is only in the time during which
They consist of sharp-pointed iron pins, or teeth, this heat ought to be communicated to the eggs of
set orderly in a board. different birds; it will bring the canary-bird to per-
01 these there are several sorts, some with finer and fection in 11 or 12 days, while the turkey-pout will
shorter teeth, others with them coarser and longer. require 27 or 28.
HATCHES, in mining, a term used in Cornwall, After many experiments, Mr Reaumur found, that
to express any of the openings of the earth either into stoves heated by means of a baker’s oven, succeeded
mines or in search of them. The fruitless openings better than those made hot by layers of dung : and the
are called essay-hatches ; the real mouths of the veins, furnaces of glass-houses and those of the melters of me-
tin-hatches; and the places where they wind up the tals, by means of pipes to convey heat into a room,
buckets of ore, wind-hatches. might, no doubt, be made to answer the same purpose.
Hatches also denote flood-gates set in a river, &c. As to the form of the stoves no great nicety is required,
to stop the current of the water, particularly certain A chamber over an oven will do very well. Nothing
dams or mounds made of rubbish, clay, or earth, to more will be necessary but to ascertain the degree of
prevent the water that issues from the stream-works heat; which may be done by melting a lump of butter
and tin-washes in Cornwall from running into the fresh of the size of a walnut, with half as much tallow, and
rivers. putting it into a phial. This will serve to indicate the
HATCHET, a small light sort of an axe, with a heat with sufficient exactness ; for when it is too great,
basil edge on its left side, and a short handle, as being this mixture will become as liquid as oil; and when the
to be used with one hand.—Hatchets are used by vari- heat is too small, it will remain fixed in a lump ; but
ous artificers, and more particularly in hewing of wood, it will flow like a thick syrup, upon inclining the bottle,
HATCHING, the maturating fecundated eggs, if the stove be of a right temper. Great attention
whether by the incubation and warmth of the parent therefore should be given to keep the heat always at
bird, or by artificial heat, so as to produce young this degree, by letting in fresh air if it be too great,
chickens alive. or shutting the stove more close if it be too small ; and
The art of hatching chickens by means of ovens has that all the eggs in the stove may equally share the ir-
iong been practised in Egypt; but it is there only regularities of the heat, it will be necessary to shift them
O 0 2 from
HAT [ 292 ] H A V
chiuir from the sides to the centre ; and thus to imitate the
(| ° hens, who are frequently seen to make use of their hills, ■
tfield to push to the outer parts those eggs that were nearest
Chace. t0 t[ie middle of their nests, and to bring into the
^ middle such as lay nearest the sides.
Mr Reaumur has invented a sort of low boxes, with-
% out bottoms, and lined with furs. These, which he
calls artificial 'parents, not only shelter the chickens
from the injuries of the air, but afford a kindly warmth,
so that they presently take the benefit of their shelter
as readily as they would have done under the wings of
a hen. After hatching, it will be necessasy to keep
the chickens, for some time, in a room artfully heat¬
ed and furnished with these boxes j but afterwards they
may be safely exposed to the air in the court-yard, in
which it may not be amiss to place one of these artifi¬
cial parents to shelter them if there should be occasion
for it.
As to the manner of feeding the young brood, they
are generally a whole day after being hatched, before
they take any food at all 5 and then a few crumbs of
bread may be given them for a day or two, after which
they will begin to pick up insects and grass for them¬
selves.
But to save the trouble of attending them, capons
may be taught to watch them in the same manner as
hens do. Mr Reaumur assures, that he has seen above
200 chickens at once, all led about and defended on¬
ly by three or four such capons. Nay, cocks may
be taught to perform the same office ; which they, as
well as the capons, will continue to do all their lives
after.
Hatching, or Hacking, in designing, &c. the
making of lines with a pen, pencil, graver, or the like 5
and the intersecting or going across those lines with
others drawn a contrary way, is called counter-hatching.
The depths and shadows of draughts are usually form¬
ed by hatching.
Hatching is of singular use in heraldry, to distin¬
guish the several colours of a shield, without being il¬
lumined : thus, gules or red is hatched by lines drawn
from the top to the bottom j azure, by lines drawn a-
cross the shield j and so of other colours.
HATCHMENT, in Heraldry, the coat-of-arms of
a person dead, usually placed on the front of a house,
whereby maybe known what rank the deceased person
was of when living : the whole distinguished in such a
manner as to enable the beholder to know whether he
was a bachelor, married man, or widower j with the
like distinctions for women.
HATFIELD, Bishops, a town of Hartfordshire,
19 miles north from London. It was called Bishops
Hatfield, because it belonged to the bishops of Ely.
Theodore archbishop of Canterbury held a synod here,
anno 681, against the Eutychean heiesy. Here was
once a royal palace, from whence both Edward VI.
and Queen Elizabeth were conducted to the throne.
King James I. exchanged the manor with Sir Robert
Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury, for Theobald’s, in
the parish of Gheshunt in this county $ and the lordship
still remains in that noble family, who have a very fine
seat here. Population 2677 in 1811.
Hatfield and Chace, a town in the west riding of
Yorkshire, four miles from Doncaster. The chace is
famous for deer-hunting. There are many intrench?
3
ments near the town, as if it had been the camp of some Hatfidd
great army. It is said that no rats were ever seen in and ihaee
this town. _ II
Hatfield-broad-oak, or King's Hatfield, a town IaTttnna'
of Essex in England, seated on a branch of the river
Lea, 30 miles from London, is so called from the na¬
ture of the soil, from its tenure by King William the
Conqueror and his successors, and from a broad oak
growing in the town. It has a market on Saturdays,
and a fair in August.
HATTEM, a town of the United Provinces, in the
duchy of Guelderland, seated on the river Ussol, in E.
Long. 6. o. N. Lat. 53. 30.
HATTEMISTS, in ecclesiastical history, the name
of a modern Dutch sect, so called from Pontian Van
Hattem, a minister in the province of Zealand, to¬
wards the close of the 17th century, who being addicted
to the sentiments of Spinoza, was on that account de¬
graded from his pastoral office. The Verschorists and
Hattemists resemble each other in their religious sy¬
stems, though they never so entirely agreed as to form
one communion. The founders of these sects deduced
from the doctrine of absolute decrees a system of fatal
and uncontrollable necessity j they denied the difi’er-
euce between moral good and evil, and the corruption
of human nature: from hence they farther concluded,
that mankind were under no sort of obligation to cor¬
rect their manners, to improve their minds, or to obey
the divine laws j that the whole of religion consisted
not in acting, but in suffering j and that all the pre¬
cepts of Jesus Christ are reducible to this one, that we
bear with cheerfulness and patience the events that
happen to us through the divine will, and make it our
constant and only study to maintain a permanent tran¬
quillity of mind. Thus far they agreed ; but the Hat¬
temists farther affirmed, that Christ made no expiation
for the sins of men by his death, but had only suggest¬
ed to us by his mediation, that there was nothing in us
that could offend the Deity; this, they say, was Christ’s
manner of justifying his servants, and presenting them
blameless before the tribunal of God. It was one of
their distinguished tenets, that God does not punish men
for their sins, but by their sins. These two sects, says
Mosheim, still subsist, though they no longer bear the
names of their founders.
HATTOCK, a shock of com containing twelve
sheaves; others make it only three sheaves laid toge¬
ther.
HATUAN, a town and fort of Upper Hungary, in
the county of Novigrod. It was taken by the Imperi¬
alists in 1685. It is seated on a mountain, in E.Long.
19. 48. N. Lat. 47. 52.
HA V ANNA, a sea-port town in the island of Cuba,
in the West Indies, and on the north-west part of it, op¬
posite to Florida. It is famous for its harbour, which
is in eveiy respect one of the best in the West In¬
dies, and perhaps in the world. It is entered by a
narrow passage, upwards of half a mile in length, which
afterwards expands into a large bason, forming three
cul de sacs, and is sufficient, in extent and depth, to
contain 1000 sail of the largest ships, having almost
throughout six fathoms water, and being perfectly co¬
vered from every wind. The town was built by Diego
de Velasquez, who conquered the island of Cuba. It
was but a small place, and named originally the port of
Carenas;
A ir
H A V C 293 ] H A V
jja ,imi( Carenas; but afterwards, wlien the city by its increase
of wealth grew considerable, it was called St Christo¬
pher of the Havanna. In 1536, it was of so inconsi¬
derable a value, that being taken by a French pirate,
he ransomed the place for the piltry sum of 700 pieces
of eight. Some time after it was taken by the English,
and a second time by the French : nor was its value
understood, nor any care taken to put it in a posture of
defence, till the reign of Philip II.; though what was
then done proved insufficient. But since the acces¬
sion of a branch of the house of Bourbon to the Spa¬
nish crown, more pains have been taken to render it a
place of strength.
The Havanna stands on the west side of the harbour,
in a pleasant plain ; and is the residence of the gover¬
nor and captain-general of Cuba, and of the royal offi¬
cers, as well as of an assessor for the assistance of the
governor and captain-general of the West Indies. The
bishop of St Jago de Cuba likewise chooses to fix his
residence here. The buildings are elegant, built of
stone, and some of them most superbly furnished.
Here are eleven churches and monasteries, and two
handsome hospitals. Near the middle of the town is a
spacious square, surrounded with uniform buildings.
The churches are rich and magnificent", the lamps,
candlesticks, and ornaments for the altars, being of
gold and silver", some of the lamps are of the most cu¬
rious workmanship, and weigh near 100 weight. The
Recollects church, which stands on the best ground in
the city, has 12 beautiful chapels in it, and in the mo¬
nastery are cells for 50 fathers. The church of St Clara
has seven altars adorned with plate, and the nunnery con¬
tains 100 women and servants, all clothed in blue. The
church belonging to the Augustines has 13 altars •, that
of St Juan de Dios 9, with an hospital for soldiers of
12,000 pieces of eight revenue. It is not a bishop’s
see, though the bishop of St Jago resides here, the re¬
venue of which prelate is not less than 50,000 pieces of
eight a-year. In 1700 the inhabitants were computed
at 26,000, and we may very well imagine them to be
increased since. They are a more polite and social
people than the inhabitants of any of the Spanish ports
on the continent j and of late imitate the French both
in their dress and manners. The city is supplied with
water by a small river called Lagicla, which rises from
the hills on the south-west side of the town, and divides
itself into three streams, one of which falls into the sea
on the east side of the town, but the other two flow
through the place, entering the walls near the middle
of the city.
As to the fortifications, it was already remarked,
that the entrance to the harbour is by a narrow gut
near half a mile in length : this passage is defended on
the east side by a strong castle called El Moro, situated
on a high rock ; and on the walls and bastions are
mounted 40 pieces of cannon. Under the faces of the
south-west bastion of the Moro, and more within the
entrance of the harbour, is a battery of stone called the
Twelve Apostles, almost level with the water, and the
guns of which carry each a ball of 36 pounds. A little
higher, and opposite to the Point gate, is the La Di-
vina Pastora, or the Shepherd’s Battery, of 14 guns,
level with the water. On the west side of the entrance,
at the point, is a square fort called the Punta, with
four bastions well mounted with cannon, about 200
yards distant from the Punta gate of the town. On Hnranns.
the bastions of the town, next the harbour, are a num-
ber ot cannon ; and about the middle of the city is
another lorf, called El Puerto, a square fort with four
bastions, mounted with 22 pieces of cannon, of no
great strength ; but in this last the governor resides,
and in it the king of Spain’s treasures are deposited till
the arrival of the galleons. On the land-side, from the
I imta gate to the dock-yard, there is a rampart with
bastions, faced with stone, and earthen parapets with a
ditch, which in several places has fallen in, and is almost
filled up, particularly behind the Punta and land-gates,
near the stone quarries, which, if joined to one another,
might be of great detriment to the place in case of a
siege, as a lodgement might be made in them. The
ground here rises with an easy ascent to the land-gate ;
and is either open pasture or garden ground, well sto¬
red with the cabbage-tree. Before the land-gate is a
ravelin. The hill on a rising ground from this gate
(which is the highest part of the town) to the dock¬
yard, is steeper than on the other side.
Such are the fortifications of the Havanna, which
are the best the Spaniards have in the West Indies, as
indeed the place is of the greatest importance. But
though strong, they have many defects, and from the
situation of the town and forts, are commanded by
many eminences, of which an enemy could not fail to
take advantage. On the east side of the harbour,
the Cavannas, on a part of which the Moro is built,
commands in a great measure that fort, but absolutely
commands the Punta, El Fuerte, and whole north-east
part of the city, which is the best fortified. On the
west side of the city runs a suburb, called Guadaloupc,
whose church is situated on an eminence about half a
mile from the land-gate, with which it is on a level,
and higher than any other part of the fortifications.
From the north side of this rising ground, the Punta
gate may be flanked; and from the south-east side the
dock yard is commanded. Along the north side runs
an aqueduct, which falling into the ditch at the land-
gate, runs down to the dock yard, both for watering
the ships and turning a saw-mill. About half a mile
from the church, is a bridge made over a rivulet that
runs into the bay about 100 yards. That road leads to
the centre of the island, and extends to Baracoa, above
600 miles distant. From this bridge to the Lazaretto,
is about two miles, with a rising ground betwixt them.
A trench thrown up between these two places would
cut off the communication with the town by land.
From these observations it will plainly appear, that
the Havanna, though well fortified, is not impreg-.
nable.
The Havanna has greatly contributed to the mari¬
time strength of the crown of Spain, many ships ha¬
ving been built here within these few years, from 60
to 80 guns, the island furnishing the finest materials,
such as oak, pine, cedar, and mahogany. The only
defect of the harbour is the narrowness of its entry j
for though free from bars and shoals, yet only one ship
at a time can enter it; from which circumstance the
galleons have more than once been insulted, and some
of them taken, at the mouth of the harbour, the forts
there not being able to alford them any assistance.
Upon the rupture with Spain in 1762, the British
ministry sent a squadron and army against this place,
under
HAY [ 294 ] H A U
Haraona, under the command of Admiral Pocock and Lord Albe-
~~v'   marie. The Spaniards had in the harbour at the time
a fleet of twelve sail of the line, two of them but just
launched, two more on the stocks nearly finished, and
several merchant ships. The men of war were almost
ready for sea j but no account had reached the gover¬
nor of the intended attack. The place, however, was
gallantly defended, and sustained a siege of two months
and eight days before it could be reduced ; Avhen a
capitulation was signed, and alongst with the city was
yielded a district of 180 miles to the westward. This
conquest was without doubt in itself the most consider¬
able, and in its consequences the most decisive, of any
we had made since the beginning of the war ; and in
no operation were the courage, steadiness, and perse¬
verance of the British troops, and the conduct of their
leaders, more conspicuous. The acquisition of this
place united in itself all the advantages which can be
acquired in war. It was a military achievement of
the highest class. By its effect on the enemy’s marine
it was equal to the greatest naval victory, and in the
plunder it equalled the produce of a national subsidy.
Nine sail of the enemy’s line-of-battle ships were ta¬
ken ; three of their capital ships had been sunk by
themselves at the beginning of the siege $ two more
were in forwardness upon the stocks, and were after¬
wards destroyed by the captors. The enemy on this
occasion lost a whole fleet of ships of war, besides a
number of considerable merchant ships ; and in ready
money, in tobacco collected at the Havanna on account
of the king of Spain, and in other valuable merchan¬
dises, the sum lost by the enemy perhaps did not fall
short of three millions sterling.
The city of Havanna was restored by the peace of
1763 ; and is of the greatest importance to Spain, be¬
ing the rendezvous for all their fleets to return from
America to Europe, lying at the mouth of the gulf
of Florida, through which they are all obliged to pass.
Here the navy of Spain stationed in the West Indies
ride ; and here the galleons, the flota, and other mer¬
chant ships from other ports both of the continent and
islands, meet in September, to take in provisions and
water, with great part of their lading, and for the
convenience of returning to Spain in a body. A con¬
tinual fair is held till their departure, which generally
happens before the end of the month, when proclama¬
tion is made, forbidding any person belonging to the
fleet to stay in town on pain of death ; and accordingly,
on firing the warning gun, they all retire on board.—
The commerce carried on in this port, which is very
considerable ; may be distinguished into the particular
commerce of the island of Cuba, and that more general
by the galleons and flota. The former consists in
hides, usually styled of the Havanna, which are excel¬
lent, and of great value •, sugar, tobacco, admirable in
its kind, &c. Though strangers are prohibited to
trade, yet a contraband commerce is carried on brisker
here than at Vera Cruz. Some little trade is car¬
ried on by other ports of Cuba, but it is very incon¬
siderable. As to the general commerce, this port is
the place of rendezvous (as already mentioned) for all
ships, particularly from Carthagena, Puerto Velo, and
La Vera Cruz, which return to Spain from the Indies.
The Havanna is regularly supplied with European
goods only by the register ships from Cadiz and the
Canaries. The flota and galleons bring there no more Harai
than the refuse of their cargoes, which they had not [|
been able to dispose of at Carthagena, Puerto Velo, or ^au
La Vera Cruz. When the fleet is in the harbour, 'r;
provisions are excessively dear on shore, and money so
plenty, that a Spaniard expects half a piece of eight
a-day from a male slave, and a quarter from a female,
out of what they earn for their labour. The fleet ge¬
nerally sails from thence, through the channel of Ba¬
hama, in the month of September ; and is the richest
in the world j since, in silver and merchandise, there
is seldom less than thirty millions of pieces of eight on
board, or six millions seven hundred and fifty thousand
pounds of our money.—-It is natural to imagine, that
a port of so much consequence as the Havanna ought
to be well fortified. Since it has been restored to Spain,
many new works have been added, to prevent if possible
a similar disaster befalling it. W. Long. 82. 13. N.
Lat. 23. 12.
HAVEL, a river of Brandenburg, which proceeds
from a lake in the duchy of Mecklenburg, and running
through the middle Marche, and through Brandenburg
and other towns, runs north, and falls into the Elbe
near Werben.
HAVELBERG, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Lower Saxony, and in the electorate of Branden¬
burg, with a bishop’s see, secularized in favour of the
house of Brandenburg. It is seated on the river Have),
in E. Long. 12. 17. N. Lat. 52. 51.
HAVEN, a sea-port or harbour for ships. See Port
and Harbour. The word is derived from the Saxon
havene, or the German hafen, or the French havre,
which all signify the same thing.
HAVERCAMP, Sigibert, a celebrated Dutch
scholar and critic, professor of history, eloquence, and
the Greek tongue, at Leyden. He was particularly
skilled in medals j and was the author of some esteemed
works in that way, beside giving good and elegant
editions of several Greek and Latin authors. He died
at Leyden in 1742, aged 58.
HA VERFORD-west, a town of Pembrokeshire in
South Wales, seated on the side of a hill, which forms
a part of the west bank of the river Dongledye. It
is an incorporated town and county of itself. The
mayor of the town is admiral, coroner, escheater, and
clerk of the markets, within its precincts. Here the
assizes are held and the county-jail kept. The town
enjoys several privileges, and has its own courts. It
was formerly fortified with a rampart and castle, which
are now in ruins. Population 3093 in 1811. W.
Long. 4. 58. N. Lat. 51. 45.
HAVERILL, a town of England, in the county of
Suffolk, where there is a considerable manufactory of
checks, cottons, and fustians. By the ruins of a
church and castle still to be seen, it appears to have
been formerly a place of much greater consequence
than at present. It had 248 houses, and about 1216
inhabitants, in 1811. E. Long. o. 28. N. Lat. 52.
6.
HAUL, an expression peculiar to seamen, imply*
ing to pull a single rope, without the assistance of
blocks or other such mechanical powers. When a
rope is otherwise pulled, as by the application of tackles,
or the connection with blocks, &c. the term is changed
into bowsing.
To
H A U
,1 iuj To Haul the Wind, is to direct the ship’s course
E 1} nearer to that point of the compass from which the
H iant wind arises. Thus, supposing a ship to sail south-west,
“ r“^J with the wind northerly, and some particular occasion
requires to haul the wind more westward ; to perform
this operation, it is necessary to arrange the sails more
obliquely with her keel j to brace the yards more for¬
ward, by slackening the starboard and pulling in the
larboard braces, and to haul the lower sheets further
aft; and, finally, to put the helm a-port,-i. e. over to
the larboard side of the vessel. As soon as her head is
turned directly to the westward, and her sails are trim¬
med accordingly, she is said to have hauled the wind
four points ; that is to say, from south-west to west.
She may still go two points nearer to the direction of
the wind, by disposing her sails according to their
greatest obliquity, or, in the sea-phrase, by trimming
all sharp; and in this situation she is said to be close-
hauled, as sailing west-north-west.
HA.UM, Haxm, or Hawn, among farmers, denotes
the stem or stalk of corn, pease, beans, &c. from the
root to the ear.
HAUNCH, or Hanch, the Hip, or that part of
the body between the ribs and the thigh.
The haunches of a horse are too long, if when
standing in the stable he limps, with his hind-legs far¬
ther back than he ought ; and when the top or onset
of his tail is not in a perpendicular line to the tip of
his hocks, as it always does in horses whose haunches
are of a just length- There are some horses which,
though they have too long haunches, yet commonly
walk well : such are good to climb hills, but are not
at all sure upon a descent; for they cannot ply their
hams, and never gallop slowly, but always nearly upon
a full speed. The art of riding the great horse has
not a more necessary lesson than that of putting a horse
upon his haunches ; which, in other words, is called
coupling him well, or putting him well together, or com¬
pact. A horse that cannot bend or lower his haunches,
throws himself too much upon his shoulder, and lies
heavy upon the bridle.
HAVRE, in geography, &c. a French term signi¬
fying the same with haven or harbour,
Havre de Grace, a sea-port town of France, on
the English channel, in a large plain at the mouth of
the river Seine, and the department of the Lower Seine,
It is a small fortified town, nearly of a square figure,
divided into two parts by the harbour, surrounded with
a wall and other works, and defended by a very strong
citadel. It is one of the most important places in
France, on account of its foreign trade and convenient
harbour; for which reason it was made a distinct go¬
vernment from the rest of Normandy. Its inhabitants
amount to 21,000. It was surprised in 1562 by the
Protestants, who delivered it to Queen Elizabeth ; but
it was lost next year. In 1694 it was bombarded by
the English, and also in the year 1748. E. Long. o. n.
N. Lat. 49. 29.
Havre de Grace, a post town and port of entry in
America, in the county of Harford, Maryland. It
contains about 300 inhabitants, and lies about 65 miles
South-west of Philadelphia. N. Lat. 39. 39.
HAURIANT, in Heraldry, a term peculiar to
fishes; and signifies their standing upright, as if they
were relreshing themselves by sucking in the air.
[ 295 ]
HAW
Haute
Feuille
H
Hawkers.
HAUTE FEUILLE, John, an ingenious mecha¬
nic, was born at Orleans in 1647. Though he embraced
the state of an ecclesiastic, and enjoyed several benefi¬
ces, he applied almost his whole life to mechanics, in
which he made a great progress. He had a particular ’ ~~
taste for clock-work, and made several discoveries in it
that were of singular use. He claimed the discovery
of moderating the vibration of the balance in watches
by means of a small steel-spring, which has since been
made use of. This discovery he laid before the mem¬
bers of the Academy of Sciences in 1674 ; and these
watches are, by way of eminence, called pendulum- See Hooke
watches; not that they have real pendulums, but be-and H'atcA.
cause they nearly approach to the justness of pendu¬
lums. M. Huygens perfected this happy invention ;
but having declared himself the inventor, and obtained
from Louis XIV. a patent for making watches with
spiral springs, the Abbe Feuille opposed the registering
of this privilege, and published a piece on the subject
against M. Huygens. He wrote a great number of
other pieces, most of which are small pamphlets con¬
sisting of a few pages, but very curious ; as, 1. His
perpetual pendulum, quarto. 2. New inventions,
quarto. 3. The Art of Breathing under Water, and
the means of preserving a Flame shut up in a small
Place. 4. Reflections on Machines for raising Water.
5. His opinion on the difl'erent sentiments of Malle-
branche and Regis relating to the appearance of the
Moon when seen in the Horizon. 6. The Magnetic
Balance. 7. A Placet to the King on the Longitude.
8. Letter on the Secret of the Longitude. 9. A new
System on the Flux and Reflux of the Sea. 10. The
Means of making sensible Experiments that prove the
Motion of the Earth ; and many other nieces. He
died in 1724.
HAUI BOY, a musical instrument of the wind kind,
shaped much like the lute, only that it spreads and
widens towards the bottom, and is sounded through a
reed. The treble is two feet long ; the tenor goes a
fifth lower when blown open : it has only eight holes ;
but the bass, which is five feet long, has eleven.
The word is French, haul bois, q. d. “ high rvood ;”
and is given to this instrument because the tone of it is -
higher than that of the violin.
■HAW, a sort of berry, the fruit of several species
of mespilus, thence denominated hawthorns. See Mes-
pilus, Botany Index.
Haw, among farriers, an excrescence resembling a
gristle, growing under the nether eyelid and eye of a
horse, which, if not timely removed, destroys it. See
Farriery.
Haw, a small parcel of land so called in Kent, as
a Hemphaw, or Beanhaw, lying near the house, and
inclosed for these uses. But Sir Edward Coke, in an
ancient plea concerning Feversham in Kent, says halves
are houses.
IlAiv-Finch. See Loxia, Ornithology Index.
HAWGH, or Howgh, signifies a green plot in a
valley as it is used in the north of England.
HAWK. See Falco, Ornithology Index.
HAWKERS, anciently,, were fraudulent persons,
who went from place to place buying and selling brass,
pewter, and other merchandise, which ought to be
uttered in open market. In this sense the word is
mentioned anno 25 Hen. VIII, cap. 6. and 33 ejusdem
cap.;
H A W [ 296 ] HA W
Hawkers, cap. 4. The appellation hawkers seems to liavea risen
Hawkes- from their uncertain wandering, like those who, with
worth, hawks, seek their game where they can find it.
”’’~v "" The term is now used as synonymous with pedlar j
a person who travels about the country selling wares.
Every hawker must take out an annual license, for
which he must pay 4I. and if he travels with a horse,
ass, or mule, for every one of them 81. If he travels
without a license, or contrary to it, he forfeits for
every offence to the informer, and to the poor of the
parish where discovered, 10k The acts relating to
hawkers do not extend to makers of goods or their
agents j or to those who sell goods in fairs or markets ;
to the sellers of fish, fruit, or other victuals ; nor to
the venders of books and newspapers, 9 and 10 W.
cap. 27. 3 and 4 Anne, cap. 4. But hawkers shall
not, by virtue of such license, sell or offer to sale any
tea or spirituous liquors, though with a permit, under
the penalty of having the same seized, and imprisonment
and prosecution of the offender, 9 Geo. II. cap. 35.
Hawkers who were licenced on June 23. 1785, may
set up any business in the place where they are resi¬
dent inhabitants, though not brought up thereto, and
may employ therein persons who have not been ap¬
prentices.
Hawkers, is a term also applied to those who go up
and down London streets and country towns, selling
newspapers, pamphlets, &c.
HAWKESWORTH, John, a celebrated English
writer, was born about the year 1719 j though his
epitaph, as we find it in the Gentleman’s Magazine for
August 1781, makes him to have been born in 1715.
He was brought up to a mechanical profession, that of
a watchmaker as is supposed. He was of the presby-
terian persuasion, and a member of the celebrated Tom
Bradbury’s meeting, from which he was expelled for
some irregularities. He afterwards devoted himself to
literature, and became an author of considerable emi¬
nence. In the early part of life his circumstances were
rather confined. He resided some time at Bromley
in Kent, where his wife kept a boarding-school. He
afterwards became known to a lady who had great
property and interest in the East India Company, and
through her means was chosen a director of that body.
As an author, his Adventurer is his capital work ; the
merits of which, if we mistake not, procured him the
degree of LL. D. from Herring archbishop of Canter¬
bury. When the design of compiling a narrative of
the discoveries in the South Seas was on foot, he was
recommended as a proper person to be employed on
the occasion : but in truth he was not a proper person,
nor did the performance answer expectation. Works
of taste and elegance, where imagination and the pas¬
sions were to be affected, were his province j not works
of dry, cold, accurate narrative. However, he exe¬
cuted his task, and is said to have received for it the
enormous sum of 6000I. He died in 1773 •, some sav
of high living; others of chagrin from the ill reception
of his Narrative : for he was a man of the keenest sen¬
sibility, and obnoxious to all the evils of such irritable
natures. On a handsome marble monument erected to
his memory at Bromley in Kent is an inscription, of
which the following is a part taken from the last num¬
ber of The Adventurer:
“ The hour is hasting, in which whatever praise Hawking
“ or censure I have acquired will be remembered ■\r*^
“ with equal indifference. Time, who is impatient
“ to date my last paper, will shortly moulder the
“ hand which is now writing in the dust, and still
“ the breast that now throbs at the reflection. Bnt
“ let not this be read as something that relates only
“ to another ; for a few years only can divide the
“ eye that is now reading from the hand that has
“ written.”
HAWKING, the exercise of taking wild-fowl by
means of hawks. The method of reclaiming, manning,
and bringing up a hawk to this exercise, is called fal-
cont'y. See Falconry.
There are only two countries in the world where
we have any evidence that the exercise of hawking
was very anciently in vogue. These are, Thrace and
Britain. In the former, it was pursued merely as the
diversion of a particular district, if we may believe
Pliny*, whose account is rendered obscure by the # g00^
darkness of his own ideas of the matter. The pri-x, 8.
maeval Britons, with a fondness for the exercise of
hunting, had also a taste for that of hawking ; and
every chief among them maintained a considerable
number of birds for that sport. It appears also from a
curious passage in the poems of Ossian f, that the same j y0[
diversion was fashionable at a very early period in nj.
Scotland. The poet tells us, that a peace was endea¬
voured to be gained by the proffer of 100 managed
steeds, 100 foreign captives, and “ 100 hawks with
fluttering wings, that fly across the sky.” To the
Romans this diversion was scarce known in the days
of Vespasian ; yet it was introduced immediately af¬
terwards. Most probably they adopted it from the
Britons ; bnt we certainly know that they greatly im¬
proved it by the introduction of spaniels into the
island. In this state it appears among the Roman
Britons in the sixth century. Gildas, in a remarkable
passage in his first epistle, speaks of Maglocunus, on
his relinquishing the sphere of ambition, and taking
refuge in a monastery; and proverbially compares him
to a dove, that hastens away at the noisy approach of
the dogs, and with various turns and windings takes
her flight from the talons of the hawk.
In after times, hawking was the principal amusement
of the English : a person of rank scarce stirred out
without his hawk on his hand ; which, in old paint¬
ings, is the criterion of nobility. Harold, afterwards
king of England, when he went on a most important ait. Cm-
embassy into Normandy, is painted embarking with a*0”'
bird on his fist, and a dog under his arm : and in an
ancient picture of the nuptials of Henry VI. a noble¬
man is represented in much the same manner ; for in
those days, it teas thought sufficient for a nobleman to
winde their horn, and to carry their hawk fair, and
leave study and leai'ning to the children of mean people.
The former were the accomplishments of the times;
Spenser makes his gallant Sir Tristram boast,
Ne is there hawk which mantleth her on pearch,
Whether high tow’ring, or accoasting low,
But I the measure of her flight doe search,
And all her prey, and all her diet know.
Book vi. canto 2.
In
o'
111,
HAW
lJ fli iing. In short, this diversion was, among the old English,
n i— —' the pride of the rich, and the privilege of the poor j
no rank of men seems to have been excluded the
amusement: we learn from the book of St Alban’s
that every degree had its peculiar hawk, from the
emperor down to the holy-water clerk. Vast was the
expence that sometimes attended this sport. In the
reign of James I. Sir Thomas Monson is said to have
given 1000I. for a cast of hawks: we are not then tp
wonder at the rigour of the laws that tended to pre¬
serve a pleasure that was carried to such an extrava¬
gant pitch. In the 34th of Edward III. it was made
felony to steal a hawk ; to take its eggs, even in a
person’s own ground, was punishable with imprison¬
ment for a year and a day, besides a fine at the king’s
pleasure: in Queen Elizabeth’s reign, the imprisonment
was reduced to three months ; but the offender was to
find security for his good behaviour for seven years, or
lie in prison till he did. Such was the enviable state
of the times of old England ; during the whole day,
the gentry were given to the fowls of the air and the
beasts of the field; in the evening, they celebrated their
exploits with the most abandoned and brutish sottish¬
ness ; at the same time, the inferior ranks of people, by
the most unjust and arbitrary laws, were liable to ca¬
pital punishments, to fines, and loss of liberty, for de¬
stroying the most noxious of the feathered tribe.
According to Olearius, the diversion of hawking is
more followed by the Tartars and Persians than ever
it was in any part of Europe. 11 n'y avoit point dc
hutte (says be) qui n'eust son aigle ou son faucon.
The falcons or hawks that were in use in these king¬
doms, are now found to breed in Wales, and in North
Britain and its isles. The peregrine falcon inhabits
the rocks of Caernarvonshire. The same species, with
the gyrfalcon, the gentil, and the goshawk, are found
in Scotland, and the lanner in Ireland.
We may here take notice, that the Norwegian breed
was, in old times, in high esteem in England : they
4 M lox 'vere thought bribes worthy a king. Jeoffrey Fitz-
Ar, uit. pierre gave two good Norway hawks to King John, to
Es :quer, obtain for his friend the liberty of exporting 100 cwt.
"* * of cheese ; and Nicholas the Dane was to give the
king a hawk every time he came into England, that
he might have free liberty to traffic throughout the
king’s dominions.
Hi s’* They were also made the tenures that some of the no-
A- bility held their estates by, from the crown. Thus Sir
m • *0* John Stanley had a grant of the Isle of Man from Hen¬
ry IV. to be held of the king, his heirs, and successors,
by homage and the service of two falcons, payable on
the day of his or their coronation. And Philip de
Hastang held his manor of Combertoun in Cambridge¬
shire, by the service of keeping the king’s falcons.
Hawking, though an exercise now much disused
among us, in comparison of what it anciently was,
does yet furnish a great variety of significant terms,
vvhich still obtain in our language. Thus, the parts
of a hawk have their proper names.—-The legs, from
the thigh to the foot, are called arms; the toes, the
petty singles ; the claws, the pounces.—The wings are
called the sails ; the long feathers thereof, the beams ;
the two longest, the principal feathers; those next
thereto, the flags.—The tail is called the train ; the
breast.feathers, the mails ; those behind the thigh, the
VOL. X. Part I. +
haw
pendant feathers.-'—When the feathers are not yet full Hawkinp.
grown, she is said to he unsummed; when they are —v—.
complete, she is summed1 he craw, or crop, is called
the gorge The pipe next the fundament, where the
faeces are drawn down, is called the pannel:—The slimy
substance lying in the pannel, is called the glut:—The
upper and crooked part of the bill, is called the beak ;
the nether part, the clap; the yellow part between the
beak and the eyes, the scar or sere; the two small holes
therein, the nares.
As to her furniture ?—The leathers, with bells but¬
toned on her legs, are called bewits.—The leathern
thong, whereby the falconer holds the hawk, is called
the lease or leash; the little straps, by which the lease
is fastened to the legs, and a line or packthread
fastened to the lease, in disciplining her, a creunce.—
A cover for her head, to keep her in the dark, is called
a hood; a large wide hood, open behind, to be wore
at first, is called A rufter hood; To draw the strings,
that the hood may be in readiness to he pulled off, is
called unstriking the hood.— I lie blinding a hawk just
taken, by running a thread through her eyelids, and
thus drawing them over the eyes, to prepare her for
being hooded, is called seeling.-—A figure or resemb¬
lance ol a fowl, made of leather and feathers, is called
a lure.—Her resting-place, when off the falconer’s fist,
is called dive perch.—The place where her meat is laid,
is called the hack; and that wherein she is set, while
her feathers fall and come again, the mew.
Something given a hawk, to cleanse and purge her
gorge, is called casting.—Small feathers given her to
make her cast, are ca,\\e&plumage:—Gravel given her to
help to bring down her stomach, is called rangle : Her
throwing up filth from the gorge after casting, is called
gleaming.—The purging of her grease, &c. enseaming.
— A being stuffed is called gurgiting.—The inserting
a feather in her wing, in lieu of a broken one, is called
imping.—Hie giving her a leg, wing, or pinion of a
fowl to pull at, is called tiring :—The neck of a bird
the hawk preys on, is called the inke: What the
hawk leaves of her prey, is called the pill ov pelf.
There are also proper terms for her several actions.
—When she flutters with her wings, as if striving to
get away, either from perch or fist, she is said to bate.
—When standing too near they fight with each other,
it is called crabbing:—When the young ones quiver,
and shake their wings in obedience to the elder, it is
called cowring:—When she wipes her beak after feed¬
ing, she is said to feak:—When she sleeps, she is said
to jouk:—From the time of exchanging her coat, till
she turn white again, is called her intermewing :—
Treading is called cawking: When she stretches one
of her wings after her legs, and then the other, it is
called ma^//V7g-:—Her dung is called muting: when
she mutes a good way from her, she is said to slice ;
when she does it directly down, instead of jerking
backwards, she is said to slime ; and if it be in drops,
it is called dropping.—When she as it were sneezes, it
is called suiting.—When she raises and shakes herself,
she is said to roicze. When, after mantling, she
crosses her wings together over her back, she is said
to warble.
When a hawk seizes, she is said to bind:—When
after seizing, she pull off the feathers, she is said to
When she raises a fowl aloft, and at length
P p descend*
I 297 ]
H A W [ 298 ] HA W
Hawking. Jescends with it to the ground, it is called trussing.—
i*—v—' When, being aloft, she descends to strike her prey, it is
called stooping.—When she flies out too far from the
game, she is said to rake.—-When, forsaking her proper
game, she flies at pyes, crows, &c. that chance to cross
her, it is called check.—When, missing the fowl, she
betakes herself to the next check, she is said to fly on
head. The fowl or game she flies at is called the
quarry.—The dead body of a fowl killed by the hawk,
is called -a pelt.—When she flies away with the quarry,
she is said to carry.—When in stooping she turns two
or three times on the wing, to recover herself ere she
seizes, it is called canceliering.—When she hits the
prey, yet does not truss it, it is called ruff.—The
making a hawk tame and gentle, is called reclaiming.
—The bringing her to endure company, manning her.
—An old staunch hav/k, used to fly and set example
to a young one, is called a make-hawk.
The reclaiming, manning, and bringing up a hawk
to the sport, is not easy to be brought to any precise
set of rules.—It consists in a number of little practices
and observances, calculated to familiarize the falconer
to his bird, to procure the love thereof, &c. See the
article Falconry.
When your hawk comes readily to the lure, a large
pair of luring-bells are to be put upon her $ and the
more giddy-headed and apt to rake out your hawk is,
the larger must the bells be. Having done this, and
she being sharp-set, ride out in a fair morning, into
some large field unencumbered with trees or wood,
with your hawk on your fist ; then having loosened
her hood, whistle softly, to provoke her to fly j unhood
her, and let her fly with her head into the wind ; for
by that means she will be the better able to get upon
the wing, and will naturally climb upwards, flying a
circle. After she has flown three or four turns, then
lure her with your voice, casting the lure about your
head, having first tied a pullet to it $ and if your fal¬
con come in and approach near you, cast out the lure
into the wand, and if she stoop to it reward her.
You will often find, that when she flies from the
fist, she will take stand on the ground : this is a fault
which is very common with soar-falcons. To remedy
this, fright her up with your wand ; and when you
have forced her to take a turn or two, take her down
to the lure, ami feed her. But if this does not do,
then you must have in readiness a duck sealed, so that
she may see no way but backwards, and that will
make her mount the higher. Hold this duck in your
hand, by one of the wings near the body j then lure
with the voice to make the falcon turn her head ; and
when she is at a reasonable pitch, cast your duck up
just under her ; when, if she strike, stoop, or truss the
duck, permit her to kill it, and reward her by giving
her a reasonable gorge. After you have practised
this two or three times, your hawk will leave the
stand, and, delighted to be on the wing, will be very
obedient.
It is not convenient, for the first or second time, to
show your hawk a large fowl j for it frequently hap¬
pens, that they escape from the hawk, and she, not re¬
covering them, rakes after them : this gives the falconer
trouble, and frequently occasions the loss of the hawk.
But if she happens to pursue a'fowl, and being unable
to recover it, gives it over, and comes in again direet-
3
ly, then cast out a sealed duck ; and if she stoop and Hawking f"
truss it across the wings, permit her to take her plea- Hawkint, ;i
sure, rewarding her alstf with the heart, brains, tongue,
and liver. But if you have not a quick duck, take her
down with a dry lure, and let her plume a pullet and
feed upon it. By this means a hawk will learn to give
over a fowl that rakes out, and on hearing the falconer’s
lure, will make back again, and know the better how
to hold in the head.
Some hawks have a disdainful coyness, proceeding
from their being high fed:.such a hawk must not be
rewarded though she should kill : but you may give
her leave to plume a little ; and then taking a sheep’s
heart cold, or the leg of a pullet, when the hawk is
busy in pluming, let either of them be conveyed into
the body of the fowl, that it may savour of it ; and
when the hawk has eaten the heart, brains, and tongue
of the fowl, take out what is inclosed, call her to your
fist, and feed her with it: afterwards give her some of
the feathers of the fowl’s neck, to scour her, and
make her cast.
If your hawk be a stately high-flying one, she
ought not to take more than one flight in a morn¬
ing; and if she be made for the river, let her not
fly more than twice: when she is at the highest,
take her down with your lure ; and when she has
plumed and broken the fowl a little, feed her, by
which means you will keep her a high-flyer, and fond
of the lure.
HAWKINS, Sir John, a very industrious writer
and valuable magistrate, was born at London in the
year 1719, where his father was employed as a builder
and surveyor. He received an education for the same
profession, but afterwards a clerk to an attorney. His
employment being chiefly copying, he improved his
mind in knowledge by rising early, and had made very
great advances by the time that his clerkship ended.
He was soon after admitted as an attorney, and his
taste for music made him become a member of the
Academy of Ancient Music. Having attained a de¬
gree of celebrity by publishing the words of two sets of
cantatas, the music of which was furnished by Mr
Stanley, he was introduced to some valuable acquaint¬
ances who assisted him in carrying forward his profes¬
sional views. In 1749 he was introduced as a member
of a tavern club which had been instituted by Dr Samuel
Johnson, and the connection thus formed between that
great man and him was only dissolved by death. Ifi
1753 he married a daughter of Peter Storer, Esq. ly
which he obtained a very handsome fortune ; and this
being augmented by the death of Mr Hawkins’s brother,
he laid aside the profession of an attorney, and lived as
an independent gentleman. He afterwards became a
justice of the peace for the county of Middlesex, and
was both an active and useful magistrate. Being ex¬
tremely fond of angling, he became the editor of Wal¬
ton’s Complete Angler, which he enriched with notes
of his own and a life of the author, a work which has
been frequently republished since.
H is “ Observations on the Highways” brought him
a liberal share of public approbation, and it has served
as a model for all the acts which have since been passed.
In 1765 he was chosen chairman to the quarter sessions,
and in the year 1772 he obtained the honour of knight¬
hood. Some of the notes to the edition of Shakespeare by
Johnson
HAW
Hi kins, J°Iinson and Steevens were furnished by Sir John, who
H se. for many years was engaged in writing the history of
l— music, which he finished in 1776, in five vols. 4to. de¬
dicated to his majesty. It abounds with curious and
original information, and may be considered as a x-epo-
sitory of many useful things not elsewhere to be met
with. His valuable library was destroyed by fire,
which interrupted his literary labours, but made no
change on the tranquillity of his mind. In the year
1787 his life and works of Dr Samuel Johnson appear¬
ed in 11 vols. 8vo. This life is a garrulous miscellany
of anecdote, in which the author frequently wanders
from his subject ; yet it contains many facts respecting
that extraordinary man which his enthusiastic admirers
could wish had been concealed. After this he prepared
for the termination of his own life, which he perceived
approaching, for he died in the month of May 1789,
about 70 years of age.
HAWSE, or Hause, is generally understood to im¬
ply the situation of the cables before the ship’s stem,
when she is moored with two anchor's out from for¬
ward, viz. one on the starboard, and the other on the
larboard bow. Hence it is usual to say, she has a
clear hause, or a foul hause. It also denotes any
small distance a-head of a ship, or between her head
and the anchors employed to ride her, as, “ He has
anchored in our hawse, The brig fell athwart our
hawse,” &c.
A ship is said to ride with a clear hawse, rvhen the
cables are directed to their anchors, without lying
athwart the stem j or crossing, or being twisted round
each other by the ship’s winding about, according to
the change of the wind, tide, or current.
A foul hawse, on the contrary, implies that the ca¬
bles lie across the stem, or bear upon each other, so as
to be rubbed and chafed by the motion of the vessel.
The hause accordingly is foul, by having either a cross,
an elbow, or a round turn. If the larboard cable,
lying across the stem, points out on the starboard side,
while the starboard cable at the same time grows out
on the larboard side, there is a cross in the hawse. If,
after this, the ship, without returning to her former
position, continues to wind about the same way, so as
to perform an entire revolution, each of the cables will
be twisted round the other, and then directed out from
the opposite bow, forming what is called a round turn.
An elbow is produced when the ship stops in the mid¬
dle of that revolution, after having had a cross : or, in
other words, if she rides with her head northward with
a clear hawse, and afterwards turns quite round so as
to direct her head northward again, she will have an
elbow.
Hawse-HoIcs, certain cylindi'ical holes cut through
the bows of a ship on each side of the stem, through
which the cables pass in order to be drawn into or let
out of the vessel as occasion requires. They are forti¬
fied on each side by the
HAivsE-Pieces, a name given to the foremost tim¬
bers of a ship, whose lower ends rest on the knuckle-
timber, or the foremost of the cant-timbers. They are
generally parallel to the stem, having their upper ends
sometimes terminated by the lower part of the beak-
head •, and otherwise by the top of the bow, particu¬
larly in small ships and merchantmen.
HAY
HAWSER, a large rope which holds the middle Haw er
degree between the cable and tow-line, in any ship jj ^
whereto it belongs, being a size smaller than the for- Hajward.
mer, and as much larger than the latter.   v~—
HAY, any kind of grass cut and dried for the food
of cattle. See Agriculture Index.
Hay, a town of Brecknockshire, in Wales, seated
near the confluence of the rivers Wye and Dulas. It
was a town of good note in the time of the Romans ;
it being then fortified with a castle and a wall, which
were ruined in the rebellion of Owen Glendower. It
is at present a pretty good town ; and the market is
large for corn, cattle, and provisions. W. Lone. 0.
56. N. Lat. 52. 10.
HAYES, Charles, Esq. a very singular person,
whose great erudition was so concealed by his modesty,
that his name is known to very few, though his publica¬
tions are many. He was born in 1678, and became
distinguished in 1704 by a Treatise of Fluxions, fo¬
lio j the only work to which he ever set his name. In
1710, came out a small 410 pamphlet of 19 pages, en¬
titled, A new and easy Method to find out the Longi¬
tude, from observing the Altitudes of the Celestial Bo¬
dies : and in 1723, The Moon, a Philosophical Dia-
logue ; tending to show, that the moon is not an
opaque body, but has original light of her own. Du¬
ring a long course of years, the management of the
late Royal African Company lay in a manner wholly
upon Mr Hayes, he being annually either sub-governor
or deputy-governor ; notwithstanding which, he conti¬
nued his pursuit after general knowledge. To a skill
in the Greek and Latin as well as modern languages,
he added the knowledge of the Hebrew: and published
several pieces relating to the translation and chrono¬
logy of the Scriptures. The African Company being
dissolved in 1752, he retired to Down in Kent, where
he gave himself up to study. May 1753, he began to
compile in Latin his Chronographia Asiatica et Egyp-
tiaca, which he lived to finish but not to publish $
which, however, was published afterwards. August
1758, he left his house in Kent, and took chambers in
Gray’s-Inn, where he died, Dec. 18. 1760, in his 82d
year. The title of his posthumous works runs thus:
Chronographice Asiatica; et Egyptiacce Specimen; in
quo, I. Origo Chronologies lxx Interpretum investiga-
tur. 2. Conspectus totius operis exhibetur, 8vo.
HAYNAULT. See Hainault.
HAYS, particular nets for taking rabbits, hares,
&c. common to be bought in shops that sell nets, and
they maybe had larger or shorter as you think fit;
from 13 to io fathoms is a good length, and for depth
a fathom.
As rabbits often straggle abroad about mid-day for
fresh grass, where you perceive a number gone forth to
any remote brakes or thickets, pitch two or three of
these hays about their burrows ; lie close there : but in
case you have not nets enough to inclose all their bur¬
rows, some mav be stopped up with stones, &c. Then
set out with the coney-dog to hunt up and down at a
good distance, and draw on by degrees to the man who
is with you, and lies close by the hay, who may take
them as they bolt into it.
HAYWARD, the person who keeps the common
herd or cattle of a town. He is appointed by the lord’s
Pp.2 'court j
[ 299 ]
H A Z [ 300 ] H E A
Hayward court j and his office is to see that the cattle neither
|| break nor crop the hedges of inclosed grounds,
llazle. HAZAEL, an. officer belonging to Benhadad king
' " of Syria, caused that prince to be put to death, and
reigned in his stead. He defeated Joram, Jehu, and
Jehoahaz, kings of Israel j and, after his death, was
succeeded by Benhadad his son, 852 B. C.
HAZARD, or Chance, in gaming. See Gam¬
ing.
Hazard, a game on dice, without tables, is very
properly so called j since it speedily makes a man, or
undoes him.
It is played with only two dice j and as many may
play at it as can stand round the largest round table.
Two things are chiefly to be observed, viz. main and
chance j the latter belonging to the caster, and the.
former, or main, to the other gamesters. There can
be no main thrown above nine, nor under five j so that
five, six, seven, eight, and nine, are the only mains
flung at hazard. Chances and nicks are from four to
ten : thus four is a chance to nine, five to eight, six to
seven, seven to six, eight to five ; and nine and ten a
chance to five, six, seven, and eight : in short, four,
live, six, seven, eight, nine, and ten, are chances to
any main, if any of these nick it not. Now nicks are
either when the chance is the same with the main, as
five and five, or the like 5 or six and twelve, seven and
eleven, eight and twelve. Here observe, that twelve
is out to nine, seven, and five} eleven is out to nine,
eight, six, and five} and ames-ace and duce-ace, are
out to all mains whatever.,
HAZLE, or Hazel. See Cgrtlus, Botany
Index.
I he kernels of the fruit have a mild, farinaceous,
oily taste, agreeable to most palates. Squirrels and
mice are fond of them, as- well as some birds, such as
jays, nutcrackers, &c. A kind of chocolate has been
prepared from them, and there are instances of their
having been formed into breads The oil expressed
from them is little inferior to the oil of almonds } and
is used by painters and by chemists for receiving and
retaining odours. "Ilie charcoal made of the wood is
used by painters in drawing.—Some of the Highland¬
ers, where superstition lias not totally subsided, look up¬
on the tree itself as unlucky } but are glad to get two
of the nuts naturally conjoined, which is a good omen,
ihese they call eno-chomhlaichy and carry them as an
efficacious charm against witchcraft.
Evelyn tells us, that no plant is more proper for
thickening of copses than the hazle, for which he di¬
rects the following expeditious method. Take a pole
of hazle (ash or poplar may also be used) of 2Q or 30
feet in length, the head a little lopped into the ground,
giving it a chop near the ground to make it succumb ;
this fastened to the earth with a hook or two, and co¬
vered with some fresh mould at a competent depth (as
gardeners lay their carnations), will produce a great
number of suckers, and thicken and furnish a copse
speedily.
Hazle Earth, or Hazley Earth,.*, kind of red loam,
which is said to be an excellent mixture with other sorts
of earth } uniting what is too loose, cooling what is too
hot, and gently retaining the moisture.
Witch'Hazle. See Hamamelis.
2.
HEAD, the uppermost-or foremost part of the body
of an animal. See Anatomy Index.
HsAD-Ach, a most troublesome sensation in the head,
produced by various causes, and attended with different
symptoms, according to its different degrees and the
place where it is seated. See MEDICINE Index.
Dragon's Head, in Astronomy, is the ascending
node of the moon or other planet.
Head of a Ship, an ornamental figure erected on the
continuation of a ship’s stem, as being expressive of her
name, and emblematical of war,, navigation, commerce,
&c.
Hea
r
Head, is also used in a more enlarged sense to sig¬
nify the whole front or fore part of the ship, including
the bows on each side : the head therefore opens the
column of water through which the ship passes when
advancing. Hence we say, head-sails, head-sea, head¬
way, &c.
Thus, fig. i. Plate CCL represents one side of the Pla
fore part or head of a 74 gun ship, together with part CC
of the bow, keel, and gunnel. The names of the se-
veral pieces, exhibited therein, are as follow :
A A Fore part of the keel, with o a. the two false
keels beneath it.
AC The stem.
a a The cat-head.
b b The supporter of the cat-head..
c c The knight-head, or bollard-timber, of which
there is one on each side, to secure the inner end of th®
bowsprit.
d d The hause-holes.
e e The naval-hoods, i. e. thick pieces of plank laid
upon the bow to strengthen the edges of the hause-
holes.
f The davit-chock, by which the davit is firmly
wedged while employed to fish the anchor.
g The bulk-head, which terminates the forecastle on
the fore side, being called the beak-head, bulk-head, by
shipwrights.
II The gun-ports of the lower deck.
h The gun-ports of the upper deck and forecastle*
I, I, The channel, with their dead-eyes and chain-
plates.
* The gripe, or fore foot, which unites the keel with
the stem, forming a part of either.,
k k These dotted lines represent the thickness and
descent of the different decks from the fore part of the
ship towards the middle. The lowest of the three dot¬
ted lines / expresses the convexity of the beams, or the
difference between the height of the deck in the middle
of its breadth and at the ship’s side. This is also exhi¬
bited more clearly in the Midship Frame; where the
red curve of the beam is delineated. N. B. These lines
must be always parallel to the lines which terminate the
gun-ports above and below.
m m The timbers of the head, and part of the bow¬
sprit.
X The rails of the head which, lie across the tim¬
bers. V
QZ Fore part of the main-wale.,
RX Fore part of the channel-wale..
UC The load water-line.
Fig. 2. represents a head-view of a ship, with the^g,:
projection'
HARMONICA.
HARPS
PLATE CCL.
N°,3.
HEL.M-
Vr..
HkaJ) oi-' a Ship.
N°. 4.
A. Wilson Sculp?
H E A
[ 301 ]
H E A
id. projection of her principal timber and all her planks
—; laid on one side.
It is evident that the fore part of a ship is called its
head, from the affinity of motion and position it bears
to a fish, and in general to the horizontal situation of
all animals whilst swimming;
By the Head ; the state of a ship, which is laden
deeper at the fore end than the after end.
Head-Bovow, or Head-Borough, signifies the per¬
son who is the chief of the frank pledge, and had an¬
ciently the principal direction of those within his own
pledge. He was also called burrow-head, burshoulder,
now bars-fiolder, third-borrow, tything-man, chief-pledge,
nn&borow-elder, according to the diversity of speech in
different places. This officer is now usually called a
high constable. The head-borow was the chief of ten
pledges : the other nine were called hand-lurows, or
plegii manuales, &c.
HEAD-Mould-shot, a disease in children, wherein the
sutures of the skull, generally the coronal, ride; that
is, have their edges shot one over another ; and are so
- close locked together, as to compress the internal parts,
the meninges, or even the brain itself. The disease
usually occasions convulsions, and is supposed to admit
of no cure from medicine, unless room could be given
by manual operation or a divulsion of the sutures.
The head-mould-shot is the disorder opposite to the
horse-shoe bead.
HsAD-Pence, an exaction of a certain sum formerly
collected by the sheriff of Northumberland from the in¬
habitants of that county, without any account to be
made to the king. This was abolished by the statute
23 Henry VI. cap. 7.
Head-Tin, in Metallurgy, is a preparation of tin-ore
toward the fitting it for working into metal. When
the ore has been pounded and twice washed, that part
of it which lies uppermost, or makes the surface of the
mass in the tub, is called the head-tin ; this is separated
from the rest, and after a little more washing becomes
fit for the blowing-house.
HEAD-Fast, a rope employed to fasten a ship to a
wharf, chain, or buoy, or to some other vessel along¬
side.
HsAD-Land, a name frequently given to a cape or
promontory.
HsAD-Dress, among the Jewish, Grecian, and Ro¬
man ladies, as among ourselves, was various, according
to the different periods of time, and the fluctuation of
fashion. In general, it principally consisted of their
hair differently tricked out. It was usually divided
before with a bodkin, into two equal parts; some¬
times it was covered with a net, cr put into a kind of
purse, or tied behind in the form of a knot, or bound
back and plaited with ribbands. It was washed with
great care; essence and perfumes were applied to it,
and gold dust sometimes made use of as powder. Pearls
and jewels made a part of their ornaments ; and pen¬
dants worn in the ear. To cover the defect of hair,
perukes were made use of by the gentlemen of Rome.
And we read that Otho had a covering of false hair,
because he had not much of his own* See Hair and
Jewels.
Both Grecian and Roman ladies wore tetes. But
whether they ever built up their heads so high as the
English or our continental neighbours, will admit of a
dispute.
Headmost, the situation of any ship or ships
which are the most advanced in a fleet, or line of^
battle. ,
HsAD-Rope, that part of the bolt-rope which termi¬
nates any of the principal sails on the upper edge,
which is accordingly sewed thereto. See the article
Bolt-rope.
Head-SoHs, a general name for all those sails which
are extended on the foremast and bowsprit, and em¬
ployed to command the fore part of the ship: such are
the foresail, fore-top-sail, fore-top-gallant-sail, jib, fore¬
stay-sail, and the spritsail, with its topsail. This term
is used in opposition to after-sails, viz. all those which
are extended on the mizen-mast, and on the stays be¬
tween the mizen and main-masts.
HEAD-to-wind ; the situation of a ship or boat, when
her head is turned to windward.
Head-IFay, the motion of advancing at sea. It is
generally used when a ship first begins to advance ; or
1 when it is doubtful whether she is in a state of rest or
motion. It is in both senses opposed to retreating, or
moving with the stern foremost. Bee the article Stern-
WAY.
HEALFANG, Healsfang, or Halsfang, in our
ancient customs, signifies collistrigivm or the punishment
of the pillory. The word is compounded of two Saxon
words; halp, “ neck,” and pangen, “ to contain:” Poena
scilicet qua alicui collum stringatur. The healfang,
however, cannot signify a pillory in the charter of Ca-
nutus, De Forestis, cap. xiv. Ft pro culpa solvat regi
duos solidos, quos Dani meant halfehang.
Healfang is also taken for a pecuniary punishment
or mulct to commute for standing in the pillory ; and
is to be paid either to the king or the chief lord.
falsum testimonium dedit, reddat regi vel terree domino
healfang.
HEALING, in its general sense, includes the whole
process of curing or removing a disorder, and recover¬
ing health. In this sense medicine is defined the art
of healing. In its more restrained sense, as used in
surgery, &c. healing denotes the uniting or consolida¬
ting the lips of a wound or ulcer. The medicines pro¬
per for this intention are called inearnativesragglutina-
iives, vulncraries, &c.
Healing, in Architecture, denotes the covering the
roof of a building. The healing is various ; as of
lead, tiles, slate, Horsham stone, shingles,, or reeds and:
straw.
HEALTH, is a right disposition of the body, and
of all its parts ; consisting in a due temperature, a right
conformation, just connexion, and ready and free exer¬
cise of the several vital functions.
Health admits of latitude, as not being the same in
all subjects, who may yet be said to enjoy health.
That part of medicine which shows the means of
preserving health, is termed hygeine. . See Medicine
Index.
The Greeks and Romans deified Health, represent¬
ing it under the figure of a woman, whom they suppo¬
sed to he the daughter of iEsculapius. We find the
name of the goddess Salus, or Health, on many medals-
of the Roman- emperors, with different inscriptions ;.
Head
I)
Health.
H E A • [ 302 ] H E A
as, SALUS FUBLICA, SALDS REIPUBLIC^, SxYLUS Au-
GUSTI, &C.
Methods of preserving the Health of Mariners.
See Mariner.
HEAM, in beasts, denotes the same with after-birth
in women. Thyme, pennyroyal, winter-savory, and
common hore-hound, boiled in white wine, and given
to a mare, are esteemed good to expel the beam. Dit¬
tany, applied in a pessary, expels the beam, as well as
the dead foal 5 so also do fennel, hops, savin, angeli¬
ca, &c.
HEARING, the act or faculty of perceiving sounds.
Hearing is reckoned among our external senses. Its
organ is the ear, and particularly the auditory nerve
diffused through the same j and its object, certain mo¬
tions or vibrations of the air. Hence hearing may be
more scientifically defined a sensation, whereby, from
a due motion impressed on the fibrillge of the auditory
nerve, and communicated thence to the sensory, the
mind perceives and gets the idea of sounds. See Ana¬
tomy, N° 141.
HEARSE, among hunters, a hind in the second
year of her age. See Hunting.
Hearse is the name of a well-known carriage, used
for conveying the dead to the grave. The word is also
used by Shakespeare in his Henry VI. for a monument
erected over a grave.
HEART, in Anatomij, a musculous part of the ani¬
mal body, situated in the thorax, on the anterior part
of the diaphragm, between the two laminae of the me¬
diastinum, wherein the veins all terminate, and from
which all the arteries arise ; and which, by its alternate
contraction and dilatation, is the chief instrument of the
circulation of the blood, and the principle of life. See
Anatomy, N° 121, 122.
Several ingenious persons have from time to time at¬
tempted to make estimates of the force of the blood in
the heart and arteries j who have as widely differed
from each other, as they have from the truth, for want
of a sufficient number of data to argue upon. This set
the truly ingenious Dr Hales upon making proper ex¬
periments, in order to ascertain the force of the blood
in the veins and arteries of several animals.
If, according to Dr Keil’s estimate, the left ventri¬
cle of a man’s heart throws out in each systole an ounce
or 1 638 cubic inches of blood, and the area of the ori¬
fice of the aorta be rr 0.4187, then dividing the form¬
er by this, the quotient 3.9 is the length of the cylin¬
der of blood which is formed in passing through the
aorta in each systole of the ventricle ; and in the 75
pulses of a minute, a cylinder of 292.5 inches in length
will pass: this is at the rate of 1462 feet in an hour.
But the systole of the heart being performed in one-
third of this time, the velocity of the blood in that in¬
stant will be thrice as much, viz. at the rate of 4386
feet in an hour, or 73 feet in a minute. And if the
ventricle throws out one ounce in a pulse, then in the
75 pulses of a minute, the quantity of blood will be
equal to 4.41b. 11 oz. and, in 34 minutes, a quantity
equal to a middle-sized man, viz. 158 lb. will pass
through the heart. But if, with Dr Harvey and Dr
Lower, we suppose two ounces of blood, that is, 3.276
cubic inches, to be thrown out at each systole of the
ventricle, then the velocity of the blood in entering
the orifice of the aorta will be double the former, viz.
at the rate of 146 feet in a minute, and a quantity of
blood equal to the weight of a man’s body will pass in
half the time, viz. 17 minutes.
If we suppose, what is probable, that the blood will
rise 7"f*4‘ feet high in a tube fixed to the carotid artery
of a man, and that the inward area of the left ventricle
of his heart is equal to 15 square inches, these multi¬
plied into 7 + 4- leet, give 1350 cubic inches of blood,
which presses on that ventricle, when it first begins to
contract, a weight equal to 15.5 pounds.
What the doctor thus calculates, from supposition,
with regard to mankind, he actually experimented up¬
on horses, dogs, fallow-does, &c. by fixing tubes in ori¬
fices opened in their veins and arteries 5 by observing
the several heights to which the blood rose in these
tubes, as they lay on the ground j and by measuring
the capacities of the ventricles of the heart and ori¬
fices of the arteries. And, that the reader may the
more readily compare the said estimates together, he
has given a table of them, ranged in the following
order.
H E A
r 303 ]
H E A
1 it
1 it.
to
Man
Horse 1 st
2ti
3d
Ox
Sheep
Doe
Dogs
1st
2(1
3d
4th
160
*5 *u
O -O
^ 3
'
a3 *-•
O tc
On
train¬
ing.
825 12
1600
91
52
24
18
12 8
529
5^ 9
o 6
5 7
5
4
- jy
u y
7 6
8 3
9 8
6
6 54
4 2
6 8
2 8
4 8
3 3
1.659
3-3l8
10
12-5
8i
1.172
c
0-^33
5
£
<1
<U _c
ts 0
= .s
cr1
CQ
O.4187
>
.5 ,c
='!
rt cs
i.°36
r-539
0.172
0.476
0.196
.185
.118
.101
56.55
113-3
86.85
76.95
74-5
I44*77
130.9
130
120
bfl P
■|.E
y
-5 s
X O
3 *-■
o1
34-I8
*7-5
60
88
20
ri.9
6.48
7-8
6.7
Heat.
bb.S
4-38
936
I3"75
18.14
4-593
4-34
3-7
2-3
1.85
5I-5
113.22
36.56
33.6i
19.8
11.1
75
97
© Ctf
W3
£ X
^ y :-i
S8 0) o
y co x
O.677
O.912
O.O94
°-383
0.106
0.102
O.O7
0.061
Square
inches.
0.369
0.84
right. left.
0.07 0.012
0.246
right. left.
0.041 0.034
0.031 0.009
0.022 0.009
0.0x5 0.007
HEAllT-Burn,. a disease usually called cardialgia by
physicians. In surleits, or upon swallowing without
due mastication j when meats are eaten tough and fat,
or with farinaceous substances unfermented ; or when
by any accident the saliva is vitiated, too scanty, or
net intimately mixed with the food, the fermentation
becomes tumultuous, the stomach swells with air, and
this extraordinary commotion being attended with an
unusual heat, brings on the uneasiness called the heart-
hurn; which is remedied by whatever promotes a
greater secretion of saliva, or helps to mix it with our
aliment. The testaceous powders, as oyster-shells,
crabs-eyes, chalk, &c. are the usual remedies for the
heart-burn.
HEARTH, that part of the pavement of a room on
which the fire is immediately placed.
Hearth-Mona/. See Chimney-Money.
HEAT, in Physiology, has a double meaning j be¬
ing put either for that peculiar sensation which is felt
on the approach of burning bodies, or for the cause of
that sensation ; in which last sense it is synonymous with
Fire. This mode of speaking, howe ver, is inaccurate j
and, by confounding the effect with the cause, some¬
times produces obscurity : it were to be wished, there¬
fore, that the word heat was used only to denote theef-
foct; audj£re, or some other term, to denote the cause
of that effect.
The disputes which formerly were so much agitated
m the learned world concex-ning the nature of beat,
viz. whether it consisted merely in the motion of the
terrestrial particles of bodies, or in that of a subtile
fluid, are now mostly ceased, and it is almost universal¬
ly believed to be the effect of a fluid. See Chemistry
Index.
Heat of Burning Bodies. 1 See Combustion,
Heat of Chemical Mixtures. J" Chemistry Index.
Method of Measuring Heat. See Thermometer
and Pyrometer, Chemistry Index.
Degrees of Heat which Animals are capable of bear¬
ing.—The ancients were of opinion, that all countries
lying within the tropics were uninhabitable by reason
of their heat: but time has discovered their mistake j
and it is now found, that no part of the world is too
hot for mankind to live in. The learned Professor
Boerhaave, in his chemistry, relates certain experi¬
ments made with great accuracy by the celebrated
Fahrenheit, and others, at his desire, on this subject, in
a sugar-baker’s office ; where the heat, at the time of
making the experiments, was up to 146 degrees of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer. A sparrow, subjected to
air thus heated, died, after breathing very laboriously,
in less than seven minutes. A cat resisted this great
heat somewhat above a quarter of an hour 5 and a dog
about 28 minutes, diicharging before his death a con¬
siderable quantity of a ruddy coloured foam, and ex¬
haled a stench so peculiarly offensive, as to throw one
of the assistants into a fainting fit. This dissolution of
the humours, or great change from a natux-al state, the
professor
H E A
[ 3«4 1
H E A
Heat.
professor Attributes not to the heat of the stove alone,
which would not have produced any such effect on the
flesh of a dead animal j but likewise to the vital mo¬
tion, by which a still greater degree of heat, he sup¬
poses, was produced in the fluids circulating through
the lungs, in consequence of which the oils, salts, and
spirits of the animal became so highly exalted.
Messieurs Du Hamel and Tibet having been sent
into the province of Augomois, in the years 1760 and
1761, with a view of endeavouring to destroy an in¬
sect which consumed the grain of that province, effect¬
ed the same in the manner related in the Memoirs for
1761, by exposing the affected corn, with the insects
included in it, in an oven, where the heat was suffici¬
ent to kill them without injuring the grain. This ope¬
ration was performed at Rochefoucault, in a large pub¬
lic oven, where, for economical views, their first step
■was to assure themselves of the heat remaining in it on
the day after bread had been baked in it. This they
did, by conveying in a thermometer on the end of a
shovel, which, on its being withdrawn, indicated a de¬
cree of heat considerably above that of boiling water •,
but M. Tibet, convinced that the thermometer had
fallen several degrees in drawing to the mouth of the
oven, and appearing under some embarrassment on that
head, a girl, one of the attendants on the oven, offered
to enter, and mark with a pencil the height at which
the thermometer stood within the oven. The girl
smiled on M. Tibet’s appearing to hesitate at this
strange proposition ; and entering the oven, with a pen¬
cil given her for that purpose, marked the thermome¬
ter, after staying two or three minutes, standing at 100
degrees of Reaumur’s scale, or, to make use of a scale
better known in this country, at near 260 degrees of
Fahrenheit’s. M. Tibet began to express an anxiety
for the welfare of his female assistant, and to press her
return. This female salamander, however, assuring him
that she felt no inconvenience from her situation, re¬
mained there 10 minutes longer ; that is, near the
time when Boerhaave’s cat parted with her nine lives
under a much less degree of heat j when the thermo¬
meter standing at 288 degrees, or 76 degrees above
that of boiling water, she came out of the oven, her
complexion indeed considerably heightened, but her
respiration by no means quick or laborious. After M.
Tibet’s return to Paris, these experiments were repeat¬
ed by Mons. Marantin, comtnissaire de guerre, at
Rochefoucault, an intelligent and accurate observer,
on a second girl belonging to the oven, who remained
in it, without much inconvenience, under the same
degree of heat, as long as her predecessor j and even
breathed an air heated to about 325 degrees for the
space of five minutes.
M. Tibet endeavoured to clear up the very apparent
contrariety between these experiments and those made
under the direction of Boerhaave, by subjecting vari¬
ous animals, under difterent circumstances, to great de¬
grees of heat. From his experiments, in some of which
the animals were swaddled with clothes, and were
thereby enabled to resist for a much longer time the
effects of the extraordinary heat, he infers, that the heat Heat,
of the air received into the lungs was not, as was sup- ' r-
posed by Boerhaave, the only or principal cause of the
anxiety, laborious breathing, and death, of the animals
on whom his experiments were made *, but that the hot
air, which had free and immediate access to every part
of the surface of their bodies, penetrated the substance
on all sides, and brought on a fever, from whence pro¬
ceeded all the symptoms; on the contrary, the girls at
Rochefoucault, having their bodies in great measure
protected from this action by their clothes, were ena¬
bled to breathe the air, thus violently heated, for a
long time without great inconvenience. In fact, we
should think too, that the bulk of their bodies, though
not thought of much consequence by M. Tibet, appears
to have contributed not a little to their security. In
common respiration, the blood, in its passage through
the lungs, is cooled by being brought into contact with
the external inspired air. In the present experiments,
on the contrary, the vesicles and vessels of the lungs
receiving at each inspiration an air heated to 300 de¬
grees, must have been continually cooled and refreshed,
as well as the subcutaneous vessels, by the successive
arrival of the whole mass of blood contained in the in¬
terior parts of the body, whose heat might be supposed
at the beginning of the experiment not to exceed 100
degrees. Not to mention, that M. Tibet’s two girls
may not possibly have been subjected to so great a de¬
gree of heat as that indicated by the thermometer j
which appears to us to have always remained on the
shovel, in contact with the earth.
These experiments soon excited other philosophers to
make similar ones, of which some very remarkable ones
are those of Dr Dobson at Liverpool, who gives the
following account of them in the Philosophical Trans¬
actions, vol. Ixv.
“ I. The sweating-room of our public hospital at
Liverpool, which is nearly a cube of nine feet, lighted
from the top, was heated till the quicksilver stood at
2240 on Fahrenheit’s scale, nor would the tube of the
thermometer indeed admit the heat to be raised high¬
er. The thermometer was suspended by a string fixed
to the wooden frame of the sky-light, and hung down
about the centre of the room. Myself and several
others were at this time inclosed in the stove, without
experiencing any oppressive or painful sensation of heat
proportioned to the degree pointed out by the thermo¬
meter. Every metallic substance about us soon be¬
came very hot.
“ II. My friend Mr Park, an ingenious surgeon of
this place, went into the stove heated to 202°. Af¬
ter ten minutes, I found the pulse quickened to 120.
And to determine the increase of the animal heat,
another thermometer was handed to him, in which the
quicksilver already stood at 98° j but it rose only to
991, whether the bulb of the thermometer was in¬
closed in the palms of the hands or received in the
mouth (a). The natural state of this gentleman’s pulse
is about 65.
“ III. Another gentleman went through the same
experiment
(a) The scale of the thermometer, which was suspended by the string about the middle of the room, was of
metal}
H E A
the same circumstances,
eat. experiment in
y——' same effects.
“ IV. One of the porters to the hospital, a healthy
young man, and the pulse 75, was inclosed in the
stove when the quicksilver stood at 2io°; and he re¬
mained there, with little inconvenience, for 20 minutes.
rlhe pulse, now 164, and the animal heat, determined
by another thermometer as in the former experiments,
was ioiJ.
“ A young gentleman of a delicate and irritable
habit, whose natural pulse is about 80, remained in
the stove ten minutes when heated to 224°. The
puise rose to I45> and the animal heat to 102°. This
gentleman, who had been frequently in the stove du¬
ring the course of the day, found himself feeble, and
disposed to break out into sweats for 24 hours after the
experiment.
“ \ I. Two small tin vessels, containing each the
white of an egg, were put into the stove heated to
224 • One of them was placed on a wooden seat
near the wall, and the other suspended by a string
about the middle of the stove. After ten minutes, they
began to coagulate ; but the coagulation was sensibly
quicker and firmer in that which was supended, than
in that which was placed on the wooden seat. The pro¬
gress of the coagulation was as follows : it was first for¬
med on the sides, and gradually extended itself j the
whole of the bottom was next coagulated ; and last of
all, the middle part of the top.
it VII. Part of the shell of an egg was peeled away,
leaving only the film which surrounds the white ; and
part of the white being drawn out, the film sunk so
as to form a little cup. This cup was filled with
some of the albumen ovi, which was consequently de¬
tached as much as possible from every thing but the
cup. The lower part of the egg stood upon some
light tow in a common gallipot, and was placed on
the wooden seat in the stove. The quicksilver in the
thermometer still continued at 2240. After remaining
in the stove for an hour, the lower part of the egg
which was covered with the shell rvas firmly coagula¬
ted, but that which was in the little cup was fluid and
transparent. At the end of another hour it was still
fluid, except on the edges where it was thinnest j and
here it was still transparent; a sufficient proof that it
was dried, not coagulated.
“ AHf. A piece of bees-wax, placed in the same
situation with the albumen ovi of the preceding expe¬
riment, and exposed to the same degree of heat in the
stove, began to melt in five minutes: another piece sus¬
pended by a string, and a third piece put into the tin
vessel and suspended, began likewise to liquefy in five
minutes.
Even these experiments, though more accurate
than the former, do not show the utmost degrees
of heat which the human body is capable of endu¬
ring. Some others, still more remarkable (as in them
the body was exposed to the heat without clothes),
. [ 305 ] H E A
and with the by Drs Fordyce and Blagden, are also recorded in the
Philosophical I ransactions. 1 hey were made in rooms
heated by flues iu^ the floor, and by pouring upon it
boiling water. There was no chimney in them, or
any vent for the air, excepting through crevices at the
door. In the first room were placed three thermome¬
ters, one in the hottest part of it, another in the cool¬
est part, and a third on the table, to be used occasion¬
ally in the course of the experiment. Of these expe¬
riments, the two following may be taken as a speci¬
men.
“ About three hours after breakfast, Dr Fordyce
having taken off all his clothes, except his shirt, and
being furnished with wooden shoes tied on with list,
went into one of the rooms, where he staid five mi¬
nutes in a heat of 90°, and begun to sweat gently.
He then entered another room, and stood in a part of
it heated to no0. In about half a minute his shirt
became so wet that he was obliged to throw it aside,
and then the water poured down in streams over his
whole body. Having remained in this heat for ten
minutes, he removed to a part of the room heated to
120° ; and after staying there 20 minutes, found that
the thermometer placed under bis tongue, and held in
his hand, stood just at ioo°, and that his urine was
of the same temperature. His pulse had gradually
risen to 145 pulsations in a minute. The external cir¬
culation was greatly increased, the veins had become
very large, and an universal redness had diffused itself
all over the body, attended with a strong feeling of
heat *, his respiration, however, was little attected. He
concluded this experiment by plunging in water heat¬
ed to loo0 j and after being wiped dry, was carried
home in a chair j but the circulation did not subside
for two hours.
“ Hr Blagden took off his coat, waistcoat, and
shirt, and went into one of the rooms, as soon as the
thermometer had indicated a degree of heat above
that of boiling water. The first impression of this hot
air upon his body was exceedingly disagreeable, but in
a few minutes all his uneasiness was removed by the
breaking out of a sweat. At the end of 12 minutes
he left the room very much fatigued, hut no otherwise
disordered. His pulse beat 136 in a minute, and the
thermometer bad risen to 220 degrees.
In others of these experiments it was found, that a
heat even of 260° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer could
be submitted to with tolerable ease. But it must be
observed, that in these great heats every piece of me¬
tal they carried about with them became intolerably
hot. Small quantities of water placed in metalline
vessels quickly boiled 5 but in a common earthen ves¬
sel it required an hour and a half to arrive at a tem¬
perature of 140®, nor could it ever be brought near
the boiling point. Neither durst the people, who with
impunity breathed the air of this very hot room at
264 degrees, bear to put their fingers into the boiling
water, which indicated only a heat of 2120. So far
from
nietai j this was the only one I could then procure on which the degrees ran so high as to give any scope to the
experiment. The scale of the other thermometer, which was employed for ascertaining the variations in the ani¬
mal heat, was of ivory.
^ OL. X. Part I. j- Q q
Heat.
Heat.
H E A
from tlii?, they could not bear the touch of quick¬
silver heated only to 120°, and could but just bear
spirit of wine at 130°.
Animal Hr.at. Of this there are various degrees j
some animals preserving a heat of ioo° or more in all
the difierent temperatures of the atmosphere ; others
keep only a few degrees warmer than the medium
which surrounds them 5 and in some of the more im¬
perfect animals, the heat is scarcely one degree above
the air or water in which they live.
The phenomenon of animal heat hath, from the
earliest ages, been the subject of philosophical discus¬
sion \ and, like most other subjects of this nature, its
cause is not yet ascertained. The best treatises that
have appeared on the subject are those of Dr Dugud
Leslie, published in 1778; and Mr Adair Crawford,
in 1779- From the first of these performances, the
following account of the different opinions on this sub¬
ject is extracted.
“ The ancients possessed not the requisites for mi¬
nutely investigating the science of nature ; and, prone
to superstition, attributed every phenomenon which
eluded their investigation to the influence of a super¬
natural power. Hippocrates, tiie father and founder
of medicine, accounted animal heat a mystery, and be¬
stowed on it many attributes of the Deity. In treat¬
ing of that subject, he says in express terms, “ what
we call heat, appears to me to be something immortal,
which understands, sees, hears, and knows every thing
present and to come.”—Aristotle seems to have con¬
sidered the subject particularly, but nothing is to he
met with in his works that can be said to throw light
upon it.—Galen tells us that the dispute between the
philosophers and physicians of his time was, “ whether
animal-heat depended on the motion of the heart and
arteries 5 or whether, as the motion of the heart and
arteries was innate, the heat was not also innate.”
Both these opinions, however, he rejects ^ and attempts
a solution of the question on his favourite system,
namely, the peripatetic philosophy : but his leading
principles being erroneous, his deductions are of course
inadmissible.
“ To enter into a minute detail of all the opinions
offered by the moderns on the cause of animal-heat,
would far exceed our limits. Most of them, how¬
ever, may be referred to one or other of the three
general causes of heat, viz. mixture, fermentation,
and mechanical means, or friction. See Chemistry
index.
Internal Heat of the Earth. It was formerly sup¬
posed that the heat of the earth increased in proportion
to the depth from the surface ; hut this hypothesis pro¬
ceeded from imperfect and inaccurate observation, or
from the preconceived notion of the existence of cen¬
tral fires. At great depths, it seems not impossible that
the temperature of the earth is uniformly and invariably
the same j that is, at depths beyond the more immediate
influence of the sun’s rays. But at moderate depths, so
far as observation and experiment go, the temperature
of the earth is precisely the same as the average tempera¬
ture of the climate where the observation is made. This
fact, which is established by the uniform temperature of
springs corresponding exactly with the average tempe¬
rature of the climate, seems to be an irresistible argu¬
ment against the opinion of the existence of central fires.,
X
H E A
This heat of the earth has been variously explain- jjea,
ed. Some have had recourse to an immense body of —y-.
fire lodged in the centre of the earth, which they con¬
sider as a central sun, and the great principle of the
generation, vegetation, nutrition, &c» o( fossil and
vegetable bodies. But Mr Boyle, who had been at the
bottom of some mines himself, suspects that this degree
of heat, at least in some of them, may arise from the
peculiar nature of the minerals generated therein. To
confirm this, he instances a mineral of a vitriolic kind,
dug up in large quantities in many parts of England,
which by the hare allusion of common w ater will grow
so hot, that it will almost take fire.—These hypothe¬
ses are liable to the following objections: 1. If there
is within the earth a body of actual fire, it seems dif¬
ficult to show why that fire should not consume and
moulder away the outer shell of earth, till either the
earth was totally destroyed, or the fire extinguished,
2. If the internal heat of the earth is owing to the
action of water upon mineral substances, that action
through time must have ceased, and the heat have to¬
tally vanished ; but we have no reason to think that
the heat of the earth is any thing less just now than it
was a thousand years ago. If heat is nothing else than
a certain mode of action in the ethereal fluid, or the
matter of light, by which it flows out from a body in
all directions as radii drawn from the centre to the cir¬
cumference of a circle ; it will then follow, that if an
opaque body absorbs any considerable quantity of lights
it must necessarily grow hot. The reason of this is
plain. The body can hold no more than a certain
quantity of ethereal matter; if more is continually for¬
cing itself in, that which has already entered must go out.
But it cannot easily get out, because it is hindered by
the particles of the body among which it is detained. It
makes an effort therefore in all directions to separate
these particles from-each other; and hence the body
expands, and the effort of the fluid to escape is felt
when we put our hands on the body, which we then
say is hot. Now, as the earth is perpetually absorbing
the ethereal matter, which comes from the sun in an
immense stream, and which we call his light, it is plain
that every pore of it must have been filled with this
matter long ago. The quantity that is lodged in the
earth, therefore, must be continually endeavouring to
separate its particles from each other, and consequent¬
ly must make it hot. The atmosphere, which is perpe¬
tually receiving that portion of the ethereal matter
which issues from the earth, counteracts the force of
the internal heat, and cools the external surface of the
earth, and for a considerable way down ; and hence, it is
supposed, the earth for 20 or 30 feet down shows none of
that heat, which is felt at greater depths. See Heat,
Heat, in Medicine. Great heats are not so much
the immediate, as the remote, cause of a general sick¬
ness, by relaxing the fibres, and disposing the juices to
putrefaction ; especially among soldiers and person^
exposed the whole day to the sun : for the greatest
heats are seldom found to produce epidemic diseases,
till the perspiration is stopped by wet clothes, fogs,
dews, damps, &c. and then some bilious or putrid di¬
stemper,is the certain consequence, as fluxes and.ardent
intermitting fevers. Nevertheless, it must be allowed,
that heats have sometimes been so great as to prove the
more immediate cause of particular disorders ^ as when.
sentinels-
[ 306 3
H E A t 307 ] H £ A
at sentinels have been placed without cover or frequent
reliefs in scorching heat; or when troops march or are
" exercised in the heat of the day ; or when people im¬
prudently lie down and sleep in the sun. All these
circumstances are apt to bring on distempers, varying
according to the season of the year. In the begin¬
ning of summer, these errors produce inflammatory fe¬
vers ; and in autumn, a remitting fever or dysentery.
To prevent, therefore, the effects of immoderate heats,
commanders have found it expedient so to order the
marches, that the men come to their ground before the
heat of the day ; and to give strict orders, that none
of them sleep out of their tents, which, in fixed en¬
campments, may be covered with boughs to shade them
from the sun. It is likewise a rule of great importance
to have the soldiers exercised before the cool of the
morning is over ; for by that means not only the sultry
heats are avoided, but the blood being cooled, and the
fibres braced, tbe body will be better prepared to bear
tiie heat of the day. Lastly, in very hot weather, it
has often been found proper to shorten the sentinels
duty, when obliged to stand in the sun.
HEATH. See Erica, Botany Index.
Berry-bearing Heath. See Empetrum, Botany
Index.
Heath, James, an English historian, was born in
1629 at London ; where his father, who was the king’s
cutler, lived. He was educated at Westminster school,
and became a student of Christ-church, Oxford, in
1616. In 1648 he was ejected from thence by the
parliament visitors for his adherence to the royal
cause ; lived upon his patrimony till it was almost
spent; and then marrying, was obliged to write books
and correct the press in order to maintain his family.
He died of a consumption and dropsy at London in
August 1664, and left several children to the parish.
His principal pnblications were, 1. A brief Chronicle
of the late Intestine War in the Three Kingdoms of
England, Scotland, and Ireland, &c. 1661, 8vo ; af¬
terwards enlarged by the author, and completed from
1637 to 1663, in four parts, 1663, in a thick 8vo.
To this was again added a continuation from 1663 to
1675 by John Philips, nephew by the mother to Mil-
ton, 1676, folio. 2. Flagellum: or, The Life and
Death, Birth and Burial, of Oliver Cromwell, the late
Usurper, 1663. The third edition came out with ad¬
ditions in 1665, 8vo. 3. A New Book of Loyal
English Martyrs and Confessors, who have endured
the Pains and Terrors of Death, Arraignment, &c.
for the Maintenance of the just and legal Government
of these Kingdoms both in Church and State, 1663,
I2mo. The reason why such writers as our author
continue to be read, and will probably always be read,
is not only because Historia quoquo modo scripta dc/ec-
tat; but also because in the meanest historian there will
always be found some facts, of which there will be no
cause to doubt the truth, and which yet will not be
found in the best. Thus Heath, who perhaps had
nothing but pamphlets and newspapers to compile
from, frequently relates facts that throw light upon
the history of those times, which Clarendon, though
he drew every thing from the most authentic records,
has omitted.
HEATHENS, in matters of religion. See Pagans,
HEAVEN, literally signifies the expanse of the fir¬
mament surrounding our earth, and extending every Heaven.
way to an immense distance. 1 
Heaven, among Christian divines and philosophers,
is considered as a place in some remote part of infinite
space, in which the omnipresent Deity is said to af¬
ford a nearer and more immediate view of himself,
and a more sensible manifestation of his glory, than
in the other parts of the universe. This is often call¬
ed the empyrean, Irom that splendour with which it
is supposed to be invested ; and of this place the in¬
spired writers give us the most noble and magnificent
descriptions.
1 he Pagans considered heaven as the residence only
of the celestial gods, into which no mortals were ad¬
mitted after death, unless they were deified. As for
the souls of good men, they were consigned to the ely-
sian fields. See Elysian Fields.
Heaven, among astronomers, called also the ethereal
and starry heaven, is that immense region wherein the
stars, planets, and comets, are disposed. See Astro¬
nomy Index.
I his is what Moses calls the speaking of
it as the woik of tbe second day’s creation ; at least it
is thus the word y'p’i is usually rendered by his inter¬
preters; though somewhat abusively, to countenance
their own notion of the heavens being firm or solid.
ri he word, it is certain,♦ properly signifies no more
than expanse or extension; a term very well adapted
by the prophet to the impression which the heavens
make on our senses ; whence, in other parts of scrip¬
ture, the heaven is compared to a curtain, or a tent
stretched out to dwell in. The LXX first added to
this idea of expansion that of firm or solid ; render¬
ing it by according to the philosophy of those
times ; in which they have been followed by the modern
translators.
The latter philosophers, as Des Cartes, Kircher, &c.
have easily demonstrated this heaven not to be solid, but
fluid ; but they still suppose it full, or perfectly dense,
without any vacuity, and cantoned out into many vor¬
tices. But others have overturned not only the so¬
lidity, but the supposed plenitude, of the heavens. Sir
Isaac Newton has abundantly shown the heavens void
of almost all resistance, and, consequently, of almost all
matter : this he proves from the phenomena of the
celestial bodies ; from the planets persisting in their
motions without any sensible diminution of their ve¬
locity; and the comets freely passing in all directions
towards all parts of the heavens.
Heaven, taken in a general sense, for the whole ex¬
panse between our earth and the remotest regions of
the fixed stars, may be divided into two very unequal
parts, according to the matter found therein ; viz. the
atmosphere, or aerial heaven, possessed by air ; and the
ethereal heaven, possessed by a thin, unresisting me¬
dium, called ether.
Heaven is more particularly used, \n Astronomy, for
an orb, or circular region, of the ethereal heaven.
The ancient astronomers assumed as many different
heavens as they observed different motions therein.
These they supposed all to be solid, as thinking they
could not otherwise sustain the bodies fixed in them; and
spherical, that being the most proper form for motion.
Th us we had seven heavens for the seven planets, viz.
the heavens of the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun,
Q q 2 Mars,
H E B [ 3^8 ] II E B
Heaven Mars, Jupiter, ami Saturn. The eighth was for the
i! fixed stars, which they particularly called the firmament.
Hebe‘ Ptolemy adds a ninth heaven, which he called the pri-
mum mobile. After him two crystalline heavens were
added by King Alphonsus, &c. to account for some ir¬
regularities in the motions of the other heavens : and
lastly, an empyrean heaven was drawn over the whole,
for the residence of the Deity j which made the num¬
ber twelve. But others admitted many more heavens,
according as their different views and hypotheses requi¬
red. Eudoxus supposed 23, Calippus 30, Regiomon¬
tanus 33, Aristotle 47, and Fracastor no less than 70.
It must be added, however, that the astronomers did
not much concern themselves whether the heavens
they thus allow ot were real or not j provided they
served a purpose in accounting for any of the celestial
motions, and agreed with the phenomena.
TIEBDOMADARY, Hebdomadarius, or Heb-
DOMADIUS, a member of a chapter or convent, whose
week it is to officiate in the choir, to rehearse the an¬
thems and prayers, and to perform the usual functions
which the superiors perform at solemn feasts, and other
extraordinary occasions. J he word is formed of the
Greek '£dtpets, which signifies the number seven; of
Irrrct, seven.
The hebdomadary generally collates to the benefices
which become vacant during his week 5 though it is
usually looked upon as an abuse.
In cathedrals, the hebdomadary was a canon or pre¬
bendary, who had the peculiar care of the choir, and
the inspection of the offices for his week.
In monasteries, the hebdomadary is he who waits at
table for a week, or other stated period ; directs and
assists the cook, &c.
HEBDOME, a solemnity of the ancient Greeks,
in honour of Apollo, in which the Athenians sung
hymns to his praise, and earned in their hands branches
of laurel. The word signifies the seventh day, this so¬
lemnity being observed on the seventh day of every lu¬
nar month.
HEBE, in ancient mythology, a goddess, the idea
of whom, among the Romans, seems to have been
much the same with that of eternal youth, or an im¬
mortality' of bliss 5 agreeably to which, she is represent¬
ed on a gem, in the great duke’s collection at Florence,
with a young airy look, and drinking out of a little
bowl; or, according to Milton’s expression, “ Quaffing
immortality and joy.” She is fabled to have been a
daughter of Jupiter and Juno. According to some she
was the daughter of Juno only, who conceived her af¬
ter eating lettuces. As she was fair and always in the
bloom of youth, she was called the goddess of youth
and made by her mother cup-bearer to all the (rods*
She was dismissed from her office by Jupiter, because
she tell down in an indecent posture as she was pourino
nectar to the gods at a grand festival; and Ganvmedes
the favourite of Jupiter, succeeded her as cup-bearer’
She was employed by her mother to prepare her cha*
not, and to harness her peacocks whenever requisite
V\ hen Hercules was raised to the rank of a god, he was
reconciled to Juno by marrying her daughter Hebe by
whom he had two sons, Alexiares and Anicetus. Vs
Hebe had the power of restoring gods and men to the
vigour of youth, she, at the instance of her husband
performed that kind office to lolaus his friend. Hebe
was worshipped at Sicyon, under the name of Dia, and
at Rome under that of Juventas. y
HEBENSTRETIA, a genus of plants belonging Hebit
to the didynamia class •, and in the natural method '—v*
ranking under the 48th order, Aggregates. See Bo¬
tany Index.
HELER, the son of Salah, and father of Peleg,
from whom the Hebrews derived their name, according
to Josephus, Eusebius, Jerome, Bede, and most of the
interpreters of the sacred writings ; but Huet bishop of
Avranches, in his Evangelical Demonstration, has at¬
tempted to prove, that the Hebrews took their name
fiom the word heber, which signifies beyond, because
they came fiom beyond the Euphrates. Heber is sup¬
posed to have been born 2281 years B. C. and to have
lived 464 years.
HEBRAISM, an idiom, or manner of speaking,
peculiar to the Hebrew language. See the next ar¬
ticle.
HEBREW, something relating to the Hebrew.
See Hebrews. Thus we say, Hebrew Bible. See
Bible.
Hebrew Character. There are twm kinds of He¬
brew characters : the ancient, called also the square ;
and the modern, or rabbinical character.
I.^Jhe square Hebrew takes its denomination from
the figure of its characters, which stand more square,
and have their angles more exact and precise than the
otiier. This character is used in the text of Holy Scrip¬
ture, and their other principal and most important writ-
ings. When both this and the rabbinical character are
used in the same work, the former is for the text, or the
fundamental part j and the latter for the accessory part,
as the gloss, notes, commentaries, &c.
The best and most beautiful characters of this kind,
are those copied from the characters in the Spanish ma¬
nuscripts; next, those from the Italian manuscripts;
then those from the French; and, lastly, those of the
Germans, whose characters are much the same, with
l espect to the other genuine square Hebrew characters,
that the Gothic or Dutch characters are with respect to
the Roman.
Seveial authors contend, that the square character is
not the real ancient Hebrew character, written from
the beginning of the language, to the time of the Baby¬
lonish captivity ; but that it is the Assyrian or Chaldee
character, which the Jews assumed, and accustomed
themselves to, during the captivity, and retained after¬
wards. They say, that the Jews, during their captivi¬
ty, had qqite disused their ancient character; so that
Ezra found it necessary to have the sacred books trans¬
cribed into the Chaldean square character. These am
t mis add, that what we call the Samaritan character,
is t le genuine ancient Hebrew. Of this opinion are
ocanger, Bochart, Casaubon, Vossius, Grotius, Wal¬
ton, Capellus, &c. and among the ancients Jerome and
Eusebius. On this side it is urged, that the present
characters are called Assyrian by the ancient Jewish
waters of the Talmud, and therefore must have been
roug it fiom Assyria: but to this argument it is re-
pued, that there were two sorts of characters anciently
in use, viz. the sacred or present square character, and
the profane or civil, which we call Samaritan ; and
t lat the sacred is called Assyrian, because it first began
m Assyria to come into common use. It is farther al¬
leged,
H E B [ :
liiiew. Ifgetl, tliat the Chaldee letters, which the Jews now
l—’ use, were unknown to the ancient Jews before the cap¬
tivity, from Dan. i. 4. Moreover, it is inferred from
2 Kings xvii. 28. whence we learn that a Jewish priest
was sent to teach the Samaritans the worship of Jeho¬
vah ; on which occasion he must have taught them the
law ; and yet no mention occurs of his teaching them
the language or character that the law was then written
in, the character which the Samaritans used. But the
chief argument is taken from some ancient Jewish she¬
kels, with a legend on one side “ The shekel of Israel,”
and on the other “ Jerusalem the holy,” both in Sama¬
ritan characters. These shekels, it is said, must have
been coined before the division of the two kingdoms of
Judah and Israel, or at least before the Assyrian capti¬
vity, because the Samaritans never afterwards reckoned
Jerusalem holy. On the other side, or for the primi¬
tive antiquity of the square character, are the two Bux-
torls, Leusden, Calovius, Hottinger, Spanheim, Light-
foot, &c. They urge, from Matthew v, 18. that jod
is really the least of the consonants in the present He¬
brew, whereas it is one of the largest characters in the
Samaritan alphabet: but Walton replies, that if our
Saviour here speaks of the least letter of the alphabet,
we can only infer, that the Chaldee character was used
in our Saviour’s time, which is not denied by those
who maintain the Samaritan to be the original. They
also allege, that the Jews were loo obstinate and super¬
stitious to allow their sacred character to be altered ;
Lot if this was done under the direction and authority
of Ezra, the argument will be much invalidated. Far¬
ther, they say, that Ezra could not alter the ancient
character, because it was impossible to make the alte¬
rations in all their copies. This argument, however, is
contradicted by fact; since the old English black let¬
ter is actually changed for the Roman. They say, like¬
wise, that Ezra was not disposed to profane the sacred
writings with a heathen character : but this supposes
that Ezra was so superstitious as to imagine, that there
was some peculiar sanctity in the shape of the letters.
Moreover, the advocates for this opinion appeal to an¬
cient coins found in Judea, with a legend in the Chal¬
dee or Assyrian character. But the genuineness of
these coins is much suspected.
ihe learned Jesuit S^uciet maintains, with great ad¬
dress, that the ancient Hebrew character is that found
on the medals of Simon, and others, commonly called
Samaritan medals y but which, he asserts, were really
Hebrew medals, struck by the Jews, and not the Sa¬
maritans.
Buxtorf endeavours to reconcile these two opinions,
by producing a variety of passages from the rabhies to
prove, that both these characters were anciently used j
ihe present square character being that in which the
tables of the law, ,and the copy deposited in the ark,
were written j and the other character being used in
‘he copies of the law which were written for private
and common use, and in civil affairs in general ; and
that after the captivity, Ezra enjoined the former to
he used by the Jews on all occasions, leaving the latter
to the Samaritans and apostates. But it can hardly he
allowed by any who consider the difference between
the Chaldee and Samaritan characters, with respect to
convenience and beauty, that they were ever used at
Uie same time. After all, it is of no great moment
509 ] H E B
which of these, or whether either of them, were the Htbre
original characters ; since it appears, that no change '* v
of the words has arisen from the manner of writing
them, because the Samaritan and Jewish Pentateuch
almost always agree after so many ages. It is most
probable that the form of these characters has varied in
different periods ; this appears from the testimony of
Montfaucon, in his Hexapla Origenis, vol. i. p. 22.
&c. and is implied in Dr Kenmcot’s making the cha¬
racters in which manuscripts are written one test of
their age.
2. The modern, or rabbinical, is a good neat cha¬
racter, formed of the square Hebrew, by rounding it,
and retrenching most of the angles or corners of the
letters, to make it the more easy and flowing. The
letters used by the Germans are very different from the
rabbinical character used everywhere else, though all
formed alike from the square character, by the German
in a more slovenly manner than the rest.—The rabbins
frequently make use either of their own, or the square
Hebrew character, to write the modern languages in.
I here are even books in the vulgar tongues printed in
Hebrew characters 5 instances whereof are seen in the
French king’s library.
Hebrew Language, that spoken by the Hebrews,
and wherein the Old Testament is written.
This appears to be the most ancient of all the lan¬
guages in the world, at least we know of none older;
and some learned men are of opinion, that this is the
language in which God spoke to Adam in Paradise.
Dr Sharpe adopts the opinion that the Hebrew was
the original language ; not indeed that the Hebrew is
the unvaried language of our first parents, but that it
was the general language of men at the dispersion ;
and however it might have been improved and altered
from the first speech of our first parents, it was the
original of all the languages, or almost all the lan¬
guages, or rather dialects, that have since arisen in the
world.
The books of the Old Testament are the only pieces
to be found, in all antiquity, written in pure He¬
brew ; and the language of many of these is extreme¬
ly sublime: it appears perfectly regular, and particu¬
larly so in its conjugations. Indeed, properly speak¬
ing, it has but one conjugation ; but this is varied in
each seven or eight different ways, which has the effect
of so many diflerent conjugations, and affords a great
variety of expressions to represent by a single word
the different modifications of a verb, and many ideas
which in the modern and in many of the ancient and
learned languages cannot be expressed without a peri¬
phrasis.
The primitive words, which are called roots, have
seldom more than three letters or two syllables.
In this language there are 22 letters, only five of
which are usually reckoned vowels, which are the same
with ours, viz. a, e, i, 0, u; but then each vowel is
divided into two, a long and a short, the sound of the
former being somewhat grave and long, and that of
the latter short and acute: it. must however be remark¬
ed, that the two last vowels have sounds that differ in
other respects besides quantity and a greater or less
elevation. To these 10 or 12 vowels may be added
others, called semi-vowels, which serve to connect the
consonants, and to make the easier transitions from one
to
Hebrew.
H E B [ 31
to another. The number of accents in this language
is indeed prodigious : of these there are near 40,
the use of some of which, notwithstanding all the in¬
quiries of the learned, are not yet perfectly known.
We know, in general, that they serve to distinguish
the sentences like the points called commas, semicolons,
&lc. in our language; to determine the quantity ot the
syllables ; and to mark the tone with which they are to
be spoken or sung. It is no wonder, then, that there
are more accents in the Hebrew than in other lan¬
guages, since they perform the office of three diHerent
things, which in other languages are called by ditlerent
names. . . . .
As we have no Hebrew but what is contained in
the Scripture, that language to us wants a great many
words ; not only because in those primitive times the
languages were not so copious as at present; but also
on thhfaccount, that the inspired writers, had no occa¬
sion to mention many ot the terms that might be in the
language. .
the Chaldee, Syriac, Etlnopic, &c. languages, are
by some held to be only dialects of the Hebrew ; as
the French, Italian, Spanish, &c. are dialects of the
Latin. It has been supposed by many very learned
men, that the Hebrew characters or letters were often
used hieroglypbically, and that each had its several di¬
stinct sense understood as a hieroglyphic. Neuman,
who seems to have taken infinite pains to find out this
secret meaning ot these letters, gives the following ex¬
plication : x aleph, he says, is a character denoting mo¬
tion, readiness, and activity; a beth, signifies, 1. Mat¬
ter, body, substance, thing ; 2. Place, space, or ca¬
pacity; and, 3. In, within, or contained: 3 gimel,
stands for flexion, bending, or obliquity of any kind :
T daleth, signifies any protrusion made from without,
or any promotion of any kind : ,*t be, stands for pre¬
sence, or demonstrative essence of any thing : 3 van,
stands for copulation or growing together of things :
T dsain, expresses vehement protrusion and violent com¬
pression, such as is occasioned by at once violently
discharging and constringing a thing together; it also
signifies sometimes, the straitening of any figure into a
narrow point at the end : n cheth, expresses associa¬
tion, society, or any kind of composition or combi¬
nation of things together: u teth, stands for the with¬
drawing, drawing back, or recess of any thing : * jod,
signifies extension and length, whether in matter or
in time : 3 cap/i, expresses a turning, curvedness, or
concavity: b lamech, stands for an addition, access,
impulse, or adversation, and sometimes for pressure :
73 mem, expresses amplitude, or the amplifying any
thing in whatever sense ; in regard to contiguous qua¬
lities, it signifies the adding length, breadth, and cir¬
cumference ; and in disjunct qualities it signifies mul¬
titude : a nun, signifies the propagation of one thing
from another, or of the same thing from one person
to another: D samech, expresses cincture and coarcta¬
tion : 5 (tin, stands for observation, objection, or obvia¬
tion: * pe, stands for a crookedness or an angle of any
figure : X tsade, expresses contiguity and close succes¬
sion : p koph, expresses a circuit or ambit: 1 resh, ex¬
presses the egress of any thing, as also the exterior
part of a thing, and the extremity or end of any
thing : ■o shin, signifies the number three, or the third
degree, or the utmost perfection of any thing: n tau,
O ] H E B
expresses a sequel, continuation, or succession of any Hebrew
thing. .11
According to this explication's the several partial- Hebrides
lar letters of the Hebrew alphabet separately signify the ^
ideas of motion, matter, space, and several modifica¬
tions of matter, space, and motion, it follows that a
language, the words of which are composed of such ex*
pjessive characters, must necessarily be of all languages
the most perfect and expressive, as the words formed of
such letters, according to their determinate separate sig¬
nifications, must convey the idea of all the matters con¬
tained in the sense of the several characters, and be at
once a name and a definition, or succinct description of
the subject, and all things material as well as spiritual,
all objects in the natural and moral world, must be
known as soon as their names are known, and their se¬
parate letters considered.
The words urim and thummim are thus easily ex¬
plained, and found perhaps the most apposite and ex¬
pressive words that were ever formed.
Rabbinical qv modern Hebrew, is the language used
by the rabbins in the writings they have composed.
The basis or body hereof is the Hebrew and Chaldee,
with divers alterations in the words of these two lan¬
guages, the meanings whereof they have considerably
enlarged and extended. Abundance of things they
have borrowed from the Arabic : the rest is chiefly
composed of words and expressions, chiefly from the
Greek ; some from the Latin ; and others from the
other modern tongues ; particularly that spoken in the
place where each rabbin lived or wrote.
The rabbinical Hebrew must be allowed to be a very
copious language. M. Simon, in his Hist. Crit. d.u
Vieux Testam. liv. iii. chap. 27. observes, that there is
scarce any art or science but the rabbins have treated
thereof in it. They have translated most of the ancient
philosophers, mathematicians, astronomers, and physi¬
cians ; and have written themselves on most subjects :
they do not want even orators and poets. Add, that
this language, notwithstanding it is so crowded with fo¬
reign words, has its beauties visible enough in the works
of those who have written well in it.
HEBREWS, the descendants of Heber, commonly
called Jews. See Hebrew and Jews.
Hebrews, or Epistle to the Hebrews, a canonical
book of the New Testament.
Though St Paul did not prefix his name to this
epistle, the concurrent testimony of the best authors
ancient and modern afford such evidence of his being
the author of it, that the objections to the contrary are
of little or no weight.
The Hebrews, to whom this epistle was written, were
the believing Jews of Palestine ; and its design was to
convince them, and by their means all the Jewish con¬
verts wheresoever dispersed, of the insufficiency and
abolishment of the ceremonial and ritual law.
HEBRIDES, the general name of some islands ly¬
ing to the north-west of Scotland, of which kingdom
they constitute a part. They are situated between the
55th and 59th degrees of latitude, are supposed to be
about 300 in number, and to contain 48,000 inhabi¬
tants. The names of the largest are Lewis, SKY,
Mull, Ilay, and Arran. Of these islands Mr Pen*
nant hath given the following history.
“ All the accounts left us by the Greek and Roman-
writer3
H E B [ 3
je5 writers are enveloped with obscurity ; at all times brief
even in their descriptions of places they had easiest ac¬
cess to, and might have described with the most sa¬
tisfactory precision j but in remote places, their rela¬
tions furnish little more than hints, the food for conjec¬
ture to the visionary antiquary.
“ That Pytheas, a traveller mentioned by Strabo,
had visited Great Britain, I would wish to make only
apocryphal, fie asserts that he visited the remoter parts j
and that he had also seen Thule, the land of romance
amongst the ancients j which all might pretend to have
seen ; but every voyager, to swell his fame, made the
island he saw last the Ultima Thule of his travels. If
Pytheas had reached these parts, he might have obser¬
ved, floating in the seas, multitudes of gelatinous ani¬
mals, the medu&te of Linnaeus, and out of these have
formed his fable. He made his Thule a composition of
neither earth, sea, nor air ; hut like a composition of them
all: then, catching his simile from what floated before
him, compares it to the lungs of the sea, the Aristote¬
lian idea of these bodies j and from him adopted by na¬
turalists, successors to that great philosopher. Strabo
very justly explodes these absurd tales j yet allows him
merit in describing the climate of the places he had
seen. As a farther proof of his having visited the He¬
brides, he mentions their unfriendly sky, that prohibits
the growth of the finer fruits j and that the natives are
obliged to carry their corn under shelter, to beat the
grain out, lest it should he spoiled by the defect of sun
. and violence of the rains. This is the probable part
of his narrative j but when the time that the great geo¬
grapher wrote is considered, at a period that these
islands had been neglected for a very long space by the
Romans, and when the difficulties of getting among a
fierce and unfriendly nation must be almost insupera¬
ble, doubts innumerable respecting the veracity of this
relater must arise. All that can be admitted in favour
of him is, that he was a great traveller j and that he
might have either visited Britain from some of the na¬
tions commercing with our isle ; or received from them
accounts, which he afterwards dressed out, mixed with
the ornaments of fable. A traffic must have been car¬
ried on with the very northern inhabitants of our
islands in the time of Pytheas, for one of the articles of
commerce mentioned by Strabo, tire ivory bits, were
made either of the teeth of the walrus, or of a species
of whale native of the northern seas.
“ The geographer Mela, who flourished in the reign
of Claudius, is the next who takes notice of our lesser
islands. Pie mentions the Qrcades as consisting of 30 ;
the Abnodae of seven. The Romans had then made a
conquest of the former, and might have seen the latter ;
but, from the words of the historian, it is probable that
the Shetland islands were those intended j for he in¬
forms us, that the u JErnodae were carried out over
against Germany the site of the Hebrides will not
admit this description, which agrees very well with the
others j for the ancients extended their Germany, and
its imaginary islands, to the extreme noith.
“ Pliny the Elder is the next that mentions these re¬
mote places. He lived later than the preceding wri¬
ters, and of course bis information is fuller j by means
ot intervening discoveries, he has added ten more to
the number of the Orcades $ is the first writer that
11 ] H E B
mentions the Hoebudes, the islands in question ; and
joins in the same line iEmodge, or, as it is in the best
editions more properly written, the Acmodce, or extreme
point of the Roman expeditions to the north, as the
Shetland isles in the highest probability were. Pliny
and Mela agree in the number of the TEmodae, or Ac-
modse; the former makes that of the Hoebudes 30 j
an account extremely near the truth, deducting the
little isles, or rather rocks, that surround most of th«
greater, and many of them so indistinct as scarcely to
be remarked, except on an actual survey.
“ Solinus succeeds Pliny. If he, as is supposed, was
contemporary with Agricola, he has made very ill use
ol the light lie might have received from the expedi¬
tions of that great general j his officers might have fur¬
nished the historian with better materials than those he
has communicated. He has reduced the number of the
Hoebudes to five. He tells us, that “ the inhabitants
were unacquainted with corn : that they lived only on
fish and milk 3 that they had one king, as the islands
were only separated from each other by narrow straits j
that their prince was bound by certain rules of govern¬
ment to do justice : and was prevented by poverty from
deviating from the true course, being supported by the
public, and allowed nothing that he could call his own,
not even a wife j but then he was allowed free choice,
by turns one out of every district, of any female that
caught his affection j which deprived him of all ambi¬
tion about a successor.
“ By the number of these islands, and by the mi¬
nute attention given by the historian to the circum¬
stance of their being separated from each other by very
narrow straits, I should imagine, that which is now
called the Long Island, and includes Lewis, North Uist,
Benbecula, South Uist, and Barra, to have been the
five Hoebudes of Solinus j for the other great islands,
such as Sky, &c. are too remote from each other to
form the preceding very characteristic description of
that chain of islands. These might naturally fall un¬
der the rule of one petty prince ; almost the only pro¬
bable part of Solinus’s narrative.
“ After a long interval appears Ptolemy, the E-
gyptian geographer. He also enumerates five Ebudae;
and has given each a name ; the western Ebuda, the
Eastern, Rwino, Maleos, Epidium. Camden conjec¬
tures them to be the modern Sky, Lewis, Rathry or
Racline, Mull, and Hay 3 and I will not controvert his
opinion.
“ The Roman historians give very little light into
the geography of these parts. Tacitus, from whom
most might have been expected, is quite silent about
the names of places 3 notwithstanding he informs us,
that a fleet by the command of Agricola performed
the circumnavigation of Britain. All that he takes
notice of is the discovery and the conquest of the
Orkneys: it should seem, that with the biographers
of an ambitious nation, nothing seemed worthy of no¬
tice but what they could dignify with the glory of
victory.
“ It is very difficult to assign a reason for the change
of name from Ebudce to Hebrides; the last is modern 3
and seems, as the annotator on Hr Macpherson suppo¬
ses,. to have arisen from the error of a transcriber, who
changed the u into ri.
“ From i
H E B [31
“ From all that has been collected from the an¬
cients, it appears, that they were acquainted with little
more of the Hebrides than the bare names : it is pro-
bable, that the Homans, either from contempt of such
barren spots, from the dangers of the seas, the violence
of the tides, and horrors of the narrow sounds, in the
inexperienced ages of navigation, never attempted their
conquest, or saw more of them than what they had in
sight during the few circumnavigations of Great Bri¬
tain, which were expeditions more of ostentation than
of utility.
“ The inhabitants had probably for some ages
their own governors, one little king to each island,
or to each group, as necessity required. It is reason¬
able to suppose, tfcut their government was as qiuch
divided as that of Great Britain, which, it is well
known, was under the direction of numbers of petty
princes before it was reduced under the power of the
Komans.
“ No account is given in history of the time these
islands were annexed to the government of Scotland.
If we may credit our Saxon historians, they appear to
have been early under the dominion of the Piets j for
Bede and Adamnanus inform us, that soon after the
arrival of St Columba in their country, Brude, a Pic-
tish monarch, made the saint a present of the celebra¬
ted island of Iona. But neither the holy men of this *
island, nor the natives of the rest of the Hebrides, en¬
joyed a permanent repose after this event. The first
invasion of the Danes does not seem to be easily ascer¬
tained. It appears that they ravaged Ireland, and the
isle of Rathry, as early as the year 735* In the fol¬
lowing century, their expeditions became more fre¬
quent j Harold Harfager, or the lightJiaired^ pursued,
in 875, several petty princes, whom he had expelled
out of Norway; who had taken refuge in the Hebri¬
des, and molested his dominions by perpetual descents
from those islands. He seems to have made a rapid
conquest : he gained as many victories as he fought
battles ; he put to death the chief of the pirates, and
made an indiscriminate slaughter of their followers.
Soon alter his return, the islanders repossessed their
ancient seats $ and, in order to repress their insults, he
sent Ketil the jiat-nosed with a fleet and some forces for
that purpose. He soon reduced them to terms, but
made his victories subservient to his own ambition j he
made alliances with the reguli he had subdued j he
formed intermarriages, and confirmed to them their
old dominions. This effected, he sent back the fleet
to Harold ; openlf declared himself independent $
made himself prince of the Hebrides ; and caused
them to acknowledge him as such, by the payment
of tribute and the badges of vassalage. Ketil re¬
mained, during life, master of the islands j and his
subjects appear to have been a warlike set of freeboot¬
ers, ready to join with any adventurers. Thus when
Flic, son of Harold Harfager, after being driven out
of his own country, made an invasion of England, he
put with his fleet into the Hebrides, received a large
reinforcement of people fired with the hopes of prey,
and then proceeded on his plan of rapine. After the
death of Ketil, a kingdom was in after times composed
out ol them, which, from the residence of the little
monarch in the isle of Man, was styled that of Man.
3
2 ] H E B
The islands became tributary to that of Norway for a Hebrides
considerable time, and princes were sent from thence -
to govern •, hut at length they again shook off the
yoke. Whether the little potentates ruled indepen¬
dent, or whether they put themselves under the pro¬
tection of the Scottish monarchs, does not clearly ap¬
pear : but it is reasonable to suppose the last, as Do-
nald-bane is accused of making the Hebrides the price
of the assistance given him by the Norwegians against
his own subjects. Notwithstanding they might occa¬
sionally seek the protection of Scotland, yet they ne¬
ver were without princes of their own : policy alone
directed them to the former. From the chronicles of
the kings of Man we learn, that they had a succession
of princes.
“ In 1089 is an evident proof of the independency
of the islanders on Norway j for, on the death of Lag-
nan, one of their monarchs, they sent a deputation to
O’Brian king of Ireland, to request a regent of royal
blood to govern them during the minority of their
young prince. They probably might in turn compli¬
ment in some other respects their Scottish neighbours :
the islanders must have given them some pretence to
sovereignty 5 for,
“ In 1093, Donald-bane, king of Scotland, calls in
the assistance of Magnus the Barefooted, king of Nor¬
way, and bribes him with the promise of all the
islands. Magnus accepts the terms; but at the same
time boasts, that he does not come to invade the terri¬
tories of others, but only to resume the ancient rights
of Norway. His conquests are rapid and complete ;
for, besides the islands, by an ingenious fraud he adds
Cantyre to his dominions.
“ The Hebrides continued governed by a prince
dependent on Norway, a species of viceroy appointed
by that court; and who paid, on assuming the dignity,
ten marks of gold, and never made any other pecuni¬
ary acknowledgment during life : but if another vice¬
roy was appointed, the same sum was exacted from him.
These viceroys were sometimes Norwegians, sometimes
natives of the isles. In 1097 we find, that Magnus
deputes a nobleman of the name of Ingemund: in after
times we learn, that natives were appointed to that
high office. Thus were the Hebrides governed, from
the conquest by Magnus, till the year 1263, when
Acho, or Haquin, king of Norway, by an unfortunate
invasion of Scotland, terminating in his defeat at
Largs, so weakened the powers of his kingdom, that
his succesor Magnus IV. was content to make a ces¬
sion of the islands to Alexander III.; but not without
stipulating for the payment of a large sum, and a tri¬
bute of 100 merks for ever, which bore the name ot
the annual of Noi'ivay. Ample provision was also made
by Magnus in the same treaty, for the security of the
rights and properties of his Norwegian subjects who
chose to continue in the isles, where many of their po¬
sterity remain to this day.
“ Notwithstanding this revolution, Scotland seems
to have received no real acquisition of strength. The
islands still remained governed by powerful chieftains,
the descendants of Somerled, thane of Heregaidel,
or Argyle, who, marrying the daughter of Olave,
king oi Man, left a divided dominion to his sons Du-
gal and Reginald ; from the first were descended the
Macdougals
H E B [31
jj i(jes. Macdougals of Lorn $ from the last, the powerful clan
l. ——1 of the Macdonalds. The lordship of Argyle, with
Mull, and the islands north of it, fell to the share of
the first; Hay, Cantyre, and the southern isles, were
the portion of the last: a division that formed the di¬
stinction of the Sudereys and Nordereys, (as further
noticed in the article Iona).
“ These chieftains were the scourges of the king¬
dom : they are known in history but as the devasta¬
tions of a tempest ; for their p^ths were marked with
the most barbarous desolation. Encouraged by their
distance from the seat of royalty, and the turbulence
of the times, which gave their monarchs full employ,
they exercised a regal power, and often assumed the
title j but are more generally known in history by the
style of the lords of the isles, or the earls of Ross ; and
sometimes by that of the Great Macdonald.
“ Historians are silent about their proceedings,
from the retreat of the Danes, in 1263, till that of
1335, when John, lord of the isles, withdrew his al¬
legiance. In the beginning of the next century his
successors were so independent, that Henry IV. en¬
tered into a formal alliance with the brothers Donald
and John. This encouraged them to commit fresh
hostilities against their natural prince. Donald, under
pretence of a claim to the earldom of Ross, ^invaded
and made a conquest of that county : but penetrating
as far as the shire of Aberdeen, after a fierce but un¬
decisive battle with the royal party, thought proper
to retire, and in a little time to swear allegiance to his
monarch James I. But he was permitted to retain
the county of Ross, and assume the title of earl. His
successor, Alexander, at the head of 10,000 men, at¬
tacked and burnt Inverness ; at length terrified with
the preparations made against him, he fell at the royal
feet, and obtained pardon as to life, but was committed
to strict confinement.
“ His kinsman and deputy, Donald Balloch, re¬
senting the imprisonment of his chieftain, excited an¬
other rebellion, and destroyed the country with fire
and sword ; but on his flight was taken and put to
death by an Irish chieftain, with whom he sought pro¬
tection.”
“ These barbarous inroads were very frequent with
a set of banditti, who had no other motive in war but
the infamous inducement of plunder.
“ In the reign of James II. in the year 1461,
Donald, another petty tyrant, an earl of Ross, and
lord of the isles, renewed the pretence of independency j
surprised the castle of Inverness’, forced his way as far
as Athol} and obliged the earl and countess, with the
principal inhabitants, to seek refuge in the church of
St Bridget, in hopes of finding security from his
cruelty by the sanctity of the place : but the barba¬
rian and his followers set fire to the church, put the
ecclesiastics to the sword, and, with a great booty,
carried the earl and countess prisoners to his castle of
Claig, in the island of Hay. In a second expedition,
immediately following the first, he sufl’ered the penalty
of his impiety : a tempest overtook him, and over¬
whelmed most of his associates j and he, escaping to
Inverness, perished by the hands of an Irish harper $
his surviving followers returned to Hay, conveyed the
ear' and countess of Athol to the sanctuary they had
Vol. X. Part I. f
3 ] H E B
violated, and expiated their crime by restoring the
plunder, and making large donations to the shrine of
the offended saint.
“John, successor to the late earl of Ross, entered
into alliance with Edward IV. and sent ambassadors to
the court of England, where Edward empowered the
bishop of Durham and earl of Winchester to conclude
a treaty with him, another Donald Balloch, and his
son and heir John. They agreed to serve the kino-
with all their power, and to become his subjects : the
earl was to have 100 marks sterling for life in time of
peace, and 200I. in time of war j and these island
allies, in case of the conquest of Scotland, were to
have confirmed to them all the possessions benorth of
the Scottish sea ; and in case of a truce with the Scot¬
tish monarch, they were to be included in it. But
about the year 1476, Edward, from a change of po¬
litics, courted the alliance of James HI. and dropt his
new allies. James, determined to subdue this rebel¬
lious race, sent against them a powerful army under
the earl of Athol $ and took leave of him with this
good wish, Furth, Fortune, andfill thefetters ; as much
as to say, “ Go forth, be fortunate, and bring home
many captives j” which the family of Athol has used
ever since for its motto. Ross was terrified into sub¬
mission } obtained his pardon; but was deprived of his
earldom, which by act of parliament was then decla¬
red unalienably annexed to the crown ; at the same
time the king restored to him Knapdale and Canlyre,
which the earl had resigned ; and invested him anew
with the lordship of the isles, to hold them of the king
by service and relief.
“ Thus the great power of the isles was broken :
yet for a considerable time after, the petty chieftains
were continually breaking out into small rebellions,
or harassed each other in private wars ; and tyranny
seems but to have been multiplied. James V. found
it necessary to make the voyage of the isles in person
in 1536, seized and brought aw'ay with him several of
the most considerable leaders, and obliged them to
find security for their own good behaviour and that
of their vassals. The names of these chieftains were
(according to Lindesay), Mydyart, Mac-connel, Mac-
loyd of the Lewis; Mac-niel, Mac-lane, Mac-intosh,
John Mudyart, Mac-hay, Mac-kenzie, and many others;
but by the names of some of the above, there seem to
have been continental as w'ell as insular malecontents.
He examined the titles of their holdings; and finding
several to have been usurped, reunited their lands to
the crown. In the same voyage he had the glory of
causing a survey to be taken of the coasts of Scotland,
and of the islands, by his pilot Alexander Lindesay ;
which were published in 1583, at Paris, by Nicholas de
Nicholay, geographer to the French monarch.
“The troubles that succeeded the death of James
occasioned a neglect of these insulated parts of the
Scottish dominions, and left them in a state of anarchy.
In 1614, the Mac-donalds made a formidable insur¬
rection, oppugning the royal grant of Cantyre to the
earl of Argyle and his relations. The petty chieftains
continued in a sort of rebellion; and the sword of the
greater, as usual in weak governments, was employed
against them ; the encouragement and protection given
by them to pirates employed the power ©f the Camp-
R r bells
H E B [ 3'
it t. ,5 bells during the reign of James VI. and the beginning
of tl™t of Chariest (A). . .
“ But the turbulent spirit of the old times conti¬
nued even to the present age. 'I lie heads of clans
were by the divisions, and a talse policy that predomi¬
nated in Scotland during the reign of William III.
flattered with an ideal importance : instead of being
treated as bad subjects, they were courted as desirable
allies: instead of feeling the hand of power, money
was allowed to bribe them into the loyalty of the times.
They would have accepted the subsidies, notwithstand¬
ing they detested the prince that offered them. Ihey
were taught to believe themselves of such conseijuence,
that in these days turned to their destruction. Iwo re¬
cent rebellions gave legislature a late experience of the
folly of permitting the feudal system to exist in any
part of its dominions. The act of I74&> f°r abolish¬
ing heritable jurisdictions, at once deprived the chief¬
tains of all power of injuring the public by their com¬
motions. Many of the lieguli second this eflort of
legislature, and neglect no opportunity ot rendering
themselves hateful to their unhappy vassals, the former
instruments of their ambition.”
Smollefs « The situation of these islands in the great Atlantic
Mod. HU. ocean rentlers the air cold and moist in the greater
43c> &C part 0f them. In the most northerly isles the sun, at
the summer solstice, is not above an hour under the
horizon at midnight, and not longer above it at mid¬
day in the depth of winter. The soil of the Hebrides
varies also in different isles, and in different parts of
the same island : some are mountainous and barren,
producing little else than heath, wild myrtle, fern, and
a little grass; while others being cultivated and manu¬
red with sea-weed, yield plentiful crops of oats and barley.
“ Lead mines have been discovered in some of these
islands, but not worked to much advantage ; others have
been found to contain quarries of marble, lime-stone,
and freestone ; nor are they destitute of iron, talc, cry¬
stals, and many curious pebbles, some of which emulate
the Brasilian topaz.
“ With respect to vegetables, over and above the
plentiful harvests of corn that the natives earn from
agriculture, and the pot-herbs and roots that are plant¬
ed in gardens for the sustenance of the people, these
islands produce spontaneously a variety of plants and
simples, used by the islanders in the cure of their dis¬
eases $ but there is hardly a shrub or tree to be seen,
except in a very few spots, where some gentlemen have
endeavoured to rear them with much more trouble than
success.
“ The animals, both of the land and sea, domestic
and wild, quadrupeds, fowls, and fishes, found in and
about these islands, are of the same species, size, and
configuration with those of the Orkneys.
“ The people inhabiting these islands are of the
same race with those who live in the Highlands of
Scotland j speak the same language, wear the same
habit, and observe the same customs. [See the article
Hi GHLANDS.]
4 ] H E B
“ The commodities which may he deemed the staples Hebrid.
of this country are black cattle, sheep, and fish, which w—
they sell to their fellow-subjects of Scotland. Part of
the wool they work up into knit-stockings, coarse
cloth, and that variegated stuff called tartan. They
likewise salt mutton in the hide, and export it in boats
or barklings to different parts of the main land. Cod,
ling, mackerel, whiting, haddock, and soles, are here
caught in abundance, together with a small red cod,
remarkably voracious, of a very delicate flavour: there
are likewise two kinds of white fish, which seem to be
peculiar to this coast, known by the names of lithe and
tea, esteemed good eating. But the greatest treasure
the ocean pours forth is the prodigious quantity of her¬
rings, which, at one season of the year, swarm in all
the creeks and bays along the western shore of Scotland.
These are counted the largest, fattest, and finest her¬
rings, caught in any part of the northern seas. Ibis
fishery employs a great number of hands, and brings a
considerable advantage to the kingdom. rIhe fish are
caught, cured, barreled up, and exported : but whe¬
ther from want of skill, or a proper salt for pickling,
the Scotch-cured herrings of this coast, though supe¬
rior to all others in their natural state, are counted in¬
ferior to those which are dressed and pickled by the
Dutch fishermen.
“ How mean and contracted soever the commerce
and produce of these islands may be at present, they
are perhaps more capable of improvement in both
articles than any pait of the British dominions in Eu¬
rope. The inhabitants are so little skilled in husbandry,
that the soil, though generally good in the low grounds,
yields nothing but scanty crops of oats and barley ; and
great tracts of land lie together uncultivated. If a
very small number of judicious farmers would settle in
some of the most considerable islands, they would soon
raise such harvests as would enrich themselves 5 em¬
ploy and maintain all the idle people, a great number
of whom are obliged to repair to foreign countries for
subsistence j aflord sufficient bread for the inhabitants,
and even supply the barren parts of the opposite conti¬
nent. The soil in many places would produce wheat,
and almost everywhere would give good pasturage, in¬
somuch that, with proper culture, the people might pro¬
vide hay and fodder for their cattle, which during the
severity of the winter, die in great numbers for want
of provision. Improvements of this kind would be
the more easily made, as the sea-shore abounds with
shells for lime and sea-weeds for manure \ and the la¬
bourers would be easily subsisted by the fish that swarm
not only in the ocean which surrounds these islands,
but likewise in the numerous lakes and rivers of fresh
water. Martin declares, that he knew loo families in
this country maintained by as many little farms, the
rent of each not exceeding 5s. one sheep, and a few
pecks of oats.
“ The commerce of these islands might be extended
in such a manner as to render them a staple of trade,
and an excellent nursery for seamen. They are fur¬
nished
. (A) I*1 ^ie beginning of the 17th century the islanders were continually harassing Ireland with their plunder¬
ing invasions, or landing there to support rebellions: at length it was made treason to receive these Hebridian
Redshanks as they were styled.
H E B [ 3i5 ] H E B
j rides, nished with an infinite number of hays, creeks, and bar-
u hours, for the convenience of navigation : the inhabi¬
tants are numerous, strong, active, and every way
qualified for the life of a mariner. The sea affords
myriads of fish for exportation : the lands might afford
plenty of pasturage for black cattle, horses, and sheep,
as well as plenteous harvests of corn and other grain :
woollen and linen manufactures might he prosecuted
to great advantage, where labour is cheap and provi¬
sions are reasonable. The islands afford good stone and
lime; and some parts of the opposite main land, tim¬
ber for building. They have plenty of fuel, not only
for the ordinary purposes of life, but also for salt-pans,
which might be erected on different parts of the coast;
and for burning sea-ware for the use of a glass or soap
manufacture. Finally, the situation of these islands
is so commodious for trade, that the navigator is im¬
mediately in the open sea, and almost in the neigh¬
bourhood of Denmark, Sweden, Hamburgh, Hol¬
land ; nay, with a favourable wind, he can reach the
coasts of France and Spain in a week’s sailing: if he
is bound for the British plantations, or indeed for any
part of the known globe, he is at once disencumbered
of the land, and prosecutes his voyage through the
open sea without obstruction or difficulty.”
To the neglected state of these islands, and to their
great importance in various natural respects, the atten¬
tion of government has been called within these few
years by the representation and efforts of different pa¬
triotic noblemen and gentlemen, and a regular esta¬
blishment has been formed under the name of the Bri¬
tish Society for extending the Fisheries and improving
the Sea-coasts of the Kingdom ; in consequence of
which many useful plans for the improvement of those
islands have been adopted, and are gradually carrying
into execution.
New IIebhwes, a cluster of islands lying in the
Great South sea, or Pacific ocean. The northern
islands of this archipelago were first discovered by that
great navigator Quiros in 1606, and not without rea¬
son considered as a part of the southern continent,
which at that time, and till very lately, was supposed
to exist. They were next visited by M. de Bougain¬
ville in 1768, who, besides landing on the island of
Lepers, did no more than discover that the land was
not connected, but composed of islands, which be call¬
ed the Great Cyclades. Captain Cook, besides ascer¬
taining the extent and situation of these islands, added
the knowledge of several in this group which were be¬
fore unknown. He explored the whole cluster; and
thinking himself thereby intitled to affix to them a ge¬
neral appellation, he named them the New Hebrides.
They are situated between latitudes 14 deg. 25 min.
*nd 20 deg. 4 min. south; and between 166 deg. 41.
tnin. and 170 deg. 21 min. east longitude; and extend
I25 leagues in the direction of north north-west and
south-south-east. The most northern part of this archi¬
pelago was called by M. de Bougainville the Peak of
the Etoile. The whole cluster consists of the following
islands ; some of which have received names from
the diflerent European navigators ; others retain the
names which they bear among the natives: viz. Tierra
del Lspiritu Santo, Mallicollo, St Bartholomew, isle
of Lepers, Aurora, Whitsuntide, Ambrym, Immer,
Apee, Three Hills, Sandwich, Montagu, Hinchin-
brook, Shepherd, Eorramanga, Irronan, Annatom, and Hebrides
Tanna. H
HEBRON, in Ancient Geography, a very ancient
city, situated in the hilly country of the tribe of Judah
to the south. Its more ancient name was Kiriath Ar-
ba, or Cariath Arba. In antiquity this city vied with
most ancient cities of Egypt, being seven years
prior to Zoan, translated Tanis by the Seventy. Jo¬
sephus makes it not only older than Tanis, but even
than Memphis. It stood to the west of the lake Asphal-
tites, and was for some time the royal residence of
D avid. After the captivity it fell into the hands of the
Edomites, as did all the south country of Judea. It is
now called Habroun, situated seven leagues to the south
of Bethlehem. The Arabs call it El-kalil, “ the well-
beloved which is the epithet they usually apply to
Abraham, whose sepulchral grotto they still show*
Habroun is seated at the foot of an eminence, on which
are some wretched ruins, the mishapen remains of an
ancient castle. The adjacent country is a sort of ob¬
long hollow, five or six leagues in length, and not dis¬
agreeably varied by rocky hillocks, groves of fir-trees,
stunted oaks, and a few plantations of vines and olive
trees. These vineyards are not cultivated with a view to
make wine, the inhabitants being such zealous Maho¬
metans as not to permit any Christians to live among
them : they are only of use to procure dried raisins,
which are badly prepared, though the grapes are of au
excellent kind. The peasants cultivate cotton likewise,
which is spun by their wives, and sold at Jerusalem and
Gaza. They have also some soap manufactories, the
kali for which is sold them by the Bedouins ; and a
very ancient glass-house, the only one in Syria. They
make there a great quantity of coloured rings, brace¬
lets for the wrists and legs, and for the arms above the
elbows, besides a variety of other trinkets, which are
sent even to Constantinople. In consequence of these
manufactures, Mr Volney informs us, Habroun is the
most powerful village in all this quarter; and is able to
arm 800 or 900 men, who adhere to the faction Kaisi,
and are the perpetual enemies of the people of Beth¬
lehem. This discord, which has prevailed throughout
the country from the earliest times of the Arabs, causes
a perpetual civil war. The peasants are incessantly ma¬
king inroads on each other’s lands, destroying their
corn, dourra, sesamum, and olive trees, and carrying
off their sheep, goats, and camels. The Turks, who
are everywhere negligent in repressing similar disorders,
are the less attentive to them here, since their autho¬
rity is very precarious. The Bedouins, whose camps
occupy the level country, are continually at open ho¬
stilities with them ; of which the peasants avail them¬
selves to resist their authority, or do mischief to each
other, according to the blind caprice of their igno¬
rance or the interest of the moment. Hence arises an
anarchy which is still more dreadful than the despotism
which prevails elsewhere, while the mutual devastations
of the contending parties render the appearance of this
part of Syria more wretched than that of any other.
HEBRUS, in Ancient Geography, the largest river
of Thrace, rising from Mount Scombrus; running in
two channels till it comes to Philippopolis, where they
unite. It empties itself at two mouths into the iEgean
sea, to the north of Samothrace. It was supposed to
roll its waters upon golden sands. The head of Orphe-
R r 2 us
H E C E ] H E C
Hebriis «s was thrown into it after it had been cut off by the
[| Ciconian women.
Heeatom- HECATE, in fabulous history, a daughter of Perses
i baaon. ^gteria, the same as Proserpine or Diana. She
*"' v was called Euna in heaven* Diana on earth, and lie-
cate or Proserpine in hell 5 whence her name ol Diva
tr jormis, tergeuiwa^ triceps. She was supposed to pre¬
side over magic and enchantments. She was generally
represented like a woman, with the head of a horse, a
dog, or a hoar-, and sometimes she appeared with three
different bodies, and three different laces, with one neck.
Dogs, lambs, and honey, were generally offered to her,
especially in ways and cross roads ^ whence she obtain¬
ed the name of Trivia. Her power was extended over
heaven, the earth, sea, and hell and to her kings and
nations supposed themselves indebted for their prospe-
rity.
HECATESIA, a yearly festival observed by the
Stratonicensians ia honour of Hecate. The Athenians
paid also particular worship to this goddess, who was
deemed the patroness of families and of children. From
this circumstance the statues of the goddess were erec¬
ted before the doors of the houses j and upon every
new moon a public supper was always provided at the
expence of the richest people, and set in the streets,
where the poorest of the citizens were permitted to re¬
tire and feast upon it, while they reported that Hecate
had devoured it. There were also expiatory offerings,
to supplicate the goddess to remove whatever evils
might impend on the head of the public, &c.
HECATOMB, in antiquity, a sacrifice of a hun¬
dred beasts of the same kind, at a hundred altars, and
by a hundred priests or sacrificers. The word is formed
of the Greek which properly signifies a sump¬
tuous or magnificent sacrifice.—Others derive it from
the Greek Uxtci, centum, “ a hundred,” and /3a?, bos,
bullock,” &c. \ on which footing the hecatomb
should he a sacrifice of IOO bullocks.—Others derive
the word from ixxrov and nr*?, pes, “ foot j” and on
that principle hold, that the hecatomb might consist of
only 25 four-footed beasts. They add, that it did not
matter what kind of beasts were chosen for victims, pro¬
vided the quota of feet were but had.
Pythagoras is said to have sacrificed a hecatomb to
the muses of 100 oxen, in joy and gratitude for his
discovering the demonstration of the 47th proposition
of the first book of Euclid, viz., that in a rectangled
triangle the square of the hypothenuse is equal to the
squares of the two other sides.
For the origin of hecatombs :—Strabo relates, that
there were ICO cities in Laconia, and that each city
used to sacrifice a bullock every year for the common
safety of the country whence the institution of the
t celebrated sacrifice of ico victims, called hecatombs.
Others refer the oiigin of hecatombs to a plague,
wherewith the 100 cities of Peloponnesus were afflict¬
ed for the removal whereof, they jointly contributed
to so splendid a sacrifice.
Julius Capitolinus relates, that for a hecatomb they
erected loo altars of turf, and on these sacrificed 100
sheep and 100 hogs. He adds, that when the emperors
oflered sacrifices of this kind, they sacrified ico lions,
100 eagles, and 100 other beasts of the like kind.
HECATOMBiEON was the first month of the
Athenian year, consisting of 30 daysj beginning on the
2
first new moon after the summer solstice, and conse-
quently answering to the latter part of our June and b*en
the beginning of July. It had its name from the great 11
number of hecatombs sacrificed in it. See PIega- Heci3
TOMB. r"
HECATOMPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a sur¬
name of the island of Crete, from its IOO cities. The
territory of Laconia also had anciently this name for
the same reason ; and the custom of these 100 cities
was to sacrifice a hecatomb annually.
HECATOMPYLOS, in Ancient Geography, the
metropolis of Parthia, and royal residence of Arsaces,
situated at the springs of the Araxes. Thebes in Egypt
had also the same name from its 100 gates.
HECK, an engine to take fish. A salmon heck is
a grate for catching that sort of fish.
HECKLE, among hemp dressers. See Hatchel.
HECLA, a volcano of Iceland, and one of the most
furious in the world, situated ia the southern part of
the island. See Iceland.
It was visited in the year 1772 by Dr Van Troll, a
Swedish gentleman, along with Mr (now Sir Joseph)
Banks, Dr Solatider, and Dr James Lind of Edinburgh.
On their first landing they found a tract of land 60 of
70 miles in extent entirely ruined by lava, which ap¬
peared to have been in the highest state of liquefaction.
Having undertaken a journey to the top of the moun¬
tain, they travelled 300 or 360 English miles over an
uninterrupted tract of lava 5 and had at length the
pleasure of being the first who had arrived at the sum¬
mit of the mountain.
Hecla, according to the accounts of these gentle¬
men, is situated in the southern part of the island,
about four miles from the sea-coast, and is divided into
three parts at the top, the middle point being the
highest j and, according to an exact observation witfi
Ramsden’s barometer, is 3000 feet above the level of
the sea. They were obliged to quit their horses at the
first opening from which the fire had burst. They de¬
scribe this as a place with lofty glazed walls and high
glazed cliffs, unlike any thing which they had ever seen
before.
A little higher up they found a large quantity of
grit and stones j and still farther on another opening,
which, though not deep, descended lower than that of
the highest point. Here they imagined they plainly
discerned the effects of boiling water J. and not far from-
thence the mountain began to be covered with snow,
excepting some spots which were bare. The reason of
this difference they soon perceived to he the hot vapour
ascending from the mountain. As they ascended higher
they found these spots become larger j and about 20D
yards below tire summit, a hole about a yard and a half
in diameter was observed, from whence issued so hot a
steam, that they could not measure the degree of heat
with the thermometer. The cold now began to be
very intense j Fahrenheit’s thermometer, which, at the
foot of the mountain was at 54, now fell to 24 j the
wind also became so violent, that they were sometimes
obliged to lie down for fear of being blown down the
most dreadful precipices. On the very summit they
experienced at the same time a high degree of heat and
cold j for, in the air, Fahrenheit’s thermometer stood
constantly at 24, but when set on the ground, rose to
153 : the barometer stood at 22.247. Though they
were
H E C
jecla, vvere very much inclined to remain here for some time,
-y—' it could by no means be done with safety j for which
reason they were obliged to descend very quickly.
The mountain seems to be made up, not of lava, but
of sand, grit, and ashes ; which are thrown up with the
stones partly discoloured, and partly melted by the fire.
Several sorts of pumice stones were found on it, among
which was one with some sulphur. Sometimes the pu¬
mice was so much burnt, that it was as light as tow.
Its form and colour was sometimes very fine, but at
the same time so soft, that it was difficult to remove it
from one place to another. The common lava was
found both in large pieces and small bits; as likewise
a quantity of black jasper burned at the extremities,
and resembling trees and branches. Some slate of a
strong red colour was observed among the stones thrown
out by the volcano. In one place the lava had taken
the form of chimney-stacks half broken down.—As
they descended the mountain they observed three open¬
ings. In one, every thing looked as x’ed as brick ; from
another, the lava had flowed in a stream about 50 yards
bread, and after proceeding for some way, bad divided
into three large branches. Further on they perceived
an opening, at the bottom of which was a mount in
form of a sugar-loaf, in throwing up ot which the fire
appeared to have exhausted itself.
We have already observed, that our travellers were
the first who ascended to the top of this mountain.
The reason that no one before them had ever done so
was partly founded in superstition, and partly the steep¬
ness and difficulty of the ascent, which was greatly fa¬
cilitated by an eruption in 1766. Most kinds of lava
found in other volcanic countries are to be met with
about Hecla, or other Iceland volcanoes; as the gray,
dark perforated kind, similar to the Derbyshire load¬
stone ; the Iceland agate, pumex vitreus, both the nfger
and viridis. Some have conjectured this to be the lapis
obsidianus of the ancients, which they formed into
statues.
The lava is seldom found near the openings whence
the eruptions proceed, but rather loose grit and ashes ;
and indeed the greater part of the Icelandic mountains
consist of this matter ; which, when it is grown cold,
generally takes an arched form. The upper crust
frequently grows hard and solid, whilst the melted mat¬
ter beneath it continues liquid. This forms great ca¬
vities, whose walls, bed, and roof, are of lava, and where
great quantities of stalactite lava are found. There are
avast number of these caves in the island, some of which
are very large, and are made use of by the inhabitants
for sheltering their cattle. The largest in the island is
5034 feet long, and from 50 to 54 in breadth, and be¬
tween 34 and 36 in height.—There are some prodigi¬
ous clefts left by the eruptions, the largest of which is
called Almeneggaaj near the water of Thingalla, in the
south-western part of the island. It is 105 feet broad
and very long. The direction of the chasm itself is
from north to south. Its western wall, from which the
other has been perpendicularly divided, is 107 feet six
inches in height, and consists of many strata, of about
10 inches each in height, of lava grown cold at different
times. The eastern wall is only 45 feet 4 inches in
height, and that part of it which is directly opposite to
the highest part of the other side is do more than 36
feet 5 inches high.
3*7 ] H E D
HECTIC FEVER. See MEDICINE Itldex. Hectic
HECTOR, the son of Priam and Hecuba, and the Fi ver
father of Astyanax, is celebrated for the valour with 0 .
which he defended the city of Troy against the Greeks. : ^edwlg,i
He was killed by Achilles, who dragged his body, fa¬
stened to bis chariot, thrice round the walls of Troy,
and afterwards restored it to Priam for a large ransom.
See Troy.
HEDERA, Ivy, a genus of plants belonging to
the pentandria class ; and in the natural method giving1
name to the 46th order, Hederacece. See Botany
Index.
HEDERACEiE (from hedera, “ ivy”), the name
of the 46th order in LinnEeus’s fragments of a natural-
method, consisting of ivy, and a few other genera, which
from their general habit and appearance seem nearly'
allied to it. See Botany Index.
HEDGES, in Agriculture, are either planted to
make fences round enclosures, or to divide the several
parts of a garden. When they are designed as out~
ward fences, they are planted either with hawthorn,-
crabs, or black-thorn ; but those hedges which are
planted in gardens, either to surround wilderness quar¬
ters, or to screen the other parts of a garden from sight,
are planted according to the fancy of the owner ; some
preferring evergreens, in which case the holly is best ;
next the yew, then the laurel, laurustinus, phyflyrea,
&c. Others prefer the beech, the hornbeam, and the'
elm. See Agriculture and Gardening.
H-EDGE-Hog. See Erinaceus, Mammalia In¬
dex.
Hedge-Sparrow. See Motacilla, Ornitholo-'
gy Index.
HEDWIG, John, a botanist of great eminence, was
born at Cronstadc in Transylvania, in October 1730,
of a family originally Saxon. In bis earliest years he
discovered a strong attachment to the study of botany,
in which he afterwards excelled so much. He was
left with very little to support him on the death of his
father. The fame of Gerlach le d him to Zittau in Lu-
satia, where he prosecuted his studies for three years,
assisted by the generosity of different benefactors. He
studied philosophy, mathematics, and medicine, at Leip-
sic, where he was distinguished for his diligence and -
regularity of deportment. He afterwards assisted Lud¬
wig in the regulation of his library, anatomicaL mu¬
seum and botanical garden ; and in 1756, he entered
into the family of Bose, professor of botany, for whom
he prepared plants for demonstration, and attended pa¬
tients in the public infirmary. In 1759 he took the
degree of M. D. and practised at Chemnitz in Saxony, ,
where he entered into the married state.
It was customary with him to walk the fields by five
in the morning to contemplate the beauties of nature,
to visit his patients after breakfast, and spend the after¬
noon and evening in examining such plants as he had
collected during his early excursions. He particularly
applied himself to the investigation of the grasses, and
also of the whole cryptogamia class of plants, which
botanists at that period had greatly neglected. At the
age of 40, he taught himself to draw and paint the ob¬
jects which he had discovered, and the compound mi¬
croscope which he received from Koehler of Dresden,
greatly assisted him in those researches. By the per¬
suasion of his second wife (whom he married about ayear
afteT v"
H E E [ 318 ] H E G
lied wig after the death of his first), he was prevailed with to
Q ™ settle at Leipsic in 1781, where he published his great
Heel. work, entitled, Fundaincnh/m Historic? Naturalis Mus-
corum Frondosorum. In this he gave an accurate his¬
tory of mosses from his own observations, and illustrated
the whole with appropriate plates. In it he discovered
such sagacity, industry, and profound research, as asto¬
nished all the botanists of his time, and induced them
to pay more attention to this curious subject. He gain¬
ed the prize given by the Petersburgh academy for his
curious and excellent treatise Theoria Generationis et
Fructijicationis Plantarum Cryptogamicarum, Linncei
more, propriis Observationibiis et Fxperimentis Super-
strut tu, published in 1784'
His literary reputation increased his medical prac¬
tice ; he was chosen physician to the town guards in
the last mentioned year, and two years after he became
professor of medicine in the university. In 1789, he
was chosen ordinary professor of botany, and superin¬
tended the physic garden. He corrected the false no¬
tions which then prevailed, respecting the efficacy of
the medulla or pith, the perforation of the flowers, the
excrements of plants, the increase of the vessels of vege¬
tables, and the genuine use of the leaves. By the death
of a favourite daughter of a consumption at 16 years
of age, he received a severe shock *, and a catarrhal af¬
fection, followed by a nervous fever, deprived the world
of that great man on 7th of February 1799, in the 68th
year of his age.
It is agreed on all hands, that Dr Hedwig was a
man of great modesty, the usual concomitant of ex¬
traordinary talents ; that he was friendly and benevo¬
lent, upright in his dealings, not solicitous about wealth,
and free from parade, both in teaching and in writing.
In the forests of Hispaniola there is an evergreen tree,
the name of which, hedwigia balsamifera, was intended
in the most honourable manner to perpetuate his memo¬
ry. He left behind him two sons, one a painter of
eminence at Magdeburg, and the other Dr Komanus
Adolphus Hedwig, already known to the botanical
world by several publications.
H EDWIGIA, a genus of plants belonging to the class
oetandria; and in the natural method arranged with
the Trihilutce. See Botany Index.
HEDYCARYA, a genus of plants belonging to
the dioecia class. See Botany Index.
HEDYOTIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
tetrandria class of plants •, and in the natural method
ranking under the 47th order, Stellate?. See Botany
Index.
HEDASARUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the diadelphia class of plants j and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 32d order, Papiliotiaceee. See
Botany Index.
HEEL, in Anatomy, the hind part of the foot. See
Anatomy, N° 66.
Heel of a Horse, the lower hinder-part of the foot
Comprehended between the quarters and opposite to the
toe. The heel of a horse should be high and large, and
rising equally upon the pastern.
Heel of a Horseman. This being the part that is
armed with the spur, the word is used for the spur it¬
self: “ This horse understands the heel well.” To
ride a horse from one heel to another, is to make him
go sideways sometimes to one heel and sometimes to j]eej
another. i)
Heel, in the sea-language. If a ship leans on one Hegira
side, whether she be aground or afloat, then it is said l"’“"V""
she heels a-starboard, or a-port •, or that she heels off.
wards, or to the shore j that is, inclines more to one
side than to another.
HEELER, or Bloody-HEEL Cock, a fighting cock,
that strikes or wounds much with his spurs.
The masters know such a cock, even while a chick*
en, by the striking of his two heels together in his
going.
HEEMSKIRK. See Hemskirk.
HEGIRA, in Chronology, a celebrated epoch among
the Mahometans. The word is Arabic, formed of
m:n, hagirah, “ flight 5” of T>H, “ to fly, quit one’s
country, family, friends,” &c.
The event which gave occasion to this epocha, was
Mahomet’s flight from Mecca. The magistrates of
that city, fearing his impostures might raise a sedition,
resolved to expel him: this, accordingly, they effected
in the year of our Lord 633, on the evening of the 15th
or 16th of July. See Arabia, N° 44.
To render this epocha more creditable, the Maho¬
metans affect to use the word hegira in a peculiar sense
for an act of religion, whereby a man forsakes his coun¬
try, and gives way to the violence of persecutors and
enemies of the faith : they add, that the Corashites, be¬
ing then the strongest party in the city, obliged their
prophet to fly, as not being able to endure his abolish¬
ing of idolatry. This flight was not the first of Maho¬
met’s, but it was the most famous. It happened in the
14th year from his assuming the character of prophet
and apostle, and promulgating his new religion.
The orientals do not agree with us as to the time of
the hegira. Among the Mahometans, Amasi fixes it
to the year of Christ 630, and from the death of Moses
2347 j and Ben Cassem to the year of the world 5800:
according to the Greek computation, among the Chris¬
tians, Said Ebn Batrik refers the hegira to the year of
Christ 614, and of the creation 6114.
Khondemir relates, that it was Omar, the second ca¬
liph, that first established the hegira as an epocha, and
appointed the years to be numbered from it : at the
time he made this decree, there were already seven
years elapsed. This establishment was made in imita¬
tion of the Christians, who, in those times, reckoned
their years from the persecution of Dioclesian.
But there is another hegira, and that earlier too,
though of less eminence. Mahomet, in the 14th year
of his mission, was obliged to relinquish Medina: the
Corashites had all along opposed him very vigorously,
as an innovator and disturber of the public peace 5 and
many of his disciples, not enduring to be reputed fol¬
lowers of an impostor, desired leave of him to abandon
the city, for fear of being obliged to renounce their
religion. This retreat makes the first hegira. These
two hegiras the Mahometans, in their language, call
hegiratan.
The years of the hegira consist only of 354 days.
To reduce these years to the Julian kalendar, i. e. to
find what Julian year a given year of the hegira an¬
swers to, reduce the year of the hegira given into
days, by multiplying by 354, divide the product by
5
[egirn,
idegger,
H E 1 [.3
365, and from the quotient subtract the Intercalations,
i. e. as many days as there are four years In the
quotient; and lastly, to the remainder add 622. See
Year.
HEIDEGGER, John James, was the son of a cler¬
gyman, and a native of Zurich In Switzerland, where
he married, but left his country in consequence of an
intrigue. Having had an opportunity of visiting the
principal cities of Europe, he acquired a taste for ele¬
gant and refined pleasures, as they are called, which,
united to a strong inclination for voluptuousness, by de¬
grees qualified him for the management of public amuse¬
ments. In 1708, when he was near 50 years old, he
came to England on a negociation from the Swiss at
Zurich ; but, failing in his embassy, he entered as a
private soldier in the guards for protection. By his
sprightly engaging conversation and insinuating address,
he soon worked himself into the good graces of our
young people of fashion ; from whom he obtained the
appellation of the Swiss Count. He had the address
to procure a subscription, with which, in iyop, he
Was enabled to furnish out the opera of “ Thomyris,”
which was written in English, and performed at the
queen’s theatre in the Haymarket. The music, how¬
ever, was Italian; that is to say, airs selected from sun¬
dry of the foreign operas by Bunoncini, Scarlatti, Stef-
fani, Gasparini, and Albinoni. Heidegger by this per¬
formance alone was a gainer of 500 guineas. The ju¬
dicious remarks he made on several defects in the con¬
duct of our operas in general, and the hints he threw
out for improving the entertainments of the royal thea¬
tre, soon established his character as a good critic. Ap¬
peals were made to his judgment; and some very mag¬
nificent and elegant decorations introduced upon the
stage in consequence of his advice, gave such satisfac¬
tion to George II. who was fond of operas, that, upon
being informed to whose genius he was indebted for
these improvements, his majesty was pleased from that
time to countenance him, and he soon obtained the chief
19 ] HE!
management of the opera-house in the Haymarket. He Heidegger,
then set about improving another species of diversion, Heiden-
not less agreeable to the king, which was the masque-
rades, and over these he always presided at the king’s ’""“"Y——'
theatre. He was likewise appointed master of the re¬
vels. The nobility now caressed him so much, and had
such an opinion of his taste, that all splendid and ele¬
gant entertainments given by them upon particular oc¬
casions, and all private assemblies by subscriptions, were
submitted to his direction. From the emoluments of
these several employments, he gained a regular consi¬
derable income, amounting, it is said, in some years,
to 5000!. which he spent with much liberality, parti¬
cularly in the maintenance of a somewhat too luxurious
table ; so that it may he said he raised an income, but
never a fortune. At the same time his charities ought
not to pass unnoticed, which were frequent and ample.
After a successful masquerade, he has been known to
give away several hundred pounds at a time. “ You
know poor objects of distress better than I do,” he
would frequently say to a particular acquaintance ;
“ be so kind as to give away this money for me.”
This well-known liberality, perhaps, contributed much
to his carrying on that diversion with so little opposition
as he met with. He died in 1749, at the advanced
age of 90 years.
As this person was long the Arbiter Elegantiarum of
England, and is alluded to in many publications of his
time, some account of him, it was thought, might be
here expected : but to add all the anecdotes that have
appeared concerning him, would enlarge this article be¬
yond the limits to which it is entitled. One or two of
the most remarkable, however, are subjoined in a
note (a), as they may afford entertainment to many of
our readers.
HEIDENHEIM, a town of Germany, in Swabia,
and in the territory of Brentzhall, with a handsome pa¬
lace or castle, belonging to the house of Wirtemberg.
E. Long. 10. 19. N. J^at. 48. 37.
HEIDELBERG,
(a) Heidegger’s countenance was peculiarly unpleasing, from an unusual harshness of features. There is a
mezzotinto of him bv J. Faber, 1742, from a painting by Vanloo, a striking likeness, and his face is introduced
in more than one of Hogarth’s prints.—Heidegger was, however, the first (0 joke upon his own ugliness ; and he
once laid a wager with the earl of Chesterfield, that within a certain given time his lordship would not be able
to produce so hideous a face in all London. After strict search, a woman was found, whose features were at first
sight thought stronger than Heidegger’s; but upon clapping her head-dress upon himself, he was universally al¬
lowed to have won the wager. Jolly, a well-known taylor, carrying his bill to a noble duke ; his grace, for eva¬
sion, said, “ Damn your ugly face, I never will pay you till you bring me an uglier fellow than yourself!” Jolly
bowed and retired, wrote a letter, and sent it by a servant to Heidegger ; saying, “ His grace wished to see him
the next morning on particular business.” Heidegger attended, and Jolly was there to meet him; and in conse¬
quence, as soon as Heidegger’s visit was over, Jolly received the cash.
The late facetious duke of Montagu (the memorable author of the Bottle Conjurer at the theatre in the Hay-
market) gave an entertainment at the Devil-tavern, Temple-bar, to several of the nobility and gentry, selecting
the most convivial, and a few hard drinkers, who were all in the plot. Heidegger was invited, and in a few
hours after dinner was made so dead drunk that he was Carried out of the room, and laid insensible upon a bed.
A profound sleep ensued ; when the late Mrs Salmon’s daughter was introduced, who took a mould from his face
in plaster of Paris. From this a mask was made, and a few days before the next masquerade (at which the king
promised to be present, with the countess of Yarmouth) the duke made application to Heidegger’s valet-de-chambre,
to know what suit of clothes he was likely to wear ; and then procuring a similar dress, and a person of the same
stature, he gave him his instructions. On the evening of the masquerade, as soon as his majesty was seated (who
was always known by the conductor of the entertainment and the officers of the court, though concealed by his
dress from the company), Heidegger, as usual, ordered the music to play “ God save the king ;” but his back
was no sooner turned, than the false Heidegger ordered them to strike up “ Charly o’er the water.” The whole
company
H E I
.. ,w HEIDELBERG, a considerable and populous town
^HdcUt^'of Germany, su!)ject to the Grand Duke of Baden, with
—v—a celebrated university. It is noted for its great tun,
which holds 800 hogsheads, generally kept full of good
Rhenish wine. It stands in a pleasant rich country, and
was a famous seat of learning. It was first reduced to
a heap of ruins in 1622 by the Spaniards-, and the rich
library was transported partly to \ ienna, and partly
to the Vatican at Rome. After this it enjoyed the be¬
nefits of peace, till the Protestant electoral house be¬
came extinct, and a bloody war ensued, in which not
only the castle was ruined, but the tombs and bodies of
the electors were shamefully violated and pillaged.
This happened in 1693 j and the people of the Palati¬
nate were obliged to leave their dwellings, and to go
for refuge into foreign countries. To add to these mis¬
fortunes, the elector resided at Manheim, and carried
most of the people of distinction along with him. The
great tun was broken to pieces in 1693 by the French,
and at great expence in 1729 was repaired. The town
stands on the river Neckar, over which there is a hand¬
some bridge. The town having been annexed to Baden
by Bonaparte, its university was patronised by the new
government, and has now 26 professors, with 500
or 600 students. The library is large, and very
rich in manuscripts. E. Long. 8. 48. N. Lat. 49.
25.
HEIGHT, in general, signifies the difference be¬
tween the ground and the top of any object measured
perpendicularly.
Methods of Measuring Heights. See Mensura¬
tion and Barometer.
H E I
HEILA, a town of Royal Prussia, in Cassubia, seat- Heils
ed at the mouth of the river Vistula, on the Baltic sea, ||
and formerly subject to Poland, 12 miles north of Dant- Heintccu
zic. E. Long. 19. 25. N. Lat. 54. 53. ~~
HEILEGEN havE, a sea port town of Germany,
in Lower Saxony, and in Wageria, seated on the Bal¬
tic sea, over against the island of Permeren. E. Long.
II. 15. N. Lat. 57. 30.
HEINECCIUS, John GotliEB, one of the great¬
est civilians of the 18th century, was born at Eisenberg,
in the principality of Altenburg, in 1681. After ha¬
ving studied at Goslar and Leipsic, he was designed for
the ministry, and began to preach ; but disliking that
profession, he laid it aside, and applied himself entirely
to the study of philosophy and the civil law. In 1710,
he became professor of philosophy at Hall j and in
1721, he was made professor of civil law, with the title
of counsellor of the court. His great reputation made
the states of Friesland invite him to Franeker in * 724 j
but three years after, the king of Prussia prevailed on
him to accept of a professorship of law at Francfort on
the Oder, where he distinguished himself till the year
1733. Becoming again professor at Hall, he remained
there till his death, which happened in I74T» notwith¬
standing his being invited to Marpurg, Denmark, and
three academies in Holland. He wrote many works,
all of them much esteemed. The principal are, 1. An-
tiquitatum Romanarum jurisprudentiam illustrantium
syntagma. It was this excellent abridgement that gave
rise to his reputation in foreign countries. 2. Elementa
juris civilis secundum ordinem institutionum et pandec-
tarum. 3. Fundamerita styli cultioris. There are few
works
[ 320 ]
company were instantly thunderstruck, and all the courtiers not in the plot were thrown into a stupid consterna¬
tion. Heidegger flew to the music-gallery, swore, stamped, and raved, accusing the musicians of drunkenness, or
of being set on by some secret enemy to ruin him. The king and the countess laughed so immoderately, that they
hazarded a discovery. While Heidegger staid in the gallery, “ God save the king” was the tune j but when,
after setting matters to rights, he retired to one of the dancing rooms, to observe if decorum was kept by the com¬
pany, the counterfeit stepping forward, and placing himself upon the floor of the theatre, just in front of the mu¬
sic gallery, called out in a most audible voice, imitating Heidegger, damned them for blockheads, had he not
just told them to play “ Charly o’er the water?” A pause ensued; the musicians, who knew his character, in
their turn thought him either drunk or mad ; but as he continued his vociferation, “ Charly” was played again.
At this repetition of the supposed affront, some of the officers of the guards, who always attended upon these
occasions, were for ascending the gallery and kicking the musicians out; but the late duke of Cumberland, who
could hardly contain himself, interposed. The company were thrown into great confusion. “ Shame ! Shame !”
resounded from all parts, and Heidegger once more flew in a violent rage to that part of the theatre facing the
gallery. Here the duke of Montagu, artfully addressing himself to him, told him, “ The king was in a violent
passion ; that his best way was to go instantly and make an apology, for certainly the musicians were mad, and af¬
terwards to discharge them. Almost at the same instant, he ordered the false Heidegger to do the same. The
scene, now became truly comic in the circle before the king. Heidegger had no sooner made a genteel apology
for the insolence of his musicians, but the false Heidegger advanced, and in a plaintive tone, cried out, “ Indeed,
Sire, it was not my fault but that devil’s in my likeness.” Poor Heidegger turned round, stared, staggered,
grew pale, and could not utter a word. The duke then humanely whispered in his ear the sum of his plot, and
the counterfeit was ordered to take off his mask. Here ended the frolic; but Heidegger swore he would never
attend any public amusement, if that witch the wax-work woman did not break the mould, and melt down the
mask before his face.
Being once at supper with a large company, when a question was debated, Which nationalist of Europe had
the greatest ingenuity ? to the surprise of all present, he claimed that character for the Swiss, and appealed to
himself for the truth of it.” “ I was born a Swiss (said he), and came to England without a farthing, where I
have found means to gain 5000I. a-year, and to spend it. Now I defy the most able Englishman to go to Swit¬
zerland, and either to gain that income or to spend it there.”—Heidegger is said to have had so remarkable a
memory, that he once walked from Charing-cross to Temple-bar, and back again ; and when he came home,
wrote down every sign on each side of the street.
I
]
H E I [3
leccius works so useful as this for forming a Latin style. 4.
H Elementa philosophies rationalis et morahs, quibus pree-
F-Ioom. jnissc, kistoria philosophica. 5. Historia juris civil is
Romani ac Germanici. 6. Elementa juris naturce et
gentium, &c.
HE1NETKEN,Christian, an extraordinary child,
the prodigy of the North, was born at Lubeck in 1721.
He spoke his maternal tongue fluently at ten months.
At one year old, he knew the principal events of the
Pentateuch ; in two months more, he was master of the
entire history of the Old and New Testaments ; at two
years and a half, he answered the principal questions in
geography and in ancient and modern history j and he
spoke Latin and French with great facility before the
commencement of his fourth year. His constitution
was so delicate, that he was not weaned till a few
months before his death. M. Martini of Lubeck pub¬
lished a pamphlet in 1730, in which he endeavoured to
give natural reasons for the extraordinary capacity of
this infant, who died in his fifth year.
HEINSIUS, Daniel, professor of politics and his¬
tory at Leyden, and librarian to the university there,
was born at Gand in Flanders in 1580. He became a
scholar to Joseph Scaliger at Leyden, and was indebted
to the encouragement and care of that great man for
the perfection to which he attained in literature, and
which at the beginning of his life there was little reason
to hope from him. He distinguished himself as a critic
by his labours on many classical authors ; and was highly
honoured as well abroad as at home : Gustavus Adol¬
phus king of Sweden, gave him a place among his
counsellors of state ; the republic of Venice made him a
knight of the order of St Mark j and Pope Urban VLII.
made him great offers, if he would come, as he expressed
it, “ to rescue Home from barbarism.” He died in
1669, leaving several works of his own, both in poetry
and prose.
HEINSIUS, Nicholas, the son of Daniel Heinsius, was
born at Leyden ; and became as great a Latin poe,t, and
a greater critic, than his father. His poems have been
several times printed, but the best edition is that of
Amsterdam in 1666. He gave editions of several of
the classics, with notes 5 his Claudian is dedicated in a
Latin poem to Queen Christina of Sweden, and his
Ovid to Thuanus* At his death, which happened in
1681, he disclaimed all his works, and expressed the
utmost regret at having left behind him so many “ mo¬
numents of his vanity,” as he called them. He was
as much distinguished by his great employments in
the state, as by his talents, learning, and good quali¬
ties.
HEIR, in Law, signifies the person who succeeds
another by descent to lands, tenements, and heredita¬
ments, being an estate of inheritance, or an estate in
fee *, because nothing passes by right of inheritance but
in fee. See the articles CONSANGUINITY, DESCENT,
Fee, Succession, and Law Index.
Heir-Apparent, is a person so called in the lifetime
of his ancestor, at whose death he is heir at law.
Heir-Eresumptive, is one who, if the ancestor should
die immediately, would, in the present circumstances of
things, be his heir; but whose right of inheritance may
be defeated by the contingency of some nearer heir be¬
ing born.
HEiR-Loom (formed of heir and the Saxon lootn, de-
VOL. X. Part I. f
21 ] H E L
noting limb or members') in our law-books, signifies such Heir-loom
goods and personal chattels as are not inventoried after fl
the owner’s decease, but necessarily come to the heir Hc;len«*
along with the house. J
Heir-loom comprehends divers implements; as tables,
presses, cupboards, bedsteads, furnaces, wainscot, and
such like ; which in some countries have belonged to a
house for certain descents, and are never inventoried af¬
ter the decease of the owner, as chattels are, but accrue
by custom, not by common law, to the heir, with the
house itself. The ancient jewels of the crown are held
to be heir-looms, and are not devisable by will, but
descend to the next successor.
HEIRESS, a female heir to one who has an estate
in lands, &.c. See Heir.
Stealing an Heiress. See Forcible Marriage.
HEIRSHIP MOVEABLES, in Scots Law, the best of
certain kinds of moveables, which the heir of line is en¬
titled to take, besides the heritable estate. See Law
Index.
HEISTER, Laurence, an eminent physician, sur¬
geon, and anatomist, was born at Frankfort on the
Mayne, in the year 1683. After being educated in
the universities of Germany, he prosecuted the study of
anatomy and surgery at Amsterdam, in 1706. Next
year he acted as surgeon in the Dutch camp in Bra¬
bant, and afterwards studied medicine at Leyden under
the celebrated Boerhaave, at the expiration of which
he took his degrees. In 1 709, he was appointed phy¬
sician-general to the Dutch military hospital, by which
means he acquired vast experience, both in medicine
and surgery. He was appointed professor of anatomy
and surgery at Altdorf in 1710, where he acquired
great celebrity by his lectures and writings.
In 1720 he removed to the university of Helmstadt,
where he continued during the remainder of his life.
The czar Peter invited him to Russia; but the esteem in
which he was held by different sovereigns induced him
to remain in Germany. His death happened in the year
1758, in the 75th year of his age. Dr Heister was
uncommonly industrious, and wrote a prodigious num¬
ber of books ; but his principal fame was derived from
his singular skill and success in surgery. Fie is parti¬
cularly known by his Compendium Anaiomicum, which
has been frequently reprinted, and translated into dif¬
ferent languages. The chief of his surgical publications
is his Institutions of Surgery, which was long consider¬
ed as a standard book of the kind, till it was super¬
seded by more modern systems. As a physician his
principal works are, Observationes Medico-mfseellaneee, *
Theoretical et Practiced i De Medicines Mechanicce
Prestantia; and Compendium Institutionum et Funda-
mentorum Medicines. A collection of Medical, Chi-
rurgical, and Anatomical Observations, was published
after his death in 2 vols quarto.
HEISTERlA, a genus of plants belonging to the
decandria class; and in the natural method ranking
under the 12th order, Holoracece. See Botany Index.
HELENA, or St Helena, an island in the At¬
lantic ocean, belonging to the English East India Com¬
pany, and situated in W. Long. 6. 30. S. Lat. 16.
The greatest length of the island is about eight miles,
and its circumference is above 20. Some of the moun¬
tains are pretty high, covered with wood to the top,
and exhibit marks of volcanic eruptions. The eoun-
S s try
H E L [
try, according to Mr Forster, has a fine appearance j
the soil is in many places a rich mould, from six to ten
inches deep, and a variety of plants thrive in it luxuri¬
antly. He found many plants here which he had not
observed in any other parts of the world. Among these
were some called by the natives cabbage-trees, gum-
trees, and redwood. The former thrive in moist places •,
but the latter are always found on the ridges ol hills,
where the soil is dry. The cabbage-tree has rather
large leaves 5 but after many inquiries Mr Forster could
not find that it was used for any other purpose than that
of fuel, and no reason could be assigned why it had ob¬
tained that name. It must not be confounded with the
cabbage-tree of America, India, and the South seas,
which is a species of palm.
This island is laid out entirely in gardens and pastu¬
rage. Besides peaches, we are assured that the plantain
and banana thrive here remarkably well. Cabbages,
and other greens, which thrive extremely well, are de¬
voured by caterpillars j and every species of corn is de¬
stroyed by rats. All the pastures were overrun with
furze j which, though in our country a very useless and
even pernicious plant, was of singular advantage to the
inhabitants of St Helena. Before the introduction of
that plant, the ground was parched with the intense
heat, and all kinds of grass and herbage were shrivelled
up. But the furze-bushes, which throve as it were in
despite of the sun, preserved a degree of moisture in
the ground •, by which means the grass sprung up vigo¬
rously, and the country became covered with a rich and
beautiful sod. The furze is now no longer wanted, and
the people assiduously root it out for fuel. The num¬
ber of people on St Helena does not exceed 2000 per¬
sons, including 500 soldiers, and 600 slaves ; and it is
said that the number of females born on the island con¬
siderably exceeds that of the males. By the arrival of
the India ships, which they supply with refreshments,
they are in return provided with all sorts of manufac¬
tures and other necessaries ; and the company annually
order one or two of their ships to touch there in their
way to India, in order to send them a sufficient quan¬
tity of European goods and provisions. Many of their
slaves are employed in catching fish, which are very
plentiful j and by the help of these, together with their
poultry, cattle, roots, and salt provisions, they subsist
through the year. Their life (says Mr Forster") seems
to pass along very happily j free from the multitude of
cares which distress their countrymen in England, and
blessed with quiet and content.
A botanic garden has been established near the
country house of the governor, and a well-informed
gardener sent by the company to take care of it. The
sea around the island abounds with esculent fishes, 70
different species of which have been taken upon the
coasts. There are great numbers of whales around the
island, where the southern whale fishery, it is believed,
might be carried on with great advantage to the na¬
tion.
The country, in general, is cultivated by slaves ; but
as these are now placed under the protection of the ma¬
gistracy, and various regulations enacted in their favour,
they may comparatively be said to be comfortable and
secure. Before these regulations took place, ten out of
a hundred were known to die annually, whereas they
are now on,the increase, and the expences occasioned
322 ] H E L
by the replacing of those who died formerly are thus
avoided.
There are some blacks who are in a state of freedom,
independent of the slaves. These, at first, were ob¬
noxious to the slave owners ^ but, upon examination, it
was found that not one of them had been tried for a
crime for several years, nor had any of them been upon
the parish. By the humane interference of the com¬
pany they share the protection of the government, and
are almost on a footing with the other Iree inhabitants,
having the benefit of a jury when accused ol crimes, as
well as in civil cases.
This country is so fertile, and the climate so exactly
suited to the feelings of human nature, that persons in-
difierent to the enjoyments of the world, or far advanced
in years, could scarcely find another spot better calculat¬
ed to prolong their existence in ease, health, and comfort.
St Helena was first discovered by the Portuguese in
1502, on St Helen’s day; whence its name. They
stocked it with different kinds of useful animals ; but
whether they ever settled a colony on it or not, is un¬
certain. The Portuguese having either abandoned or
never taken possession of it, the. Dutch became its mas¬
ters ; and kept possession of it till the year 1600, when
they were driven out by the English. In 1673, the
Dutch took it by surprise ; but a short time after it was
recovered by the brave Captain Munden, who also took
three Dutch East Indiamen then lying in the harbour.
On this occasion the Hollanders had fortified the land¬
ing place, of which there is only one on the island ;
and erected batteries of great guns to prevent a descent:
but the English having knowledge of a small creek,
where only two men abreast could creep up, climbed
to the top of the rock in the night; and appearing the
next morning behind the batteries, the Dutch were so
terrified, that they threw down their arms, and surren¬
dered at discretion. This creek has been since fortified,
and a battery of large cannon placed at the entrance ot
it; so that now the island is rendered perfectly secure
against all regular approaches or sudden attacks.
St Helena has lately acquired no small celebrity as
the place of confinement of Napoleon Bonaparte, late
emperor of France. The illustrious exile arrived here
on the 17th October 1815, and remained in the island
till his death, 5th May 1821. He was buried in a re¬
tired spot not far from Longwood, the place of his re¬
sidence.
HELEN, in fabulous history, the daughter of Tyn-
darus and Leda, was married to Menelaus, king of
Sparta, hut was stolen from him by Theseus, 1235 B. C.
She was restored soon after; but carried off again by
Paris, the Trojan prince ; which occasioned the famous
Trojan war. See Troy.
St Helen's. See Hellen’s*
HELENIUM, Bastard Sun-flower ; a genus
of plants belonging to the syngenesia class ; and in the
natural method ranking under the 49th order, Com-
positce. See Botany Index.
HELENUS, in fabulous history, a celebrated sooth¬
sayer, son of Priam and Hecuba. He was greatly re¬
spected by all the Trojans. When Deiphobus was gi¬
ven in marriage to Helen in preference to himself, he
resolved to leave his country, and retired to Mount Ida,
where Ulysses took him prisoner by the advice of Cal-
chas. As he was well acquainted with futurity, the
Greeks
Helens
II
Helemii
H E L [ 323 ] H E L
[elenus Greeks made use of prayers, threats, and promises, to
|j induce him to reveal the secrets of the Trojans j and
liantlius. either the fear of death, or gratification of resentment,
seduced him to disclose to the enemies of his country,
that Troy could not be taken whilst it was in possession
of the palladium, nor before Polydectes came from his
retreat at Lemnos and assisted to support the siege.
After the ruin of his country, he fell to the share of
Pyrrhus the son of Achilles, and saved his life by warn¬
ing him to avoid a dangerous tempest, which in reality
proved fatal to all those who set sail. This endeared
him to Pyrrhus j and he received from his hand An¬
dromache the widow of his brother Hector, by whom
he had a son called Cestrinus. This marriage, accord¬
ing to some, was consummated after the death of Pyr¬
rhus, who lived with Andromache as with a wife. He-
lenus was the only one of Priam’s sons who survived the
ruin of his country. After the death of Pyrrhus he
reigned over part of Epirus, which he called Chaonia
in memory of his brother Chaon, whom he had inad¬
vertently killed. Helenus received .ZEneas as he voy¬
aged towards Italy, and foretold him some of the cala¬
mities which attended his fleet. The manner in which
he received the gift of prophecy is doubtful.
HELEPOLIS, in the ancient art of war, a ma¬
chine for battering down the walls of a place besieged,
the invention of which is ascribed to Demetrius Po-
liorcetes.—-Diodorus Siculus says, that each side of
the Helepolis was 405 cubits in breadth and 90 in
height j that it had nine stages, and was carried on
four strong solid wheels eight cubits in diameter ; that
it was armed with large battering rams, and had two
roofs capable of supporting them ; that in the lower
stages there were several sorts of engines for casting
stones ; and in the middle they had large catapultas for
discharging arrows, and smaller ones in those above,
with a number of expert men for working all these ma¬
chines.
HELIADES, in Mythology, the daughters of the
Bun and Clymenes, according to the poets. They
were so afflicted, as they say, with the death of their
brother Phaeton, that the gods, moved with compassion,
transformed them into poplars on the banks of the river
Eridanus.
HELIiEA, in Grecian antiquity, was the greatest
and most frequented court in Athens for the trial of ci¬
vil affairs. See HELlASTiE.
HELIACAL, in Astronomy, a term applied to the
rising and setting of the stars; or, more strictly speak¬
ing, to their emersion out of and immersion into the
rays and superior splendour of the sun.—A star is said
to rise heliacally, when, after having been in conjunc¬
tion with the sun, and on that account invisible, it
comes to be at such a distance from him as to be seen
in the morning before sunrising ; the sun, by his appa¬
rent motion, receding from the star towards the east.
On the contrary, the heliacal setting is when the sun
approaches so near a star as to hide it with his beams,
which prevent the fainter light of the star from being
perceived ; so that the terms apparition and occnltation
would be more proper than rising and setting.
HELIANTHUS, the Great Sunflower ; a ge¬
nus of plants belonging to the syngenesia class ; and in
the natural method ranking under the 46th order, Com¬
posite, See Botany bidex.
HELIASTiE, in antiquity, the judges of the Heliastae,
court Heli^ea. They were so called, according to v——
some authors, from a Greek word which siwnifies to as¬
semble in a great number; and, according to others,
from another word which signifies the sun, because they
held their assemblies in an open place. They composed
not only the most numerous, but likewise tbe most im¬
portant of the Athenian tribunals; for their province
was either to explain the obscure laws, or to give new
vigour and authority to those which had been violated.
The Thesmothetse convoked the assembly of the Heli-
astse, which sometimes amounted to 1000, sometimes
to 1500, judges. Mr Blanchard is of opinion, that,
to make this number, the Thesmothetse sometimes
summoned those of each tribe who had last quitted
the public offices which they had exercised in another
court.
However that may be, it appears that the assemblies
of the Heliastse were not frequent, as they would have
interrupted the jurisdiction of the stated tribunals and
the common course of affairs.
The Thesmothetse paid to each member of this as¬
sembly, for his attendance, three oboli: which are
equal to two Roman sesterces, or to half a drachma.
Hence Aristophanes terms them the brothers of the tri-
obolus. They were likewise condemned to pay a fine if
they came too late; and if they did not present them¬
selves till after the orators had begun to speak, they
were not admitted. Their attendance was requited out
of the public treasury, and their pay was called misthos
heliasticus.
The assembly met, at first, according to Aristophanes,
at the rising of the sun. If the judges were obliged
to meet under cover on account of frost and snow,
they had a fire; but there is not a passage in anv
ancient author which informs us of the place where
these assemblies were held either in the rigorous or in
the mild seasons. We only learn, that there was a
double enclosure around the assembly, that it might
not be disturbed. The first was a kind of arbour-
work, from space to space, separated by doors, over
which were painted in red the ten or twelve first letters
of the Greek alphabet, which directed the entrance of
the officers who composed the tribunal, each of them
entering under the letter which distinguished his tribe.
The beadles of the court, to whom they showed the
wand which had been sent them by the Thesmothetae
as a summons to meet, examined its mark, to see if it
was authentic, and then introduced them. The second
enclosure, which was at the distance of 20 feet from the
former, was a rope or cord; that the people who stood
round the first enclosure, and were desirous to see what
passed within the second, might not’ he prevented from
gratifying their curiosity at a proper distance. Thus the
attention of the judges was not interrupted by the con¬
course of the multitude, many of whom wex-e heated by
views of interest or of party.
To each of the members of the assembly were distri¬
buted two pieces of copper ; one of which was perfo¬
rated, not certainly that it might be distinguished from
the other by feeling, for these assemblies met at the
rising and were dissolved at the setting of the sun.
Those pieces of copper had been substituted for little
sea-shells, which were at first in use. The king was
present at the assembly, at whose command it had been
S s 2 summoned.
H E L
[ ]
H E L
Helia4se.
summoned. The Thesmothetoe read the names of those
who were to compose it, and each man took his place
as he was called. The Thesmothetse w'ere then sent
for, whose function it was to observe prodigies and to
superintend the sacrifices ; and if they gave their sanc¬
tion, the deliberations were begun. It is well known,
that the officers called Exegetce were often corrupted
by those, who were interested in the debates of the as¬
sembly 5 and that they excited such tumults as were
raised by the Roman tribunes in the popular assemblies
convoked by the consuls.
Of all the monuments which remain relating to the
Ileliastfe, the most curious is the oath which those
judges took before the Thesmothetse: Demosthenes hath
preserved it in his oration against Timocrates, who ha¬
ving been bribed by those who had been intrusted with
the effects taken on board a vessel of Naucratis, and re¬
fused to give an account of them, got a law passed, by
which an enlargement was granted to prisoners for
public debts on giving bail. Demosthenes on making
his oration against that law, ordered the oath of the
Heliastae to be read aloud, as a perpetual auxiliary to
his arguments, and happily calculated to interest the
multitude and inflame their passions. This oath we
shall quote, that our readers may know how respectable
a tribunal that of the Heliastse was, and the importance
of their decisions.
“ I will judge according to the law's and decrees of
the people of Athens, and of the senate of 500. I
will never give my vote for the establishment of a tyrant,
or of an oligarchy. Nor will I ever give my appro¬
bation to an opinion prejudicial to the liberty or to the
union of the people of Athens. I will not second
those persons who may propose a reduction of private
debts, or a distribution of the lands or houses of the
Athenians. I will not recal exiles, or endeavour to
procure a pardon for those who shall be condemned to
die. Nor will I force those to retire whom the laws
and the suffrages of the people shall permit to remain
in their country. I will not give my vote to any can¬
didate for a public function who gives not an account
of his conduct in the office which he has previously
filled ; nor will I presume to solicit any trust from the
commonwealth without subjecting myself to this con¬
dition, which I mean as obligatory to the nine archons,
to the chief of religious matters, to those who are bal¬
loted on the same day with the nine archons, to the
herald, the ambassador, and the other officers of their
court. I will not suffer the same man to hold the same
office twice, or to hold two offices in the same year;
I will not accept any present, either myself or by ano¬
ther, either directly or indirectly, as a member of the
Heliastic assembly. I solemnly declare that I am 30
years old. I will be equally attentive and impartial to
the accuser and the accused j I will give my sentence
rigorously according to evidence. Thus I swear, by
Jupiter, by Neptune, and by Ceres, to act. And if I
violate any of my engagements, I imprecate from these
deities ruin on myself and my family; and I request
them to grant me every kind of prosperity, if I am
faithful to my oath.”
The reader should peruse what follows this oath, to
see with what eloquence Demosthenes avails himself of
it, and how he applies its principles to the cause which
he defends.
Here we have one of the motives of the meeting of
this assembly. Aristotle informs us of another j which
was by the public authority deputed to them, to elect
a magistrate in the room of one dead. It is surprising
that Pausanias, who enters so often into details, gives
us no particular account of this assembly. All that he
says of it is, that the most numerous of the Athenian
assemblies was called Hclice.
We are told by Diogenes Laertius, in his life of
Solon, that it was before one of these Heliastic assem¬
blies that Pisistratus presented himself, covered with
wounds and contusions (for thus he had treated him¬
self and the mules which drew his car), to excite the
indignation of the people against his pretended’ ene¬
mies, who, jealous, as he alleged, of the popularity
he had acquired by asserting the rights of his poorer
fellow-citizens, in opposition to the men in power,
had attacked him while he was hunting, and had
wounded him in that barbarous manner. PI is design
succeeded : a guard was appointed him ; by the assist¬
ance of which he acquired the sovereignty or tyranny
of Athens, and kept it 33 years. The power of the
assembly appeared remarkably on that occasion ; for
Solon, who was present, opposed it with all his efforts,
and did not succeed.
As to the manner in which the judges gave their
suffrages, there was a sort of vessel covered with an
osier mat, in which were placed two urns, the one of
copper, the other of wood. In the lid of these
urns there was an oblong hole, which was large at
the top, and grew narrower downwards, as we see
in some old boxes of our churches. The suffrages
which condemned the accused person were thrown in¬
to the wooden urn, which is termed kyrios. That
of copper, named akyros, received those which absolved
him.
Aristotle observes, that Solon, whose aim was to
make his people happy, and who found an aristocracy
established by the election of the nine archons (annual
officers, whose power was almost absolute), tempered
their sovereignty, by instituting the privilege of ap¬
pealing trom them to the people ; who were to be as¬
sembled by lot to give their suffrage, after having
taken the oath of the Heliastge, in a place near the
Panathenseum, where Hissus had in former days calmed
a sedition of the people, and bound them to unanimity
by an oath. It has likewise been remarked, that the
god Apollo was not invoked in the oath of the Heliastse,
as in the oaths of the other judges. We have observed,
that he who took the oath of the Heliastse, engaged
that he would not be corrupted by solicitation or money.
Those who violated this part of their oath were con¬
demned to pay a severe fine. The decemvirs at Rome
made such corruption a capital crime. But Asconius
remarks, that the punishment denounced against them
was mitigated in later times; and that they were ex¬
pelled the senate, or banished for a certain time, accord¬
ing to the degree of their guilt.
HELICOID parabola, or the Earabolic Spiral,
is a curve arising from the supposition that the common
or Apollonian parabola is bent or twisted, till the axis
comes into the circumference of a circle, the ordinates
still retaining their places and perpendicular positions
with respect to the circle, all these lines still remaining
in the same plane.
HELICON,
Helksi
II
Helieo
Parabol
H E L [ 325 ] H E L
ef;con HELICON, in Ancient Geography, tlie name of a
|j mountain in the neighbourhood of Parnassus and Cy-
iodorus. (heron, sacred to Apollo and the muses, who are thence
called Heliconides. It is situated in Livadia, and now
called Zagura or Zaguya.—Helicon was one of the
most fertile and woody mountains in Greece. On it
the fruit of the adrachnus, a species of the arbutus or cf
the strawberry-tree, was uncommonly sweet ; and the
inhabitants affirmed, that the plants and roots were all
friendly to man, and that even the serpents had their
poison weakened by the innoxious qualities of their
food. It approached Parnassus on the north, where
it touched on Phocis ; and resembled that mountain in
loftiness, extent, and magnitude Here was the shady
grove of the muses and their images ; with statues of
Apollo and Bacchus, of Linus and Orpheus, and the
illustrious poets who had recited their verses to the
harp. Among the tripods, in the second century, was
that consecrated by Hesiod. On the left hand going
to the grove was the fountain Aganippe j and about
twenty stadia, or two miles and -a half, higher up, the
violet-coloured Hippocrene. Round the grove were
houses. A festival was celebrated there by the Thes-
pieans with games called Musea. ^Ihe valleys of He¬
licon are described by Wheler as green and flowery in
the spring 5 and enlivened by pleasing cascades and
streams, and by fountains and wells of clear water.
The Boeotian cities in general, two or three excepted,
were reduced to inconsiderable villages in the time ot
Strabo. The grove of the muses was plundered under
the auspices of Constantine the Great. The Helico¬
nian goddesses were afterwards consumed in a fire at
Constantinople, to which city they had been removed.
HELICONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria class. See Botany Index.
HELICTERES, the Screw-tree •, a genus of
plants belonging to the gynandria class, and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 37th order, Colwnnl
ferae. See Botany Index.
HELIGOLAND, a group of small islands in the
north sea, now subject to Great Britain. See Supple¬
ment.
HELIOCARPUS, a genus of plants belonging to
the dodecandria class, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 37^ order, Columnifercs. See Botany
Index.
HE LIOCENTRIC LATITUDE of a Planet, the in¬
clination of a line drawn between the centre of the sun
and the centre of a planet to the plane of the ecliptic.
Heliocentric Place of a Planet, the place ol the
ecliptic wherein the planet would appear to a spectator
placed at the centre of the sun.
HELIOCOMETES, a phenomenon sometimes ob¬
served about sun-setting; being a large luminous tail or
column of light proceeding from the body of the sun,
and dragging after it, not unlike the tail of a comet;
whence the name.
HELIODORUS o/'Phoenicia, bishop of. Trica
in Thessaly, better known by the romance he composed
in his youth entitled JEthiopics, and relating the amours
ofTheagenes and Chariclea. Some say he was depo¬
sed by a synod because he would not consent to the
suppressing that romance. The fable has a moral ten¬
dency, and particularly inculcates the virtue of chastity.
As it was the first of this species of writing, he is styled Heliodorui,
the Father of Pomances. He was also a good Latin poet. Heliome-
He lived in the 4th century. ter-
HELIOMETER, formed of sun, and I v
measure, the name of an instrument called also astro-
meter, invented by M. Bouguer in 1747, for measur¬
ing with particular exactness the diameters of the stars,
and especially those of the sun and moon.
This instrument is a kind of telescope, consisting of
two object-glasses of equal focal distance, placed one of
them by the side of the other, so that the same eye¬
glass serves for both. The tube of this instrument is
of a conic form, larger at the upper end, which re¬
ceives the two object-glasses, than at the lower, which
is furnished with an eye-glass and micrometer. By
the construction of this instrument two distinct images
of an object are formed in the focus of the eye-glass,
whose distance, depending on that of the two object-
glasses from one another, may be measured with great
accuracy : nor is it necessary that the whole disc of
the sun or moon come within the field of view, since,
if the images of only a small part of the disc be form¬
ed by each object-glass, the whole diameter may be
easily computed by their position with respect to one
another: for if the object be large, the images will
approach, or perhaps lie even over one another, and
the object-glasses being moveable, the two images may
always be brought exactly to touch one another, and
the diameter may be computed from the known distance
of the centres of the two glasses. Besides, as this in¬
strument has a common micrometer in the focus of
the eye-glass, when the two images of the sun or moon
are made in part to cover one another, that part which
is common to both the images may be measured with
great exactness, as being viewed upon a ground that
is only one half less luminous than itself; whereas, in
general, the heavenly bodies are viewed upon a dark
ground, and on that account are imagined to be larger
than they really are. By a small addition to this instru¬
ment, provided it be of a moderate length, M. Bouguer
thought it very possible to measure angles of three or four
degrees, which is of particular consequence in taking the
distance of stars from the moon. V* ith this instrument
M. Bouguer, by repeated observation, found that the
sun’s vertical diameter, though somewhat diminished by
the astronomical refraction, is longer than the horizon¬
tal diameter; and, in ascertaining this phenomenoa, he
also found, that the upper and lower edges of the sun’s
disc are not so equally defined as the other parts ; on
this account his image appears somewhat extended in
the vertical direction. This is owing to the decom¬
position of light, which is known to consist of rays dif¬
ferently refrangible in their passage through our atmo¬
sphere. Thus the blue and violet rays, which proceed
from the upper part of the disc at the same time with
those of other colours, are somewhat more refracted
than the others, and therefore seem to us to have pro¬
ceeded from a higher point; whereas, on the contrary,
the red rays proceeding from the lower edge of the
disc, being less refracted than the others, seem to pro¬
ceed from a lower point; so that the vertical diameter
is extended, or appears longer, than the horizontal dia¬
meter. ,
Mr Servino-ton Saverv discovered a similar method
0 ' of
Helioiueter
i!
Heli*.
H E L [ 326 ] H E L
of improving the micrometer, which was communicated
to the Royal Society in 1753. See Micrometer.
HELIOPHILA, a genus of plants belonging to
the tetradynamia class of plants ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 39th order, Siliquosce. See
Botany Index.
HELIOPHOBI, a name given to the white ne¬
groes or albinos, from their aversion to the light of the
sun. See Albino.
HELIOPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, so called by
Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, by Moses On, and in
Jeremiah Bethsemes; a city of Egypt, to the south-east
of the Delta, and east of Memphis ; of a very old
standing, its origin terminating in fable. Here stood
the temple of the sun, held in religious veneration.
The city stood on an extraordinary mount, but in Stra¬
bo’s time was desolate. It gave name to the Nomos
Heliopolites.—There was another Heliopolis in Ccelo-
syria, near the springs of the Orontes $ so called from
the worship of the sun, which was in great vogue over
all Syria.
HELIOSCOPE, in Optics, a sort of telescope, pe¬
culiarly fitted for viewing the sun without hurting the
eyes. See Telescote.
As the sun may be viewed through coloured glasses
without hurt to the eyes, if the object and eye glasses of
a telescope be made of coloured glass, as red or green,
such a telescope will become an helioscope.
But Mr Huygens only used a plain glass, blacked
at the flame of a candle on one side, and placed between
the eye-glass and the eye $ which answers the design of
an helioscope very well.
HELIOSTATA, in Optics, an instrument invented
by the late learned Dr S. Gravesande, who gave it this
name from its fixing, as it were, the rays of the sun in
an horizontal direction across the dark chamber all the
while it is in use. See Optics Index.
HELIOTROPE {heliotropiimi),among the ancients,
an instrument or machine for showing when the sun ar¬
rived at the tropics and the equinoctial line. This
name was also used for a sun dial in general.
Heliotrope is also a precious stone, of a green co¬
lour, streaked with red veins. Pliny says it is thus
called, because, when cast into a vessel of water, the
sun’s rays falling thereon seem to be of a blood-colour ;
and that, when out of the water, it gives a faint re¬
flection of the figure of the sun j and is proper to ob¬
serve eclipses of the sun as a helioscope. The helio¬
trope is also called oriental jasper, on account of its
ruddy spots. It is found in the East Indies, as also in
Ethiopia, Germany, Bohemia, &c. Some have ascrib¬
ed to it the faculty of rendering people invisible, like
Gyges’s ring.
HELIOTROPIUM, Turnsole, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria class, and in the natural
method ranking undgr the 41st order, Asperifolice. See
Botany Index.
HELISPHERICAL LINE, is the rhumb line in
Navigation, being so termed, because on the globe it
winds round the pole helically or spirally, coming still
nearer and nearer to it.
HELIX, in Geometry, a spiral line. See Spiral.
— The word is Greek, and literally signifies “ a
wreath or winding ol ixara-u, involve, “ I environ.”
In architecture, some authors make a difference be-
3
tween the helix and the spiral. A staircase, accord- jj£]
ing to Daviler, is in a helix, or is helical, when the He j i
stairs or steps wind round a cylindrical newel; whereas y J ■,
the spiral winds round a cone, and is continually ap¬
proaching nearer and nearer its axis.
Helix is also applied, in Architecture, to the cauli-
cules or little volutes under the flowers of the Corin¬
thian capital ; called also urillce.
Helix, in Anatomy, is the whole circuit or extent
of the auricle or border of the ear outwards. In op¬
position to which, the inner protuberance surrounded
thereby, and answering thereto, is called anthelix. See
Anatomy, N° 141.
Helix, the Snail, a genus of shell-fish belonging to
the order of vermes testacea. See CoNCHOLOGY Index.
HELL, the place of divine punishment after death.
As all religions have supposed a future state of exist¬
ence after this life, so all have their hell or place of
torment in which the wicked are supposed to be pu¬
nished. The hell of the ancient heathens was divided
into two mansions, the one called Elysium, on the right
hand, pleasant and delightful, appointed for the souls
of good men j the other called Tartara, on the left, a
region of misery and torment appointed for the wicked.
The latter only was hell, in the present limited sense of
the word. See Elysium.
The philosophers were of opinion, that the infernal
regions were at an equal distance from all the parts of
the earth j nevertheless it was the opinion of some,
that there were certain passages which led thither, as
the river Lethe, near the Syrtes, and the Acherusian
cave in Epirus. At Hermoine it was thought, that
there was a very short way to hell; for which reason
the people of that country never put the fare into the
mouths of the dead to pay their passage.
The Jews placed hell in the centre of the earth,
and believed it to be situated under waters and moun¬
tains. According to them, there are three passages
leading to it j the first is in the wilderness, and by that
Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, descended into hell ; the
second is in the sea, because Jonah, who was thrown
into the sea, cried to God out of the belly of hell j the
third is in Jerusalem, because it is said the fire of the
Lord is in Zion, and his furnace is in Jerusalem.
They likewise acknowledged seven degrees of pain in
hell, because they find this place called by seven dif¬
ferent names in Scripture. Though they believed
that infidels, and persons eminently wicked, will con¬
tinue for ever in hell j yet they maintained, that every
Jew who is not infected with some heresy, and has not
acted contrary to the points mentioned by the rabbins,
will not be punished therein for any other crimes above
a year at most.
The Mahometans believe the eternity of rewards and
punishments in another life. In the Koran it is said,
that hell has seven gates, the first for the Mussulmans,
the second for the Christians, the third for the Jews,
the fourth for the Sabians, the fifth for the Magians,
the sixth for the Pagans, and the seventh for the hy¬
pocrites of all religions.
Among Christians, there are two controverted ques¬
tions in regard to hell; the one concerns locality, the
other the duration of its torments. 1. The locality of
hell, and the reality of its fire, began first to be con¬
troverted by Origin. That father, interpreting the
Scripture
H E L [ 327 1 H E L
Hell Scripture account metapliorically, makes hell to consist
|) not in external punishments, but in a consciousness or
lleboru*. sense of guilt, and a remembrance of past pleasures.
■'Y'"—-' Among the moderns, Mr Whiston advanced a new
hypothesis. According to him, the comets are so
many hells appointed in their orbits alternately to car¬
ry the damned into the confines of the sun, there to
be scorched by its violent heat, and then to return
with them beyond the orb of Saturn, there to starve
them in those cold and dismal regions. Another mo¬
dern author, not satisfied with any hypothesis hitherto
advanced, assigns the sun to be the local hell. 2. As
to the second question, viz,, the duration of hell tor¬
ments, we have Origen again at the head of those
who deny that they are eternal ; it being that father’s
opinion, that not only men but devils, after a due
course of punishment suitable to their respective crimes,
shall be pardoned and restored to heaven. The chief
principle upon which Origen built his opinion, was the
nature of punishment, which he took, to be emenda-
tory, applied only as physic for the recovery of the
patient’s health. The chief objection to the eternity
of hell torments among modern writers, is the dispro¬
portion between temporary crimes and eternal pu¬
nishments. Those who maintain the affirmative,
ground their opinions on Scripture accounts, which
represent the pains of hell under the figure of a worm
which never dies, and a fire which is not quenched j
as also upon the words, “ These shall go away into
everlasting punishment, but the righteous into life
eternal.”
HELANICUS of Mitylene, a celebrated Greek
historian, born before Herodotus, flourished about
480 B. C. He wrote a history of the ancient kings
and founders of cities, but which hath not come down
to us.
HELLAS, in Ancient Geography, an appellation
comprising, according to the more ancient Greeks and
Komans, Achaia and Peloponnesus, but afterwards re¬
strained to Achaia. It was bounded on the west by
the river Achelous, on the north by Mounts Othrys
and Oeta, on the east by the Egean sea, and on the,
south by the Saronic and Corinthian bays, and by the
isthmus which joins it to Peloponnesus. It was called
Hellas, from Hellen the son of Deucalion ; or from
Hellas, a district of Thessaly 5 whence Hellenes, the
gentilitious name, denoting Greek. Now called Li-
vadia.
HELLE, in fabulous history, a daughter of Athamas
king of Thebes by Nephele. She fled from her father’s
house with her brother Phryxus, to avoid the cruel
oppression of her mother-in-law Ino. According to
some accounts she was carried through the air on a
golden ram which her mother had received from Nep¬
tune, and in her passage she became giddy, and fell from
her seat into that part of the sea which from her re¬
ceived the name of Hellespont. Others say that she
was carried on a cloud, or rather upon a ship, from
which she fell into the sea and was drowned. Phryxus,
after he had given his sister a burial on the neighbour¬
ing coasts, pursued his journey, and arrived in Colchis.
HELLEBORE. See Helleborus.
White Hellebore. See Veratrum.
HELLEBORUS, Hex -LEBORE, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentamlria class, and in the natux-al
method ranking under the 26th order, Multisiliqinz. Hdleborus
See Botany Index. 0
HELLEN, the son of Deucalion, is said to have Helleno-
given the name of Hellenists to the people before called . tS^lie~ ■
Gr •eeks, 1521 B. C. See Greece.
HELLENISM, in matters of language, a phrase in
the idiom, genius, or construction of the Greek tongue.
This word is only used when speaking of the au¬
thors who, writing in a different language, express
themselves in a phraseology peculiar to the Greek.
HELLENISTIC LANGUAGE, that used by the
Grecian Jews who lived in Egypt and otlier parts where
the Greek tongue prevailed. In this language it is
said the Septuagint was written, and also the books
of the New Testament j and that it was thus denomi¬
nated to show that it was Greek filled with Hebraisms
and Syriacisms.
HELLENISTS {Hellenistai'), a term occurring in
the Greek text of the New Testament, and which in
the English version is rendered Grecians.
The critics are divided as to the signification of the
word, Oecumenius, in his Scholia on Acts vi. 1. ob¬
serves, that it is not to be understood as signifying those
of the religion of the Greeks, but those who spoke
Greek, faynri (pdiy^xfisnif. The authors of the Vul¬
gate version, indeed, render it like ours, Grceci; but
Messieurs Du Port Royal more accurately, Juifs Grecs,
Greek or Grecian Jews; it being the Jews who spoke
Greek that are here treated of, and who are hereby
distinguished from the Jews called Hebrews, that is,
who spoke the Hebrew tongue of that time.
The Hellenists, or Grecian Jews, were those who
lived in Egypt and other parts where the Greek tongue
prevailed. It is to them we owe the Greek version of
the Old Testament, commonly called the Septuagint, or
that of the Seventy.
Salmasius and Vossius are of a different sentiment
with regard to the Hellenists. The latter will only
have them to be those who adhered to the Grecian in¬
terests.
Scaliger is represented, in the Scaligerana, as assert¬
ing the Hellenists to be the Jews who lived in Greece
and other places, and who read the Greek Bible in
their synagogue, and used the Greek language in sa~
cris : and thus they were opposed to the Hebrew Jews,
who performed their public worship in the Hebrew
tongue ; and in this sense St Paul speaks of himself
as a Hebrew of the Hebrews, Phil. iii. f. i. e. a He¬
brew both by nation and language. The Hellenists
are thus properly distinguished from the Hellenes or
Greeks, mentioned John xii. 20. who were Greeks
by birth and nation, and yet proselytes to the Jewish
religion.
HELLENODICiE, 'Eam in antiquity, the
directors of the Olympian games. At first there was
only one, afterwards the number increased to two and
to three, and at length to nine. They assembled in a
place called 'E’EXwoiix.xur, in the Elean forum, where
they were obliged to reside ten months before the ce¬
lebration of the games, to take care that such as offer¬
ed themselves to contend, performed their 7r^»yvfimrfiic~
rx, or preparatory exercises, and to be instructed in all
the laws of games by certain men called i. e.
“ keepers of the laws.” And the better to prevent all
unjust practices, they were farther obliged to take an
oath,
MEL [ 323 ] H E L
Hellene- oath, that they would act Impartially, would take no
dieae biibes, nor discover the reason for which they disliked
IS or approved of any of the contenders. At the solem-
, njtv they sat naked, having before them the victorial
crown till the exercises were finished, and then it,was
presented to whomsoever they adjudged it. Neverthe¬
less, there lay an appeal from the hellenodicsa to the
Olympian senate.
HELLESPONT, a narrow strait between Asia and
Europe, near the Propontis, which received its name
from Helle who was drowned there in her voyage to
Colchis. It is celebrated for the love and death of
Leander, and for the bridge of boats which Xerxes
built over it when he invaded Greece. The folly of this
great prince is well knowm in beating and fettering the
waves of the sea, whose impetuosity fettered his ships,
and rendered all his labours ineffectual. It is now
called the Dardanelles. It is about 33 miles long, and
in the broadest parts the Asiatic coast is about one mile
and a half distant from the European, and only half
a mile in the narrowest, according to modern investi¬
gation, and the cocks are heard crowing from the op¬
posite shores.
HELLEN’S, St, a town of the isle of Wight, in
East-Medina, has a bay which runs a considerable way
within land, and in a war with France is often the
station and place of rendezvous for the royal navy. At
the mouth of the bay is that cluster of rocks called the
Mixen. It had an old church situated at the extre¬
mity of the coast, which was endangered to be washed
away, as was a great part of the church-yard, which
occasioned a new church to be built in 1719. The
priory to which the old church belonged is now
converted into a gentleman’s seat ; is in a remarkably
pleasant situation, and commands a fine prospect of
Portsmouth and the road at Spithead. St Hellen’s
appears to have been of more consideration in former
times than at present.
HELM, a long and flat piece of timber, or an as¬
semblage of several pieces, suspended along the hind-
part of a ship’s stern-post, where it turns upon hinges
to the right or left, serving to direct the course of the
vessel, as the tail of a fish guides the body.
The helm is usually composed of three parts, viz. the
rudder, the tiller, and the wheel, except in small ves¬
sels, where the wheel is unnecessary.
As to the form of the rudder, it becomes gradually
broader in proportion to its distance from the top, or
to its depth under the water. The back, or inner part
oi it, which joins to the stern post, is diminished into
the form of a wedge throughout its whole length, so
as that the rudder may be more easily turned from one
side to tiie other, where it makes an obtuse angle with
the keel. It is supported upon hinges’, of which those
that are bolted round the stern-post to the after ex¬
tremity of the ship, are called googings, and are fur¬
nished with a large hole on the after-part of the stern-
post. The other parts of the binges, which are bolted
to the hack of the rudder, are called pintles, being
stiong cylindrical pins, which enter into the googings,
and rest upon them. The length and thickness of the
rudder is nearly equal to that of the stern-post.
Tdie rudder is turned upon its hinges by means of a
long bar of timber, called the tiller, which is fixed ho¬
rizontally in its upper end within the vessel. The
5
movements of the tiller to the right and left, accord- He! I3J
ingly direct the efforts of the rudder to the govern-y j .N
ment of the ship’s course as she advances; which, in
the sea-language, is called steering. The operations of
the tiller are guided and assisted by a sort of tackle,
communicating with the ship’s side, called the tiller-
rope, which is usually composed of untarred rope-yarns
for the purpose of traversing more readily through the
blocks or pulleys.
In order to facilitate the management of the helm,
the tiller-rope, in all large vessels, is wound about a
wheel, which acts upon it with the powers of a crane
or windlass. The rope employed in this service being
conveyed from the fore-end of the tiller k, to a single
block i, on each side of the ship*, is farther commu-*See. eft
nicated to the wheel, by means of two blocks sus- PI? jpi,
pended near the mizen-mast, and two holes immediate- CL3 [. hj
ly above, leading up to the wheel, which is fixed upon
an axis on the quarter-deck, almost perpendicularly
over the fore-end of the tiller. Five turns of the tiller-
rope are usually wound about the barrel of the wheel;
and, when the helm is amidship, the middle turn is
nailed to the top of the barrel, with a mark by which
the helmsman readily discovers the situation of the
helm, as the wheel turns it from the starboard to the
larboard side. The spokes of the wheel generally
reach about eight inches beyond the rim or circumfe¬
rence, serving as handles to the person who steers the
vessel. As the effect of a lever increases in propor¬
tion to the length of its arm, it is evident that the
power of the helmsman to turn the wheel will be in¬
creased according to the length of the spokes beyond
the circumference of the barrel.
When the helm, instead of lying in a right line
with the keel, is turned to one side or the other, as
in BD (fig. I.), it receives an immediate shock from pjftle ;l
the water, which glides along the ship’s bottom in
running aft from A to B ; and this fluid pushes it
towards the opposite side, whilst it is retained in this
position : so that the stern, to which the rudder is con¬
fined, receives the same impression, and accordingly
turns from B to A about some point c, whilst the head
of the ship passes from A to a. It must be observed,
that the current of water falls upon the rudder oblique¬
ly, and only strikes it with that part of its motion
which acts according to the sine of incidence, pushing
it in the direction of NP, with a force which not only
depends on the velocity of the ship’s course, by which
this current of water is produced, but also upon the
extent of the sine of incidence. This force is by con¬
sequence composed of the square of the velocity with
which the ship advances, and the square of the sine of
incidence, which will necessarily he greater or smaller
according to circumstances ; so that if the vessel runs
three or lour times more swiftly, the absolute shock of
the water upon tlie rudder will be nine or 16 times
stronger under the same incidence : and, if the inci¬
dence is increased, it will yet be augmented in a greater
proportion, because the square of the sine of incidence
is more enlarged. Ihis impression, or, what is the
same thing, the power of the helm, is always very
feeble, when compared with the weight of the vessel;
but as it operates with the force of a long lever, its
efforts to turn the ship are extremely advantageous.
For the helm being applied to a great distance from
the
H E L [ 32Q ] H E L
(elm. the centre of gravity G, or from the point about which
_v—f|,e vessel turns horizontally, if the direction PN of the
impression of the water upon the rudder be prolonged,
it is evident that it will pass perpendicularly to R,
widely distant from the centre of gravity G : thus the
absolute effort of the water is very powerful. It is not
therefore surprising, that this machine impresses the
ship with a considerable circular movement, by pushing
the stern from B to b, and the head from A to a; and
even much farther whilst she sails with rapidity, because
the effect of the helm always keeps pace with the velo¬
city with which the vessel advances.
Amongst the several angles that the rudder makes
with the keel, there is always one position more fa¬
vourable than any of the others, as it more readily pro¬
duces the desired effect of turning the ship, in order to
change her course. To ascertain this, it must be con¬
sidered, that if the obliquity of the rudder with the
keel is greater than the obtuse angle ABD, so as to
diminish that angle, the action of the water upon the
rudder will increase, and at the same time oppose the
course of the ship in a greater degrfee 5 because the
angle of incidence will be more open, so as to present
a greater surface to the shock of the water, by oppo¬
sing its passage more perpendicularly. But at that time
the direction NP of the effort of the helm upon the
ship will pass with a smaller distance from the centre
of gravity G towards R, and less approach the per¬
pendicular NL, according to which it is absolutely ne¬
cessary that the power applied should act with a greater
effect to turn the vessel. Thus it is evident, that if
the obtuse angle ABD is too much inclosed, the great¬
est impulse of the water will not counterbalance the
loss sustained by the distance of the direction NP from
NL, or by the great obliquity which is given to the
same direction NP of the absolute effort of the helm
with the keel AB. If, on the contrary, the angle
ABD is too much opened, the direction NP of the
force of the action of the helm will become more ad¬
vantageous to turn the vessel, because it will approach
nearer the perpendicular NL j so that the line pro¬
longed from NP will increase the line GR, by remo¬
ving R to a greater distance from the centre of gra¬
vity G: but then the helm will receive the impression
of the water too obliquely, for the angle of incidence
will be more acute $ so that it will only present a
small portion of its breadth to the shock of the wa¬
ter, and by consequence will only receive a feeble ef¬
fort. By this principle it is easy to conceive, that
the greatest distance GR from the centre of gravity
G, is not sufficient to repair the diminution of force
occasioned by the too great obliquity of the shock
of the water. Hence we may conclude, that when the
water either strikes the helm too directly, or too ob¬
liquely, it loses a great deal of the effect it ought to
produce. Between the two extremes there is there¬
fore a mean position, which is the most favourable to
its operations.
The diagonal NP of the rectangle IL represents the
absolute direction of the effort of the water upon the
helm. NI expresses the portion of this effort which is
opposed to the ship’s head-way, or which pushes her
astern, in a direction parallel to the keel. It is easily
perceived, that this part NI of the whole power of the
helm contributes but little to turn the vessel; for, if IN
VOL.X. Parti.' +
is prolonged, it appears that its direction approaches
to a very small distance GV from the centre of gravity
G; and that the arm of the lever BN=GV, to which
the force is applied, is not in the whole more than
equal to half the breadth of the rudder : but the rela¬
tive force NL, which acts perpendicular to the keel,
is extremely different. If the first NI is* almost useless,
and even pernicious, by retarding the velocity j the
second NL is capable of a very great effect, because it
operates at a considerable distance from the centre of
gravity G of the ship, and acts upon the arm of a le¬
ver GE, which is very long. Thus it appears, that
between the effects NL and NI, which result from the
absolute effort NP, there is one which always opposes
the ship’s course, and contributes little to her motion
of turning : whilst the other produces only this move¬
ment of rotation, without operating to retard her velo¬
city.
Geometricians have determined the most advantage¬
ous angle made by the helm with the line prolonged
from the keel, and fixed it at 540 44', presuming that
the ship is as narrow at her floating-line, or at the line
described by the surface of the water round her bot¬
tom, as at the keel. But as this supposition is abso¬
lutely false, in as much as all vessels augment their
breadth from the keel upward to the extreme breadth,
where the floating-line or the highest water-line is ter¬
minated } it follows, that this angle is too large by a
certain number of degrees. For the rudder is impres¬
sed by the water, at the height of the floating line,
more directly than at the keel, because the fluid exact¬
ly follows the horizontal outlines of the bottom 5 so
that a particular position of the helm might be suppo¬
sed necessary for each different incidence which it en¬
counters from the keel upwards. But as a middle po¬
sition may be taken between all these points, it will be
sufficient to consider the angle formed by the sides of
the ship, and her axis, or the middle line of her length,
at the surface of the water, in order to determine af¬
terwards the mean point, and the mean angle of inci¬
dence.
It is evident that the angle 540 44' is too open, and
very unfavourable to the ship’s head-way, because the
water acts upon the rudder there with too great a sine
of incidence, as being equal to that of the angle which
it makes with the line prolonged from the keel below :
but above, the shock of the water is almost perpendi¬
cular to the rudder, because of the breadth of the bot¬
tom, as we have already remarked. If then the rud¬
der is only opposed to the fluid, by making an angle
of 450 with the line prolonged from the keel, the im¬
pression, by becoming weaker, will be less opposed to
the ship’s head-way, and the direction NP of the
absolute effort of the water upon the helm drawing
nearer to the lateral perpendicular, will be placed more
advantageously, for the reasons above mentioned. On
the other band, experience daily testifies, that a ship
steers well when the rudder makes the angle DBF
equal to 350 only.
It has been already remarked, that the effect of
moving the wheel to govern the helm increases in pro¬
portion to the length of the spokes ; and so great is
the power of the wheel, that if the helmsman employs
a force upon its spokes equivalent to 30 pounds, it
will produce an effect of 90 or 120 pounds upon the
1 t tdlerr
He1 in.
tiller.
H e L [ 33°
On the contrary, the action of the water is col-
liner, wic t-oinicw.M — 11 „
lected into the middle of the breadth of the rudder
which is very narrow in comparison with the length ot
the tiller; so the effort of the water is very little remo¬
ved from the fulcrum B upon which it turns > where¬
as the tiller forms the arm of a lever to or 15 times
longer, which also increases the power of the helmsman
in the same proportion that the tiller bears to the lever
upon which the impulse of the water is directed. Ibis
force then is by consequence IP or 1J times stronger ,
and the effort of 30 pounds, which at first gave the
helmsman a power equal to 90 or I 20 pounds, becomes
accumulated to one of 900. or 1800 pounds upon the
rudder. This advantage then arises from the shortness
of the lever upon which the action of the water xs im¬
pressed, and the great comparative length of the tiller,
or lever, by which the rudder is, governed ; together
with the additional power of the wheel that directs the
movements of the tiller, and still farther accumulates
the power of the helmsman over it. Such a demon¬
stration ought to remove the surprise with which the
prodigious effect of the helm is sometimes considered,
from an inattention to its mechanism j for we need on¬
ly to observe the pressure of the water, which acts at a
great distance from the centre of gravity G, about
which the ship is supposed to turn, and we shall easily
perceive the difference there is between the efiort ot
the water against the helmsman, and the effect of the
same impulse against the vessel. With regard to the
person who steers, the water acts only with the aim 01
a very short lever NB, of which B is the fulcrum : on
the contrary, with regal'd to the ship, the force of the
water is impressed in the direction NP, which passes to
a great distance from G, and acts upon a very long
lever EG, which renders the action of the rudder ex-
tremely powerful 111 turning the vessel f so that, in a
large ship, the rudder receives a shock from the watei
of 2700 or 2800 pounds, which is frequently the case
when she sails at the rate of three or four leagues by
] H E L
After what has been said of the helm, it is easy to
judge, that the more a ship Increases her velocity with
Ht
regard to the sea, the more powerful will he the effect
of the rudder j because it acts against the water with a <1,
force which increases as the square of the swiftness of
the fluid, whether the ship advances or retreats •, or, m
other word's, whether she has head-way or stern-way:
with this distinction, that in these two circumstances
the effects will be contrary. For if the vessel retreats,
or moves astern, the helm will he impressed from I to
N; and instead of being pushed, according to i\P, it
will receive the effort of the water from N towards
R • so that the stern will he transported to the same
movement, and the head turned in a contrary direc-
When the helm operates by itself, the centre of ro¬
tation of the ship, and her movement, are determined
hv estimating the force of this machine ; that is to say,
by multiplying the surface of the rudder by the square
of the ship’s velocity. JuIL. 11
There are several terms in the sea-langnage relatmg
to the helm 5 as, Bear up the helm; that is, Let the
ship go more large before the wind. Helm a mid-ship.
or r&ht the helm : that is, Keep it even with the mid¬
dle of the ship. Port the helm. Put it over the left
side of the ship. Starboard the helm. Put it on the
right side of the ship.
HELMET, an ancient defensive armour worn by
horsemen both in w-ar and in tournaments. It co¬
vered both the head and face, only leaving an aper¬
ture in the front secured by bars, which was called the
™SIn*atchievements, it is placed above the escutcheon
for the principal ornament, and is the true^ mark 0
chivalry and nobility. Helmets vary according to the
different degrees of those who bear them. Theyuare
also used as a bearing in coats ot arms. See
HELMINTHOLITHUS, in Natural History, a
_ -W • . * f* 1 J m r\ 1 I 11 CT
when she sails at the rate ot three or lour leagues ny , -T• T / i^;., resembling
the hour 5 and this force being applied in E, perhaps name given by L.nmeus to petrified bodies lesemb g
100 er no feet distant from the centre of gravity G, worms. T Petrified mho-
will operate upon the ship, to turn her about, with °f thpc he reckons four genets. .
270,000 or 308,000 pounds j whilst, in the latter case, phyta. . 2. Petrified shells. 3,. Petrifie P y
the helmsman acts with an effort which exceeds not 30 4. Petrified reptiles,
pounds upon the spokes of the wheel.
HELMINTHOLOGY.
INTRODUCTION.
Definition. T TNDER this head we propose to give the natural
history of those animals which Linnaeus has arran¬
ged under the class of Vermes, forming the last class
of the animal kingdom. The title which we have adopt¬
ed for this article is derived from the Greek ifytivs, an
earth-worm, and A«y*s, a discourse.
In this article we are to consider, not only those
animals which are commonly known by the name of
worms, but all those which have the same general cha¬
racter of being slow in motion, of a soft substance, ex¬
tremely tenacious of life, capable of reproducing such
parts of their body as may have been taken away or de¬
stroyed, and inhabiting moist places.
Linnaeus has divided the dass into five orders. ^
1. hitestina, consisting of animals which are
simple in their structure, and most of which live wit]1^
other animals 5 such as the worms which infest the in¬
testines of man, quadrupeds, &c. though niamv 0
them are found in moist clay, and other damp *>J u
tions. . . < akedf11#,t
2. Mollusca, containing such animals a* have n
bodies, or are not furnislied with shells, but are>Pr0V1 r
ed with tentacula or arms, being mostly inhabitan s
the seJU ■ • Testaceay
H E L M I N T
a. Testacea, differing from the former in little more
1 oiT" than their being furnished with calcareous, shelly co-
t y—j verJngs, which they carry about with them, constituting
S the great variety of shell-fish, snails, &c.
1 acea' ZoopAyto,* containing such creatures as seem to
h ta. bear a resemblance both to plants and animals; being
2 ’ > fixed to one place by a sort of root, and shooting up in¬
to steins like plants, but possessing besides the powers
of animation, and partially of locomotion,
lia, S- Info80™0* comprising those animated beings ge-
' nerally called animalcules, that are found in most watery
liquors; especially in the infusions of vegetable sub¬
stances. ... . .. . i
Of these five orders, only four full to be paiticularly
considered in this article, the testacea having been al-
8 ready fully treated of under Conchology.
] mintho- The animals which we are about to desciibe are ge-
i'the nerally considered as the lowest in the scale of animated
1 timper'being. The simplicity of their form, the humility of
! ^ 0ttheir station, and the low degree of sense and motion
ory. which most of them enjoy, render them an object of
little attention to mankind in general, excepting in so
far as they contribute to the supply of their wants, or
render themselves formidable, by the pain and distress
which they occasion to those bodies which nature seems
to have destined for their habitation. But to the eye
of the naturalist, every part of nature becomes interest-
' ing, and this humble class of beings has, in later times,
attracted a considerable share of attention.
J,, Still, however, this part of natural history is much
kstudy.more imperfect than any other, and so it will probably
long remain, partly from the difficulty of prosecuting
our enquiries, and partly from the little interest which
a superficial observation of many of these animals is cal¬
culated to excite. It will not be thought extraordinary
that they are less known than other animals, when we
consider, that the examination of them does not offer
so many allurements as that of insects, birds, and the
more showy part of the animal creation, and is besides
impeded by much greater difficulties. Many of them
cannot be obtained without diving to the bottom of the
sea, or braving pain and danger in the pursuit. I he
furia infernalis attacks the searcher in the marshy plains
of Bothnia, and the sepia octopus stretches forth his
gigantic arms, to entangle and drag him to his watery
den. Hence the opportunities of examination are often
rare ; and from the changes which many of the species
undergo, we cannot always he certain whether one
which we may meet with hereafter be a new species, or
one which we have seen before. . .
This circumstance has occasioned several varieties to
be described as distinct species, and the same species to
be repeated under different names, to the great confusion
of the naturalist. Again ; the consistence of their bodies
is, in many cases, so soft, that they can scarcely be
preserved in our cabinets, and thus the observer is de-
HOLOGY. 331
prived of one of the chief sources of information and Innodoc-
reference, which, in other departments of the science, tion.
is so well calculated to assist bis studies. '
The study of helminthology, however, holds out
many inducements to the admirer of nature’s works, as tages at_
it affords an ample field for the gratification of his cu-tending
riosity, and may even be rendered subservient to the the study,
advancement of more solid and useful knowledge.
If we consider the number of animals, which na¬
turalists have included under the general name of
worms; if we observe the simplicity of form in some of
them, and the complicated structure of others ; in fine,
if we reflect on the various modes in which they are
propagated, and on the surprising faculty, which many
of them possess, of spontaneous reproduction : the ima¬
gination will be astonished with their number and va¬
riety, and confounded by their wonderful properties.
The waters are peopled with myriads of animated be-
ino-s, which, though invisible to our unassisted eyes,
are endowed with organs as perfect as the largest ani¬
mals, since, like these, they reproduce their like, and
hold in the scale of nature a rank as little equivocal,
though less obvious and obtrusive. The elegance of
form and beauty of colour, which some of the mollusca
and ‘zooplujta possess, must render them an object of ad¬
miration to the most indifieient observer.
The physiologist will derive considerable assistance in
explaining some obscure functions of the animal econo¬
my, from a comparative view of them in this humble
class of beings ; while the physician, by acquiring a
knowledge of the habitudes of such of them as infest
the bodies of man, will be the better able to ascertain
their presence, expel them from their habitation, or
counteract their effects. The geologist, though he
cannot admit the hypothesis of Buffon, that all the
limestone of this earth has been formed from the relicks
of corals and shell-fish, will yet here trace the origin
of many of the secondary strata, and from the wonder¬
fully rapid production of coral reefs, which we shall
notice towards the conclusion of this article, will find
little difficulty in accounting for the evolution of new
land from the hosom of the deep.
We shall divide the sequel of this article into two
chapters, the first of which will contain a general view
of the classification of the genera, and in the second
will be given the classification and natural history ot
the species. The latter will be subdivided into four
sections, corresponding to the four orders of intestina,
mollusca, zoophyta, and infusoria. As we are able to
devote but a small portion of our work to this subject,
we shall confine any particular description to those
species which are of most importance; and to relieve
the tediousness of systematic arrangement, we shall men¬
tion every thing worth notice under the genus or species
then under consideration.
T t 3 CHAP. I.
HELMINTHOLOGY.
332
Genera.
CHAP. I. CLASSIFICATION OF THE GENERA.
LINN ALUS, whose extensive genius has displayed
itself so eminently in almost every department of na-
. tural history, has, perhaps, failed more in this part of
the science than in any other. In the earlier edi¬
tions of the Systema Nature?, the individuals described
are comparatively few, and the characters of many of
them are imperfect or erroneous. These imperfections
must be attributed to the small progress which helmin¬
thology had made in the beginning of last century, as
the discoveries of succeeding naturalists have contribut¬
ed not only to increase the number of genera and spe¬
cies far beyond what were known at that time, but also
to improve their distinguishing characters.
M. Bruigiere, to whom this part of the Encyclopedic
Mcthodique was allotted, made several alterations in the
arrangement of Linnaeus, whose general classification
he has followed in the tabular view of the subject pre¬
fixed to the plates of helminthology. M. Bruigiere’s
work is entitled to much praise, and it is to be regret¬
ted that he did not live to complete his undertak-
ii. ing.
Classiiiea- The arrangement of these animals given by Cuvier,
of ^u* is in great esteem on the continent, and will probably,
when fully completed by future discoveries of that ce¬
lebrated naturalist, supersede the Linnoean classification.
Cuvier has given a tabular view of his classification, at
the end of the first volume of his Comparative Anatomy,
and a more detailed account in his Tableau Elcmentaire
d'Histoire Naturelle. He arranges the vermes of Lin¬
naeus under three heads ; Mollusca, Worms, and
Zoophytes. The following is a translation of the
tables. ♦
I. MOLLUSCA.
A. Head furnished with Tentacula that serve for Feet.
Family i. Cephalopoda.
a. Naked.
Sepia, comprehending the sepia, loligo, and octopus,
b. Testaceous.
Argonauta.
Nautilus.
B. Head free, and crawling on the belly.
Fam. 2. Gasteropoda.
a. Having no shell, or having the shell concealed by the
flesh.
Clio.
ScYLL^t.
Doris.
TfilTONIA.
Aiolia.
Phyllidia.
Thetis.
Limax.
Testacella. .
Segaretus.
Aplysia.
b. With an apparent Shell,
a. In several pieces. Multivalves.
Chiton.
/S. Conical. Conivalves.
Patella, comprehending fissurella, patella, crcpi-
dula, and calyptreea.
y. Spiral. Spirivalves.
i. With the Aperture entire.
Haliotis.
Nerita, comprehending nerita and narica.
Turbo, comprehending turbo, cyclostoma, and turre-
tella.
Vermitus.
Trochus, comprehending pyramidalis, trochus, mo-
nodonta, and solarium.
Bulla.
Helix, comprehending planorbis, helix ampullaria,
niclla?iia, bulimus, achatina.
2. With the Aperture sloped towards the bottom.
S glut a, comprehending valuta, mitra, columbella,
marginella, ancilla, and oliva.
OVULA.
Cypriea.
Conus.
Terebellum.
3. With the Aperture ending in a Canal.
Murex, comprehending cerithium, pleurotoma, fu-
sus, fasciolaria, pyrula, murex, and turbinella.
Strombus, comprehending strombus, pterocera, and
rostellaria.
Buccinum, comprehending cassidea, harpa, bucci-
num, terebra, purpura, and nassa.
C. Having no distinct Head.
Fam. 3. Acephala.
a. Having no Shells, but furnished with a membranous
leathery cloak.
Ascidia.
Salpa.
Pterotrachea.
Thalia.
b. With a cloak, and furnished with Shells.
x. Open anteriorly, having no reticulated Feelers, nor
ciliated arms.
1. Inequivalves.
Ostrea.
Lazarus.
Spondylus.
Placuna.
Anomia. *
Pecten.
2. Eyuivalves,
2. Equivalves, having a foot filed for crawling, with*
out tubes.
Anodontites.
UVA.
3. Equivalves with a, Foot constructed for spinning,
ivithout tubes.
Lima. -
Perna.
Avicula, comprehending avicula and malleus.
Mytilus, comprehending mytilus and modeolus.
Pinna.
4. Having tubes in the cloak, serving for an anus, and
for respiration, and a Foot frequently fittedfor spin¬
ning.
Tellina.
Cardium, comprehending cardium and isocavdia.
Mactra, comprehending mactra, lutraria, and cras-
satella.
Venus, comprehending venus, meretrix, cyclas, pa-
phia, and capsa.
Donax.
Chama, comprehending cardita, tridacna, and hip-
popus.
Arca, comprehending area, pertuticulus, nndnucula.
ft. Open at one extremity, which is perforated by the
foot, and prolonged towards the other end into a dou¬
ble tube.
Solen, comprehending solen and sanguilonaria.
Mya, comprehending mya, glycimeris, and cyrto-
daria.
Pholas, comprehending and gicenia.
Teredo, comprehending teredo and fistulana.
y. Open before, having neither foot nor tubes, but two
ciliated arms rolled into a spiralform.
Terebratula, comprehending terebratula, calceola,
and hyalcea.
Lingula.
Orbicula.
Open before, having neither feet nor tubes, except one
proceeding from the body, and furnished with feelers
that are horny, articulated, and arranged in pairs.
Anatifa.
Balanus.
II. WORMS.
A. Having external organs fittedfor respiration.
a. Furnished with bristles on the side of the body.
Aphrodita.
Ter,ebella.
Nereis.
Serpula.
Penicillus.
Siliquaria.
Amphitrite.
Dentalium.
no external organs of respiration,
a. IFith bristles on the sides of the body.
Nais.
Lumbricus.
Thalosoema.
b. Having no bristles on the sides of the body.
Hirudo.
Fasciola.
Planaria.
Gordius.
Cuvier is uncertain whether he should place the fol¬
lowing genera in the same class with the preceding, or
arrange them under a new class, next to the zoophytes.
Family r.
Taenia.
Hydatigena.
Ligula.
Linguatula.
Family 2.
Ascaris, and the other intestinalia.
III. ZOOPHYTES.
A. Hot attached.
a. Having a calcareous or leathery covering, and the in¬
testines floating in the internal cavity. Echinodermata.
Echinus, comprehending echinus, brissus, and spa-
tagus.
Asterias.
Holothuria.
SlPUNCULUS.
b. Having a fleshy or gelatinous covering, end the in¬
testines adhering within the body. Urtica marina.
Actinia, comprehending actinia and %aanthus.
Medusa, comprehending medusa, beroe, and rhizc-
stoma.
c. Very small, and found swimming in liquors. In¬
fusoria.
Rotifer.
Brachionus.
Trichocercus.
Trichoda.
Leucophrus, and the rest of the animacuia infu¬
soria.
c. Having a gelatinous body, and propagating by shoots
or branches. Polypa.
Hydra.
VORTICELLA.
B. Attached to a solid trunk,
a. Having the medullary substance traversing a horny
HELMINTHOLOGY.
B. Havini
H S L M 1 N '
Genera. axis, and terminating the tranches, in the form of
 v—^ Polypes. Zoophyta properly so called.
Floscularia.
Tubularia.
Capsularia.
Sertularia,
b. Having the polypes not collected to a medullary axis,
' but each inclosed in a horny or calcareous cell. Es-
cara.
Cellularia.
Flustra.
Cor allin a.
c. Having the solid axis covered with sensible flesh,
from the hollows of which the polypes proceed. Ce-
ratophyta.
Antifathes.
Gorgonia.
Cor allium.
Isis.
Pennatula.
Verticilium.
Umbellula.
’ HO L o G Y. Chap
Genei
d. Having cavities in the stony basis, for receptacles to ' *r
the Polypes. Lithopliyta.
Madrepora.
Millepora.
e. Having a spongy friable or fibrous basis. Sponges.
Alcyonium.
Spongia.
Since the publication of these tables, M. Cuvier
has made several alterations and additions to the class
of Mollusca, which are the subject of several excel¬
lent memoirs published in the Annales de ATuseum Na¬
tional; in particular he has formed a new order in this
class, to which he gives the following characters. Bo¬
dy free, swimming; head distincthaving no other
member butfns. In this order he arranges three ge¬
nera, the old genus Clio, and two new ones, which he
calls HYALE and PneumoDERME. _
As the arrangement ol Linnaeus is still that which is
most generally received, especially in this country, and
is therefore most familiar to our readers, we shall fol¬
low it in this article.
i*
Generic
characters.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
Of the iu-
testiua.
Ordo I. INTESTINAj animalia simplicia, nuda,
artubus destituta.
Order I. INTESTINA j animals simple, naked, and
destitute of limbs.
* Intra alia animaha degentia, ocuhs nulhs.
* Living within other animals, without eyes.
Gen. i. Ascaris. Corpus teres, utrinque attenu-
atum *, capite trinodi.
2. Trichuris. Corpus teres, posterius filiforme j
capite rostrato.
3. Filaria. Corpus filiforme totum.
4. Uncinaria. Corpus filiforme, elasticum ; capite
labiato, labiis membranaceis j cauda (/mf/zo?) aciformi,
fmaris') uncis duobus vesicse pellucidse inclusis armata.
5. Scolex. Corpus minimum, gelatinosum, opa-
cum ; capite exsertili et retractili, auriculis 4 pelluci-
dis.
6. Ligula. Corpus lineare, sequale, elongatum.
7. Linguatula. Corpus depressum, oblongum j
ore anterior! ostiis 4 cincto.
8. Strongylus. Corpus teres, elongatum j ante-
rius globoso-truncatum, apertura circulari margine ci-
liata j posterius {Jeminee) acuminatum, {maris) cucul-
latum. "
9. Echinorhynchus. Corpus teres 5 proboscide cy-
lindrica retractili aculeis uncinatis coronata.
10. ELeruca. Corpus teres j capite aculeis coro-
nato.
11. Cucullanus. Corpus posterius acuminatum}
anterius obtusum } ore orbiculari.
12. Caryophylljeus. Corpus teres, laeve, ore am¬
ple.
13. Fasciola. Corpus depressum, ovatum, poro
terminali et lateral!.
A. Body round, tapering both ways; head furnished
with three protuberances.
T. Body round, filiform behind} head furnished
with a proboscis.
F. Body entirely filiform.
U. Body filiform, elastic } head with membrana¬
ceous angular lips } tail of the female needle-shaped,
of the male armed with two hooks inclosed in a pellu¬
cid vesicle. s ,
S. Body minute, gelatinous, opake } head exsertile
and retractile, with 4 pellucid auricles.
L. Body linear, equal, and long.
L. Body depressed, oblong } mouth placed on the
fore part, and surrounded with 4 passages. - r
S. Body round, long ; the fore part globular and
truncate, with a circular aperture fringed at the mar¬
gin } hind part of the female pointed, of the male
hooded.
E. Body round } proboscis cylindrical, retractile,
and crowned with hooked prickles.
H. Body round } head crowned with prickles.
„ nr
C. Body pointed behind } the fore part obtuse, with
an orbicular mouth. -?i?
C. Body round, smooth, with a large dilated mouth.
rarH
F. Body depressed, ovate, with a terminal and late¬
ral pore. • .a n* tth !<*
^ 14.
2
hap. I. HELMINTHOLOGY.
Genera. 14. T^NIA. Corpus articulatum, depressutn ; an-
—v—^ terius tubulo 4-fido instructum.
1^, Furia. Corpus lineare, aculeis reflexis, utrin-
que ciliatum.
T. Body flat, jointed, furnished before with 4 ori-
fiees.
F. Body linear, with each side ciliated with reflect¬
ed prickles.
** Extra alia animalia habitantia.
t Poro laterali nullo.
16. Gordius. Corpus sequale, filiforme totum, te¬
res, Iteve. v- * " -' .
xy. Hirudo. Corpus anterius et postenus trunca-
tura, ore caudaque progrediendo dilatata.
% Poro laterali pertusa.
18. Lumbricus. Corpus teres, annulatum ; aculeis
eonditis. , ,,
19. Sipunculus. Corpus teres, rostro cyhndnco
angustato. f . . t ••■.'•h „■
20. Planaria. Corpus depressum, poro ventralJ.
Id o s
** Not inhabiting other animals.
-}- Having no lateral pore.
G. Body equal, filiform, round, and smooth.
H. Body truncate at each extremity j head and tail
dilated when in motion.
| Perforated with a lateral pore.
L. Body round, annulate, furnished with minute
hidden prickles.
S. Body round, with a cylindrical mouth, narrower
than the head.
P. Body flattened,1 with a ventral pore.
5f thcraol-Ordo II. MOLLUSC A. Animalia simplicia, ar- 1 OBofacII. MOLLUSCA. Animals simple, fornish.
««• tubus instructs. ed llmbs-
* Ore supero.
* - * l o-o . C : ; ....
21. Actinia. Apertura unica communi, dilatabili,
nuda, basi affixa. ,. n .1 ..
22. Clava. Apertura unica communi, dilatabih,
vertical!, tentaculis clavatis cincta.
23. Pedicellaria. Corpus pedunculatum, fixum j
pedunculo rigido. ,.
24. Mammaria. Apertura unica, cirris’Iiullis, lae-
vis. . .
25. Ascidia. Aperturis duabus, altera hummori
26. Salpa, Aperturis duabus, utraque terminal!.
27. Dagysia. Aperturis duabus j corpus angula-
tum.
** Ore antico.
28. Pterotrachea. Corpus pervium, gelatino-
sum, pinna mobili ad abdomen vel caudam.
290 Derris. Corpus teres, acuminatum articula¬
tum ; tentacula 2.
*** Corpore pertuso foraminula laterali.
* With the mouth placed above.
A. Body fixed, with a single terminal dilatable aper¬
ture, surrounded by tentacula.
C. Body fixed, with a single dilatable vertical aper¬
ture, Surrounded with clavate tentacula.
P. Body fixed and furnished with a rigid peduncle,
M. Body loose, smooth, with a single aperture with-
oert citri. .
A. Body fixed, with two apertures, one of which is
terminal, the other placed a little beneath.
S. Body loose, with two apertures, one at each end,
D. Body loose, angular, open at each end.
** Mouth placed before.
P. Body pervious, gelatinous, with a moveable fin
at the head or tail.
D. Body round, tapering, articulate ; feelers 2.
*** Body with a lateral perforation.
30. Limax. Tentacula 4. Anus communis cum
poro laterali.
31. Laplysia. Tentacula 4J anus supra poste-
riora.
32. Doris. Tentacula 2 ; anus supra posteriora.
33. Tethis. Foramina lateralia sinistra gemina.
*### Corpore tentaculis anticis cincto.
34. Holothuria. Tentacula carnosa.
35. Terebella. Tentacula capillaria.
* k
***** Corpore brachiata.
• ‘i .. .
36. Triton. Brachia 12, bipartita, quibu$dam che-
liferis.
L. Feelers 4 $ vent common with the lateral pore.
L. Feelers 4 > vent placed above the lower extre¬
mity.
D. Feelers 2 *, vent above the lower extremities.
T. Body with two small pores on the left side.
**** Body surrounded with feelers on the fore part.
H. Feelers fleshy.
T. Feelers capillary.
***** Body furnished with arms.
T. Arms 12, divided, some of them cbeliferous.
ST.
336
Geueia.
HELMINTHOLOGY.
37. Sepia. Brachia 8—10, instructa cotylis.
38. Clio. Brachia 2, aliformia, extensa.
39. Onchidium< Brachia 2, dilatata ad latera ca¬
pitis.
40. Lobaria. Corpus supra convexum, subtus pla¬
num, lobatum.
41. Lern^ea. Brachia 2—3, teritia, tennia.
42. Scyll^ea. Brachia 6, paribus remotis.
Chap!
S. Arms 8—10, beset with suckers. ^ene
C. Arms 2, dilated, extended like wings. v—-v
O. Arms 2, dilated, and placed at the sides of the
head.
L. Body convex above, flat below, lobate.
L. Arms 2—3, round and slender.
S. Arms 6, each pair at a distance.
****** Corpore pedato.
43. Aphrodita. Corpus ovale, ocellatum $ tenta-
cula duo, setacea, annulatum.
44. Amphitrite. Corpus tubo extrusum, annula¬
tum 5 tentacula pinnata, oculi o.
45. Spio. Corpus tubo extrusum, articulatum j ten¬
tacula duo simpliciaj oculi duo.
46. Nereis. Corpus elongatum repens 5 peduncu-
lis lateralibus pennicillatis 5 tentacula simplicia.
47. Nais. Corpus elongatum, repens ; pedunculis
setaceis simplicibus j tentacula nulla j oculi null! vel 2.
++f Ore infero, utplurimum cenirale.
48. Physsophora. Corpus geiatinosum, £ vesicula
aerea pendens.
49. Medusa. Corpus geiatinosum, Iseve.
50. Lucernaria. Corpus geiatinosum, rugosum,
brachiatum.
51. Asterias. Coriaceum, muricatum.
52. Echinus. Corpus crustaceum, aculeatum.
****** BqPjj furnished with feet.
A. Body oval, furnished with eyes j feeler 2, seta¬
ceous, annulate.
A. Body proceeding from a tube, and annulate ;
feelers feathered ; eyes wanting.
S. Body proceeding from a tube, and jointed j feel¬
ers 2, simple ; eyes 2.
N. Body long, creeping, with lateral pencilled pe¬
duncles ; feelers simple.
N. Body long, creeping ; peduncles furnished with
simple bristles 5 feelers none j eyes o or 2.
fff Mouth beneath, commonly central.
P. Body gelatinous, hanging by an air bubble.
M. Body gelatinous, smooth.
L. Body gelatinous, wrinkled, furnished with arms.
A. Body coriaceous, flat, generally radiate and mu-
ricate with papillae.
E. Body crustaceous, and covered with moveable
spines. ,
'5
Of the OrdoIV. ZOOPHYTA. Animalia composita, more
Zoophyte. vegetabilium, efflorescentia.
* Stirpe calcarea. Lithophyta.
53. Tubipora. Corallium tubis cylindricis.
54. Madrepora. Corallium, stellis concavis.
55. Millepora, Corallium, poris subulatis.
56. Cellepora. Corallium, cellulis cavis.
57. Isis. Stirps lapidea.
Order IV. ZOOPHYTES. Compound animals,
shooting up like vegetables.
* With a calcareous stem. Lithophyta.
T. Coral, with cylindrical tubes.
M. Coral, with concave stars.
M. Coral, with subulate pores.
C. Coral, with hollow cells.
I. Stem stony.
'** Stirpe molliore.
58. Antipathes. Stirps cornea, spinulis obsita,
carne gelatinosa tecta.
59. Gorgonia. Stirps cornea, carne cellulosa sen
vasculosa tecta.
60. Alcyonium. Stirps suberosa,
61. Spongia. Stirps stuposa, flexilis, bibula.
62. Flustra. Stirps porosissima.
63. Tubularia. Stirps tubularis, filiformis.
64. Corallina. Stirps articulis filiformibus cal-
careis.
f 65. Sertularia. Stirps articulis filiformibus fi¬
brosis.
66. Pennatula. Stirps coriacea, penniformis.
Hydra. Stirps medullosa, nuda.
** With a softer stem.
A. Stem horny, beset with small spines, and covered
with a fleshy gelatinous coat.
G. Stem horny, and covered with a cellular or fleshy
vascular coat.
A. Stem like cork.
S. Stem stringy, flexile, and bibulous.
F. Stem extremely porous.
T. Stem tubular, filiform.
C. Stem jointed, filiform, calcareous,
S. Stem jointed, filiform, fibrous.
P. Stem leathery, resembling a quill,
H. Stem medullous, naked.
3
Or»g
ap
ecics,
i. II.
HELMINTHOLOGY.
337
istina. Ordo V. INFUSOHIA. Animalia minima simpli- Order V. INFUSORIA. Animals extremely mi- SeS.
ftmra‘ nute and simple. v   *
ciora.
f Organis externis.
+ Furnished with external organs.
68. Brachionus. Corpus testa tectum, apice cilia*
turn.
Cp. VoRTlCELLA. Corpus nudum, apice ciliatum.
70. Trichoda. Corpus altera parte crinitum.
71. Ckrcaria. Corpus rotundatum caudatum.
72. Leucophra. Corpus undique ciliatum.
B. Body covered with a shell, and ciliate at the tip,
V. Body naked, and ciliate at the tip.
T. Body hairy on one side.
C. Body rounded and furnished with a tail.
L. Body everywhere ciliate.
ft Organis externis nullis.
73. Gonium. Corpus angulatum.
74. Colpoda. Corpus sinuatum.
75. Paramesium. Corpus oblongum.
76. Cyclidium. Corpus orbiculare vel ovatum.
77. Bursaria. Corpus cavum.
78. Vibrio. Corpus elongatum.
79. Enchelis. Corpus cylindraceum.
80. Bacillaria. Corpus ex trabeculis in varias
formas accommodatis compositum.
81. Volvox. Corpus sphericum,
82. Monas. Corpus punctiforme.
ft Without external or gams.
G. Body angular.
C. Body sinuate.
P. Body oblong.
C. Body orbicular or ovate.
B. Body hollow.
V. Body elongated.
E. Body cylindraceous.
B. Body composed of straight straw-like filaments,
in position.
V. Body spherical.
M. Body a mere point.
CHAP. II. CLASSIFICATION AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPECIES.
SECT. I.
Order. I. INTESTINA.
LINNiEUS gave the name of intestina to this order,
from the circumstance of their living in concealed situ¬
ations: while others have denominated these worms in¬
testinal, from the ordinary habitation of many of them 5
viz. the intestines of other animals. As all of this or¬
der, however, do not live in these situations, the term
is not strictly proper. It would perhaps be better to
follow the example of Goeze, and arrange all the pa¬
rasitical worms in a separate order.
The most esteemed works on the subject of the intes¬
tina, are those of Pallas, lUe infestis viventibus intra
inuentia ; Muller, Ilistoria vermium; Bloch, a work
in German, afterwards translated into French ; Goeze,
who also published in German j Werner, Lamarck, La-
treille ; and two papers by our countrymen Mr Carlisle
and Dr Hooper, which will be mentioned particularly
hereafter.
Anatomists have not examined a sufficient number of
these animals, to render an account of their general
structure either accurate or interesting ; but we shall
take occasion to detail that of some of the more impor¬
tant species under their proper heads.
Tiere is nothing in the economy of animals more
obscure, than the origin of those intestinal worms which
inhabit within other animals. Were they found to live
out of these animals, it might easily be supposed that
then- ovula were taken with the food and drink into the
body, and there gradually evolved into perfect worms.
^ OL.X. Part I. f
This, however, is not the case ; most of them do not
seem capable of living for any length of time in any
other situation than within a living animal body, which
appears to he the proper place for their growth and re¬
sidence. We might hence be led to another supposi¬
tion ; that these worms are really formed from the mat¬
ter within the intestines, which had previously no re¬
gular organization, were not this idea widely ditferent
from all analogy in the production of animals, where
there has been any proper opportunity of examining
this production. The origin, therefore, of these anf-
mals is a subject of much obscurity. Dr Baillie is of
opinion, that when the whole evidence in support of
both hypotheses is compared, the grounds for believing
that, in some orders of animals, equivocal generation
takes place, appear stronger than those for a contrary
opinion *. ' * UorhU
Anatomy,
I. ASCARIS. chap. vui.
Body round, elastic, and tapering towards each extre- Asc ais.
mity j and furnished with three vesicles; tail either
subulate or obtuse ; intestines spiral, white, and pel¬
lucid.
This tribe is one of the most numerous of these para¬
sitical worms, late dissections having discovered species
of it in a great variety of animals, quadrupeds, birds,
fishes, insects, and even worms themselves. The most
important are those which inhabit the human intestines;
and to these we shall chiefly confine our attention, avail¬
ing ourselves of the excellent paper on these worms itv-
serted by Dr Hooper in the 5th volume of the Memoirs
of the Medical Society of London.
U u A. Infesting
338
Spteies. A. Infesting? Man,
lotQstina.
Head slightly curved inwards, with
lumbri- contraction beneath it; mouth triagular.
caides. and 2. , .
When full grown, they are from I 2 to 15 inches in
length ; and in circumference equal to that of a goose
quill.
The head is to be distinguished from the tail by a
small contraction, very obvious when the worm is lying
p]ale down ; it is trilobated, having three vesicles and a
CCLI. triangular aperture, between which is the mouth.
%• 1. These three globose papillae are joined together at their
basis, and are of the same colour as the rest of the
worm.
The tail may be known from the bead by its very
acute termination, close to which is a large orifice, the
extremity of the intestinal canal, which may be termed
the anus.
The body is that part between the two extremities,
forming nearly the whole of the worm ; it puts on a
rugose appearance, and has a line very apparent run¬
ning on each side, and extending from one end to the
other. Between these two lines are two other lines
running parallel with the former, scarcely visible. Near
the middle of the body (rather towards the head) is a
circular depression of about one-fourth of an inch in ex¬
tent, in which is a very small punctiform aperture.
This depressed band is irregular in its appearance, when
the body of die worm is distended, although it would
appear to be wanting wdien collapsed, in which state it
mostly escapes from the intestines.
They generally infest the small intestines, and of
these more frequently the course of the jejunum and
ileum. Sometimes they are known to ascend through
the duodenum into the stomach, and are frequently
seen to creep out at the mouth and nostrils ; it happens
but rarely that they descend into the large intestines,
and only after the exhibition of worm medicines, or
from other causes, which increase the peristaltic motion.
They have also been detected, after death, in the com¬
mon biliary duct, and instances are related where they
have remained a considerable time in the gall bladder.
They are in general very numerous, and Dr Hoop¬
er relates an instance of above two hundred having
been voided in the course of a week. Thirty or forty
is a very common number, but now and then only one
is found.
When recently excluded they are transparent, and
appear as if they had been sucking water tinged with
y.y blood ; this colour, however, soon disappears, and they
become at length of a light and opaque yellow.
When voided they are in general very feeble and
soon die, but when suddenly expelled, they sometimes
appear very lively. Their motion is serpentine, but is
not produced by the diminution of the length of the
animal by contraction. The head is sent forward by
the worm curling inself into circles, and suddenly ex¬
tending itself with considerable force to some distance.
This species does not, like most of this order, appear
to be hermaphrodite, but the male and female are said
to be distinct worms.
The covering or external membrane of the worm,
which may be considered as the cuticle, is very strong
elastic, thin, smooth, and transparent ; and easily sepa-
Z
Chap
rates from the parts beneath, if the worm be macerated Spec; ,1
a few days after death in water. _ IntesiL •
Under the cuticle, lies the cutis, or true skin, which v •>
is considerably thicker than the former, and retains the
marks of the muscles which it covers. It is also very
strong, elastic,-and transparent.
When the cutis is removed, the muscles, observable
through the skin of the worm, present themselves.
They do not entirely surround the worm, as trom their
appearance one would be induced to believe ; but are,
in fact, two distinct orders acting in opposition to each
other ; for the two longitudinal lines, which extend
from one extremity of the worm to the other, are each
of them composed of two distinct tendons, separable
from one another. These tendons serve for the attach¬
ment of the circular muscles, which cover the worm
from the head to the tail.
Upon removing carefully the semilunar muscles from
the head to the depressed band, a number of minute
vesicles are to be seen (by means of a glass) filled with
a submucous fluid, which issues out upon puncturing
them.
This cellular or parenchymatous apparatus, closely
embraces the intestinal tube from the head to the de¬
pressed band ; but from thence to the tail, there is
merely a fibrous connecting substance, similar to what
is generally called cellular membrane.
W hen the muscles are removed from the depressed
band to the tail of the worm, an extremely delicate
membrane presents itself, analogous to the peritoneum,
for it embraces the abdominal viscera, and lines the
cavity of the abdomen.
The cavity of the abdomen extends from the de¬
pressed band near the middle of the worm to the tail ;
it is mostly distended with a transparent fluid, and
contains the intestinal tube and an apparatus supposed
to be subservient to generation, which consitute the
abdominal viscera.
The intestinal canal begins at the obtuse extremity
or head, from the external triangular mouth situated
between the three globose papillae, and is continued for
a small space downwards (nearly half an inch) in a pa¬
rallel form. Having attained the size of a crow quill,
it passes in a straight direction (and gradually enlarges
as it advances) through the whole length of the worm,
to within the eighth part of an inch, where it becomes
suddenly narrower, and terminates in the anus.
This canal is generally filled with a greenish-colour¬
ed fluid, of the consistence of mucus, and not very un¬
like the meconium of infants.
If a portion of this tube be macerated for a few
days in water, it exhibits distinct coats, the external of
which is a production of the peritoneum ; it is external¬
ly covered with filaments, which connect it to the ab¬
dominal parietes. The second viscus is considered by
some as peculiar only to the female worm, but all agree,
that it is for the purpose of generation. It begins near
the middle of the worm, where the cavity of the abdo¬
men commences, by a slender tube, which is continued
from the punctiform aperture, situated in the depressed
band between the two longitudinal lines. This tube,
which is termed the vagina, soon becomes much larger,
when it commences uterus, and divaricates into two
large crura, which, for the space of four or five inches,
are continued of an uniform diameter ; they then on a
sudden
HELMINTHOLOGY.
a transverse
Fig. 1.
Lap. II. H E L M I N
iccics sudden, become much diminished in size, and appear
estinal. like opake threads, embracing in every direction, the
intestinal tube. These are by Werner considered as
the fallopian tubes.
This convoluted apparatus is composed of very fine
transparent membranes. It is never found empty, but
is always distended with an opaque fluid, in which are
a number of globular bodies, or ovula, containing young
worms.
It has been supposed by some that these worms are
viviparous •, an opinion which seems to have arisen
from mistaking the nature'of an appearance that not
unfrequently takes place ; viz. a protrusion of the gy¬
rated apparatus above described, the filaments of which
look Very much like young worms. A convincing proof
of their being oviparous is alforded by the fact, that
ovula, differing in no respect from those found in the
uterus of the worm, have been found in the mucus of
the intestines by which they are surrounded.
This species was long considered as the same with the
common earth worm, to he mentioned presently. There
are, however, many striking differences, which will be
enumerated under that species.
■ermi- Head subulate-, skin at the sides of the body very
'aris. finelv wrinkled. Vid. fig. 3. and 4.
;.3, When full grown, it is about half an inch long, and
14* in thickness resembles a fine piece of thread. The body
forms about a third part of the length of the animal, be¬
ginning immediately from the head, and terminating in
the tail, which is distinguished by its gradually dimi¬
nishing. The worm is wrinkled, annular, and pellucid.
The tail terminates in a fine point *, and when viewed
with a magnifying glass, appears furnished with wrinkles
or thick firm rings, and at its beginning there is a
small opening through which the excrements pass.
They are most commonly situated in the rectum, and
are continually passing away. They are frequently met
with in the coecum and colon, and have been found
in the stomach and small intestines, lying hid between
their coats. They are generally in considerable num¬
bers, especially in the rectum of children; when they
inhabit other parts, their numbers are less considerable,
though above an hundred have been known to be vo¬
mited from the stomach of a young woman in the course
WtlSoc. Qf a (|ay-|-.
Their natural colour is a pale yellow, though they
are often observed of a pale green, or occasionally of a
brown colour.
When the animal wishes to shift his place, he first
moves his head, which he turns in every direction,
sometimes in a circle, at others so as to form the figure
eight; most commonly its tail appears fixed, while it
turns its body sometimes to one side, and sometimes to
another. They are extremely lively, and have been
seen to bury themselves almost instantaneously in the
soft faeces of children, when they are exposed to the air.
By some they are said to jump from one place to ano¬
ther ; and hence the name ascarides, or leaping worms,
from xo-xctgt^uv, to leap.
These animals are certainly male and female, and,
unlike the last species, they are viviparous.
The integuments of this species resemble those of the
last, hut there do not appear to be any longitudinal
bands on its surface. The cavity, in which the bowels
are situated, begins at a very small distance from the
m. vol,
p. 284.
T H O L O G Ye 339
head, and terminates at the commencement of the tail. Species.
The only viscera in the male worm are the gullet, the Intestina.
stomach, and the intestine. The gullet begins at the v-”*”'
mouth, from which it gradually enlarges for a small
space, till it terminates in the stomach. This is a round¬
ish hag, forming with the gullet, an organ shaped like
the pestle of a mortar. The intestinal canal is conti<*
nued, more or less contracted or dilated, till it termi¬
nates in the anus. The contents of this canal are al¬
ways of a dark brown colour.
Besides these organs, the female has an apparatus ap¬
propriated to generation. It begins by a slender tube
leading from a very small opening that is situated near¬
ly in the middle of the body of the worm. It soon be¬
comes much larger, embraces the intestinal tube in every
direction, and fills up the cavity of the worm. It is
nearly of an equal size throughout, and when viewed
with a microscope, it appears like a bladder distended
with living worms.
Various mammalia are also infested with ascarides,
of which the following species are enumerated.
A. vespertilionis, found in the long-eared bat; pho-manwia-
cec, found in several species of seal ; bifida, inhabiting Hum.
the phoca Greenlandica, or Greenland seal ; * canis,
in the intestines of the dog ; visceral!^, in the kidneys
of the same animal ; lupi, in the wolf; vulpis, in the
fox ; leonis, found under the skin of the lion ; tigridis,
in the intestines of the tiger; felis and cati, both found
in the cat; martis, in the intestines of the martin;
bronchialis, in the lungs, and renalis, in the kidneys
of the same animal; mephitidis, in the viscera of the
skink ; gulonis, in the glutton ; talpse, in the mole ;
muris, in the mouse; hire!, in the goat ; vituli, in the
lungs of cattle ; * equi, in the horse; suis, in the in¬
testines of swine, and apri, in the lungs of the boar.
The following species are found in birds.
A. Aquilae, in the eagle; albicillse, in the intestines
of the falco alhicilla; buteonis, in the buzzard ; milvi,
in the kite; suhhutecnis, in the hobby ; hermaphrodita,
in the psittacus sestivus ; cornicis, of the crow ; coracis,
in the skin about the throat of the roller ; cygni, in the
swan; anatis, in the wild duck: fuligulae, in the tufted
duck ; * carbon is, in the corvorant; * pelicani, in the
shag ; lari, in the gull ; ciconise, in the stork ; tardi,
and the papillosa, in the intestines of the buzzard ; gal-
lopavium, in the turkey ; galli, in young fowls ; gallinae,
in the hen ; phasiani, in the phasianus pictus ; tetrao-
nis, in the grouse ; columbm, in the house pigeon ;
alaudse, in the lark ; sturni, in the starling, and turdi,
in the thrush.
The following infest reptiles.
A. testudinis, the round tortoise ; lacertae, the newt;reptilium,
hufonis, the toad ; pulmonalis, the lungs of the toad ;
rubetrse, also in the toad and natterjack ; trachealis, in
the lungs of the toad ; ranee and intestinalis, found in
the intestines of frogs; dyspneos, in the lungs of frogs,
so as to impede their respiration; and insons, also
found in the lungs of frogs, but without impeding their
breathing.
The following infest fish.
Anguillse, found in the eel ; * marina, in herrings,
bleaks, and other fish ; blennii, in the blenny ; rhom-
hi, in the pearl ; perem, in the perch ; glohicola^ found
in the three-spined stickle-back; * lacustris, in the
stickle-back. and pike ; siluri, in the silurus glanis ;
U u 2 farionis,
34°
Species-
Inte^tina
lumbriei.
* Animal
'Biography
yoI. lii.
p. 490.
.
Trieburis.
* homi~
nis.
P'ff* .V
ttud 6.
H E L M I N T
farioni?, in the trout ; truttoe, in the trout j muraenee,
in the salmo mursena ; acus, in the common pike ; ha-
lecis, in the herring *, argentinae, in the argentine or
silver fish ; gobionis, in the liver of the gudgeon j rajae,
in the tail ray j squalte, in the shark j and lophii, in
the gullet of the frog fish.
One species, viz.. A. lumbrici, is found in lumbrici,
between the skin and humours, though it is so small, as
to he visible only by means of a microscope.
The species of ascaris already known, amount to
about eighty.
“ We are not to suppose (says Mr Bingley) that
these worms are created for the purpose of producing
disease in the animals they inhabit, hut rather, that
nature has directed that no situation should be vacant,
where the work of multiplying the species of living
creatures could be carried on. By thus allowing them
to exist within each other, the sphere of increase is
considerably enlarged. There is, however, little doubt
that worms, and more especially the tape worms (fo be
presently described}, do sometimes produce diseases in
the body they inhabit $ but we are at the same time
very certain, that worms do exist abundantly in many
animals without at all disturbing their functions, or an¬
noying them in the slightest degree; and we ought to
consider all the creatures rather as the concomitants
than the causes of disease
2. Trichuris.
Body round, elastic, and variously twisted ; head much
thicker than the other part, and furnished with a
slender, exsertile proboscis ; tail long, capillary, and
tapering to a fine point.
Body above slightly crenate, smooth beneath, and
very finely streaked on the fore part. Vid. fio-. r
and 6. - S
The body, when full grown, equals in breadth the
one-sixteenth ot an inch. In length the whole worm
measures nearly two inches, two-thirds of which are
tail, hence the French call it le ver a queue.
The large extremity of the trichuris is the head, out
of which proceeds a kind of proboscis, not always vi¬
sible j for the animal has the power of ejecting and
drawing within itself this instrument at pleasured
The body may be said to begin at the basis of the
proboscis j it is the thickest part of the worm, and the
most so at the extremity, where the proboscis is receiv¬
ed. It gradually diminishes in size as it proceeds, and
forms about one-third of its length.
The tail commences whete the body terminates. It
is twice as long as the body, and appears like a fine
hair, gradually becoming smaller, and at length termi¬
nates in a very fine point.
Upwards of twenty have been seen in some feces of
a child aix years old, and according to the account of
BJumenbach, they are, in general, in considerable num¬
ber.
Wrisberg, Blumenbach, and others, have found these
worms in the intestinum rectum, in the inferior part of
the ileum, and also in the jejunum, mixed with their
pultaceous contents. They have seldom, if ever, been
seen after death, but in the coecum. In colour it re¬
sembles the ascaris vermicularis.
Gotze has given a drawing of a female trichuris, and
H O L O G Y. Chap.J,
says it has no proboscis, which he supposes to be the Spec
male organ of generation ; but as there is no material Intcs i,
difference in the viscera of particular individuals, Dr  ^
Hooper is inclined to doubt the fact.
This curious and singular animal is supplied, like
the foregoing genus, with annular muscles, cutis, and
cuticle.
The proboscis, which is undoubtedly the head of the
worm, appears to be formed of a transparent substance,
and contains a canal which is continued through the
pulpy or funnel-like portion to the stomach and intes¬
tine.
The stomach and intestine are formed by a long ca¬
nal, which proceeds in a direct line from the head to
the very extremity of the worm. It is largest at its
beginning, and continues of the same size throughout
the body ol the animal j and when arrived at the place
where the tail commences, it suddenly becomes con¬
siderably less in diameter, and terminates in the
anus.
The remaining viscus, or ovarium, is a convoluted
canal, similar to that ol the female vermicular ascaris,
but is seldom found embracing the intestinal tube.
1 he contents ol this canal are ovula and a limpid
fluid. Ihere have seldom been seen any yoiinw
worms
Besides the above species, five others have been de- Med. S
scribed; viz. T. equi, found in the intestines of thumamr^
horse ; apri, in the boar ; muris, in the mouse; vulpis,ww».
in the fox; and lacerta, in the lacerta apus.
3. Filaria.
Filaiia
Body round, filiform, equal, and quite smooth ; mouth
dilated, with a roundish concave lip.
I he most important species of this genus is the Y.medW’
medinensis, or guinea worm. Gmelin has arranged J/'-J or r-
the animal as a filaria, though Linnaeus makes it a spe-neauan,
cies ot goidius, in which he is followed by Bruigiere
and Barbut. Mr Bingley, in his Animal Biography,
chooses to consider it as the same with the furia infer-
nalis ot^ Linnaeus, a species to be mentioned by and
bye. The trench call it dragonneau, and the older
medical writers, dracunculns. It is characterised by
having the body entirely of a pale yellow colour. It
inhabits both the Indies and the coast of Guinea, and
is said commonly to make its appearance in the morn¬
ing dew. It enters the feet and other exposed parts of
the slaves, and occasions very troublesome symptoms.
It attacks most parts of the body ; but is generally
confined to the lower extremities, particularly to the
leet and ancles. The disease is more painful and dan¬
gerous when seated in parts thinly covered with flesh,
such as. near the joints, tendons, and ligaments, and
less so in muscular parts. It is always difficult to ex¬
tract the worm from the ancles, tarsus, and metatarsus,
and sometimes impossible from the toes. The conse¬
quences frequently are, tedious suppurations, contrac-
tions ot the tendons, diseased joints, and gangrene.
When pulled, the worm often excites a pain which it
is not easy to describe, and which, in these parts, is
extremely exquisite. It seems to attach itself to the
nerves, ligaments, and tendons, and when pulled even
with the slightest force, excites excruciating pain. The
tiack of the animal appears to be lor the most part con¬
fined
hap. IT. HELMINTHOLOGY.
fined to the cellular membrane, and probably seldom
extends deeper, or penetrates into the interstices of the
muscles.
The disease produced by this animal is a species of
inflammation, which sometimes is very troublesome, and
now and then is said to terminate in mortification. The
worm sometimes appears at first like a hair, and be¬
comes thicker as it is drawn from below the skin. It
generally has a sharp point, and is otherwise ail of the
same thickness. It may sometimes be felt below the
skin, like the string of a violin. Various causes are
assigned for the generation of this worm, but in the
countries where it is usually found, it is thought to be
generated by drinking impure water. It is more pro¬
bable that it insinuates itself from without.
The method commonly employed for extracting this
animal is, to search for its extremity in the inflamed
part, where there is usually an ulcer, and this is to be
drawn out gently, and wrapt round a piece of linen
rag, when the pulling is continued very gently till the
worm makes so much resistance that there is great dan¬
ger of breaking it, an accident which is said to be at¬
tended with very bad consequences, as the remaining
part of the worm becomes more irritating, and produces
a more violent degree of inflammation. When no more
will easily come away, the part already extracted, rol¬
led round the rag, is left to dry, the part covered from
the air, and the operation is repeated occasionally till
the whole worm is withdrawn.
mmah- Four species of filaria are found in some of the mam-
6. Ligula.
341
Species
Intestina.
Body linear, equal, long; the fore part obtuse, the at
hind part acute, with an impressed dorsal suture. Idgula,
There are two species of this genus, viz. intesti-
nahs and abdominalis, infesting several varieties of
fish.
7. Linguatula.
Body depressed, oblong ; mouth placed before, sur¬
rounded with four passages.
Of this genus there is only one species, viz. serrata,
found in the lungs of the hare.
8. Strongylus.
Body round, long, pellucid, glabrous; the fore part
globular, truncate, with a circular aperture fringed
at the margin ; the hind part of the female entire
and pointed, of the male dilated into loose, distant,
pellucid membranes.
There are two species, viz. equinus,
numbers in the intestines of the horse,
those of sheep.
32
Linguatnla
23
Strongylm.
found in great
and ovinus in
mm.
'(cto-
m.
|9
cinaria.
SiJ
malia, viz. F. equi, in the cellular membrane of the
horse; leonis, in the lion; maitis in the martin; and
leporis, in the hare.
Five infest birds, viz. F. falconis, the hawk ; strigis,
the owl ; cornicis, the crow ; ciconioe, the stork ; and
gallinae, the intestines of poultry.
The following infest perfect insects, viz.
F. scarabsei, the scarabseus semitarcus ; silphae, in
the silpha obscura ; carabi, in the carabus ; grylli, in
the cricket, and monoculi, in the monoculus apus.
Thirteen are found in the larvae of various species of
insects.
There are about 2S species of this genus distinguished
in the Si/stema Nat nr a.
4. Uncinaria.
Body filiform, elastic, the fore part obscurely tubercu-
late, with membranaceous angular lips ; tail of the
female ending in a fine point, of the male armed
with two cuspidate hooks enclosed in a pellucid ve¬
sicle.
Of this genus there are only two species ; viz. melis,
found in the intestines of the badger; and vulpis, in
those of the fox.
5. SCOLEX.
Body gelatinous, variously shaped, broadish on the fore
part and pointed behind ; sometimes linear and long,
sometimes wrinkled and short, round, flexuous, or
depressed ; the head protrusile and retractile.
This genus also contains two species; viz. pleuro-
nectidis, and lophii, both found in several species of
fish.
9. Echinorynchus.
Body round ; proboscis cylindrical, retractile, and
crowned with hooked prickles.
F cbiu orya-
chus.
This is a very numerous genus, and is found in a
great variety of animals, generally in their intestines,
to which they are found very firmly fixed, often re¬
maining on the same spot during the whole life of the
animal. They are commonly gregarious, and are to
be d istinguished from the lamia, to be presently describ¬
ed, by their having the body round, and destitute of
joints.
Four species infest the mammalia, viz. E. phocae, tf/a/nma*
found in great numbers in the intestines of the harp and Hum.
rough seal, so as sometimes nearly to devour them : tu-
bifer, in the stomach of the harp seal ; gigas, in swine,
especially those kept in styes; and balence, in the in¬
testines of the whale.
14 infest birds, viz. E. buteonis, the buzzard; scopis, av{um
in the strix scopo ; aluconis, in the strixaluco ; strigis,
in the tawney owl ; pici, in various species of picus ;
borealis, in the eider duck ; boschadis, in the common
duck ; anatis, in the velvet duck ; mergi, in the mer-
gus minutus; alcse, in the auk ; ardese, and gazse, in
the ardea alba, or white heron ; vanillae, in the lap¬
wing, and merulus, in the blackbird and tree spar¬
row.
Two infest reptiles, viz. E. ranee, the frog; and fal- reptilium,
catus, the salamander.
28 infest fish ; viz. E. anguillae, the eel; xiphia, thepiscinm.
sword-fish; candidus, found in several species of fish ;
lineolatus, in the cod ; longicolli, in the torsk ; pleu-
ronectis, in the turbot ; attenuatus, in the flounder; an-
nulatus, in the father-lasher, torsk, and bream ; plates-
soidae, in the pleuronectes platessoides ; percae, in the
perch ; cernuae, in the ruffe ; cobites, in the bearded
loach ; salmonis, in the salmon ; sublobatus, and qua-
drirostris, found also in salmon ; truttae, in the trout ;
muraenae.
342
Specie#.
Intestina.
25
Ilssnica.
26
Cuculiauus.
mamma-
liurn.
ranee.
piscium.
*7
Carjophy]-
liseus.
5 8
Fasciola.
hominis.
ma?7i7na-
liuni.
Jiepalica
orfluke.
HELMINTHOLOGY. ChaplJ,
mursenje, in the salmo m 11 r sen a 5 lucii, in the pike ; ar-
gentinae, in the argentine ; alosa, in the shad ; barbi,
in the barbel ; carpionis, in the carp ; idbari, in the
cyprinus idbarus ; affinis, in the roach j rutili, also
found in the roach, but seldom ; bramse, in the bream j
lophii, in the frog-fish, and sturionis, in the sturgeon.
There are in all about 48 species.
10. ILeruca.
Body round, the fore part two-necked, and surrounded
with a single row of prickles •, proboscis none.
There is only one species, viz. H. muris, found in
the intestines of the mouse.
II. CUCULLANUS.
Body sharp, pointed behind, and obtuse before ; mouth
orbicular, with a striate hood.
There are eight species, three of which are found in
various mammalia, viz. C. talpee and ocreatus in the
mole 5 and muris in the mouse.
One infests birds, viz.
C. buteonis, commonly found in the buzzard.
One, viz.
C. range, is found in the intestines of the frog.
Several varieties under the common name of lacus-
tris, and two others, called ascaroides, and murinus,
are found in various species of fish.
12. Caryophylijeus.
Body round $ mouth dilated and fringed.
There is only one species, called caryophylkeus pis-
cium, found in various species of fishes.
1 '
13. Fasciola.
Body fiattish, with an aperture or pore at the head, and
generally another at a distance beneath, seldom a
single one.
Cuvier remarks, that the body of the fasciola is ex¬
tremely fiat. They appear to be hermaphrodite, and
are oviparous. They are found in almost every species
of animals.
One is found in man, though rarely, viz. fasciola
hominis.
Twelve in various species of the mammalia, viz. vul-
pis, in the intestines of the fox j putorii, in those of the
pole-cat $ melis, in those of the badger j vespertilionis,
in the intestines of the long-eared bat; *hepatica, in
the livers of sheep; bourn, in those of cattle; porco-
rum, in the liver of swine ; apri, in that of the boar ;
elaphi, in the stomach of the stag.
Of these, the most important is the fasciola hepatica,
or fluke, which is so common in the liver of sheep, in
wliich it is supposed to be the principal cause of the rot.
—This species is about an inch long, broadest on the
fore-part, which is furnished with a large mouth. It
terminates in a tube; the back is marked with a row of
about eight longitudinal furrows. It is generally found
fixed by two points, one at one extremity, and another
at about the middle of the abdomen. It bears some re¬
semblance to the seed of the common gourd, whence it SpC ,s
is often called the gourd worm. Inte; ia.
The opinion of flukes being the cause of the rot, has «j
been ably controverted by several writers, especially by
Dr H arrison. On this subject, see the article Far¬
riery, N° 526. This opinion is supposed to be cor¬
roborated by a circumstance related in the first volume
of the Monthly Magazine, page IOI. of a jelly-like
substance being found among the grass, in a pasture
that was notorious for rotting sheep. This substance
bore a striking resemblance to the flukes found in the
liver of rotten sheep; but we are afterwards told, that
having been washed into a ditch, and attended to daily,
it was, in process of time, transformed into a small snail,
with an ash-coloured spiral shell. It is therefore pro¬
bable that it was not flukes ; and indeed there is no
well authenticated instance of these animals having
been found out of the bodies of sheep, except when it
could be proved, that they had been vomited by those
animals.
Nine species of fasciola are found in birds, viz. avtu
F. bilis, in the gall duct of the eagle ; buteonis, in
the buzzard; milvi and strigis, in the intestines of the
kite ; pusilla, found in the thorax of the strix alba ;
anatis, in tbe duck ; anseris, in the goose; gruis, in the
crane ; and ardese, in the bittern.
Three species infest reptiles, viz. reptmu
F. salarnandri, the salamander; range, the common
frog, and uncinulata, the esculent frog.
21 inhabit various kinds of fish, viz. pisciys
F. Binod is, disticha, anguillse, scabra, eglefini, blen-
nii, scorpii, platessge, luciopercoe, percse, lugeena, clava-
ta, varica, eriocis, farionis, trutta, umblse, lucii, halecis,
* bramge, jesis.
One, viz.
F. ioliginis, inhabits the sepia loligo, or cuttle fish, lolig 's.
14* Tenia. T*n:
Body usually flat, and composed of numerous articula¬
tions ; head with four orifices for suction, which are
seated a little below the mouth ; mouth terminal,
continued by a short tube into two ventral canals,
and generally crowned with a double series of re¬
tractile hooks.
Ihe species of this genus, which are very numerous,
are distributed into three sections, according to the si¬
tuation which they inhabit in various animals, &c.
A. Fou7id i7i other parts besides the intestines, and fur¬
nished with a vesicle behind.
Hie species of this section are commonly known to
medical writers by the name of hydatids, from the
bladders, of which they are chiefly composed, being
filled with a watery fluid. < ,
I he following inhabit various specimens of mamma-vlSC *
lia ; I. visceralis, pisiform, inclosed in a vesicle, broad0*’ ‘ a
on the fore part, and pointed behind.—Found in the 4
liver, placenta, kidneys, sacs containing dropsical
fluids, and other morbid tumours in man.
I here is no gland in the human body in which hy¬
datids are so frequently found as the liver, exeept the
kidneys, where they are still more common. Hydatids
of the liver are usually found in a cyst, which is fre¬
quently of considerable size, and is formed of very firm
materials,
$
r
\
hap. II.
HELMINTHOLOGY.
'tf
pedes, materials, so as to give to tlie touch almost the feeling
itestina. of cartilage. This cyst, when cut into, is obviously la-
—v~—/ minated, and is much thicker in one liver than ano¬
ther. An some livers, it is not thicker than a shilling,
and in others, it is near a quarter of an inch in thick¬
ness. The laminae which compose it are formed of a
white matter, and on the inside there is a lining of a
pulpy substance, like the coagulable lympb. In a cyst
may be found one hydatid, or a greater number of
them. They lie loose in the cavity, swimming in a
fluid ; or some of them are attached to the side of the
cyst. They consist of a round hag, which is composed
of a white, semi-opaque, pulpy matter, and contain a
fluid capable of coagulation. Although the common
colour of hydatids be white, yet they are seen occasion¬
ally of a light amber. The bag of the hydatid consists
of two laminae, and possesses a good deal of contractile
power. In one hydatid, this coat or bag is much
thicker and more opaque than in another, and even in
the same hydatid different parts of it will often differ in
thickness. On the inside of an hydatid, smaller ones
are sometimes found, which are commonly not larger
than the heads of pins, but sometimes they are even lar¬
ger than a gooseberry. These are attached to the lar¬
ger hydatid, either at scattered irregular distances, or
so as to form small clusters •, and they are also found
floating loose in the liquor of the larger hydatids. Hy¬
datids of the liver are often found unconnected with
each other 5 but sometimes they have been said to in¬
close each other in a series, like pill-boxes. The most
common situation of hydatids of the liver, is in its sub¬
stance, and inclosed in a cyst ; but they are occasionally
attached to the outer surface of the liver, hanging from
it, and occupying more or less of the general cavity of
the abdomen *.
Another species called cellulosa, is found in the cel¬
lular membrane of man.
The following infest others of the mammalia, viz.
T. simiae, found in the diaphragm of the ape 5 vesper-
tilionis, in the liver of the bat; vulpis in the fox ; pu-
torii, in the pole-cat j ursi, in the bear ; gulonis, in
the glutton j hydatigena, in various species of rat; mu-
rina, in the liver of the mouse ; co-data, in mice and
hares j pisiformis, in the liver of hares 5 utricularis, in
the gravid uterus of the same animal 5 ferarum, in deers
and antelopes ; caprina, in the goat ; ovilla, in the li¬
ver and omentum of sheep ; cerebralis, within the skull
of sheep, constituting the disease called sturdy or tur?i-
sick ; (see Farriery, N° 5‘2I.) vervecina, in the pe¬
ritoneum of fat sheep ; granulosa, in the liver of sheep;
lovina, in cattle ; apri, in the boar; globosa, chiefly
found in the bowels of swine ; and pinna, in the cellular
substance of swine.
nilium. f'wo infest reptiles, viz.
T. salamandri, the salamander; and serpentum, in va¬
rious serpents.
One, viz.
ttce, T. truttse, is found in the liver of the trout.
The origin and real nature of hydatids are not fully
ascertained. There is no doubt at all, that the hydatids
ln the livers of sheep are animalcules ; they have been
often seen to move when taken out of the liver, and put
into warm water; and they retain this power of motion
for a good many hours after a sheep has been killed.
The analogy is great between hydatids in the liver of a
fjafflie’i
irlid
atomy,
rp.ix.
lulosa.
wima-
m.
343
sheep, and in that of a human subject. In both they Specie*,
are contained in strong cysts, and in both they consist Intestina.
of the same white pulpy matter. There is undoubtedly -y—
some difference between them in simplicity of organiza¬
tion ; the hydatid in the human liver being a simple
uniform hag, and the hydatid in that of the sheep ha¬
ving a neck and mouth appended to the bag. This dif¬
ference need be no considerable objection to the opinion
above stated. Life may be conceived to be attached
to the most simple form of organization. In proof of
this, hydatids have been found in the brains of sheep,
resembling almost exactly those in the human liver, and
which have been seen to move, and therefore are cer¬
tainly known to be animalcules. The hydatids of the
human liver indeed, have not, as far as we know, been
found to move when taken out of the body and put into
warm water : were this to have happened, no uncertain¬
ty would remain.
An excellent paper on the subject of hvdatids, by
Dr John Hu liter, is contained in the Medical and
Chirurgical Transactions.
B. Having no terminal vesicle, and found only in the
intestines of other animals.
This section comprehends the tcenias properly so cal-Tape-worm
led, or tape-worms, which are the most troublesome of
all the species that inhabit the intestinal canal. Of
these, the following two species that are conffned to
man, merit, our particular attention.
Articulations long and narrow, with marginal mouths, solium,
one on each joint, and generally alternate ; ovaries ar¬
borescent. Vide fig. 7. and 8. ^ an(j
This species is frequently bred in the intestines of tlies.
inhabitants of Germany, and occasionally, but rarely,
in those of the inhabitants of Great Britain. It consists
of a great marry distinct portions, which are connected
together so as to assume a jointed appearance ; these
joints are commonly of a very white colour, but are oc¬
casionally brownish, which depends on a fluid of this
colour that is found in their vessels. The worm is usu¬
ally very long, extending often many yards, and seldom
passes entire from the bowels. This circumstance has
prevented the extremities of the taenia from being often
seen.
Boerhaave mentions his having met with a taenia 30
ells in length, and Pliny says he has seen them upwards
of 30 feet long. According to Dr Hooper, the exact
length depends upon the manner in which the death of
the animal has been occasioned. If expelled by irrita¬
ting medicines, it will not be so long by nearly one-
half as if its death had been occasioned by emollients;
as in the former instance it would be very much con¬
tracted, but in the latter very much relaxed.
The head of this taenia is somewhat of a square form,
with a narrowed projection forwards ; in the middle of
this projecting part, there is a distinct circular aperture,
around the edge of which grow curved-shaped processes.
Near the angles of the square edge of the head, are
situated four round projecting apertures at equal distan¬
ces from each other; this head is placed upon a narrow
jointed portion of the worm, of considerable length, and
which gradually spreads itself into the broader joints,,
of which the body of the worm is composed.
The body of the ttenia consists of thin, flat, pretty
long joints, on one edge of which there is a projection,
with* •
344
Speoics.
Intestina.
lata.
HELMINTHOLOGY. Chap. Q
with a very obvious aperture. In the same worm some
of these joints appear considerably longer than others $
this probably depends on one joint being contracted,
while another is relaxed. The apertures which we have
just mentioned are generally placed on the edge of the
contiguous joints 5 but this is not uniformly the case-j
they are sometimes placed on the same edges ol two, or
even several contiguous joints. When these joints are
examined attentively, there are frequently seen, in each
of them, vessels filled with a brownish fluid, and disposed
in an arborescent form. Around the edges of each
joint, there is also a distinct serpentine canal. The last
joint of a taenia resembles very much a common joint
rounded off at its extremity, and without any aper¬
ture.
The joints of this species are very easily separated
from each other whilst the animal is alive. This separa¬
tion is effected either by the peristaltic motion of the
intestines, or perhaps spontaneously. Each joint thus
detached from the mother worm, has the power of retain¬
ing, for a considerable time, its living principle, and is
called, from its resemblance to the seed of the gourd,
vermis cueurbitinus. This phenomenon has given rise
to many warm disputes ; several authors have denied
their being portions of taenia, and have affirmed that
they were distinct worms. The separated joints do not
appear capable of retaining their situation for any length
of time, but are soon forced down the intestinal tube,
and at length creep out, or are expelled per anum.
There are several cases faithfully recorded, where the
persons, if their veracity can be depended upon (and
they had no interest in deceiving), have voided, during
the time they were troubled with the worm, upwards
of fifteen thousand.
This worm is not in general solitary, as is common¬
ly supposed, for several of them have been seen coming
away at the same time.
They are always found in the small intestines, com¬
monly occupying their whole extent.
The motion of these worms is undulatory. The
first joint towards the head contracts j the succeeding
ones follow successively, and the worm is at length
drawn considerably forwai ds, exactly in the same manner
in which the earth worm is seen to move, only consider¬
ably slower. By this means the food taken in at the
mouth of the worm is very soon conveyed all along the
alimentary canal, and may sometimes be seen moving
along witli considerable rapidity.
There can be very little doubt, that the tmnia is
hermaphrodite. The oscula are observed to be viscera,
subservient to the propagation of the species, as it can
be proved, that they give exit to the ovula.
Articulations short and broader than those of the
last, with a mouth in the centre of each joint $ ovaries
stillate round the mouth.
It is composed of a head, a chain of articulations,
and a tail formed of a round joint, as in the last species.
The head is similar to that of the other species.
The joints are more uniform in their appearance
than those of the taenia solium. They are consider¬
ably more broad than long, and their oscula are not
placed on the margin, but in the middle of the flat¬
tened surface, and only on one side. We have never
seen them change their side, but have always observed
them on the same side throughout the whole extent of Spec
the worm. latest u
In every other respect the description of this species v-“"y j
agrees with that above given of the other, except that
the ovaria are in the form of a rose or star, hence they
are called by some writers, ovaria rosacea, and others,
stigmates rosaccce; and that the transverse canals by
which there is in the other species a communication be¬
tween the longitudinal canals are in this wanting.
The number of this species is uncertain, but there
are seldom more than three or four.
Its length is commonly less than that of the last
species, seldom exceeding five yards.
It is always situated in the small intestines, and it
appears that it feeds on no other food than pure chyle.
It is for the most part of a darker hue than the
former species, though they have been seen as white as
milk.
This species is very seldom met with in this country,
but is endemic in Switzerland and llussia, and very
common in Germany and some other parts of Europe.
For a more particular account of the anatomical
structure of taenia;, we refer our readers to a paper by
Mr Carlisle, in the second volume of the Lin. Trans, and
Dr Hooper’s paper in the fifth volume of the Memoirs
of the Medical Society of London. For an account of
the symptoms produced by these worms and the asca-
rides, and the method of treatment, see Worms, Me¬
dicine Index: and for the remedies employed in these
cases, see ANTHELMINTICS, Materia Medica Index.
The following species inhabit various mammalia, viz.
Catenteformis, of which there are seven varieties,
found in the dog, the wolf, the fox, the cat, the squir-^tfW
rel, and the dormouse j cucurbitiua, in the dog ; serra-
ta, in the dog and cat ; maniliformis, in the cat j li-
neata, in the wild cat; mustelse, in the weazel, martin,
and polecat; filamentosa, in the intestines of the mole;
erinacei, in the hedge-hog; straminea, in the mus cri-
cetus ; magna and quadriloba, in the horse ; and capri-
na, in the goat.
The following infest birds, &c.
Psittaci, in the psittacus brachyurpus; cornicis,
in the crow ; serpentiformis, in crows, rooks, and mag¬
pies ; caryocactus, in the nut-cracker ; crateriformis,
in the spotted wood-pecker; torqueta, in the duck ; sco-
lopacis and filum, in the woodcock; infnndibuliformis,
in the buzzard, ducks, and poultry ; sturni, in the star¬
ling ; passeris, in the sparrow ; and hirundinis, in the
martin swallow.
One, viz.
T. Nodulosa, infests various species of fish. noduki[*
C. Head unarmed with htoks.
Of this section the following infest the mammalia,
viz.
Dentata, sometimes said to be found in mankind
pliocae, in the great seal ; bassilaris, in the mole; pec-»/w.
tinata, in the hare and rabbit ; ovina, in sheep; equina
in the horse ; and suis, in the Ethiopian hog.
The following are found in birds, viz.
Globilera, in the buzzard, lanner, and thrush ; per-avium
lata, in the buzzard ; flagellum, in the kite ; candela-
braria, in the Aluco owl ; crenata, in the spotted wood¬
pecker ; lanceolata, in the merganser and smew ; seti-
::
Itfl
If
gtra,
ms.
mm.
II. HELMINTHOLOGY.
gera, and anseris, in the goose j anatis, in various spe¬
cies of duck 5 laevis, in the duck, &c. $ cuneata, in va¬
rious species j alcae, in the auk j tordae, in the razor¬
bill ; tardae, in the bustard ; linea in partridges j and
maculata, in the redwing.
One, viz.
Bufonis, is found in the toad and salamander.
The following infest fish, viz.
Anguillae, in the eel j rugosa, in the cod; scorpii,
in the armed bullhead ; percae, in the sea perch ; ery-
thrinas, in the Norway perch; cernuae, in the ruffe; soli-
da and gasterostei in the, stickle-back; siluri, in the si-
lurusglanis; salmonis, in the salmon; frcelichii, in the
salmo westmanni; rectangulum, in the barbel; torru-
losa, in the cyprinus jeses, and laticeps, in the bream.
Gmelin, in his edition of the Systema Natures, enu¬
merates 86 species of the taenia.
■nialis
15. Furia.
Body linear, equal, filiform, and ciliate on each side,
with a single row of reflected prickles pressed close
to the body.
There is only one species, viz. infernalis.
From the account given of this animal in the Sysl.
Nat. it appears to be a very formidable creature. It
inhabits the extensive marshy plains of Bothnia ; is
about an inch long, and of a pale red or brown colour,
generally with a black tip. It mounts up the sedges
and shrubs, and being driven by the wind through the
air, enters through the skin of men and horses in such
parts as are exposed and situated obliquely ; leaving a
black mark where it had entered. It first excites a
sensation like the prick of a needle, which is followed
by violent itching and acute pain. An inflammation
and commonly gangrene is the consequence, attended
with fever, faintings and delirium, and frequently ter¬
minating in a short time in death, unless the worm is
speedily extracted, which is a work of considerable dif¬
ficulty. The part where the worm entered is to be
scarified, and anointed with oil of birch, or covered
with a poultice of curds or cheese.
16. Gordius.
Body round, equal, filiform, and smooth. Body pale
brown (or yellowish) with dark extremities. Water
hair-worm.
aticus. r^1‘s 'vvorm about the thickness of a horse’s hair,
and when full grown, is ten or twelve inches in length.
Its skin is somewhat glossy, and of a pale yellowish
white, except the head and tail, which are black. It
is common in our fresh waters, and particularly in such
where the bottom is composed of soft clay, through
which it passes as a fish does through water.
Its popular name arose from the idea that it was
produced from the hair of horses and other animals
that were accidentally dropped into the water; an idea
that is yet prevalent among the lower class of people.
Its Linnsean name of gordius originated in the habit
that it has of twisting itself into such peculiar contor¬
tions as to resemble a complicated gordian knot. In
- this state it often continues for a considerable time, and
then slowly disengaging itself, extends its body to the
full length. Sometimes it moves in the water with a
Vol. X. Part I. -f
dins.
tolerably quick undulative motion like that ofa leech ;
and at; other times its motions are the most slow and
languid imaginable. When the water in which it
swims happens to be dried up, it soon loses every ap¬
pearance of life; the slender body shrivels, and it may
be kept in this state a considerable time. But when¬
ever it is put into water its body soon reassumes its
former appearance ; in less than half an hour it begins
to move, and in a few minutes more it is as active
and lively as ever. How long it may be preserved in
this dried state without losing its life, or how often it
might admit of being revived, has not been ascertained.
When kept in a vessel of water, it will sometimes ap¬
pear motionless and as if dead for several hours, and
afterwards will resume its vigour, and seem as healthy
as before.
It is a very remarkable circumstance, that its bite,
which it sometimes inflicts on being taken out of the
water, has been known to produce the complaint call¬
ed a whitlow. rIhis is mentioned by Linnaeus as a po¬
pular opinion in Sweden, and it has since his time
been confirmed by various other persons.
This gordius is sometimes found in the earth as well
as in water, and particularly in gardens of a clayey
soil after rain.
Besides this species four others are enumerated, viz.
Argillaceus, filum, lacteus, and arenarius ; but it is
probable that the first of these, which is said to pierce
through clay, to give passage to water, is merely a va¬
riety of the aquaticus.
345
Species.
Inteslinu
3.3
Hirudo.
17. Hirudo.
Body oblong, truncate at both ends, unarmed and car¬
tilaginous, moving by dilating the head and tail, and
contracting itself into an arch.
Elongated, of an olive black colour, with six ^<et\\o\xuicdiciua-
ferruginous lines above, and yellow spots below. Medici-Us.
nal leech.—This species is generally two or three inches
long, when lying in its natural state, though it is capable
of very great dilatation. The body is composed of nu¬
merous annular wrinkles, which may be seen projecting,
and by which the animal can expand or contract its
body at pleasure. The head is smaller than the tail.
This latter terminates in a circular muscle or sucker,
which when applied to any substance easily adheres;
probably by the animal’s drawing up the middle, and
thereby exhausting the air below. By means of the
tail it fastens itself with ease and security, while it ex¬
tends the other parts of its body in any direction ; and
it is so firmly fixed, that it can move about without any
danger of being carried away by the current. When
the animal is desirous of changing its place, it extends
its body forwards, fixes its head in the same manner
as it did its tail, which latter it then loosens, draws up,
and then fastens near its head, so as to form a fresh
point from which to continue its movements.
Its liead is furnished with three teeth, of a substance
resembling cartilage, which are so situated as to con¬
verge when the animal bites, and to leave a triangular
mark on the skin. These teeth are so strong that by
means of them the animal can pierce the skin of an ox
or a horse, as well as that of a man ; and through the
holes which it forms, it sucks the blood. This appears
to be done by contracting the muscles of its throat, so
X x as
3+5
Specie?.
Inteslina
Method of
applying
leeches.
H E L M I N T
as to make the blood rush through the vacuum formed
above the wound, into the stomach of the leech. T-his
stomach is a kind of membranaceous skin, divided into
24 small cells. If suffered to retain the blood which
it has sucked, this is said to remain in the stomach of
the animal for months together, almost without coagu¬
lating, and to afford support to the animal during the
whole of that time. It appears to pass off through the
pores of the skin by transpiration, the matter fixing on
the surface of the body, and afterwards coming off in
small filaments. Mr Bingley affirms in proof of this,
that if a leech be immersed in oil (where it will keep
alive for several days), and afterwards put into water,
a slough will be seen to loosen from its skin, exactly of
the shape of the animal.
It is viviparous, and produces only one at a time,
which is commonly in the month ot July. It inhabits
clear running waters, but may be kept for a considerable
time in vessels partly filled with water, which should be
changed occasionally, when it becomes putrid. In ge¬
neral, if the number of leeches kept together is not
great, the water need not be changed oftener than once
a month in winter, and once every fortnight in sum¬
mery and we have known instances whereseveral leeches
have, when neglected, lived for several months in the
same water. If, however, the number be large, they
frequently die, which is thought to be owing to their
fighting and killing each other.
When leeches are to be applied for the purpose of
extracting blood from any part of the body, the most
lively, and those of a moderate size, should be selected
for that purpose *, and they should be suffered to remain
out of the water in a covered vessel for some time be¬
fore they are applied. The best method of applying
them is, to put them within a hollow glass tube,
ground smooth at one end, open at both extremities,
and bending so as to admit of its being applied to any
part occasionally. The leech will commonly soon fix,
but the skin to which it is to be applied should always
be washed thoroughly clean, and should be freed from
hair. If the animal is averse to fix, it may often be en¬
ticed to do so by rubbing the part of the skin with a
little fresh cream, or new milk. When the leech has
gorged itself with blood, it commonly drops off spon¬
taneously -, but if it should be too long in quitting its
hold, it may be speedily made to do so by inserting a
little salt, pepper, vinegar, or other acrid substance, be¬
tween the margin of its head and the skin. As a leech,
after it has been used for drawing blood, will not, for a
long time, suck again, if suffered to retain the blood it
has drawn, various methods have been contrived to
evacuate the blood. The common method is, to
sprinkle a little salt upon its mouth, which commonly
makes it disgorge a great quantity of blood; but we are
not certain whether more animals are not killed in this
way than by suffering the blood to remain. The most
effectual, and we believe the safest method of making
them disgorge the blood is, to lay hold of them by the
tail, and strip them between the fingers, after which
they should be put into clean water.
The best method of conveying leeches to a distance
is, to put them into a strong, wide-mouthed glass bottle,
and to put with them a piece of sponge thoroughly wet¬
ted with water, tying a piece of bladder pricked with
holes over the mouth of the bottle.
H O L O G Y. Chap.:
It is said that leeches, when kept in bottles, will be- sj5CCj(
come very restless just before a change of weather is Intesti
about to take place. This may be the case, but from v
many observations which we have made, we believe
that they afford very uncertain presages of the state of
the atmosphere.
Elongated, of an olive brown colour, with an ochre- sanguv,
yellow marginal band. Horse-leech. gat
This is larger than the former ; its skin is smooth
and glossy ; its back of a dusky colour, and the belly
of a yellowish green ; its body is depressed. It inhabits
stagnant waters. It is to be carefully distinguished
from the former species, as it will not'answer the pur¬
poses of surgery.
Besides these two species, the following are described
in the Systema Nature? ; viz. indica, lineata, * octocula-
ta, * stagnalis, complanata, * viridis, * heteroclyta,
* geometra, tesselata, marginata, grossa, hippoglossi,
*crenata, *muricata, and branchiata. In all 17 species.
18. Lumbricus.
35
Lumbi «
Body round, annulate ; generally with an elevated,
fleshy belt near the head, and commonly rough,
with minute concealed prickles, placed longitudinal¬
ly, and furnished with a lateral aperture.
There are 16 species of this genus, viz.; * terrestris,
* marinus, vermicularis, variegatus, tubifex, lineatus,
ciliatus, tubicola,, echeiorus, thallassima, edulis, oxy-
arus, fragilis, armiger, corretus, sabellaris.
Of these, the only one of which we shall make par-#
ticular mention, is the terrestris, common earth-wormy
or dew-worm. Body red, with eight rows of prickles.
This worm has neither bones, brains, eyes, nor feet.
It has a number of breathing holes situated along its
back, near each ring. Its heart is placed near the
head, and may be observed to beat with a very distinct
motion. The body is formed of small rings, furnished
with a set of muscles that enable it to act in a sort of
spiral direction ; and by this means it is capable, in the
most complete manner, of creeping on the earth, or pe¬
netrating into its substance. Mr Bingley explains the
motion of these animals by that of a wire wound about
a cylinder, where, when one end is drawn on and held
fast, the other, upon being loosed, will immediately fol¬
low. These muscles enable the worm to contract or
dilate its body with great force. The rings are each
armed with small, stiff, sharp prickles, which the animal
is able to open out or close upon its body ; and from
beneath the skin there is secreted a slimy matter, which,
by lubricating the body, greatly facilitates its passage
through the earth. ^ ;
It is of consequence to point out the difference be- pierce*
tween this worm and the ascaris lumbricoidesy or long feetwc
round worm of the human intestines, described at page the etP*
338. as they have been supposed to be merely varieties^
of the same animal. The common earth-worm has itsju^bf
extremities much blunter than those of the intestinal;
its mouth consists of a-small, longitudinal fissure, situa¬
ted on the under surface of a small rounded head, there
being no appearance of the three vesicles so evident in
the ascaris, On the under surface of the earth-worm
therd is a large semilunar fold of skin, into which the
head retreats ; but this is entirely wanting in the asca¬
ris ; the anus of the earth-worm opens at the very ex-
, tremity
 : • ^
/iwp*
Species, tremity of the tail, and not as in the ascaris, at a con-
ntestina. siderable distance from the tail. The ascaris also wants
the transverse rugce which are so strongly marked in
the earth-worm, as well as the broad yellowish band by
which the body of the latter is surrounded.
The internal structure of these two species of worms
is also extremely different. In the earth-worm, there
is a large and complete stomach, consisting of two ca¬
vities; and the intestinal canal in the latter is likewise
larger, and more formed into sacculi than the ascaris.
The parts subservient to generation in these two species
of worms differ very much from each other ; in the
ascaris there is a distinction of sex, the parts of genera¬
tion being different in the male and in the female ; in
the common earth-worm the organs of generation are
the same in each individual, as this worm is herma¬
phrodite. The appearance, too, of the organs of gene¬
ration, is extremely different at first sight in the one
species of animal and the other. There is an oval
mass situated at the anterior extremity of the earth¬
worm, resembling a good deal the medullary matter of
I'BfliVhVs ^e brain *.
I°M Dew-worms, though in appearance a small and des-
picable link in the chain of nature, yet, if lost, might
make a lamentable chasm. For, to say nothing of half
the birds and some quadrupeds which are almost en¬
tirely supported by them, worms seem to be the great
promoters of vegetation (which would proceed but ill
without them) by boring, perforating, and loosening
the soil, and rendering it pervious to rains and the fibres
of plants, by drawing straws and stalks of leaves and
twigs into it ; and most of all, by throwing up such in¬
finite numbers of lumps called worm-casts, which form
a fine manure for grain and grass. Worms probably
provide new soil for hills and slopes when the rain washes
the earth away ; and they affect slopes, probably to
avoid being flooded.
Gardeners and farmers express their detestation of
worms ; the former, because they render their walks
unsightly, and make them much work; and the lat¬
ter, because they think worms eat their green corn.
But these men would find, that the earth, without
worms, would soon become cold, hard-bound, and void
of fermentation, and consequently sterile ; and besides,
in favour of worms, it should be hinted that green
corn, plants and flowers, are not so much injured by
them as by many species of insects in their larva or grub-
Hograph s*a*e> an^ unnoticed myriads of those small shell-
ol.iii. p. less snails called slugs, which silently and impercepti-
'°o- bly make amazing havock in the field and garden f.
I'punetilug.
xx^LMINTHOLOGY.
347
i9.
SlPUNCULUS.
nudus.
Body round and elongated ; mouth cylindrical at the
end, and narrower than the body; aperture at the
side of the body warty.
There are two species; viz. S. * nudus and sacca-
tus.
Body covered with a close skin, and globular at the
lower end. Naked tube worm.—This animal is about
eight inches long, and nearly of a conical figure from
head to tail, having the base usually about nine lines,
and the other extremity about four lines in diameter.
The broader part of the body is the head, and is fur¬
nished with a mouth, in which there is a tube made of
a strong membrane, and armed with three fleshy-point- Species,
ed papillae, about the size of a grain of millet. This Intestirm,
trunk is at one end every where connected with the ' v—
rim of the mouth, but is loose at the other end. It may
be extended to the length of an inch, or entirely with¬
drawn at the pleasure of the animal, probably for the
purpose of seizing its food, and carrying it to its mouth.
When the tube is out of the mouth, the papillae are on
the outside, but they occupy the inside of the mouth
when the tube is within. Hence the food laid hold of
by the disengaged part of the trunk cannot escape ; as
the further the trunk is drawn hack into the mouth, it is
arrested by so many more papillae, which like prongs are
ready to detain it. At the distance of an inch and a
half from the mouth there is an oblong aperture, sur¬
rounded with a prominent lip, and situated trans¬
versely.
The whole body of this animal is of a sallow white,
inclining to a clay colour, and is adorned with deep
streaks; some of which are longitudinal, and others
circular. Sometimes this animal will extend itself to
almost the length of a foot, while at other times it
contracts into a very small volume, by enlarging the
narrower portion of its body near the point, which is
spherical.
It inhabits deep seas, from which it is never cast on
the shore, but it sometimes enters the fishermen’s nets
along with their fish.
Body covered with a loose skin, and rounded at the$acer/tes.
lower end. Vid. fig. 9.
This animal differs little from the former, except
in the loose skin in which the animal is enclosed
as in a bag. It inhabits the American and Indian
seas.
F‘g* 9*
20. Planaria.
Body gelatinous, flattish, with a double ventral
mouth terminal.
33
Planaria.
pore
The animals comprehended under this genus nearly
resemble the leeches, and like them live in fresh wa¬
ter. They are very numerous, but, as nothing remark¬
able is known respecting them, we shall merely enume¬
rate their names.
A. Without eyes.
Stagnatus, nigra, brunea, ciliata, gulo, punctata,
flaccida, rosea, angulata, rubra, viridis, operculata,
subulata, quadrangularis, bicornis, grisea, fulva, viri-
data.
B. Having a single eye.
Glauca, lineata, nictitans.
C. Having two eyes.
Fusca, lactea, tonica, tentaculata, crenata, helluo,
obscura, rostrata, atomata, cornuta, radiata, strigata,
grossa, linearis, terrestris, tetragona, capitata, caudata,
auriculata, filaris, lingua.
D. Having three eyes.
Gesserensis.
E. Having four eyes.
Marmorata, Candida, truncata. ,
X x 2 F. Having
3 48
Specie?.
Mollusca.
H E L M I
F. Having more than four eyes.
Tremellaris.
N T H O L O G Y. Chap. [,
There ai'e three species j viz. M. mammilla, varia, gpec
and globulus. Found also in the North seas and on the Mollu „
shores of Greenland. —y j
There are in all forty-two species.
This Order comprehends twenty genera, and about
406 species.
SECT. II.
2?. Ascidia. w
Ascidi;
Body fixed, roundish, and appearing to issue from a
sheath, having two apertures, generally placed near
the upper extremity, one below the other.
Order II. MOLLUSCA.
5?
Actinia.
40
Claya.
We have already, in the second part of the article
Anatomy, chap. viii. given a sufficient account of
the general structure of the animals of this order, and
of the several subdivisions of if, as given by Cuvier,
to whose writings and those of La Marck, the lovera
of natural history are chiefly indebted for the present
state of our knowledge respecting those animals. Cu¬
vier includes under the mollusca all those animals
which inhabit shells, as well as those which are naked.
The latter only can be considered here, and we shall
chiefly confine ourselves to some of the more I'emark-
able species.
2i. Actinia.
Body oblong, cylindrical, fleshy, and contractile, fixed
by the base $ mouth terminal, expansile, surrounded
with numerous tentacula, and without any other
aperture.
This genus comprehends most of those extraordinary
animals which have been described under the title
of animal flowers, sea-??iarygolds, &c. an account of
which has been already given under the article Anj-
MAL-Flower. We shall herA therefore only enumerate
the species, which are 23 in number j viz. rufa, * cras-
sicornis, *plumosa, * anemonoides, judaica, * effieta,
coccinea, undata, viduata, * truncata, nodosa, spectabi-
lis, digitata, gigantea, alba, viridis, priapus, Candida,
bicornis, vulva, * caryophyllus, iris, fiscella, pusilla,
* cereus, * bellis, * gemmacea, * mesembryanthemum,
sociata, aster, anemone, helianthus, * dianthus, calen¬
dula, doliolum, * maculata.
22. CLAVA.
Body fleshy, gregarious, club-shaped, and fixed by a
round peduncle, having a single vertical aperture.
There is but one species ; viz. parasitica ; charac¬
terised by its having a whitish, pellucid peduncle, and
an opaque red club that is covered with erect, conical,
pellucid spines. It is found in the Baltic sea, upon
sea weeds, shell-fish, and floating timber. It possesses
the power of dilating and contracting the, mouth.
Pedicel- 23- Ledicellaria.
lam. Body soft, and seated on a rigid fixed peduncle, having
a single aperture.
There are thx-ee species ; viz. P. globifera, triphylla,
and tridens, all which are found in the North seas
chiefly among the spines of echini.
Maatmaria. 24‘ MaMMARIA.
Body smooth, and without rays, having a aintrle aper¬
ture.
There are about 35 species of Ascidia ; viz. pa-
pillosa, gelatinosa, * intestinalis, quadridentata, * rusti-
ca, echinata, mentula, venosa, prunum, conchilega, pa-
rallelogramma, virginea, canina, patula, aspera, scabra,
orbicularis, corrugata, lapidiformis, complanata, tuber-
culum, villosa, clavata, pedunculata, * mammillaris,
globularis, fusca, gelatina, crystallina, octodentata, pa-
telliformis, pyura, aurantium, globularis, fasciculata.
Of these we shall describe only two, the papillosa,
and the intestinalis.
Body rough, and covered with scarlet tubercles.— napilh.
This animal is generally about three inches long, and
something less than two broad $ its shape is oval. On
the upper part it is furnished with two mammillary pro¬
tuberances, one of which is seated on the top of the
body, and has an orifice in the form of a cross. The
other is placed a little below the former, and has a
triangular orifice opening transversely. The lips of ei¬
ther orifice are encompassed with several setaceous hairs,
of a clay colour, and one line in length, but observing
no regular order. The whole surface of the body is
rough, being covered over with small knobs or oblong
nipples of a scarlet colour. The extremity opposite to
the organs, or the basis, is furnished with peduncles of
various forms, by means of which this animal firmly
adheres to rocks or other bodies, so that it cannot
be forced from its situation without injuring the pe¬
duncles.
The skin, which is thick and hard like the hide of
a quadruped, constitutes by far the greater part of the
animal’s bulk j and there is scarcely any thing distin¬
guishable within, except a small part that commences
a little below the orifice of the upper papilla, from
which it proceeds downwards, and is inserted into the
lower orifice, having the appearance of an intestine.
From the appearance of this organ, it is supposed tiiat
the upper orifice is the mouth, and the lower the anus.
This species is not used for food, though some of them
are said to be eatable.
Body elongated, membranaceous, smooth, and whit-
ish, appearing like the intestines of a quadruped.—If?.fl/y0j
the membrane of which nearly the whole of this ani¬
mal’s body consists, be divided longitudinally, there
appears another membranaceous canal descending from
the upper organ, almost to the base, where it bends
back, and proceeds towards the lower organ, into which
it is inserted. This canal is commonly filled with a
blackish fluid. These organs are sometimes strongly
contracted, and at others as much relaxed. They do
not appear, like those of the former species, to be able
to draw in and throw out the water.
The animals belonging to this genus have the power
of squirting out the water they receive, as if from a
fountain j and it is probable that they derive their
nourishment from the animalcula which the water con¬
tains.
26. Sale a.
HELMINTHOLOGY.
hap. II.
jecie*.
jllusca.
26. Salta.
Body long, floating, gelatinous, tubular, and open at
each extremity, with an intestinal tube placed ob¬
liquely.
The outer covering of these animals has two open¬
ings, one very large, serving for the introduction of the
water in which they live between their branchiae, and
the other smaller, which appears to be the anus. They
have no head or feet. They are found in all our seas.
Many of the species are remarkable for the regularity
which they observe in their mode of swimming. They
are gregarious, and one always follows at the tail of
another, in such a manner as to touch each other, and
to form two lines, one above the other, each indivi¬
dual of the upper line being supported by two of the
lower.
The species are arranged under two subdivisions.
A. Furnished with an appendage.
This section contains four species j viz. maxima,
pinnata, democratica, and mucronata.
B, Having no terminal appendage.
This section contains seven species 3 viz. punctata,
confsederata, fasciata, sipho, africana, solitaria, and po-
lycratica.
Lysia. 27. DAGYSIA.
Body loose, floating, angular, tubular, and open at each
extremity.
There is only one species of this genus 3 viz. notata,
characterised as having the body marked at one end
with a brown spot. It is about three inches long, and
one thick, and is found in the sea on the coasts of
Spain. These animals adhere to each other by their
sides, and in other respects very nearly resemble those
of the last genus.
46
erotra- 20. PtEROTRACHIA.
Body detached, gelatinous, with a moveable fin at the
abdomen or tail; eyes two, placed within the head.
There are four species 3 viz. coronata, hyalina, pul-
monata, and aculeata.
47 ~
nil. 29. DerRIS.
Body cylindrical, composed of articulations ; mouth
terminal, feelers two.
There is only one species 3 viz. *sanguinea, which
is found on the coast of Pembrokeshire.—This animal
has a tapering body to a point behind, and is capable
of great flexibility 3 it is covered with a transparent
membranous coat, through which the internal parts
are visible. The head is extended beyond the outer
skin, and is less than the rest of the fore part of the
body. The tentacula are white, and seated at the top
»f the head. The mouth consists of two lips, the upper
one hooked and moveable, the lower one straight and
fixed. It moves by an undulating, motion of the whole
body.
Species.
30. LlMAX*. Moliusca.
Body oblong, creeping, with a fleshy kind of shield 48
above, and a longitudinal flat disk beneath ; aperture Lima*,
placed on the right side within the shield; feelers
four, situated above the mouth, with an eye at the
tip of each of the larger ones.
This genus comprehends those animals which are
commonly called slugs, or naked snails, which are well
known to commit such ravages in our fields and gar¬
dens, especially in wet weather.
There are 15 species ; viz. laevis, * ater, albus, * ru-
fus, *flavus, * niaximus, hyalinus, * agrestis, cinctus,
marginatus, reticulatus, aureus, fuscus, tenellus, and
* Janceolatus.
The most curious species of this genus seems to be agrestis.
what has been called the spinning slug, which is a va¬
riety of the Umax agrestis.—This animal is of a grayish
white colour with a yellowish shield, and is commonly
about three-fourths of an inch long. It inhabits woods
and other shady places. The following account of it
has been given by Mr Hoy, in the first volume of the
Linnaean Transactions.
About the year I 789, Mr Hoy observed, in a planta¬
tion of Scotch firs, something hanging from one of the
branches, which, as it seemed uncommon, he approach¬
ed, and found it to be this animal. It was hanging by
a single line or thread attached to its tail. This was,
upwards, very fine ; but near the animal it became
thicker and broader, till at length it exactly correspond¬
ed with the tail. The slug was about four feet below
the branch, and nearly at the same distance from the
ground 3 which it gradually approached at the rate of
an inch in about three minutes. This rate, though
slow, is not so much so as might be expected, consider¬
ing that the animal is not furnished with any particular
receptacle, as in some insects, for the gelatinous liquid
from which its silken lines are formed. The line by
which it descended was drawn from the slimy exuda¬
tion gradually secreted from the pores that covered its
whole body. A great degree of exertion seemed ne¬
cessary to produce a sufficient supply of the liquid, and
to force this towards the tail. It alternately drew back
its head, and turned it as far as possible, first to one side
and then to the other, as if thereby to press its sides,
and thus promote secretion. This motion of the head
in an horizontal direction made the whole body turn
round 3 by which the line that would have otherwise
remained somewhat flat became round. This motion
also, in addition to the weight of the animal, tended,
no doubt, materially to lengthen the line.
In addition to Mr Hoy’s account, I)r Latham ob¬
serves, that the secretion from which the thread is
formed, does not come from the back or sides of the
animal, but from its under part. That it did not pro¬
ceed from any orifice in the tail was evident, for in
some instances the animal was suspended by the tip, and
in others from the side full one-eighth of an inch from
the tip. The flow of the viscous secretion towards the
tail appeared to be excited by an undulating motion
of the belly, similar to that of crawling.
After these animals have spun for some time, their
spinning power seems to be for a while lost, but in
all i
350
Species.
Molluscs,
49
Laplysia.
Plate
CCLH.
%. to.
HELMINTHOLOGY.
all those on which experiments have been made, It has
been recovered again by keeping them for a few hours
among wet moss.
Chaph
31. Laplysia.
Body creeping, covered with reflected membranes, with
a membranaceous shield on the back covering the
lungs j aperture placed on the right side j vent above
the extremity of the back *, feelers four, resembling
ears. Vid. fig. IQ.
An animal of this genus has been called the sea-hare,
a name which is derived from the ancients j and the
animal to which it is given appears to have been known
at a very early period, and perhaps on that account its
history is obscured with many fabulous narrations.
Fishermen seem in all ages to have attributed some
noxious properties to those marine animals which do
not serve for the nourishment of man j and the writings
of naturalists are still filled with the reports of these ig¬
norant men respecting several productions of the sea, as
the sea-nettle, star fish, and in particular the sea-hare.
These relations have been multiplied and prodigiously
increased with respect to the marvellous, whenever the
figure, the colour, or smell of the animal have any
thing extraordinary or forbidding in them, as is the
case with the sea-hare. Hence we find a long list of
noxious and astonishing properties attributed to this
animal. Not only are its flesh, and the water in which
it has been steeped, of a poisonous nature, but even its
very aspect is deadly. A woman who would wish to
conceal her pregnancy, cannot resist the sight of a fe¬
male sea-hare, which produces nausea and vomiting,
and finally miscarriage, unless a male of the same spe¬
cies, dried and salted, is given her to eat; for it is one
of the superstitious ideas entertained by the common
people in most countries, that every noxious species of
animal carries within itself a remedy for the ill effects
which it may occasion. It happens, indeed, unfortu¬
nately for the present story, that in the sea-hare there
is no distinction of sex. If these animals in Italy (for
the above stories are taken from Pliny) are so deadly
to mankind, it is quite otherwise in the Indian seas ;
for there it is man who is such a deadly foe to the sea-
hare, that he cannot take it alive, since it is destroved
by his very touch !
These ridiculous fables respecting an innocent ani¬
mal, are still believed by many people, and others as
ridiculous have been added to them. Mr Barbut re¬
lates that a sailor happening to take a laplysia in the
Mediterranean, it gave him such instantaneous and ex¬
cruciating pain as to cause an inflammation, and the
poor man lost his arm ! and so sensible are the fisher¬
men of the poisonous quality of the mucus which oozes
from its body, that they will not on any account touch
it.
In an excellent memoir on the laplysia, contained in
vol. ii. of Annales de Museum National, Cuvier gives
the following general description of the animals com¬
posing the genus.
They bear a considerable resemblance to the slugs ;
their body is oval, flattened below, so as to form a long
and straight foot, and swelling out above; more or less
pointed behind, and diminishing a little before, so as to
form a sort of neck, that is susceptible of various de¬
grees of elongation, and at whose extremity is situated Sp< !S.
the head. Moltfl
The head is the only superior part that advances be-
yond the borders of the disc that forms the foot. The
other borders of this disc are contracted, so as to form
a kind of pallisade, surrounding the sides and back part
of the body. This fleshy wall is contracted and raised
more or less, and is folded into numerous undulations
at the pleasure of the animal, who can fold the one
part over the other, or can cause them to separate, so
as to give them all manner of shapes. Between the
borders we perceive a part almost semicircular, attach¬
ed only by the right side, entirely moveable like a
fleshy cover, the border of which is flexible, and some¬
times forms a sort of gutter, to conduct the water to
the organs of breathing, which are in fact under this
cover. At the posterior extremity of its attachment is
the anus, and between the anterior extremity of the
same attachment, and that which corresponds to the
membranaceous border of the body on the right side,
is a hole, through which are passed the eggs of the ani¬
mal, and that peculiar liquor which has been regarded
as poisonous. But besides this liquor, which is whitish,
and is rarely voided, the animal produces another
kind much more abundant, and of a very deep purple
red.
The mouth is situated below the head lengthwise, . S
and the anterior border of the head forms on each side
a membranous production that is conical, compressed,
capable of being more or less prolonged, and forms a
tentaculum. Behind the head, further back, there is
on each side another conical tentaculum, which the
animal can elongate or shorten at pleasure, but which he
cannot withdraw within the body, like the snail. The
extremity of this is a little folded longitudinally into two
parts, so as to resemble the external ear of a quadru¬
ped. Before the base of this oi’gan is the eye, which
seems nothing but a little black point.
The parts above described are common to all the
laplysiae, but differ in the several species in proportion
and colour.
In the last edition of the Systema Naturae, only
two species of laplysia are mentioned $ vsz. depilans,
which appears to be the original sea-hare mentioned by
Pliny, and which owes its trivial name to the belief
that the fetid liquor which it exudes is capable of tak¬
ing off the hair from any part which it touches; and
fasciata. Besides these, Cuvier enumerates and figures
three others, viz. camelus, punctata, and alba.
32. Doris. Dor
Body creeping, oblong and flat beneath 5 placed below,
on the fore-part; vent behind on the back, and sur¬
rounded by a fringe 5 feelers 2—4, seated on the
upper part of the body in front, and retractile with¬
in their proper receptacles.
This genus is divided by Gmelin into two sections.
A. Having four tentacula.
Of this there are seven species $ viz. fasciculata, mi¬
nima, radiata, pennata, peregrina, affinis, and * argo.
B. Having two tentaeula.
Of this section there are 17 species $ viz. * verruco¬
sa,
ap. IL H E L M I N T
ede?. sa» cfavigera, quadrilineata, papillosa, auriculata, laci-
lusca. nulata, cervina, coronata, tetraquetra, * bilamellata,
olivelata, muricata, pilosa, iasvis, arborescens, 4‘rondosa,
and stellata.
In a long and interesting memoir by Cuvier on the
genus doris, printed in the 4th vol. of Annales de Mu~
seum National, that celebrated naturalist shews that only
seven of the species enumerated by Gmelin (viz. argo,
stellata, bilamellata, Itevis, olivelata, muricata, and pi-
losa), really belong to this genus, and that the rest
should be arranged under other genera.
Cuvier admits thirteen species, six of them new j and
distributes them into two sections.
a. Flat doris,
Comprehending ten species ; viz. solea, scabra, ma¬
culosa, verrucosa, limbata, tuberculata, stellata, pilosa,
tomentosa, and laevis.
b. Prismatic doris.
Three species *, viz. lacera, atro-marginata, and pus-
tulosa.
We regret that our limits will not permit us to trans¬
late the valuable observations contained in this memoir,
to which we refer the reader for the description of the
above species, and of their general anatomical struc¬
ture.
9< One of the most remarkable of the species is the
argo or sea argus, which we shall here describe. The
whole body of the argus is obliquely flat, or perpendi¬
cularly compressed j its thickness in the middle is six
lines, whence growing gradually thinner, at the edge it
is no more than half a line thick. It is three inches
and five lines in length, and two inches broad. The
back shines with a scarlet dye, and the belly is of an
agreeable clay colour, and both are curiously marked
with white and black spots. The whole substance of
the body is coriaceous and solid, and if cut through the
middle, appears everywhere tinged with a saffron co¬
lour. Round the circumference of the body it is pli¬
ant, whence, at the animal’s pleasure, it is formed into
various folds and plaits. The head, which in all other
animals is easily known by the peculiarity of its struc¬
ture, in the argus is not determinable when its back is
turned to the spectator, for the oval shape of the body,
of nearly the same diameter throughout the circumfe¬
rence, makes no distinction of head. The tentacula
too, which appear toward each extremity, are so much
alike in this situation, as not to serve for distinguishing
the head ; but if the animal be turned, it will appear
that the head is situated in that part from which the
tapered tentacula rise. One half of these tentacula is
white, and sunk into small round cavities, formed to
the depth of two lines in the substance of the head.
Their apex is prominent from the cavity, and is every
where marked with black dots, which are supposed to
be so many eyes, and afforded the reason for denomina¬
ting this animal argus.
If the tentacula are touched, they are immediately
withdrawn entirely within their cavities. On the up¬
per part of the head is a mammillary prominence, situa¬
ted near the belly, at about half an inch from the edge,
and in the middle is seen a small oval aperture, which
is the mouth of the argus.
One of the most remarkable parts of the animal,
HO LOGY. 351
and that which distinguishes it from all others, remains Species,
to be described. Mollusca,
On that part of the back which is opposite to the -v-—
head, four lines distant from the border, is an oval
aperture eight lines in length, and five broad. From
the middle of this hole arises a fleshy trunk of a whi¬
tish colour, four lines long, one and a half broad, which
divides into two larger branches, the right hand one
subdivided into eight, the left into six lesser branches,
which at length end in small slender twigs. Besides
these, another large branch arising from the middle of
the first trunk, runs off towards the head. On every¬
one of the branches and twigs there are many black
spots discernible by the naked eye, which contribute
not a little to the beauty of this blooming part j but
whether those punctures were hollow, has not been as¬
certained, even with the assistance of the microscope j
though they are probably so many open mouths of ves¬
sels and breathing points. While the argus remains in
the sea-water, it keeps this wonderful assemblage of
lungs expanded j when out of the water, and touched
with the finger, it contracts it into the form of a crown j
and if the handling and irritation be continued for any¬
time, it conceals the lungs entirely within the oval
aperture, which is also then contracted into a narrower
compass. Being put again into salt water, the aper¬
ture soon enlarges, and the branches of the lungs con¬
cealed within gradually push out again, lengthen, and
expand.
33. Tethis. Tetbii!
Body detached, rather oblong, fleshy, and without pe¬
duncles, mouth with a terminal cylindrical probos¬
cis, under an expanded membrane or lip ; apertures
two, on the left side of the neck.
There are only two species; viz. leporina, and fim¬
bria, the latter of which is a very elegant looking ani¬
mal, about six inches long, with a white body, having
a fringed border, variegated with black and clay co¬
lour, and in some places glittering with gold-coloured
spots. It is found in the Adriatic.
34. Holothuria.
Holothoria.
Body detached, cylindrical, thick, and open at the ex¬
tremity *, mouth surrounded by fleshy branched ten-
taeula.
There are 23 species of this genus, viz. elegans,
frondosa, phantapus, tremula, physalis, thalia, caudata,
denudata, * pentactis, papillosa, Spallanzani, priapus,
squamata, penicillus, fusus, inhserens, laevis, minuta,
forcipata, zonaria, vittata, maxima, and impatiens.
01 these we shall describe the holothuria tremula,
which has the following specific character.
Upper surface covered with numerous conical ynyid- tremula*
las j lower with cylindrical ones j tentacula fascicu¬
late, (fig. II.).—This species commonly measures eight Fig. it.
inches in length when dead j but alive it extends itself
to more than a foot, or contracts its body into a ball.
Its figure is cylindrical, the diameter of which is every
way equal to an inch and a few lines. The back of a
dark brown, proudly bears a variety of fleshy pvramid-
like nipples, of a dark colour likewise at their basis,
but white at their apex. They are observed to be of
two »
35*
Species.
Moilusca.
two different sizes ; the larger occupy the length of the
back, in number 14 on each side, at the distance of
six lines from each other, when the holothuria is con¬
tracted ; but the intervening space is fully eight lines
when the animal is extended. Others, like these, are
placed here and there promiscuously. The less are scat¬
tered in like manner, without order, in every part of
the back. Out of them all exsudes a whitish muci¬
lage, serving to lubricate the body. Hence all these
nipples seem to be so many glands furnished with an
excretory duct, the aperture of which is so minute as
not to be discoverable by the help of a common glass.
That they are, moreover, provided with various muscles,
follows from hence, that the holothuria can raise and
obliterate them at pleasure. While the larger papilla;
are quite erect, their axis, and the diameter of their
base, measures three lines. The belly, or part opposite
to the back, in the holothuria, is of a pale brown, and
set all over with cylindrical tentacula, in such numbers,
that the head of a pin could scarcely find room between
them. Their diameter is not much above a line, and
their length is that of four lines. They are of a shining
whiteness, except the extremity, which is of a dusky
dark colour, and shaped like a socket. By the help of
these tentacula, the holothuria fixes its body at the bot¬
tom of the sea, so as not to be easily removed by tem¬
pests, which would otherwise happen very frequent¬
ly, as this animal dwells near the shores, where the
water scarcely rises to the height of a fathom. Now, if
it adheres to other bodies by means of its ventral ten¬
tacula, their point must necessarily have the form of a
socket, as the cuttle-fish, sea-urchins, and star-fish have
theirs shaped, by which they lay hold of any other
body.
From this situation of the holothuria at the bottom of
the sea, which it also retains when kept in a vessel fill¬
ed with sea water, it must be evident to any one, that
we have not groundlessly determined which was its
back, and which its belly, which otherwise in a cylin¬
drical body would have been a difficult task. But as all
animals uniformly walk or rest upon their bellies, and
the holothuria has likewise that part of its body turned
to the earth on which the cylindrical tentacula are to
be seen, it is clear that part is the abdomen or belly
of this animal. However, both the abdominal and
dorsal tentacula are raised and obliterated at the ani¬
mal’s pleasure, from which it is reasonable to conclude,
that they are furnished with elevating and depressing
muscles, and particularly because all the foresaid ten¬
tacula disappear after the animal’s death ; and hence
it farther appears, that many naturalists have given a
representation of a dead holothuria, since they have as¬
signed it no tentacula *.
35. Tereeella.
Body oblong, creeping, naked, often inclosed in a tube,
furnished with lateral fascicles or tufts and branchiae 5
mouth placed before, furnished with Sips, without
teeth, and protruding a clavate proboscis ; feelers nu¬
merous, ciliate, capillary, seated round the mouth.
There are 11 species, viz. cirrata, lapidaria, * con-
chilega, complanata, carunculata, rostrata, flava, ru¬
bra, aphroditois, bicornis, and stellata.
Ictpiiaria, Of these the terebella lapidaria, or stone-piercer j cal-
3
HELMINTHOLOGY. Chap
led by the French Pinceau de Mer, the sea pencil, is Speck
* Barbut's
G drier a
Verr.ihtm.
5.3
Terebeba.
thus described by Barbut. “ From the midst of the MoliuJ
hairs issues the head of this small animal, supported by a "V" 1
long neck, and putting forth two small branching horns.
The mouth, which is round, is armed with small teeth,
like those of the echini marini, with which it masticates
its food. The hairs are very fine, soft as silk, and form
a tuft, from the middle of which issues the neck, and
then its head. The body is shaped like that of a worm,
is very long, and terminates at one end in a point,
which very much resembles the stick end of a painting
brush. The small head of our terebella appears under¬
neath, drawn back as in the snail. It walks or crawls
by the help of five small feet, placed on each side of
the large part of its body, at the rising of the tuft of
hairs, and close to each other.”
54
Ti'ilon.
36. Triton.
Body oblong 5 mouth with an involute spiral proboscis,
having 12 tentacula, 6 on each side, divided nearly
to the base, the bind ones being cheliferous.
There is only one species, viz. littoreus, found on the
shores of Italy.
37. Sepia. Sepia*
Body fleshy, receiving the breast in a sheath, having a
tubular aperture at its base; arms 8, beset with nu¬
merous warts or suckers ; and besides, in most spe¬
cies, 2 pedunculated tentacula ; bead short; eyes
large $ mouth resembling a parrot’s beak. Cuttle¬
fish.
Cuvier divides the genus sepia into two, which he
calls seiche, comprehending most of the species enume¬
rated by Linnaeus under sepia, and poulpe, comprising
two species. The former have a sac, with a kind of
fin on each side, and they contain towards the back a
peculiar body of a friable or cartilaginous substance,
transparent in the living animal, which is placed with¬
in the flesh, without adhering to it j and proceeding
from one side to the other without any articulation. The
head is round, and provided with two large moveable
eyes, the organization of which is almost as perfect as
that of the eyes of warm-blooded animals. The mouth
is situated at the top of the head, and has two similar
jaws, in form and substance resembling the beak of a
parrot, and surrounded with eight conical tentacula,
furnished with suckers, by means of which the animal
fixes itsell to the rocks or other substances, so firmly,
that it is often easier to tear away one of these arms
than to induce the animal to quit its hold. The two
others are very long, and have no suckers except at
their extremity. These last seem to serve the animal
for anchors to hold by.
Just before the neck there is a sort of funnel, which
closes up the entrance of a sac, and seems to be the
asms. These animals have internally a liver, a muscu¬
lar gizard, a coecum, and a short intestinal canal. The
circulation in these animals is carried on by very singu¬
lar organs j there is a heart placed at the bottom of a
sac, by which the blood is distributed to every part of
the body, by means of arteries, and to which it is re¬
turned by veins, through a large vena cava, which di¬
vides itself for the purpose of conveying the blood to
two
cmlis,
ipus.
II. H E L M I N T
other two hearts, one on each side, which distribute it
to the gills, from whence it is passed to the first heart.
The female produces eggs that are arranged in the form
of a bunch of grapes.
These animals, when they perceive the approach of
danger, emit a quantity of inky fluid, furnished by a
particular vessel, and by thus obscuring the water, ren¬
der their escape more easy, while from the bitterness of
this liquid their foe is induced to give over the pursuit.
There seems little doubt that the opinion of Swammer¬
dam, that this liquor furnishes the Indian or China ink,
is just; for if this ink be dissolved in water, in any con¬
siderable quantity, it very soon acquires a very high de¬
gree of putridity, which seems to prove that it is formed
of some animal substance j and none seems better calcu¬
lated for the purpose than this black liquor.
The second genus of Cuvier differs from the sepia,
properly so called, in wanting the solid bony substance
in the back, and the two long arms; but the eight ten-
tacula are much longer in the individuals of this genus
than in those of the sepia.
The male cuttle-fish always accompanies the female;
and when she is attacked, he braves every danger, and
will attempt her rescue at the hazard of his own life ;
but as soon as the female observes her partner to be
wounded, she immediately makes off. When dragged
out of the water, these animals are said to utter a sound
like the grunting of a hog.
The hard substance, or bone as it is called, in the
hack of the cuttle-fish, when dried and powdered, is
employed to form moulds, in which silversmiths cast
small articles, such as spoons, rings, &c.; and it forms
the useful article of stationary called pounce.
In the Systema Natures Xheve are described eight spe¬
cies of sepia, viz. * octopus, * officinalis, unguiculata,
hexapus, * media, *loligo, * sepiola, and tunicata.
. The officinalis was in great esteem among the ancients
as an article of food, and is still used by the Italians.
The sepia octopus, or eight-armed cuttle-fish, which
inhabits the seas of warm climates, is a most formidable
animal, being sometimes of such a size as to measure I 2
feet across its centre, and to have each of its arms be¬
tween 40 and 50 feet long. It is said that he will
sometimes throw these arms over a boat or canoe, which
he would infallibly drag to the bottom, with those who
are in it ; did not the Indians, who are aware of this
danger, carry with them a hatchet to cut off the
arms.
38. Clio.
Body naked, free, and floating, furnished with a fin on
each side ; head distinct, and having gills at the sur¬
face of the fins.
The above character of clio is that of Cuvier, who
has written an able account of this and two other ge¬
nera of his new order of mollusca, which he calls ptcro-
poda, or mollusca pinnata, in the 4th vol. of Ann. de
Mus. Nat.
Gmelin enumerates six species of clio, viz. caudata,
pyramidata, retusa, borealis, helicina, and limacina.
H O L O G Y.
57
dujlimn.
39. Onchidium.
Body oblong, creeping, flat beneath ; mouth anterior ;
VOL. X. Part I. f
353
feelers two, above the mouth ; arms two, at the sides Specie*,
of the head ; vent behind, and inferior. Mollurea.
Species two, viz. typhae, described by Dr Buchanan,
5th vol. Lin. Trans.; and peronii, described by Cuvier,
Ann. de Mus. Nat.
58
Lobaria.
59
Lernsea.
60
Scyllfta.
40. Lobaria.
Body lobate, convex above, flat below.
One species, viz. quadriloba, having a tail with four
lobes ; and found in the north seas.
41. LERNiEA.
Body oblong, somewhat cylindrical, naked; tentacula
or arms, two or three on each side and round, by
which it affixes itself; ovaries two, projecting like
tails from the lower extremity.
There are 15 species, viz. branchialis, * cyprinacea,
* salmonea, * asellina, * huchonis, clavata, unciata, ga¬
bion, radiata, nodosa, cornuta, pectoralis, lotse, cyclop-
terina, and pinnarum.
42. ScYLLjEA.
Body compressed and grooved on the back ; mouth con¬
sisting of a terminal toothless aperture ; tentacula,
three on each side, placed beneath.
Two species, viz. pelagica and gomphodensis.
43. Aphrodita.
Body creeping, oblong, covered with scales, and fur¬
nished with numerous bristly fasciculate feet, on each
side ; mouth terminal, cylindrical, retractile ; feelers
two, setaceous, annulate ; eyes four.
There are 9 species, viz. *aculeata, *scabra, * squa-
mata, imbricata, plana, * lepidota, cirrosa, violacea,
and longa.
The aculeate aphrodite, by some called the sea mouse, acU ea*a‘
is of an oval form, grows to the length of four or five
inches ; the belly is covered with a naked skin and
somewhat prominent in the middle: its substance is
somewhat firm. It is clothed with hairy filaments,
which are short on the middle of the back, but longer
at the sides ; they are all somewhat rigid and firm ;
those on the back stand erect, like the quills of a por¬
cupine ; those on the sides lie flat, and are of a great
variety of colours ; a beautiful blue and lively green
are very distinct in them, but a golden yellow is most
predominant; on the back they are darker, and in
many places of a grayish brown. It dwells in the Eu¬
ropean ocean, living upon shell-fish, and has 32 fasci¬
culated projectors, resembling feet, on each side.
61
Aphrodita.
44. Amphitrite.
Body projecting from a tube and annulate ; peduncles
or feet small, numerous ; feelers two, approximate,
feathered ; eyes none.
There are seven species, viz. reniformis, penicillus,
Y y ventilabrum.
61
Amphitiite.
354
Species, ventilabrum, auricoma,
Mollusoa. plumosa.
63 45*
HELMINTHOLOGY.
Spin
cristata, chrysocepbala, and
Spio.
Chap.
Body projecting from a tube, jointed, and furnished with
dorsal fibres; peduncles rough, with bristles, and
placed towards the back j feelers two, long, simple j
eyes two, oblong.
There are 10 species, viz. vermicularis, * serpentina, Sped
* proboscidea, elinguis, *digitata, barbata, caeca, lit- Mol!u>
toralis, marina, and quadricuspidata. v v
48. PitlYSSOPHORA.
Body gelatinous, pendent from an aerial vesicle, with
gelatinous sessile members at the sides; numerous ten-
tacula beneath.
66 j
Physso.;
phora.
There are two species, viz. seticornis and filicornis.
6^.
Nereis. 4^* J^EREIS.
Body long, creeping, with numerous lateral peduncles
on each side ; feelers simple, rarely none 5 eyes two or
four, rarely none.
The species are 29 in number, and are divided into
three sections.
A. Mouth furnished with a claw ;
Containing versicolor, * noctiluca, fimbriata, armil-
laris, mollis, *de!agica, tubicola, norwegica, pinnata,
corniculata, pusilla, incisa, and aphroditoides.
B. Mouth furnished with a proboscis ;
Containing * cserulea, * viridis, maculata, crassa,
stellifera, punctata, alba, flava, longa, prismatica, bi-
frons, cjeca, ebranchiata, lamelligera, and ciliata.
C. Mouth furnished with a tube ;
Containing one species, viz. prolifera.
One of the most remarkable of these species is the
noctiluca, of which we shall here give a short ac¬
count.
ioctiluca. Body blue green, with 23 segments, so small as to
be scarcely visible to the naked eye.—This is one of
those phosphorescent animals that illuminate the ocean
in the dark. Their numbers and wonderful agility,
a/ided to their shining quality, do not a little contribute
to these illuminations of the sea; for myriads of those
animalcula are contained in a small cup of sea water.
Innumerable quantities of them lodge in the cavities
of the scales of fishes ; and to them, probably, the
fishes owe their noctilucous quality. “ I have observed
with great attention (says Barbut) a fish just caught out
of the sea, whose body was almost covered with them j
and have examined them in the dark : they twist and
CJri themselves with amazing agility, but soon retire
out of our contracted sight; probably their glitterin'?
dazzling the eye, and their extreme minuteness eluding
our researches. It is to be observed, that when the
unctuous moisture which covers the scales of fishes is
exhausted by the air, these animals are not to be seen,
nor are the fishes then noctilucous, that matter being’
perhaps their nourishment when living, as they them¬
selves aflbrd food to many marine animals. They do
not shine in the day-time, because the solar rays are too
powerful for their light, however aggregate, or” immense
their nunber.”
«5
Nais.
47. NaTs.
Body creeping, long, linear, depressed, and pellucid ;
peduncles, with small bristles on each side; no len-
tacula ; eyes two or none.
There are three species, viz. hydrostatica, rosacea,
and filiformis.
49. Medusa. m./™
Body gelatinous, orbicular, and generally flat under¬
neath $ mouth central, beneath.
These animals have been denominated sea nettles^
from the opinion that the larger species, when touched,
excite a tingling sensation, and slight redness of tire
skin. They are supposed to form the chief food of the
cetaceous fish $ and many of them shine with great bril¬
liancy in the water. The form of their body, while at
rest, is that of the segment of a sphere, of which the
convex surface is smooth, and the flat part provided
with several tentacula. The body is transparent, and
so gelatinous, that it is reduced almost to nothing, by
evaporation, when left dry upon the shore. Several
coloured lines may be seen within j but there is nothing
which gives marks of a circulation going on. The lines,
indeed, towards the borders are more numerous, but
they seem to be appendages of the alimentary cavity.
These animals swim very well, and appear to perform
that motion by rendering their body alternately more or
less convex j and thus striking the water. When left
upon the shore, they lie motionless, and look like large
flat cakes of jelly.
The species are distributed into two sections.
A. Body with ciliated ribs.
This contains four species, viz. infundibulum, pileus,
cucurais, and ovum.
B. Body smooth.
This contains 40 species, viz. porpita, * cruciate,
hysocella, * aequorea, * aurita, capillata, * pilearis,
marsupialis, hemispherica, pelagica, noctiluca, * fusca,
* purpura, * tuberculata, * undulata, * lunulata, nuda,
velelia, spirans, pulmo, tyrrhena, tubercularis, utricu-
lus, caravella, umbella, dimorpha, campanula, digitata,
frondosa, tetrastyla, octostyla, andromeda, corona, per-
sea, cephea, proboscidalis, mollicina, pileata, crucigera,
and unguiculata.
50. Lucernaria.
Body gelatinous, wrinkled, branched 5 mouth placed
beneath.
There are three species, viz. quadricorni?, pbrygia,
and auricula.
51. Asterias.
Body depressed, covered with a coriaceous crust; muri-
cate, with tentacula, and grooved below 5 mouth cen¬
tral, and five-rayed.
6i
Luceii 'A
6(1
Atteu
These
iiap, II.
>ecies. These animals, which are usually called star-jisk, or
oiluso, sea-stars, constitute one of the most numerous genera
of the mollusca. They are very curious in their forms,
but are almost all radiated, as stars are usually paint¬
ed j and some of them, from the minuteness of their
rays, make a very beautiful appearance.
By the coriaceous crust, with which they are cover¬
ed, they are defended from the attacks of the smaller
animals, that inhabit the seas in which they reside.
Each of the rays has a great number of short, soft, and
fleshy tubes, that serve for tentacula, and seem not only
designed for taking prey, and aiding the motion of the
animal ; but also for enabling it to cling to the rocks,
and thus resist the force of the waters. These tentacu¬
la have been found to exceed 1500 in a single animal 5
(hey are situated on the lower surface, and when the
animal is laid on its back, they may be seen to be push¬
ed out and withdrawn like the horns of snails. The
rays enable them to swim, but they move very slowly.
These rays are very brittle, and are easily broken off;
but when this happens, their power of reproduction is
so great, that they are speedily renewed. The mouth
is armed with bony teeth, for breaking the shells of the
small fish on which they feed j and from the mouth a
canal proceeds through each of the rays, becoming nar¬
rower as it approaches the tip.
For preserving these animals, Mr Barbut advises that
they be drowned in brandy or other spirits, taking care
to keep the rays all the time extended. Then it is easy
to draw out the entrails by the mouth with a pair of
forceps j and after this is done, the animal may be
dried.
There are 45 species distinguished, according as
their circumference is more or less divided.
A. Lunate,
Comprehending four species, viz- nobilis, pulvillus,
militaris, and luna.
B. Steltate,
Comprising 20 species, viz. papposa, spongiosa, * ru-
bens, * seposita, endeca, minuta, * glacialis, * clathra-
ta, echinitis, recticulata, phrygiana, nodosa, * violacea,
sanguinolenta, perforata, araneica, * equestris, laeviga¬
ta, membranea, granularis,
G Radiate,
Comprising 20 species, viz. rosea, pertusa, *ophiura,
aculeata, ciliaris, ® sphaerulata, * pentaphylla, * varia,
*aculearis, * hastata, * fissa, * nigra, tenella, * pecti-
nata, multiradiata, * caput medusae, euryali, aligaetes,
nigrita, tricolor, and fragilis.
Many of these are extremely beautiful 5 but one of
the most showy is the caput medusee, or arborescent
star-fish,
'W me- Having five rays, each subdivided, dichotomous j
sx. rays and disk granulate ; mouth depressed (Vid. fig.
•12.).—-This extremely singular species is occasionally
met with in most seas *, but it is not very common. It
has five equidistant, thick, jointed rays, proceeding from
the centre j and each of them is divided into two other
smaller, and each of these is again subdivided in a simi¬
lar manner ; and this subdivision is carried, in the most
beautiful and regular gradation, to a vast extent, so
355
that the extreme ramifications sometimes amount to se- Species,
veral thousands. Air Bmgley speaks of a specimen that Mojlusda,
was three feet across, and had 512 extremities to each w—y—«•'
ray, making in all 2560. By this curious structure,
the animal becomes, as it were, a living net, and is ca¬
pable of entangling such creatures as are designed for
its prey, by the sudden contraction of these numerous
ramifications, by the intricacy of which they are pre¬
vented from escaping.
The colour of the living animal is a reddish or deep
carnation } but when dead it is more of a gray colour.
To preserve this curious animal whole and undamaged
for cabinets, it should be taken far out at sea, and the
fishermen should be careful not to break off any of the
limbs, and to keep it as still as possible. It should be
dried in the shade in some open place, as in the sun it
is apt to melt away, and if too much in the shade, to
become putrid.
This species is so valuable, that the fishermen at the
Cape get from six to ten rix-dollars for a specimen.
JZ. EcHINUS. Echinus.
Body roundish, covered with a bony crust, and gene¬
rally furnished with moveable spines j mouth placed
beneath, and commonly five-valved.
The animals of this genus are called sea urchins or
sea hedgehogs, from the spines which grow on their ex¬
ternal covering ; they are also called sea eggs, probably
from many of them being eatable. They are all inha¬
bitants of the seas*, and'are so nearly alike in charac¬
ter, that a description of one species will serve to illus¬
trate the whole family.
There are no less than 109 species, which are subdi¬
vided as follows.
A, Vent vertical, and all the tentaeula simple.
a. Globular or hemispherical.
Containing 37 species, viz. *esculentus, sphaera, droe-
bachiensis, * miliaris, basteri, haernisphericus, angulo-
sus, excavatus, globulus, sphmroides, gratilla, lixula,
saxatilis, fenestratus, subangularis, *ovarius, diadema,
calamaris, araneiformis, stellatus, radiatus, circinatus,
cidaris, mamillatus, lucuntis, atratus, ® coronatus, aste-
rizans, assulatus, sardicus, lammeus, variegatus, pustula^-
tus, granulatus, tesselatus, botryoides, and torcumaticus,
b. Shaped soma chat like a shield ;
Four species, viz, * sinuatus, semiglobosus, quinqui-
labiatus, and conoideus.
B. Having the vent beneath and no tentacala at the
mouth.
a. Rase circular, with the vent in the circumference.
Containing five species, viz. alba-gabrus, depressus,
* vulgaris, quadrifasciatus, and sexfaciatus.
b. Base exactly circular ;
One species, viz. subuculas.
c. Base-oval;
Three species, viz. cyclostomus, semilunaris, and sen-
tiformis.
Y y 2 d. Base
HELMINTHOLOGY.
HELMINTHOLOGY.
356
Specie?.
Mollusc*. d. Base oval and acute ; vent opposite the mouth ;
Six species, viz. * scutatus, ovatus, * pustulosus,
quadriradiatus, minor, and dubius.
e. Base irregular, with Jive expanded petal-shaped
marks on the surjace.
I. Margin with angular sinuosities;
Two species, viz. rosaceus and attqs.
2. Ovate; margin entire ;
Two species, viz. oviformis and orbiculatus.
f. Flat on both sides, with petal-shaped avenues; mouth
central, flat, and toothed; cro wn with four pores.
1. Having a sinuated margin and perforated surface ;
Seven species, viz. biforis, pentaporus, hexaporns,
emarginatus, auritus, inauritus, and tetraporus.
2. Having a sinuated margin and entire surface ;
Five species, viz. * laganum, subrotundus, reticula-
tns, orbicularis, and gorallatus.
3. Having a toothed margin ;
Three species, viz. decadactylus, octadactylus, orbi-
culus.
g. With ten avenues on the crown ; rays straight, bipo-
rous, and stellate; mouth and vent near each other
in the middle of the base;
IJ species, viz. nucleus, centralis, ervum, craniolaris,
turcicus, vicia, ovulum, lathyrus, equinus, minutus,
xalca, insequalis, raninus, and bufonius.
C. Vent lateral, with pencilled tentacula at the mouth.
a. Circular; mouth central, vent square ;
One species, viz. placenta.
b. Heart-shaped, with the crown grooved;
Two species, viz. cor anguinum and lacunosus.
c. Heart-shaped, with the crown not grooved ;
Fight species, viz. radiatus, purpureus, pusillus,
caHiillus!"*’ SubSlobu,us> ananchitis, bicordatus, and
c. Ovate, with grooved avenues ;
One species, viz. spatagus.
d. Ovate, with the avenues not grooved;
Eight species, viz. brissoides, teres, oliva, amygdala,
ovalis, pyniormis, lapiscaneri, and patellaris.
Many of the above have hitherto been found only in
a fossile state. J
* eseulen- Subglobular, with 10 avenues of pores ; and the inter
tus. mediate spines, covered with small tubercles, supporting
Fig. 13. the spines (fig. 13.).—.This animal, which lodges in
cavities of rocks, just within low water mark, on most
of the British coasts, is nearly of a globular shape, having
its shell marked into ten partitions or divisions, not much
unlike those of an orange. The mouth is situated in the
lower part, and armed with five strong and sharpened
teeth. I he stomach and intestines, which are of consi.
Chap. I,
derable length, are disposed in a somewhat circular s
form j and the whole body is supported entirely by a Zifop ’a.
set of upright bones or columns. «—y J
On the right side of the shell is a prodigious num¬
ber of sharp moveable spines, of a dull white and
greenish colour, curiously articulated, like ball and
socket, with tubercles on the surface, and connected by
strong filaments to the skin or epidermis, with which
the shell is covered. The spines are the instruments by
which the animal conveys itself at pleasure from one
place to another j and by means of these it is enabled
to move at the bottom of the water with great swift¬
ness. It generally employs those about the mouth for
this purpose, keeping that opening downwards j but it
is also asserted to have the power of moving forwards,
by turning on itself like a wheel. When any thing
alarms these animals, they immediately move all their
spines towards it, and wait an attack, as an army of
pikemen would with their weapons. The number of
muscles, fibres, and other apparatus necessary to the
proper management of these must be very great, and
are exceedingly wonderful. So tenacious are the sea-
urchins of the vital principle, that on opening one of
them, it is no uncommon circumstance to observe the
several parts of the broken shell, move off in different
directions.
Between the spines, and disposed in a continued lon¬
gitudinal series on the several divisions or regions of the
shell, are an infinite number of very small knobs, com¬
municating with an equal number of tentacula placed
above them. These are the instruments by which the
creature fixes itself to any object, and stojis its motion.
They are possessed of a very high degree of contractile
power, and are furnished at the extremities with an ex¬
pansile part, which may be supposed to operate as a
sphincter, or as the tail of a leech, in fastening the
animal secuiely to rocks and other substances to which
they choose to adhere.
The shell of this animal, when deprived of the spines,
which easily fall off in dying, is of a pale reddish tinge*
and the tubercles on which the spines are fixed, appear
like so many pearly protuberances on the surface.
At Marseilles, and in some other towns on the conti¬
nent, this species is exposed for sale in the markets, as
oysteis are with us, and is eaten boiled like an egg.
It forms an aiticle ol food among the lower class on the
sea coasts of many parts of this country ; but does not
seem to have made its way to the tables of the great.
^ his order of Mollusca contains 3 2 genera, and about
433 species.
Order IV. ZOOPHYTA.
The creatures ranked under this order seem to hold
a middle rank between animals and vegetables. Most
of_ them are, like the latter, fixed by a root to a cer¬
tain spot, from which they never move, and where they
sprout and grow j many of them propagate, like plants, ,
by buds, or slips; and some of them appear only to be
entitled to rank as animal bodies by their possessing a
degree of irritability a little superior to the sensitive
p ant. Few of them enjoy the faculty of locomotion,
though*the agility with which they seize their prey, and
the instinct which directs them in search of it, shew
them to be really animal bodies.
The
IOH l
HELMINTHOLOGY.
hap. II.
ipecies. The coral' reefs that surround many islands, parti-
jopliyta. cutarly those in the Indian Archipelago, and round
New Holland, are formed by various tribes of these
animals, especially by those of the five first genera.
M. Peron observes, that the animals form these corals
with such rapidity, that enormous masses of them very
speedily appear, where there was scarcely any mark of
such reefs before.
The principal works that treat of the Zoophyta are
those of Ellis, Solander, Pallas, and Dr Shaw’s “ Na¬
turalist’s Miscellany.”
71
tipora. 53. TuBIFORA.
Animal probably a nereis; coral, consisting of erect,
hollow, cylindrical, parallel, aggregate tubes.
There are 10 species, viz. musica, catenulata, * ser¬
pens, fascicularis, ramosa, pennata, penicillata, flabel-
laris, stellata, and strues.
72
sdrepora. 54. MaDREPORA.
Animal resembling a medusa; coral with lamellate
star-shaped cavities.
There are 118 species, which are distributed into five
subdivisions, viz.
A. Composed of a single star.
Containing six species, viz. * verrucaria, turbinata,
* porpita, fungitis, patella, and cyathus.
B. Wilh numerous separate stars, and continued nume¬
rous gills.
14 species, viz. pileus, cristata, lactuca, ficoides, ace-
rosa, lichen, agaricites, elephantatus, Crustacea, incrus-
tans, exesa, filograna, natans, and anthophyllum.
C. With numerous united stars.
55. Millepora.
Animal an hydra or polype; coral mostly branched,
and covered with cylindrical, turbinate pores.
There are 34 species, viz. alcicornis, caerulea, aspera,
solida, truncata, miniacea, * cervicornis, *skenei, pumi-
la, compressa, * lichenoides, violacea, tubulifera, * fas-
cialis, * foliacea, zeylanica, forniculosa, crustulenta,
erosa, reticulata, * cellulosa, clathrata, reticulum, spon-
gitis, coriacea, calcarea, * polymorpha, decussata, * al¬
ga, * pumicosa, * tubulosa, pinnata, *liliacea, and car-
dunculus.
56. Cellepora.
Animal an hydra or polype ; coral somewhat membra¬
naceous, and composed of round cells.
There are eight species, viz. ramulosa, spengites, * pu¬
micosa, verrucosa, ciliata, hyalina, nitida, and annulata.
57. Isis.
Animal growing in the form of a plant ; stem stony
and jointed; the joints longitudinally streaked, united
by horny junctures and covered with a soft, porous
cellular flesh or bark ; the mouths of which are beset
with oviparous polypes.
There are six species, viz. hippuris, dichotoma, ochra-
cea, * entrocha, * asteria, and coccinea.
58. Antipathes.
Animal growing in the form of a plant; stem expand¬
ed at the base, horny within, and beset with small
spines; externally covered with a gelatinous flesh be¬
set with numerous polypes bearing tubercles.
357
Species.
Zoophyta.
Millepora.
74
Cellepora.
75
Isis.
7«
Anupatiei.
There are 15 species, viz. labyrinthica, sinuosa, me-
andrites, areola, abdita, phrygia, repanda, ambigua,
daedalia, gyrosa, clivosa, cerebrum, involuta, implicata,
and cochlea.
There are 13 species, viz. spiralis, ulex, subpinnata,
myriophylla, allopecuroides, cupressus, oricalcea, dicho¬
toma, clathrata, flabellum, pennacea, ericoides, and
fceniculacea.
D. Aggregate undivided, having distinct stars, and
porulous, tuberculous, prominent undulations.
There are 56 species, viz. favosa, cavata, bulliris, ana¬
nas, hyades,siderea, galaxea,pleiades, papillosa, radiata,
latebrosa,po!ygonia, arenosa, interstincta, spongiosa, fo-
liosa, porculata, stellulata, astroites, stellata, nodulosa,
acropora, cavernosa, punctata, calycularis, truncata,
stellaris, organum, divergens, * musicalis, denticulata,
faveolata, retepora, rotulosa, cespitosa, flexuosa, fascicu¬
laris, pectinata, rotularis, tubularis, mamillaris, patelloi-
des, globularis, telum, perforata, vermicularis, * arach-
noides, undulata, solida, monile, daedalia, monostriata,
contignatio, cristata, rus, and cuspidata.
E. Branched, having distinct stars, and porulous tuber¬
culous undulations.
There are 27 species, viz. porites, digitata, damicor-
nis, verrucosa, muricata, fastigiata, ramea, oculata, vir-
ginea, rosea, hirtella, linulata, botryoides, granosa, pro-
lifera, seriata, cactus, corymbosa, gammascens, proble-
matica, spuria, infundibuliformis. angulosa, discoides,
chalcidicum, concamerata, and rosacea*.
59. Gob CONI A. Gorgonia.
Animal growing in the form of a plant; leathery,
corky, woody, horny, or bony ; composed of glassy or
stony fibres; streaked, tapering, dilated at the base,
covered with a cellular flesh or bark, and becoming
spongy and friable when dry ; mouths covering the
surface of the stem and polype-bearing.
There are 41 species, viz. lepadifera, verticillaris,
* placomus, mollis, succinia, americana, exserta, patula,
ceratophyta, juncea, flammea, embraculum, purpurea,
sasappo,palma, radicata, suberosa, coralloides, elongata,
scirpea, setacea, viminalis, muricata, * verrucosa, anti-
pathes, *anceps, nobilis, crassa, pinnata, sanguinolenta,
violacea, setosa, petechizans, pectinata, abietina, calycu-
lata, briareus, ventaliua, reticulum, clathrus, and * fla¬
bellum.
7s
60. AlcYONIUM. Alcyoniuw.
Animal generally growing in the form of a plant; stem
fixed, fleshy, gelatinous, spongy or leathery, and be¬
set with stellate cells bearing polypes.
There
35'^
.Specie?. There are 28 species, viz. arboreem, exos, * digita-
Zoophyta. turn, schlosseri, lyncurium, * bursa, cyclonium, * ficus,
1 gelatinosura, manusdiaboli, *arenosum,botryoides, mas-
sa, cranium, rubrum, mammillosimi, ocellatum, tubero¬
sum, gorgonoides, asbestinum, alburnum, papillosum,
* conglomeratum, * ascidioides, synovium, vermiculare,
stellatum, and corniculatum.
Chap. [.
care in making it perfectly clean, in order to prevent Speci l
its growing putrid. Zoopil.
62. Flustra, Sea Mat-Weed, or Horn-Wrack.
Animal a polype, proceeding from porous cells 5 stem
fixed, foliaceous, membranaceous, composed of nume¬
rous rows of cells, united together, and woven like a
mat.
HELMINTHOLOGY.
Spongia. 51. SPONGIA.
Animal fixed, flexile, torpid, of various forms, com¬
posed either of reticulate fibres, or masses of small
spines interwoven together, and clothed with a gela¬
tinous flesh, full of small mouths on its surface, by
yihich it absorbs and rejects water.
There are 49 species, viz. ventilabrum, flabelliformis,
ihfundibuliformis, fistularis, aculeata, tubulosa, *corna-
ta, ciliata, cancellata, rubra, nigra, officinalis, ^ ocula-
ta, muricata, nodosa, * tomentosa, baciliaris, dichotoma,
* stuposa, * cristata, * palmata, prolifera, * botryoides,
* panicea, fulva, tubularia, fibrilloja, fasciculata, basta,
lichenoides, papillaris, cavernosa, sinuosa, frondosa,
agaricina, tupha, membranosa, compressa, pencillum,
coalita, plana, cruciata, ossiformis, mauda, ficiformis,
^ lacustris, fluviatilis, friabilis, and canalium.
The sponges consist of a ramified mass of capillary
tubes, that were long supposed to be the production of
a species of worms, which are often found within these
cavities ; an idea, however, which is now nearly explod¬
ed. Others have imagined them to be only vegetables ;
but that they are possessed of animality, appears evident
from the circumstance of their pores, alternately con¬
tracting and dilating, and from their even shrinking in
some degree from the touch, when examined in their
native situations. Their structure properly enables
them to absorb nourishment from the surrounding
fluid. S
1 hese animals are certainly the most torpid of all the
zoophytes. The individuals difler very much from
each other, both in form and structure. Some of them,
as the common sponge, are of no determinate figure ;
_ _ hut others are cup-shaped, tubular, &c.
oji,emails. Irregularly formed, porous, rough, lobed, and woolly.
—The officinal sponge is elastic, and very full of holes j
it grows into irregular lobes of a woolly consistence,
and generally adheres, by a very broad base, to the
rocks. It is chiefly found about the islands in the Me¬
diterranean, where it forms a considerable article of
commerce. _ A variety of small marine animals pierce
and gnaw into its irregular winding cavities. These
appear on the outside, by large holes raised higher than
the rest. When it is cut perpendicularly, the interior
parts are seen to consist of small tubes, which divide in¬
to branches as they appear on the surface. These tubes,
which are composed of reticulated fibres, extend them¬
selves every way, by this means increasing the surface
of the sponge, and ending at the outside in an infinite
number of small circular holes, which are the proper
mouths of the animal. Each of these holes is surrounded
by a few erect pointed fibres, that appear as if woven
m the form of little spines. These tubes, with their
ramifications, in the living state of the sponge, are
clothed with a gelatinous substance, properly called the
flesh ot the animal. When the sponge is first taken it
has a strong fishy smell, and the fishermen take great
There are about 18 species, vijt., * foliacea, * trunea-
ta, * pilosa, * cbartacea, * carbacea, bombycina, ver-
ticillata, * dentata, * bullata, tomentosa, denticulata,
tubulosa, hispida, frondiculosa, papyracea, hirta, *mem-
branacea, and lineata.
63. Tubularia.
Stem tubular, simple or branched, fixed by the base j
animal proceeding from the end of the tube, and
having its head crested with tentacula.
Si
T-abuk i,
There are 26 species, viz. magnifica, cornucopia;,
* indivisa, * ramosa, ramea, ® fistulosa, fragilis, * mus-
coides, papyracea, penicillus, acetabulum, splachnea,
*coryna, ® affinis, fabricia, longicornis, multicornis, re¬
pens, * campanulata, * reptans, sultana, stellaris, sim¬
plex, Spallanzani, membranacea, * and flabelliformis.
Of these, by far the largest, and probably the most
beautiful species, is the magnifica, which is thus cha¬
racterised by Or Shaw.
With a simple whitish tube, and very numerous ten- magnb-
tacula, variegated with red and white. Fig. 14. rial
It is found in various parts of the coast of Jamaica, CCT ^
adhering to the rocks. It is very shy, and on being
approached, instantly recedes within its elastic tube,
which on a farther alarm also retires into the rock, and
specimens can be procured only by breaking off such
parts of the stone as contain them. These being put
into tubs of sea water, may be kept for months in per¬
fect preservation.
64. COR ALLIN A. <?orall|l
Animal growing in the form of a plant j stem fixed,
with calcareous subdivided branches, mostly jointed.
There are 38 species, viz. tridens, opuntia, monile,
incrassata, tuna, nodulosa, *squamata, loricata, palma¬
ta, * elongata, subulata, granifera, * officinalis, penna-
ta, * rubens, * crustata, * spermopheros, * corniculata,
fragilissima, fruticulosa, indurata, lichenoides, rugosa,
marginata, cylindrica, oblongata, obtusata, lapidescens,
barbata, rosarium, cuspidata, tribulus, flabellum, con-
glutinata, phoenix, peniculum, penicillum, and terres-
tris.
sji
65. Sertularia. Sertul
Animal growing in the form of a plant, stem branched,
producing polypes from cup-shaped denticles or mi¬
nute cells.
There are 77 species, which aie distributed into two
sections.
A. Stem horny, tubular, fixed by the base, beset with
cup-shaped denticles, and furnished with vesicles or
ovaries containing polypes, eggs, or the living young.
* Rosacea, *pumila, *operculata, *tamarisca, *abi-
etina,
ft
CC!
64
imatute.
II. H E L M I N
etina, * nigra, *fuscescens, obsoleta, pinus, cupressoide-s,
•cupressina, * argentea, * rugosa, * halecina, * theja,
* myriophyllurn, hypoides, speciosa, * falcata, * pluma,
echinata, * antennina, * verticiilata, * gelatinosa, *vo-
lubilis, * syringa, *cuscuta, * pustnlosa, *frutescens,
panaster, pennatula, * filicula, quadridentata, spicata,
* e ansii, * muricata, secundaria, misinensis, racemosa,
* uva, *]indigera, * geniculata, dichotoma, * spinosa,
* pinnata, * setacea, polygonias, pennaria, * lichenas-
trum, cedrina, * imbricata, purpurea, articulata, filici-
na, and fruticans.
B. Stem crustaceouSy resembling stone, and composed oj
rows of cells ; no vesicles, but instead of them small
globules. Cellularia.
* Bursaria, * loriculata, ® fastigiata, * ovicularia,
*neretina, *seruposa, pilosa,crispa, placeosa, *reptans,
parasitica, ciliata, *eburnea, *cornuta, * boricata, *an-
guina, coreoides, tulipifera, tabulum, * ternata, cirrata,
and opuntioides.
66. Pennatula, the Sea-pen.
Animal not fixed, of various shapes $ supported by a
bony part within ; naked at the base $ the upper
part having generally lateral ramifications furnished
with rows of tubular denticles, with radiate polypes
from each tube.
There are 18 species, viz. coccinea, grisea, phos-
phorea, pilosa,rubra, mirabilis, sagitta, antennina, stelli-
fera, phalloides, aruudinacea, sciopia, juncea, grandis,
argentea, encrinus, cynomorium, and reniformis.
67. Hydra, the Polype.
Animal fixing itself by the base ; linear, gelatinous, na¬
ked, contractile, and furnished with setaceous tenta-
cula j inhabiting fresh waters, and producing its de¬
ciduous offspring from its sides. Fig. 15.
These animals are among the most curious produc¬
tions of nature, chiefly as exhibiting the most surprising
example of diffused vitality. Though not so formidable
as the hydra destroyed by Hercules, they are rendered
equally prolific by being cut in pieces.
There are about five species, viz. viridis, * fusca,
* grisea, gelatinosa, and pallens.
The three first species are those on which the greatest
number of experiments have been made j and their
shapes are so various, that it is by no means easy to de¬
scribe them. They are generally found in ditches.
Whoever has carefully examined these when the sun is
very powerful, will find many little transparent lumps
of the appearance of jelly, and size of a pea, and flatted
upon one side. The same kind of substances are like¬
wise to be met with on the under side of the leaves of
plants that grow in such placss. These are the polypes
m a quiescent state and apparently inanimate. They
are generally fixed by one end to some solid substance,
with a large opening, which is the mouth, at the
other, having several arms fixed round it, projecting as
rays from the centre. They are slender, pellucid, and
capable of contracting themselves into very small com¬
pass, or of extending to a considerable length. The
arms are capable of the same contraction and expansion
T H O L 0 G Y.
359
as the body, and with these they lay hold of minute Species,
worms and insects, bringing them to the mouth, and Zoophyta
swallowing them. The indigestible parts are again
thrown out by the mouth.
The green polype was that first discovered by M. Trem- viridis.
uley j and the first appearances of spontaneous motion
weie perceived in its arms, which it can contract, ex¬
pand, and twist about in various directions. On the first
appearance of danger they contract to such a degree,
that they appear little longer than a grain of sand, of a
fine green colour, the arms disappearing entirely. Soon
afterwards, he found the grisea, and afterwards the fus¬
ca. The bodies of the viridis and grisea diminish almost
insensibly from the anterior to the posterior extremity \
but the iusca is for the most part of an equal size for
two-thirds of its length from the anterior to the posterior
extremities, from which it becomes abruptly smaller,
and then continues of a regular size to the end. These
three kinds have at least six, and at most twelve or thir¬
teen arms. Ihey can contract themselves till their bo¬
dies do not exceed one-fourth of an incli in length, and;
they can stop at any intermediate degree of expansion
or contraction. They are of various sizes, from an inch to
an inch and a half long. Their arms are seldom long¬
er than their bodies, though some have them an inch,
and some even eight inches long. The thickness of
their bodies decreases as they extend themselves, and
vice versa ; and they may be made to contract them¬
selves either by agitating the water in which they are
contained, or by touching the animals themselves.
W hen taken out of the water they all contract so much,
that they appear only like a little lump of jelly. They
can contract or expand one arm, or any number of arms,
independent of the rest-, and they can likewise bend
their bodies or arms in all possible directions. They
can also dilate or contract their bodies in various places,
and sometimes appear thick set with folds, which, when
carelessly viewed, appear like rings. Their progressive
motion is performed by that power which they have of
contracting and dilating their bodies. When about to
move, they bend down their heads and arms, lay hold
by means of them on some other substance to which
they design to fasten themselves j then they loosen their
tail, and draw it towards the head ; then either fix it
in that place, or stretching forward their head as be¬
fore, repeat the same operation. They ascend or de¬
scend at pleasure in this manner upon aquatic plants,
or upon the sides of the vessel in which they are kept;
they sometimes hang by the tail from the surface of the
water, or sometimes by one of the arms; and they can
walk with ease upon the surface of the water. On ex¬
amining the tail with a microscope, a small part of it
will be found to be dry above the surface of the water j
and, as it were in a little concave space, of which the
tail forms the bottom ; so that it seems to be suspended
on the surface of the water on the same principle that
a small pin or needle is made to swim. When a po-
lype, therefore, means to pass from the sides of the glass
to the surface of the water, it has only to put that part
out of the water by which it is to be supported, and to
give it time to dry, which it always does upon these oc¬
casions 5 and they attach themselves so firmly by the
tail to aquatic plants, stones, &c. that they cannot be
easily disengaged : they often further strengthen these
attachment ,
360 H E L M I N T
S jccie^ attachments by means of one or two of their arms,
Zoophyta. which serve as a kind of anchors for fixing them to the
.... —y—w adjacent substances.
The stomach of the polype is a kind of bag or gut
into which the mouth opens, and goes from the head
to the tail. This, in a strong light, is visible to the
naked eye, especially if the animal be placed between
the eye and a candle ; for these animals are quite trans¬
parent whatever their colour may be : the stomach,
however, appears to more advantage through a power¬
ful magnifier. M. Trembley, by cutting one of these
animals transversely into three parts, satisfied himself
that they were perforated throughout. Each piece
immediately contracted itself, and the perforation was
very visible through a microscope. The skin which
encloses the stomach is that of the polype itself 5 so that
the whole animal, properly speaking, consists only of
one skin, in the form of a tube, and open at both ends.
No vessels of any kind are to be distinguished.
The mouth is situated at the anterior end in the
middle between the shooting forth of the arms, and
assumes different appearances according to circumstan¬
ces j being sometimes lengthened out in the form of
a nipple, at others appearing truncated •, sometimes the
aperture is quite closed, at others there is a hollow ;
though at all times a small aperture may be discovered
bv a powerful magnifier.
The skin of a polype, when examined with a micro¬
scope, appears like shagreen, or as if covered with little
grains, more or less separated from each other, accord¬
ing to the degree of contraction of the body. If the
lips of a polype be cut transversely, and placed so that
the cut part of the skin may be directly before the mi¬
croscope, the skin throughout its whole thickness will
be found to consist of an infinite number of grains,
and the interior part is found to be more shagreened
than the exterior one; but they are not strongly uni¬
ted to each other, and may be separated without much
trouble. They even separate of themselves, though in
no great numbers, in the most healthy animals of this
kind ; for where they are observed to separate in large
quantities, it is a symptom of a very dangerous disorder.
In the progress of this disorder, the surface of the po¬
lype becomes gradually more and more rough and un¬
equal, and no longer well defined or terminated as be¬
fore. The grains fail off on all sides, the body and
arms contract and dilate, and assume a white shining
colour; and at last the whole dissolves into a heap of
grains, which is more particularly observed in the green
polype. By a careful examination we find, that the
skin of the polype is entirely composed of grains, ce¬
mented by means of a kind of gummy substance ; but
it is to the grains entirely that the polype owes its co¬
lour. The structure of the arms is analogous to that
of the body ; and they appear shagreened, when exami¬
ned by the microscope, whether they be in a state of
contraction or expansion ; but, if very much contract¬
ed, they appear more shagreened than the body, though
almost quite smooth when in their utmost state of ex¬
tension. In the green polype the appearance of the
arms is continually varying; and these variations are
more sensible towards the extremity of the arm than at
its origin, hut more scattered in the parts further on.
The extremity is often terminated by a knob, the hairs
HOLOGY. Chap. ,1
of which cannot be observed without a powerful mag- Specii
nifier. They have a remarkable inclination for turning Zooph . 1
towards the light, so that if that part of the glass, on ''"""v* 1 ■
which they are, be turned from the light, they will
quickly remove to the other.
That species named the fuse a has the longest arms,/iweer, I,
and makes use of the most curious manoeuvres to seize • 1
its prey. They are best viewed in a glass seven or eight
inches deep, when their arms commonly hang down to
the bottom. When this or any other kind is hungry, it
spreads its arm in a kind of circle to a considerable ex¬
tent, inclosing in this, as in a net, every insect which has
the misfortune to come within the circumference. While
the animal is contracted by seizing its prey, the arms
are observed to swell like the muscles of the human
body when in action. Though no appearance of eyes
can be observed in the polype, they certainly have some
knowledge of the approach of their prey, and shew the
greatest attention to it as soon as it comes near them.
It seizes a worm the moment it is touched by one of
the arms ; and in conveying it to the mouth, it fre¬
quently twists the arm into a spiral like a cork-screw,
by which means the insect is brought to the mouth in
a much shorter time than otherwise it would be; and
so soon are the insects on which the polypes feed killed
by them, that M. Fontana thinks they must contain
the most powerful kind of poison ; for the lips scarce
touch the animal when it expires, though there cannot
he any wound,perceived on it when dead. The worm,
when swallowed, appears sometimes single, sometimes
double, according to circumstances. When full, the
polype contracts itself, hangs down as in a kind of stu¬
por, but extends again in proportion as the food is di¬
gested, and the excrementitious part is discharged.
The bodies of the insects, when swallowed, are first ma¬
cerated in the stomach, then reduced into fragments,
and driven backwards and forwards from one end of
the stomach to the other, and even into the arms, which,
as well as the other parts of this remarkable creature, are
a kind of hollow guts or stomachs. In order to observe
this motion, it is best to feed the polypes with such
food as will give a lively colour; such, for instance, as
those worms which are furnished with a red juice. Some
bits of a small black snail being given to the polype, the
substance of the skin was soon dissolved into a pulp con¬
sisting of small black fragments ; and on examining the
polype with a microscope, it was found that the par¬
ticles were driven about in the stomach, and that they
passed into the arms, from thence hack into the sto¬
mach ; then to the tail, from whence they passed again
into the arms, and so on. The grains of which the
body of the polype consists, take their colour from the
food with which it is nourished, and become red or
black as the food happens to afford the one or the
other. They are likewise more or less tinged with
these colours in proportion to the strength of the nutri¬
tive juices ; and it is observable that they lose their co¬
lour if fed with aliments of a colour different from
themselves. They feed on most insects, and fish or
flesh, if cut into small bits. Sometimes two polypes lay
hold of the same worm, acd each begins to swallow its
own end till their mouths meet, and the worm breaks.
But should this happen not to he the case, the one polype
will sometimes devour the other along with its portion.
5
Imp. II.
HELMINTHOLOGY.
ipecies. It appears, however, that the stomach of one polype is
oophyta. not fitted for dissolving the substance of another ; for
the one which is swallowed always gets clear again af¬
ter being imprisoned an hour or two.
The manner in which the polypes generate is most
perceptible in the grisea and fnsca, as being consider¬
ably larger than the viridis. If we examine one of
them in summer, when the animals are most active, and
prepared for propagation, some small tubercles will be
found proceeding from its sides, which constantly in¬
crease in bulk, until at last in two or three days they
assume the figure of small polypes. When they first
begin to shoot, the excrescence becomes pointed, assum¬
ing a conical figure, and deeper colour than the rest
of the body. In a short time it becomes truncated, and
then cylindrical, after which the arms begin to shoot
from the anterior end. The tail adheres to the body
of the parent animal, but gradually grows smaller, un¬
til at last it adheres only by a point, and is then ready
to be separated. When this is the case, both the mo¬
ther and young ones fix themselves to the sides of the
glass, and are separated from each other by a sudden
jerk. The time requisite for the formation of the
young ones is very dift'erent, according to the warmth
of the weather and the nature of the food eaten by the
mother. Sometimes, they are fully formed, and ready
to drop off in 24 hours ; in other cases, when the wea¬
ther is cold, 15 days have been requisite for bringing
them to perfection.
It is remarkable, that there is a reciprocal commu¬
nication of food betwixt the young and old, before
they be separated. The young ones, as soon as they
are furnished with arms, catch prey for themselves, and
communicate the digested food to the old ones, who on
the other hand do the same to the young ones. This
was fully verified by the following experiment. One
of the large polypes of the fusca kind being placed on
a slip of paper in a little water, the middle of the body
of a young one growing out from it was cut open ;
when the superior part of that end which remained fix¬
ed to the parent was found to be open also. But cut¬
ting over the parent polype on each side of the shoot,
a short cylinder was obtained, open at both ends ; which
being viewed through a microscope, the light was ob¬
served to come through the young one into the stomach
of the old one. On cutting open the portion of the
cylindrical portion lengthwise, not only the hole of
communication was observed, hut one might see through
the end of the young one also. On changing tlie situa¬
tion of the two pieces, the light was seen through the
hole of communication. This may he seen between the
parent polype and its young ones after feeding them ;
for after the parents have eaten, the bodies of the
young ones swell as if they themselves had been eat¬
ing.^
The polypes produce young ones indiscriminately
from all parts of their bodies, and five or six young
ones have frequently been produced at once j nay, M.
Trembley has observed nine or ten produced at the
same time.
Nothing like copulation among these creatures was
ever observed by M. Trembley, though for two years
he had thousands of them under his inspection. To be
more certain on this subject, he took two voting ones
VOL. X. Part I.
the moment they came from their parent, and placed Species,
them in separate glasses. Both of them multiplied, not Zoophyta.
only themselves, but also their offspring, which were /-—-a
separated and watched in the same manner to the
seventh generation. They have even the same power of
generation, while adhering to their parent. In this state
the parent, with its children and grandchildren, exhi¬
bits a singular appearance, looking like a shrub thick
set with branches. Thus several generations sometimes
are attached to one another, and all of them to one pa¬
rent. Mr Adams gives a figure of one polype with 19
young ones hanging at it 5 the whole group being
about one inch broad, and one inch and a half in length $
the old polype ate about 12 monoculi per day, and the
young ones about 20 among them.
When a polype is cut transversely or longitudinally
into two or three parts, each part in a short time be¬
comes a perfect animal •, and so great is this prolific
power, that a new animal will be produced even from
a small portion of the skin of the old one. If the young
ones be mutilated while they grow upon the parent,
the parts so cut off will be reproduced j and the same
property belongs to the parent. A truncated portion
will send forth young ones before it has acquired a
new head and tail of its own, and sometimes the head
of the young one supplies the place of that which should
have grown out of the old one. If we slit a polype
longitudinally through the head to the middle of the
body, we shall have one formed with two heads ; and by
again slitting these in the same manner, we may form
one with as many heads as we please.
A still more surprising property of these animals is,
that they may be grafted together. If the truncated
portions of a polype be placed end to end, and gently
pushed together, they will unite into a single one. The
two portions are first joined together by a slender neck,
which gradually fills up and disappears, the food passing
from one part into the other *, and thus we may form
polypes, not only from different portions of the same
animal, but from those of different animals. We may
fix the head of one to the body of another, and the
compound animal will grow, eat and multiply, as if it
had never been divided. By pushing the body of one
into the mouth of another, so far that their heads may
be brought into contact, and kept in that situation for
some time, they will at last unite into one animal, only
having double the usual number of arms. The hydra
fusca may be turned inside out like a glove, at the same
time that it continues to eat and live as before. The
lining of the stomach now forms the outer skin, and
the former epidermis constitutes the lining of the sto-
' mach. If previous to this operation the polype have
young ones attached to it, such as are newly beginning
to vegetate turn themselves inside out, while the larger
ones continue to increase in size till they reach beyond
the mouth of the parent, and are then separated in the
usual manner from the body. When thus turned, the
polype combines itself in many different ways. The
fore part frequently closes and becomes a supernumer¬
ary tail. The animal, which was at first straight, njW
bends itself, so that the two tails resemble the legs of
a parr of compasses, which it can open and shut. The
old mouth is placed as it were at the joint of the com¬
passes, but loses its power of action j to supply which
t
362 H E L M 1 N T
Species, a new one is formed in its neighbourhood, and in a
Ini'usoiia. little time there is a new species of hydra found with
‘ sevei’al mouths.
The sides of a polype which has been cut through in
a longitudinal direction, begin to roll themselves up,
usually from one of the extremities, with the outside of
the skin inwards j but in a little time they unroll them¬
selves, and the two cut edges join together, sometimes
beginning at one extremity, and sometimes approaching
throughout their whole length. As soon as the edges
join, they unite so closely that no scar can be perceiv¬
ed. If a polype he partly turned back, the open part
closes, and new mouths are formed in different places.
Every portion of a polype is capable of devouring in¬
sects, almost as soon as it is cut off, and the voracity of
the whole tribe is astonishing j for Mr Adams observes,
that most of the insects on which they feed bear the
same proportion to the mouth of a polype, that an apple
the size of a man’s head bears to the. mouth of a
man.
The hydra pallens is very rarely met with, and is
described by Mr Roiselle. It is of a pale yellow co¬
lour, growing gradually smaller from the bottom; the
tail is round or knobbed ; the arms are about the length
of the body, of a white colour, generally seven in num¬
ber, and are apparently composed of a chain of glo¬
bules. The young are brought forth from all parts of
its body.
The order Zoophrjta contains 15 genera and 489 spe¬
cies.
Order V. INFUSORIA.
We have already, under the article Animalcule,
treated of the general character and habits of the ani¬
mals composing this order, and we can add little here
to what has been said in that article. We shall there¬
fore merely give the classification of the genera and
species, and briefly notice a few of the more remark¬
able individuals.
Few writers have written expressly on this order;
hut the principal are Muller, Bruigiere, in the Ency¬
clopedic Methodique, and Baker and Adams on the
Microscope.
Braclfionus. 68‘ BracHIONUS.
Body contractile, covered with a shell, and furnished
with rotatory cilia.
There are about 12 species, viz. urceolaris, patella,
cirratus, tripus, uncinatus, mucronatus, cernuus, calyci-
florus, tubifex, quadridentatus, patina, and striatus.
patina. The patina is extremely bright and splendid, has a
large body, a crystalline and nearly circular shell, with¬
out either incision or teeth, only towards the apex it
falls in so as to form a smooth notch. A double glit¬
tering organ, with ciliated edges, projects from the
apex ; both of them of a conical figure, and standing
as it were upon a pellucid substance, which is divided
into two lobes, between which and the rotatory organ
there is a silver-coloured crenulated membrane. Two
small claws may likewise be disovered near the
mouth..
striatus. The striatus has an oblong, pellucid shell, capable
of altering its figure. The apex is truncated, with six
3
HOLOG Y. Chap.I. J
small teeth on the edge of it, 12 longitudinal streaks Spec IS*,
down the back, the base obtuse and smooth. The lnfuscMs
teeth are occasionally protruded or retracted ; and there ^—-y a Iv,
are two small spines or horns on the other side of the
shell. The animal itself is of a yellow colour, crystal¬
line, and muscular ; now and then putting out from
the apex two or three little bundles of playing hairs,
the two lateral ones shorter than that in the middle ;
on the outer side we may observe a forked degludatory
muscle, and two rigid points when the apex is drawn
in. It is found in sea water.
69. Vorticella. 1 j
y Vortic 6. ,
Body contractile, naked, and furnished with ciliate,
rotatory organs.
There are about 57 species, which are arranged un¬
der three sections.
A. Seated on a pedicle or stem.
29 species, viz. * racemosa, * polypina, * anastatica,
conglomerata, * pyraria, *opercuIaria, *tuberosa, hians,
bellis, *umbellaria, * berberina, digitalis, fasciculata,
annularis, nutans, gemelia, * nebulifera, * convallaria,
* lunaris, * globularia, inclinans, ringens, *pyriformis,
stellata, vaginata, * citrina, cyathina, putrida, and pa-
tellina.
B. Furnished with a tail.
14 species, viz. * flosculosa, * socialis, * stentorea,
* hyacinthina, auriculata, * furcata, senta, * catulus,
fells, vermicularis, * macroura, * rotatoria, * lacina-
lata, and sacculata.
C. Without tail or stem.
14 species, viz. * ampulla, * crataegaria, caniculata,
* nasuta, * crateriformis, * truncatella, * limacina,
* discina, cornuta, * cincta, * polymorpha, * viridis,
* bursata, and * nigra.
The polypina, when viewed through a small niagni-„0/Z(, u
fier, appear like so many little trees; the upper part/ J
or heads, are egg-shaped, the top truncated, the lower
part filled with intestines ; the branches thick set with
little knobs. Fig. 16. Fig.! 1
The fasciculata has a rotatory organ, which mny fasti 'a‘
sometimes be seen projecting beyond the aperture; therefr?.
is a little head at the apex, and the pedicle is twisted
and very slender. A congealed green mass which is
often found swimming about in ditches is composed of
myriads of these animals, which are not visible to the
naked eye, and when magnified appear like a bundle
of green flowers.
The socialis, when considerably magnified, appearsI
like a circle surrounded with crowns or ciliated heads,
tied by small thin tails to a common centre, from
whence they advance towards the circumference, where
they turn very briskly, occasioning a kind of whirl¬
pool, which brings its food. When one of them has
been in motion for some time, it stops, and another be¬
gins; sometimes two or three may he perceived in mo¬
tion at once ; they are frequently to be met with se¬
parate, with the tail sticking in the mud. The body
contracts and dilates very much, so as sometimes to
have the appearance of a cudgel, at others to assume
almost a globular form.
The
HELMINTHOLOGY,
;hap, II*
pecies. ^)e Aosculosa appears to the naked eye like a yellow
fusoria globule adhering to the ceratophyllon like a little flower
—v““i or a heap of yellow eggs. When magnified, they are
Tulosa. seen t0 consist 0f a congeries of animalcula constituting
a sphere from a mouldy centre. They contract and
extend their bodies either alone or in society, and excite
a vortex in the water by means of a disk. When they
quit the society and act singly, they may be observed
to consist of a head, abdomen, and tail ; the head
being frequently drawn back into the abdomen so far
that it cannot be seen, only exhibiting a broad kidney¬
shaped disk standing out. The abdomen is oblong,
oval, and transparent; the tail sharp, twice as long as
the abdomen, sometimes rough and annulated, or
altogether smooth.
ss
ickoda, 70. TriCHODA.
Animal invisible to the naked eye, pellucid, hairy, or
horned. v
There are about 60 species, which are divided into
three sections.
A. Hairy.
47 species, viz. grandinella, *cometa, * granata,
* so), * bamba, orbis, urnula, urinarium, * trigona, ti¬
nea, * pubes, * proteus, * gibba, * patens, * uvula, sul¬
cata, * anas, farcimen, *linter, * vermicularis, * me-
litsea, *fimbriata, camelus, * rattus, inquilinus, * inna-
ta, transfuga, ciliata, * cyclidium, * pulex, * lynceus,
* charon, *cimex, pellionella, angulus, Ursula, semilu-
na, pupa, * pocillum, clavus, * musculus, *delphinus,
clava, cuniculus, * piscis, larus, and * longicauda,
B. Furnished with cirri.
Four species, viz. * acarus, * ludis, sannio, and volu-
tator.
long, slender, and finely proportioned neck, of a size
suitable to the rest of the animal.
71. Cercaria.
Animal invisible to the naked eye, pellucid, and furnish¬
ed with a tail.
There are 13 species; viz. * cyrinus, * inquieta,
* lemna, * turbo, * podura, * mutabilis, catelius, * lu¬
pus, * vermicularis, pleuronectis, * tripus, cyclidium,
and tenax.
The lemna varies its form so much, that it might be
mistaken for the proteus of Baker, described under the
article Animalcule : though in fact it is totally differ¬
ent. The body sometimes appears of an oblong, some¬
times of a triangular, and sometimes of a kidney-shape.
The tail is generally short, thick, and annulated ; but
sometimes long, flexible, cylindric, and without rings ;
vibrating, when stretched out, with so much velocity,
that it appears double. A small pellucid globule, which
Muller supposes to be its mouth, is observable at the
apex ; and two black points not easily discovered, he
thinks, are its eyes. It walks slowly after taking three
or four steps, and extends the tail, erecting it perpendi¬
cularly, shaking and bending it, in which state it very
much resembles a leaf of the lemna.
72. Leucophra.
Animal invisible to the naked eye, and every where
ciliate.
There are eight species; viz. * conflictor, * vesiculi-
fera, acuta, fluxa, armilla, * cornuta, * heteroclita, and
nodulata.
73. Gonium.
363
Species.
Infusoria.
89.
Cercaria.
90
Leucophra.
91
Gonium.
C. Horned.
Nine species, viz. lyncaster, * histrio, * cypris, * pa¬
tella, * pullaster, * mytilus, lepus, silurus, and calvi-
tium.
The grandinella is a very small pellucid globule,
with the intestines scarcely visible ; the top of the sur¬
face furnished with several small bristles not easily dis¬
coverable, as the creature has a power of extending or
drawing them back in an instant. It is found in pure
water as w'ell as in infusions of vegetables.
/, The sol is small, globular, and crystalline; beset
everywhere with diverging rays longer than the diame¬
ter of the body ; the inside full of molecules. The
body contracts and dilates, but the creature remains
confined to the same spot. It was found with other
animalcules in water which had been kept three
weeks.
otevs. The proteus is that which Mr Baker distinguishes by
the same name, and of which an account is given under
the article Animalcule. It is found in the slimy
matter adhering to the sides of the vessel in which ve¬
getables have been infused, or animal substances pre¬
served. That described by Mr Adams was discovered
in the slime produced from the water where small fishes,
water snails, &c. had been kept. The body resembled
that of a snail, the shape being somewhat elliptical, but
pointed at one end, while from the other proceeded a
Animal very simple, flat, angular, but invisible to the
naked eye.
There are five species ; viz. * pectorale, pulvinatum,
polysphericum, truncatum, and rectangulum.
The 'pectorale is founded in pure water, and moves A-pectorale.
ternately towards the right and left. It is quadrangu¬
lar and pellucid, with 16 spherical molecules, of a
greenish colour, set in a quadrangular membrane, like
the jewels in the breast-plate of the high priest, reflect¬
ing light on both sides.
92
74. COLPODA. Colpoda.
Animal invisible to the naked eye, very simple, pellu¬
cid, sinuate*
There are seven species; viz. lamella, rostrum,
* meleagris, * cucullus, ren, * pyrum, and hypocrepis.
The cucullus is found in vegetable infusions, and in cucUlJUSt
foetid hay, moving in all directions, and commonly
with great velocity. It is very pellucid, and has a
well defined margin, filled with little bright vesicles
differing in size, and of no certain number. Its figure
is commonly oval, with the top bent into a kind of
beak, sometimes oblong, but most commonly obtuse.
It has in the inside from 8 to 24 bright little vesicles
not discernible in such as are young. Some have sup-
Z z 2 posed
364
HELMINTHOLOGY.
Species.
Infusoria
93
Parame-
siuin.
aurelia.
pose-1 these to be animalcules which this creature has
• swallowed ; but Mr Muller is of opinion that they are
^ its offspring. When this creature is near death by
reason of the evaporation of the water, it protrudes its
offspring with violence. From some circumstances it
would seem probable that this animalcule casts its skin,
as is the case with some insects.
75. Paramesium.
Worm invisible to the naked eye, simple, pellucid, flat¬
tened, oblong.
There are seven species; viz. * aurelia, chrysalis,
* oviferum, * marginatum, caudatum, anceps, and acu-
tum.
The aurelia is membranaceous, pellucid, and four
times longer than it is broad ; the fore part obtuse and
transparent; the hind part filled with molecules. It
has somewhat the appearance of a gimlet, by reason of
a fold which goes from the middle to the apex, and is
of a triangular figure. It moves in a rectilinear and
vacillatory manner. It is found in ditches where there
is plenty of duckweed ; and will live many months in
the same water without any renewal of it.
94
Cyclid ium.
95.
B Disarm*
9s
Vibrio.
finser.
76. Ctclidium.
Worm invisible to the naked eye, very simple, pellucid,
flat, orbicular or oval.
There are seven species ; viz. * bulla, milium,
glaucoma, * radians, rostratum, * nucleus, and pedi-
culus.
77. Bursaria.
Worm very simple, membranaceous, hollow.
There are three species ; viz. truncatella, * hirundi-
nella, and * duplella..
78. Vibrio.
Worm invisible to the naked eye; very simple, round,
elongated.
There are 20 species; viz. lineola, bacillus, undula,
vermicuius, intestinum, * lunula, malleus, * serpentulus,
* aceti, * glutinis, * anguikila, utriculus, fasciola, co-
lymbus, cygnus, *
* proteus
anser, * olor, falx, diffluens, and
97
Eachelw.,
f he atiser is found in water where duckweed grows.
The trunk is elliptic, round, and without any inequali¬
ty on the sides. It is full of molecules ; the hind part
sharp and bright; the fore part produced into a bend¬
ing neck, longer than the body ; the apex whole and
even, with blue canals passing between the marginal
edges, occupying the whole length of the neck ; and in
one of them a violent descent of water to the beginning
of the trunk is observable. It moves the body slow
but the neck more briskly.
79. Enchelis.
Worm invisible to the naked eye ; very simple, cylin¬
drical.. " - J
Chap II
There are 15 species ; viz. viridis, * punctifera, no- Spcvl
dulosa, farcimen, semilunum, ovuium, pyrum, fusus, fri-InfuscCj
tillus, * caudata, epistomium, * retrograda, * truncus, "n »'
spatula, and papula.
80. Bacillaria.
Body consisting of cylindrical straw-like filaments, pla¬
ced parallel to each other, and frequently changing
their position.
There is only one species; viz. paradoxa.
9
Bacil la,
Volvo
81. Volvo x.
Worm invisible to the naked eye ; simple, pellucid,
spherical.
There are nine species ; viz. globulus, pilula, * sphae-
rula, ava, * lunula, dimidiatus, * globator, pileus, and
bulla.
The globator, or spherical membranaceous volvo.v, is olohoi
found in great numbers in the infusions of hemp and
tremella, and in stagnant waters in spring and summer.
It was first observed and dissected by Leeuwenhoeck ;
but the descriptions of it given by authors differ consi¬
derably from each other. The following is that of Mr
Baker. “ There is no appearance of either head, tail,
or fins. It moves in every direction, backwards, for¬
wards, up or down, rolling over and over like a bowl,
spinning horizontally like a top, or gliding along smooth¬
ly without turning itself at all: sometimes its motions
are very slow, at other times very swift; and when it
pleases it can turn round as upon an axis very nimbly,
without moving out of its place. The body is trans¬
parent, except where the circular spots are placed,
which are probably its young. The surface of the
body in some is as if all dotted over with little points,
and in others as if granulated like shagreen. In ge¬
neral it appears as if set round with short moveable
hairs.” Another author informs us, that “ they are
first very small, but grow so large that they can be
discerned with the naked eye; they are of a yellowish
green colour, globular figure, and in substance mem¬
branaceous and transparent ; and in the midst of this
substance several small globes may be perceived. Each
of these are smaller animalcula, which have also the
diaphanous membrane, and contain within themselves
still smaller generations, which may be distinguished
by means of very powerful glasses. The larger glo¬
bules may be seen to escape from the parent, and then
increase in size.”
This little animal appears like a transparent globule
of a greenish colour, the foetus being composed of small¬
er greenish globules. In proportion to its age it be¬
comes whiter and brighter, and moves slowly round its
axis ; but to the microscope its surface appears as if
granulated ; the roundest molecules fixed in the centre
being largest in those that are young. The exterior
molecules may be wiped off, leaving the membrane
naked. When the young ones are of a proper size, the.
membrane opens, and they pass through the fissure, after
which the mother melts way. Sometimes they change
their spherical figure, and become flat in several places.
They
I.
i
*rr
HELMINTHOL O GY
PLATE CCLJT.
* *
HELMINTH OLO GY:
Published by A. Constable X Cc.£dmS
£ny f bjArcfubaldJldin?
lap. II. H E L M I N T
eclec. They contain from 8 to 30 and 40 globules within the
usoiia. membrane.
loo 82. Monas.
nas.
Worm invisible to the naked eye j most simple, pellu¬
cid, resembling a point.
There are five species; viz. *atomus, punctum, * mi¬
ca, * lens, and termo.
This order contains 15 genera and 229 species.
How many kinds of these invisibles there may be
(says Mr Adams), is yet unknown ; as they are dis¬
cerned of all sizes, from those which are barely invisi¬
ble to the naked eye, to such as resist the force of the
microscope as the fixed stars do that of the telescope,
and with the greatest powers hitherto invented, appear
only as so many moving points. The smallest living
creatures our instruments can shew, are those which in¬
habit the waters ; and though animalcula equally mi¬
nute may fly in the air, or creep upon the earth, it is
scarce possible to get a view of them ; but as water is
transparent, by confining the creatures within it we can
more easily observe them by applying a drop of it to
the glasses.
Animalcules in general are observed to move in all
directions with equal ease and rapidity ; sometimes ob¬
liquely, sometimes straight forward; sometimes moving
in a circular direction, or rolling upon one another, re¬
moving backwards and forwards through the whole ex¬
tent of the drop, as if diverting themselves ; at other
times greedily attacking the little parcels of matter
H O L O G Y.
they meet with. Notwithstanding their extreme mi- Species,
nuteness, they know how to avoid obstacles, or to pre- Infusoria,
vent any interference with one another in their mo-
tions : sometimes they will suddenly change the direc¬
tion in which they move, and take an opposite one ;
and by inclining the glass on which the drop of water
is, as it can be made to move in any direction, so the
animalcules appear to move as easily against the stream
as with it. When the water begins to evaporate, they
flock towards the place where the fluid is, and shew a
great anxiety and uncommon agitation of the organs
with which they draw in the water. These motions
grow languid as the water fails, and at last cease alto¬
gether, without a possibility of renewal if they be left
dry for a short time. They sustain a great degree of
cold as well as insects, and will perish in much the same
degree of heat that destroys insects. Some animalcules
are produced in water at the freezing point, and some
insects live in snow. By mixing the least drop of urine
with the water in which they swim, they instantly fall
into convulsions and die.
The same rule seems to hold good in these minute
creatures, which is observable in the larger animals, viz.
that the larger kinds are less numerous than such as
are smaller; while the smallest of all are found in
such multitudes, that there seem to be myriads for one
of the others. They increase in size, like other animals,
from their birth until they have attained their full
growth ; and when deprived of proper nourishment,
they in like manner grow thin and perish.
EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.
Fig. 1. Ascaris Lumbricoicles, entire, and nearly of
its natural size; a, the head ; b, the tail; r, the de¬
pressed band ; d, the puncti'form aperture ; e, the line
extending from the head to the tail ; f, the gyrated ap¬
paratus as it appears through the skin of the worms.
Fig. 2. Represents the viscera of the worm in their
natural situation ; a, the head ; b, the gullet; c, the
intestinal canal ; t/, the lines of the body of the worm;
e, the uterus, and its convoluted apparatus.
Fig. 3. Ascaris Vermicularis of its natural size.
Fig. 4. The same viewed by the microscope ; a, the
head ; b, the tail ; if, the pistilliform stomach ; dt a
convoluted apparatus surrounding the intestinal canal ;
e, an orifice which is probably the anus;^ the exter¬
nal part of the organs of generation.
Fig. 5. Trichuris Hominis, of its natural size.
Fig. 6. The same considerably magnified a a, the
head ; b, the tail ; c, the proboscis ; d d, the intestinal
canal; \a hollow tube ; X the ovaria.
Fig. <7. A portion of the Tcenia Solium, of its na¬
tural size, and usual appearance) a a, the marginal os-
cula.
Fig. 8. a, the head enlarged by the microscope ; b,
a full view of the head when very much magnified ; «,
the oscula at the base ; c, the mouth.
Fig. 9. Sipunculus Saccatus, of its natural appear¬
ance.
Fig. 10. Laphjsia Depilans, or Sea-hare.
Fig. II. Holothuria Tremula.
Fig. 12. Astcrias Caput Medusae, or Arborescent
Sea-star.
Fig. 13. Echinus Esculentus, or common Sea-urchin.
Fig. 14. Tubularia Magnifica, as it proceeds from
its native rocks; a, the animal with its tentacula
fully expanded from the tube ; b, another with the ten¬
tacula collapsed; c, one with the tentacula nearly
withdrawn into the tube; d, the animal with the
tentacula entirely withdrawn; e, e, e, probably acti*
nice.
Fig. 15. Hydra Grisea, or Fresh-water Polype, mag¬
nified : a, the mouth; b, the attached part; c, c, c,
&c. the arms ; e, the transparent body.
Fig. 16. Vorticella Polypina, magnified.
INDEX,
366
HELMINTHOLOGY
Index,
A.
ACTINIA,
Alcyoniutn,
Amphitrite,
Antipathes,
Aphrodita,
aculeata,
Argus, sea,
Ascarides,
Ascaris,
lumbricoides,
vermicularis,
mammalium,
avium,
reptilium,
piscium,
lumbrici,
Ascidia,
papillosa,
intestinalis,
Asterias,
caput medusae,
B.
Bacillaria,
Brachionus,
Bursaria,
striatus,
patina,
p. 335 N° 39
336 77
ib.
ib.
ib.
353
35*
337
334
338
339
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
34°
335
348
ib.
33^
355
337
ib.
362
ib.
337
GaryophijUaus, 334
Cellepora, ib.
Cercaria, 337
lemna, 363
Clava, 33J
Clio, 336
Colpada, 337
cucullus, 363
Corallina, 336
Cucullanus, 334
mammalium, 342
buteonis, ib.
avium, ib.
piscium, ib.
Cuttle-fish, 352
CWwr’s classification of worms,
Cyclidium,
glaucoma,
I).
Dagysia,
Derris,
Dew-worm,
Doris,
argo,
Dracunculus,
337
364
335
ib.
346
335
351
343
61
75
60
*5
43
68
85
94
27
73
88
40
56
9*
81
26
INDEX.
E. s
Earth-worm, p. 346
bow different
from ascaris
lumbricoides, Nc
Echinorynchus, 334
mammalium, 341
avium, ib.
reptilium, ib.
piscium, ib.
Echinus, 336
esculentus, 356
Eggs, sea, ib.
Enchelis, 337
F.
Fasciola,
bominis,
mammalium,
hepatica,
avium,
reptilium,
piscium,
loliginis,
Filaria,
medinensis,
Fluke,
Flustra,
Furia,
infernalis,
G.
Generic characters,
of the intestina,
mollusca,
zoophyta,
infusoria,
Goniutn,
pectorale,
Gordius,
aquaticus,
Gorgonia,
Gourd-Worm,
Guinea-worm,
H.
11
93
45
47
53
334
342
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
334
340
342
336
335
345
337
363
335
345
336
342
340
334
345
35°
356
Hceruca,
Hair-worm,
Hare, sea,
Hedgehogs, sea,
Helminthology, definition of,
division of,
intestina,
mollusca,
testacea,
zoophyta,
infusoria,
36
24
69
96
28
18
79
31
12
*3
*4
15
16
90
32
76
25
Hirado,
Helminthology the most imper¬
fect part of na~
tural history,
difficulties attend¬
ing the study of,
advantages of,
P
medicinalis,
sanguisuga,
Holothuria,
tremula,
Horn-wrack,
Horse hair, animated,
leech,
Hydatids,
Hydra,
viridis,
fusca,
335
345
346
335
35*
358
345
34^
P* 342, 343
336
359
360
Infusoria,
Intestina,
Isis,
I.
L.
Laplysia,
Leech $ medicinal,
mode of applying,
horse,
Lerncea,
Leucophra,
Ligula,
Umax,
agrestis,
Linguatula,
Loharia,
Lucernariu,
Lumbricus,
terrestris,
M.
Madrepora,
Mammaria,
Mat-weed, sea,
Medusa,
Millepora,
MoUusca,
Monas,
Nats,
Nereis,
noctiluca,
Nettles, sea,
N.
Onchidium,
O.
Nl |
<;
3:
P- 337> 362
334, 337
336
335 4!
345
3‘
346
336 5!
337 81
334 2;
335 4'
349
334 4-
336 5;
ib. 6
335 4.
346
336
335
358
33 6
ib.
P-335, 348
337
336
ib.
354
ib.
336. 5
dex.
rame&ium,
aurelia,
dicellaria,
«, sea,
nnatula,
■yssophora,
maria,
lypus,
erotrachea,
'pa,
/lex,
■jlice a,
ria,
officinalis,
octopus,
-lularia,
runculus,
nudus,
saccatus,
spinning,
10,
335
359
33^
ib.
335
359
335
335
334
336
ib.
353
ib.
336
335
347
ib.
349
336
HELMINTHOLO G
p. 337 N° 92
364
41
83
65
38
46
44
20
55
82
37
62
Spongia,
officinalis,
Star-Jish, sea,
Stt'ongylus,
336 N° 78
358
Tcenia,
T.
visceralis,
cellulosa,
niammalium, p. 343,
avium,
reptilium,
trutta;,
solium,
lata,
nodulosa,
Tape-iuovm,
Terebella,
lapidaria,
Tethis,
Trichoda,
grandinella,
sol,
Tricharis,
P- 343!
355
334
335
342
343
344
344
345
343
ib.
344
ib.
335
352
335
337
363
ib.
334
23
29
3°
53
51
87
Y.
Trichuris hominis,
mammalium,
Triton,
Tube-worm,
Tubipora,
Tubulariu,
magnifica,
V.
Vibrio,
a user,
Uncinaria,
Volvox,
globator,
Vorticella,
polypina,
fasciculata,
social is,
flosculosa,
Urchin, sea,
Z.
367
P- 340
ib.
335 N° 54
347
336 10
ib. 80
358
337
364
334
337
364
337
362
ib.
ib.
363
35^
Tioophijta,
P- 336> 35'6
95
19
98
86
J7
H E L
dmont. HELMONT, John-Baptist Van, a leader of di-
stinction in the chemical school of medicine, was born
at Brussels in the year 1577, and descended of a noble
family. He studied medicine at Louvain and some
other places with so much avidity, that he had per¬
used Hippocrates, Galen, and the Greek and Arabian
physicians at a very period of life. When not more
than 17 years of age, he read public lectures at Lou¬
vain, and was created M. H. in the year 1559 when
only 22. Having, in 1609, married a wife who was
both rich and noble, he retired with her to Vilforde,
where he practised as a physician without taking any
fees, and was accustomed to boast of the thousands
whom he cured every year, although his success in his
own family was by no means great ; for his eldest
daughter died of a leprosy, and he lost two sons by the
plague. He published a variety of works, by which
he acquired very great reputation. He was invited to
the court of Vienna by the emperor Itodolph, which he
declined to accept. He died in the year 1644, in the
68th year of his age.
He was a man of acute genius, clear-sighted in de¬
tecting the mistakes of others, and extremely fond of
forming hypotheses of his own, which were not always
supported by conclusive arguments. He affirmed with
boldness, was extremely credulous, and fond of such ex¬
travagant narrations as seemed to favour his own pre¬
conceived opinions. Perhaps his greatest foible was
the liberal manner in which he praised himself, in re¬
ference to his own nostrums and pretended specifics.
His ideas were far from being perspicuous, chiefly ow¬
ing to his making use of terms and phrases which he
never properly defined. He added much, however,
to the stock of chemical facts at that time known, and
paved the way to more interesting discoveries. He
H E L
contributed more than any of his predecessors, to snb- Helmoht
vert the Galenical theory of humours and qualities, jjJ r
which he certainly combated with many forcible argu- ■ , '*
ments. His theory of ferments was in a great measure
espoused by Sylvius. His son Francis-Mercurius first
published his works collectively in 16485 and although
it cannot be denied that they abound with jargon ami
error, they contain many pertinent remarks, and much
curious and interesting speculation.
Helmont, a small town in the Netherlands, in
Dutch Brabant, and capital of the district of Peeland,
with a good castle. It is seated on the river Aa, in
E. Long. 5. 37. N. Lat. 51. 31.
HELMSTADT, a town of Germany, in the duchy
of Brunswick, built by Charlemagne, in E. Long. 11.
10. N. Lat. 52. 20.
EIelmstadt, a strong maritime town of Sweden,
and capital of the province of Halland, seated near the
Baltic sea; in E. Long. 21. Lat. 36. 44*
HELONIAS, a genus of plants belonging to the hex-
andria class ; and in the natural method ranking under
the, 10th order, Coronarice. See Botany Index.
HELOISE, celebrated on account of her unfortunate
affection for her tutor Abelard, and for her Latin letters
to him after they had retired from the world. She died
abbess of Paraclet in 1163. See Abelard.
HELOS, in Ancient Geography, a maritime town
of Laconia, situated between rJ rinasus and Acria;, in
Pausanias’s time in ruins. The district was called Helo-
tea, and the people Ilclotes, Helotw, Helei, and Heleatce,
by Stepbauus ; and llotce, by Livy. Being subdued
by the Lacedaemonians, they were all reduced to. a
state of public slavery, or made the slaves of the public,
on these conditions, viz. that they neither could recover
their liberty nor be sold out of the territory of Sparta.
Hence
H E L [ 368 ] H E L
llelos Hejnce the term s<A<wrijvs<v, in Harpocration, for being
^ j (1^. in a state of slavery j and hence also the Lacedsemoni-
. ^ ", ans called the slaves of all nations whatever helotes.
Heloticus is the epithet.
HELOTS, in Grecian antiquity, the slaves of the
Spartans. See Helos.—The freemen of Sparta were
forbidden the exercise of any mean or mechanical em¬
ployment, and therefore the whole care of supplying
the city with necessaries devolved upon the Helots.
HELSINBURG. See Elsimburg.
HELSINGIA, a province of Sweden, hounded on
the north by Jempterland and Medelpadia, on the east
by the Bothnic gulf, and on the south and west by
Halecarlia and Gestricia. ft is full of mountains and
forests, and the inhabitants are almost constantly em¬
ployed in hunting and fishing. It has no cities : the
principal towns are, Hudwickvald, Alta, and Dilsbo.
HELSINGIC CHARACTER, a peculiar kind of cha¬
racter found inscribed on stones in the province of Hel-
singia. The Runic and Helsingic characters may be
easily transformed into each other.
HELSTON, a town of Cornwall in England, seat¬
ed on the river Cober, near its influx into the sea, one
of the towns appointed for the coinage of tin, and the
place of assembly for the west division of the county. It
had formerly a priory and a castle, and sent members
to parliament in the reign of Edward I. hut was not
incorporated till the time of Queen Elizabeth. It was
re-incorporated in 1774. A little below the town there
is a tolerable good harbour, where several of the tin-ships
take in their lading. King John exempted this place
from paying toll any where but in the city of London.
It contained 2297 inhabitants in 1811, and sends two
members to parliament.
. HELVELLA, a genus of the natural order of fun¬
gi, belonging to the cryptogamia class of plants. See
Botany Index.
HELVETIC, something that has a relation to the
inhabitants of the Swiss cantons, who were anciently
called Helve in.— l he Helvetic body comprehends the
republic of Switzerland, consisting of 13 cantons, which
make so many particular commonwealths. By the
laws and customs of the Helvetic body, all differences
between the several states and republics are to be de¬
cided within themselves, without the intervention of
any foreign power. The government of this body,
before its subjugation to France, was chiefly democratic,
with some mixture of the aristocratic.
HELVETII, a people of Belgica, in the neighbour¬
hood of the Allobroges and the Provincia Romana ;
famed for bravery and a turn for war. Called Civitas
Helvetia, and divided into four pagi or cantons j situ¬
ated to the south and west of the Rhine, by which they
were divided from the Germans $ and extending to¬
wards Gaul, from which they were separated by Mount
Jura on the west, and by the Rhodanus and Lacus Le-
manus on the south, and therefore called a Gallic na¬
tion (Tacitus, Caesar, Strabo, Ptolemy, Pliny). For¬
merly a part of Celtic Gaul, hut by Augustus assigned
to Belgica.
HELVETIUS, Claud-Adrtan, a man of letters,
and celebrated French philosopher, was born at Paris,
in the year 1715. After receiving the rudiments of his’
education in his father’s house, he was sent to the col¬
lege of Louis the Great, where he discovered greater
5
indications of genius than any of his fellow students, it , .
and thus gained the esteem of the professor of rhetoric,
by whom particular attention was paid to his education.
By his elegant and graceful exterior he endeavoured to
ingratiate himself with the fair sex } hut he was soon con¬
vinced, that although external accomplishments may
dazzle for the moment, nothing short of intellectual ac¬
complishments ran secure the conquest. The circum¬
stance which led him to perceive the absolute necessityof
mental improvement in order to he truly esteemed and
admired, is worthy of notice. When walking alone in
one of the public gardens, he discovered a most extrava¬
gant figure amidst a circle of young and amiable ladies.
This was M.Maupertuis, who engrossed all the care and
attention of this charming group, notwithstanding the ri¬
diculous and grotesque singularity of his dress. This con¬
vinced Helvetius that if he wished to be sincerely ad¬
mired or esteemed, dancing, tennis, and all other bodily
exercises must give place to the decoration of his mind.
He therefore immediately became a solitary, silent stu¬
dent, and the mathematics in particular first attracted
his notice ; and in a short time he was deemed a fit
companion for some of the first and most distinguished
literary characters of the period in which he flourished.
Voltaire and Montesquieu were among his early inti¬
mates ; with the latter of whom he contracted a cordial
and lasting friendship.
The first literary performance of M. Helvetius was
of the poetical kind, consisting of epistles on happiness,
but these were not communicated to the public till
alter his decease. When read in private, however, they
were very much admired, and Voltaire considered them
as a strong proof of the didactic and philosophical
powers of their author. When the Id Esprit des Zo/.r of
Montesquieu appeared in public, it was studied by Hel¬
vetius with the utmost care and attention, and his only
fault to it was, that it did not contain the first ideas of
the things of which it professed to treat. Instead of
examining systems of legislation, and comparing them
with each other, Helvetius was of opinion, that the
nature of man should be first studied, and the laws for
governing him founded on his own nature. This was
true philosophy, and such ideas determined him to un¬
dertake a work which might supply what he conceived
to he defects in the publication of Montesquieu. In
the year 175^ work made its appearance, under
the title of De PEsprit, &c. which was condemned by
the pailiament of Paris, because it was considered as
degrading the nature of man $ but this impolitic me¬
thod of suppressing his labours made them sought for
with avidity all over France, as well as other European
countries, and gave them more importance than per¬
haps they would have otherwise acquired.
lo avoid the malice of his enemies, he came over to
England in the year 1762, and in the following year
he went to Prussia, where he was received by the king
with every mark of respect, who gave him lodgings in
the palace, and admitted him into his familiar parties.
He was uncommonly liberal to the indigent, some of
whom hut ill requited him, on which occasions he was
wont to say to his friends, “ If I were a king, I would
correct them ; hut as I am only rich, and they are poor,
I did my duty in relieving them.” Notwithstanding
Ins constitution was excellent, from which his friends
concluded that they would long enjoy the happiness of
his
HEM [ 369 ] HEM
ivctius ins society, he fell a victim to the gout in his head and
|| stomach in the month of December 1771, in the 56th
■mer°- year 0f his age.
t)tists’ . Besides his work De PEsprit, he was the author of a
“ Treatise on Man, his Intellectual Faculties and his
Education,” in 2 vols. 8vo. published after his death.
In both it must be confessed that he has displayed very
great ingenuity and taste, an extensive knowledge of
human nature, and a turn for ridiculing the follies of
mankind ; but some of his hypotheses appear rather pa¬
radoxical, and perhaps his ironical observations on cre¬
dulity and false religion can hardly be reconciled with
a belief of genuine Christianity, which he openly pro¬
fesses.
HELVIDIANS, a sect of ancient heretics, deno¬
minated from their leader Helvidius, a disciple of Aux-
entius the Arian, whose distinguishing principle was,
that Mary, the mother of Jesus, did not continue a vir¬
gin, but had other children by Joseph.
HELVOET-sluys, a sea-port town of the United
Netherlands, seated on the island of Yoorn, in the
province of Holland, and where the English packet-
boat always goes. It is but a small place, consisting
only of a handsome quay, and two or three little
streets. But it is very well fortified, and esteemed the
safest harbour in the country. The largest men of war
may come up to the middle of the town j and yet it has
hut very little trade, because the merchants choose to
live higher up the country. It surrendered to the
French in 1795. E. Long. 3. 58. N. Lat. 52. 41.
HEMATH, or Hamath, in Ancient Geography,
the name of a city (whose king was David’s friend,
2 Sam. ix.) to the south of Lebanon, from which a
territory was called Hemath, on the north of Canaan
and south of Syria, as appears by the spies, Numb. xii.
1 Kings viii. Ezek. xlvii. Whether one or more cities
and districts of this name lay in this tract, neither in¬
terpreters nor geographers are agreed. The eastern
part was called Hemath-%oba, 2 Chron. viii. unless we
suppose that there was a city in Zoba of this name, for¬
tified by Solomon. In defining the boundary of Pale¬
stine, it is often said,ynwz the entering of Hamath ; as
a province to be entered into through a strait or defile.
And if there was such, the next question is, From what
metropolis it was called Hemath V Antioch, capital of
Syria, is supposed to be called Hemath or Amatha,
(Jonathan, Targum, &c.) j and again, Epiphania.
(Josephus). Both were to the north of Lebanon; con¬
sequently not the Hemath of Scripture, the immediate
boundary of Palestine to the north, and lying to the
south of Lebanon.
HEMATITES, an ore of iron. See Hematites,
Mineralogy Index.
HEMEROBAPTISTS, a sect among the ancient
Jews, thus called from their washing and bathing every
day, in all seasons ; and performing this custom with the
greatest solemnity, as a religious rite necessary to sal¬
vation.
Epiphanius, who mentions this as the fourth heresy
among the Jews, observes, that in other points these
heretics had much the same opinions as the Scribes and
Pharisees', only that they denied the resurre^ftion of the
dead, in common with the Sadducees, and retained a
few other of the improprieties of these last.
The sect who pass in the East under the denomina-
Vol. X. Part I. f
tion of Sabians, calling themselves Mendailiahi, or the Hemero-
disciples of John, and whom the Europeans entitle the baptists
Christians of St John, because they yet retain some I)
knowledge of the gospel, is probably of Jewish origin, ^enil<'-VC'e;
and seems to have been derived from the ancient He-
merobaptists; at least it is certain, that that John, whom
they consider as the founder of their sect, bears no sort
of similitude to John the Baptist, but rather resembles
the person of that name whom the ancient writers
represent as the chief of the Jewish Hemerobaptists.
These ambiguous Christians dwell in Persia and Ara¬
bia, and principally at Bassora j and their religion con¬
sists in bodily washings, performed frequently, and with
great solemnity, and attended with certain ceremonies,
which the priests mingle with this superstitious ser¬
vice.
HEMEROBIUS, a genus of insects belonging to
the neuroptera order. See Entomology Index.
HEMEROCALLIS, Day-Lily, or Lily Aspho¬
del; a genus of plants belonging to the hexandria class,
and in the natural method ranking under the 10th order,
Coronaries. See Botany Index.
HEMERODROMI, (compounded of“day,”
and “ course,” &c.) among the ancients, were
sentinels or guards, appointed for the security and pre¬
servation of cities and other places. They went out of
the city every morning, as soon as the gates were open¬
ed, and kept all day patrolling round the place; some¬
times also making excursions farther into the country,
to see that there were no enemies lying in wait to sur¬
prise them.
Hemerodromi were also a sort of couriers among
the ancients, who only travelled one day, and then de¬
livered their packets or dispatches to a fresh man, who
run his day, and so on to the end of his journey. The
Greeks had couriers of this kind, which they derived
from the Persians, who were the inventors thereof, as
appears from Herodotus. Augustus had the same ; at
least he established couriers, who, if they did not relieve
each other from day to day, yet did it from space to
space, and that space was not very great.
HEMEROTROPHIS, in antiquity, a measure of
capacity, the same with the chcenix. It was so called
from its holding one day’s food. The word is com¬
pounded of tytsga, a day, and r^otpn, food.
HEMI, a word used in the composition of divers
terms. It signifies the same with semi or demi, viz.
“ halfbeing an abbreviate of htpirvf, hemisys, which
signifies “ the same.” The Greeks retrenched, the last >
syllable of the word *pi<rvs in the composition of words';
and after their example, we have done so too in most of
the compounds borrowed from them.
HEMICRANIA, in Medicine, a species of cepha¬
lalgia, or beadach ; wherein only one side of the head
is affected ; and owing to a congestion of blood in the
vessels of that half.
HEMICYCLE, Hemicyclium, compounded of
itnKTvs, half, and circle ; a semicircle.
HEMICYCLE is particularly applied, in Architecture,^
to vaults in the cradle form ; and arches or sweeps of
vaults, constituting a perfect semicircle. Io construct
an arch of hewn stone, they divide the hemicycle into
so many voussoirs ; taking care to make them an un¬
even number, that there be no joint in the midule,
where the kev-stone should be. See Ke^ and Bridge.
3 A Hemicyclium
HEM
[ 37° ]
HEM
HeMICYCLIUM was also a part of the orchestra in the
ancient theatre. Scaliger, however, observes, it was
no standing part of the orchestra ; being only used in
dramatic pieces, where some person was supposed to be
arrived from sea, as in Plautus’s Rudens.
The ancients had also a sort of sun-dial, called hcmi-
cijclium. It was a concave semicircle, the upper end or
cusp whereof looked to the north. There was a style,
or gnomon, issuing from the middle of the hemicycle,
whereof that point corresponding to the centre of the
hemicycle represented the centre of the earth ; and its
shadow projected on the concavity of the hemicycle,
which represented the space between one tropic and
another, the sun’s declination, the day of the month,
hour of the day, &c.
HEMIMERIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia class. See Botany Index.
HEM IN A, in Roman antiquity, a liquid measure,
which, according to Arbuthnot, was equal to half a
wine pint English measure j its contents being 2.818
solid inches.
HEMIBOLON, a weight often mentioned by
the ancient writers in medicine, and expressing the
half of their obolus, or the twelfth part of a drachm,
that is, five grains.
HEMIONITIS, a genus of plants of the order of
filices, belonging to the cryptogamia class. See Bo¬
tany Index.
HEMIPLEGIA, or Hemiplexia, among physi¬
cians, a palsy of one half of the body. See Medicine
Index.
HEMIPTERA, derived from vpio-vf, half) and
vlifot, wing, in the Linnaean system, the second order
of insects, comprehending the blatta, mantis, gryllus,
&c. See Entomology Index.
HEMISPHERE, (H^imisph^rium, compounded
of tnutrvf, half and sphere'), in Geometry, is
one halt of a globe or sphere, when divided into two
by a plane passing through its centre.
Hemisphere, in Astronomy, is particularly used for
one-half of the mundane sphere.
The equator divides the sphere into two equal parts,
called the northern and southern hemispheres. The ho¬
rizon also divides the sphere into two parts, called the
upper and the lower hemispheres.
Hemisphere is also used for a map, or projection,
of halt the terrestrial globe, or half the celestial sphere,
on a plane. Hemispheres are frequently called plani¬
spheres.
HEMISTICH, in Poetry, denotes half a verse, or
a verse not completed.
Of this there are frequent examples in Virgil’s ^E-
neid $ but whether they were left unfinished by design
or not is disputed among the learned : such are, Ferro
accinctu vocat, ^P.n. ii. 614. And, Italiam non sponte
sequor, ]Pn. iv. 361.
In reading common English verses, a short pause is
required at the end of each hemistich or half verse.
HEMITONE, in the ancient music, was what we
now call a half note or semitone.
HEMITRLTiEUS, in Medicine, a kind of fever,
denoting the same as semi-tertian, returning twice every
day. The word is Greek, and compounded of ifeta-vj,
** half,” and “ third or tertian,”
HEMLOCK. See Cicuta and Conium, Botany
and Materia Medica Index.
HEMOIPTOTON. See Oratory, N° 77.
HEMP. See Cannabis, Botany Index.—It does
Hot appear that the ancients were acquainted with the
use of hemp, in respect of the thread it affords. Pliny,
who speaks of the plant in his natural history, lib. xx.
cap. 23. says not a word of this j contenting himself
with extolling the virtues of its stem, leaves, and root.
In effect, what some writers of the Roman antiquities
remark, viz. that the hemp necessary for the use of war
was all stored up into two cities of the western empire,
viz. at Ravenna and Vienne, under the direction of
two procurators, called procuratores linifcii, must be
understood of linum or flax.
The use of hemp is so extensive and important, that
vast quantities of it are annually imported into this and
other kingdoms from those countries where it grows in
greatest plenty, of which Russia is one. In the year
1763, the quantity imported into England alone a-
mounted to 11,000 tons. Sir John Sinclair informs
us, that in the year 1785, the quantity exported from
Petersburg in British ships was as follows.
Poods.
1,038.791
38,282
*8,374
I9»2JI
Annah <
Agricul¬
ture, yoI
xni. p. •
Clean Hemp
Outshot
Half-clean
Hemp-codille
L**3>798
Now, allowing 63 poods to a ton, the quantity just
mentioned will amount to 17,695 tons j and supposing
it to take five acres to produce a ton of hemp, the
whole quantity of ground requisite for this purpose
would amount to 88,475 acres*
By other accounts, the annual export of hemp toAnmln
England is valued at 400,000!. ; but by a computation
of the whole imported into Britain and Ireland inture‘
1788, it would seem that a considerably greater quan¬
tity must fall to the share of England. In that year
the quantity amounted to no less than 58,464 tons ;
which at 20I. per ton amounted to 1,269,280!. Me
cannot wonder at this vast consumpt, when it is consi¬
dered that the sails and cordage of a first rate man of
war require 180,000 lb. of rough hemp for their con¬
struction j but even this will scarce account for the
enormous consumpt in France, which in the year 1783
is said to have amounted to upwards of 400 millions of
pounds, or 200,000 tons; of which more than one-third
was imported.
Only the coarser kinds of hemp are employed in
making cordage, the better sorts being used for linen,
which, though it can never be made so fine as that from
flax, is yet incomparably stronger, and equally suscepti¬
ble of bleaching both in the old and new way. Cloths
made of hemp have also this property, that their co¬
lour improves by wearing, while that of linen decays.
The prices of hemp linen are various j from lod. to
4s. 6d. per yard. The low-priced kinds are very ge¬
nerally worn in Suffolk, where hemp is cultivated, by
husbandmen, farmers, &c. j those from is. 6d. to 2«.
by farmers and tradesmen ; and those from 2s. 6d. to
4s. 6d. are frequently preferred by gentlemen to flax-
linen,
HEM [ n
linen, on account of tlieir strength and warmth. I he
English hemp is much superior in strength to that
which grows in any other country. Next to it is the
Russian, from which sacking is usually made, as it is
sometimes also from the offal of the English kind ; but
none of the Suffolk hemp is ever made into cordage,
on account of its fineness. A considerable quantity of
Russia sheeting is imported into England merely on
account of its strength, and is much coarser at the
price than any other foreign linen.
Besides these uses of hemp, it is said to possess a
property as a plant which renders it almost invaluable ;
viz. that of driving away almost all insects that feed
upon other vegetables. Hence in some places of the
continent they secure their crops from these mischie¬
vous attacks, by sowing a belt of hemp round their
gardens, or any particular spot which they wish to
preserve.
The important uses of hemp, and the superiority of
that produced in Britain to other kinds, have rendered
the culture of it an object of attention to government.
Accordingly, in tbe year 1787, a bounty of threepence
per stone was allowed on all the hemp raised in Eng¬
land ; and probably with a view to encourage the
growth of English" hemp, duties have been laid on
that which comes from abroad. Dressed hemp in a
British ship pays 2!. 4s. per cwt. import duty j in a fo¬
reign one 2l. 6s. pd.; and in both cases a drawback of
ll. 19s. is allowed. Undressed hemp in a British ship
pays 3s. 8d.; and in a foreign one 3s. lid. In both
cases the drawback is 3s. 4d. The export of British
hemp is free. • _ .
The usual height of the plant when growing is from
five to six feet, but this varies very considerably ac¬
cording to circumstances. I hat which is cultivated
near Bischwiller in Alsace is sometimes more than 12
feet high, and upwards of three inches in circumfe¬
rence, the stalks being so deeply rooted that a very
strong man can scarce pull them up. Mr Arthur
Young, in a tour through Catalonia in Spain, says, that
where the country is well watered, the crops of hemp
are extraordinary j and that the plants generally rise to
the height of seven feet. In Italy hemp is generally
cultivated, though the Bolognese only can pretend to
anv superiority in the management of it. It is there
sown upon their best lands, which are rich strong loams j
and on which they are at all possible pains to procure
a fine friable surface. For manure they use dung,
pieces of rotten cloth, feathers, and horns brought from
Dalmatia. The plant, however, may be cultivated
upon ground of every kind ; the poorer land produ¬
cing that which is finer in quality though in smaller
quantity*, whereas strong and rich land produces a
gieat quantity hut coarser. It does not exhaust the
land on which it grows like flax ; whence it is pro¬
bable, that if properly managed, and care taken in the
cultivation, it might be found to supersede flax en¬
tirely. A Sussex manufacturer, who writes on this
subject in the Annals of Agriculture, informs us, that
it may be raised for many years successively on the
same ground, provided it be well manured. An acre
requires from nine to twelve pecks, according to the
nature of the soil *, the latter being the most usual,
though a variation in the quality of the soil makes an
alteration both in the quantity and quality of the
i ] HEM
hemp. An acre produces on an average 36 or 38 Hmip.
stone. The abbe Bmlle, in a treatise upon the Culti- ^
vation and Management of Hemp, printed by order of
the lords of the committee of council for trade and fo¬
reign plantations, informs ns, that the season for sow¬
ing it extends from the 25th of March to the 13th of
June. The seed ought always to be sown thin, not ex¬
ceeding two bushels to an acre $ and if you have the
advantage of a drill plough, still less will answer. As
there are two kinds of hemp, the male and female, of
which the former only produces seed, some regard must
lie had to this circumstance. In Sussex the male and
female are pulled together about 13 weeks after the
sowing, but in the fens they are frequently separated.
This last method is recommended by tbe abbe Brulle,
who, for the more easy acccomplishment of it, directs
that little paths should he made lengthwise through the
field at about seven feet distance from each other, to
allow a passage for the person who pulls up the female
hemp from among the other j the latter requiring to
stand more than a month after for the purpose of ripen¬
ing the seeds. Tbe female hemp is known to be ripe
by tbe fading of the flowers, the falling of the farina
fecundans, and some of the stalks turning yellow. Af¬
ter the whole of this kind is pulled, it most be manu¬
factured according to the directions to be afterwards
given, and ought to be worked if posssible while green j
the hemp thus produced being much finer than that
which is previously dried. The reason of this is, that
the plant contains a great quantity of glutinous matter j
which being once dried, agglutinates the fibres in such
a manner that they can never he afterwards perfectly
separated. The female hemp, however, is always in
smaller quantity than the male; and therefore where
the crop is large, it will lie impossible to work the
whole as fast as it is pulled or cut. It is known to be
ripe bv the stems becoming pale ; but it must be re¬
membered, that hemp of any kind will he much less
injured by pulling the plants before they are ripe, than
by letting them stand too long.
The male hemp being stripped of its leaves, &c. as
afterwards directed, will soon be dry for storing by the
heat of the atmosphere, though sometimes it maybe ne¬
cessary to use artificial means *, but where these are used,
the utmost care must be taken, bemp when dry, being
exceedingly inflammable. The stored or dried hemp
must be steeped and treated in every other respect as
though it had been green *, whence it is evident that
this operation ought never to lie used hut in cases of ne¬
cessity. It is likewise impossible to make bemp which
has been dried previous to its being steeped so white as
that which has been worked green.
With regard to the perfecting of hemp-seed for a Mitfs Hum.
subsequent season, it would seem proper to set apart •Abandty,
piece of ground for this purpose: for M. Amien, fromvol.T.
40 plants raised in the common way, had only a pound
and a half of seed, though the plants from which it was
taken might be deemed fine ; whereas, from a single
plant which grew by itself, he had seven pounds and a
half. Some are of opinion, that by putting the clusters
which contain the hemp-seed to heat and sweat, the
quality is improved *, as many of those seeds which
would otherwise wither and die may thus arrive at per¬
fection. This, however, seems to be very problemati¬
cal ; as there are no experiments which show that seeds
3 A 3 when
Hemp.
HEM [ 572 ] HEM
when separated from the vegetable producing them,
have any power of meliorating themselves.
After the hemp is pulled, it must be taken in large
handfuls, cutting off the roots (though this is not abso¬
lutely necessary), the leaves, seeds, and lateral branch¬
es, being dressed off with a wooden sword or ripple.
It is then to be made up into bundles of twelve hand¬
fuls each, in order to be steeped, like flax, in water.
This, or something similar, is absolutely necessary, in
order to separate the bark; which is properly the hemp,
from the reed or woody part. In Suffolk this opera¬
tion is called water-retting ; but sometimes a mere ex¬
posure to the air is substituted in its place, turning the
hemp frequently during the time it is exposed. This is
called dew-retting; but the former method is univer¬
sally deemed preferable. Such hemp as is designed for
seed is seldom water-retted, though in the opinion of
the manufacturer already quoted, it would be better if
it were so. D ew-retted hemp is generally stacked and
covered during the winter: in January and February it
is spread upon meadow land, and whitens with the frost
and snow ; though it is always much inferior to the
other, and proper for coarser yarns only.
The length of time required for steeping hemp is
various, and a complete knowledge of it can only be
attained by practice. In Suffolk it is usual to continue
the immersion, four, five, or six days ; standing water
is preferred, and the same water will steep hemp three
times during the season, but the first has always the
best colour. The abb£ Brulle prefers clear and running
water, especially if overhung with trees. The bundles
are to be laid crosswise upon each other, taking parti¬
cular notice of the manner in which they lie when put
in, that they may be taken out without difficulty. His
time of steeping is from six to 11 days ; and here we
must observe, that it is much better to let it remain too
long in the water than too short a time. The slender¬
est hemp requires the most soaking. The operation is
known to be finished by the reed separating easily from
the bark.
After the hemp is thoroughly steeped, the next ope¬
ration is to separate the bark from the reed or woody
part 5 and this may be done in two ways, viz. either
pulling out the reed from every stalk with the hand, or
drying and breaking it like flax. The abbe Brulle is
very particular in his directions for this last operation,
which he calls reeding, and which may be performed
either in a trough under water or upon a table. The
whole, however, may be reduced to the following, viz.
pressing down the bundles either in the trough or on a.
table by proper weights, to keep the hemp steady in
the middle and top end. Then beginning at the upper
parts of the bundle, pull out the reeds one by one. As
you proceed, the rind which remains will press closely
upon the remaining unreeded hemp, and keep it more
steady so that you may take two, four, or even six
stalks, at a time. The weight is then to be removed
from the top, and all the pieces of reed which remain
there having broken off in the former operation, are to
be taken out. Lastly, the middle weight is to be ta¬
ken off, and any small pieces which remain there taken
out. If the reeding is performed on a table, the bundle
must be weeded frequently, though slightly; a continual
dropping of water would, perhaps be the best method.
After the hemp is reeded, it must next be freed from jjemp
the mucilaginous matter with which it still abounds.
This is done by pouring water through it, squeezing out
the liquid after every affusion, but taking care not to
let the threads twist or entangle each other, which they
will be very apt to do. The abbe is of opinion, that
soft soap should be dissolved in the last water, in the
proportion of an ounce to three pounds of dry hemp ;
which though not absolutely necessary, contributes
much to the softening and rendering the hemp easy and
pleasant to dress.
Hemp is broken by machinery, after being steeped,
in a manner similar to flax ; but the instruments used
for this purpose in Suffolk are all worked by the hand.
That which breaks in the operation is called shorts, and
is about half the value of the long hemp. The best
water-retted hemp sells for about 8s. 6d. per stone ; the
other kind from one to two shillings lower.
Beating of hemp is the next operation, which for¬
merly was performed entirely by hand, but now in most
places by a water-mill, which raises three heavy beat¬
ers that fall upon it alternately ; the hemp being turn¬
ed all the while by a boy in order to receive the strokes
equally. The finer it is required to make the tow, the
more beating is necessary. It is then dressed or combed
by drawing it through heckles formed like the combs of
wool manufacturers, only fixed. Sometimes it is divid¬
ed into two or three sorts of tow, and sometimes the
whole is worked together into one sort; the prices va¬
rying from 6d. to is. per pound.
The hemp thus manufactured is sold to spinners, who
reel their yarn as follows.
2 yards make
40 threads
20 leas
3 skains
It is next delivered to the
bleached on receiving 20 0
bleached. The prices of the
1 thread.
1 lea.
1 skain.
1 clue of 4800 yards.
bleachers, who return it
21 clues for every 120
hemp-yarn are as fellow :
1 cine from a pound
l-J from do.
2 from do.
2|- from do.
3 from do.
yd. or 6£d.
8|d. or 8d.
pfd. or pd.
lo£d. or lod
12d.
Chinese Hemp, a species of cannabis, of which an
account is given in the 72d volume of the Philosophical
Transactions, p. 46. In that paper Mr Fitzgerald, vice-
president of the society for encouraging arts, mentions
his having received the seeds from the late Mr Elliot;
which being sown, according to his directions, produ¬
ced plants 14 feet high, and nearly seven inches in cir¬
cumference. These being pulled up in November, and
steeped for a fortnight in water, were placed against a
southern wall to dry. After this the hemp was found
to separate easily from the woody part ; and so great
was the produce, that 32 plants yielded three pounds
and a quarter. In consequence of this success, Mr
Fitzgerald applied to the directors of the India Com¬
pany to procure some of the seeds from China ; which
being complied with, the society were furnished, in
1785, with some more of the seeds, which were distri¬
buted
HEM [ 373 ] HEN
bated to several of the members; but, notwithstanding
;>stead.their endeavours, few of the plants appear to have
ir™"' ripened their seeds in this country. Two of the species
of hemp, tried by the duke of Northumberland, rose
to the height of 14 feet seven inches, and would have
been much larger, had they not been hurt by a high
wind: another kind arose only to that of three feet
and a half, the stem about the size of a common
wheat straw ; but though it flowered well, did not pro¬
duce any seed. These kinds were sown in a hot-bed
where the heat was very strong, on the 14th of April.
They appeared above ground in four days, and were
transplanted into pots on the 25th. They were then
put under a hot-bed frame where the heat had been
gone off, to harden them for the natural ground, in
which they were planted on the 30th, by turning them
whole out of the pots ; letting them, three together, be
planted at two feet distance every way ; covering them
at times for about ten days, until they were supposed to
be rooted. Only a few seeds were preserved from plants
which had been kept constantly in a stove.
Other trials were attended with little better success;
but, in 1789, the Rev. Dr Hinton of Northwold near
Brandon, made a successful experiment with some seeds
he received from the secretary of the society. They
were sown on the 17th of May, and appeared on the
6th of June. The plants were few and sickly ; and
notwithstanding some fine showers, they continued to
languish so much that the experiment was entirely aban¬
doned, and buckwheat was harrowed into the ground
for a fallow crop. In the beginning of October, how¬
ever, the persons employed in cutting the buckwheat
discovered some seed in the heads of a few straggling
hemp plants which had been suftered to grow in the
crop ; which being carefully threshed, afforded three
pints of seed tolerably bright and heavy. These seeds
were sown on the 10th of May 17^7* ^3e I9^1
they appeared above the ground numerous and healthy.
The male hemp was drawn on the 13th of August, but
the female not till the 9th of October ; the spot on
which the plants were sown measured only 322 square
vards, and produced of marketable hemp no less than
95 stone 7 pounds 12 ounces; being upwards of one-
third more than the best crops of English hemp are ever
known to produce. Thus it appeared, that the seeds of
the Chinese hemp had retained their superiority over
those of the English ; though how long they would
continue to do so cannot be determined but by expe¬
rience. From this experiment Dr Hinton received a
silver medal from the society. Few of the seeds either
of Chinese, or any other hemp, will vegetate if two years
old at the time of sowing ; and to this circumstance the
doctor attributes the failure of other trials of Chinese
hemp.
Hemp Agrimony, a species of eupatorium. See
Eupatohium, Botany Index.
HEMPSTEAD, a town of Hertfordshire in Eng¬
land, in a hilly country, upon a small river called the
Gade, and 20 miles north-west of London. It was, in
the time of the Saxons, called by the name ol Henam-
sted, or Hean-Hemsted, i. e.- JHigh-Hemstead ; in
William the Conqueror’s time, by the name of Heme-
lamstede. Henry VIII. incorporated this village by
the name of a bailiff; and he empowered the inhabi¬
tants to have a common seal, and a pye-powder court
during its market and fairs. It has been reckoned one Hempstead
of the greatest markets for wheat in this county, if not !1
in England. Eleven pair of mills stand within four ^Ien3H!t-i
miles of the place, which produce a great trade. Po¬
pulation 3240 in 1811.
HEMSKERCK, Egbert, called the Old, a cele¬
brated Flemish painter of humorous conversations, of
whom, though so universally known, we have no infor¬
mation as to the time in which he flourished, or the
school in which lie wTas taught. Though the taste of
his compositions is but low, yet it ought to be consider¬
ed that he took his subjects from nature ; from persons
in the meanest occupations, whose dress, actions, and
manners, could not furnish the imagination with any
ideas of elegance : and to express their passions and un¬
disguised humours, seems to have been the utmost'of his
ambition. By frequenting fairs, merry-meetings, gam¬
ing-houses, and inns, he acquired a surprising power of
connecting humorous circumstances. He designed and
drew correctly, and his pictures have a strong efl’ect
from his accurate management of the chiaro obscuro.
Some of his pictures have suffered from unskilful clean¬
ers, and many things are sold as his which dishonour
him ; but his genuine works, well preserved, have a
clearness and force equal to any of the Flemish ar¬
tists.
HEN, See Phasianus, Ornithology Index.
Guinea-HEN. See Numida, Ornithology Index.
HEN-Bane. See Hyosciamus, Botany and Ma¬
teria Medica Index.
Hem-Han'ier. See Falco, Ornithology Index.
Hem-Mould Soil, in Agriculture, a term used by the
husbandmen in Northamptonshire, and other counties,
to express a black, hollow, spongy, and mouldering
earth, usually found at the bottom of hills. It is an
earth much fitter for grazing than for corn, because it
will never settle close enough to the grain to keep it
sufficiently steady while it is growing up, without which,
the farmers observe, it either does not grow well ; or,
if it seem to thrive, as it will in some years, the growth
is rank, and yields much straw, but little ear. It is too
moist, and to that is principally to be attributed this
rankness of the crop in some years ; and the occasion of
its retaining so much moisture is, that it usually has a
bed of stiff clay, which will not let the water run oft
into the under strata.
In some places they also give this name to a black,
rich, and dense earth, with streaks of a whitish mould
in many parts. This sort of hen-mould is usually found
very rich and fertile.
IIENAULT, Charles John Francis, an inge¬
nious French writer, was the son of John Remi Henault
lord of Moussy, and was born at Paris in 1685. He early
discovered a sprightly benevolent disposition, and his
penetration and aptness soon distinguished itself by the
success of his studies. Claude de Lisle, father of the
celebrated geographer, gave him the same lessons in
geography and history which he had before given to
the duke of Orleans, afterwards regent; and which
have been printed in seven volumes, under the title of
“ Abridgement of Universal History.” On quitting
college, Henault entered the Oratory, where he soon
attached himself to the study of eloquence; and, on the
death of the abbe Rene, reformer of La Trappe, he
undertook to pronounce his panegyric ; which not meet-
HEN [ 374 ] HEN
ilennult. ^,e approbation of Father Massilon, he quitted the
 ^... Oratory after two years, and his father bought lor him,
of Mareschal Yilleroi, the “ lieutenance des chasses,”
and the government of Corbeil. At the marshal’s he
formed connexions, and even intimate friendships, with
many of the nobility, and passed the early part of his
life in agreeable amusements, and in the liveliest com¬
pany, without having his religious sentiments tainted.
He associated with the wits till the dispute between
Rousseau and de la Motte soon gave him a disgust for
these trifling societies. In 1707, he gained the prize
of eloquence at the French academy ; and another next
year at the academy des Jeux Floraux. About this
time M. Reaumur, who was his relation, came to Paris,
and took lessons in geometry under the same master,
Guinee. Henault introduced him to the abbe Bignon,
and this was the first step of his illustrious course. In
1713 he brought a tragedy on the stage, under the dis¬
guised name of Fuselier. As he was known to the pub¬
lic only by some slighter pieces, “ Cornelia the Vestal”
met with no better success. He therefore locked it up
without printing. In his old age his passion for these
subjects reviving, and Mr Horace Walpole being at
Paris in 1768, and having formed a friendship with him
as one of the most amiable men of his nation, obtained
this piece, and had it printed at his own press. In 1751
M. Henault, under a borrowed name, brought out a
second tragedy, infilled, “ Marius,” which was well
received and printed. He had been admitted counsel¬
lor in parliament in 1706, with a dispensation on ac¬
count of age; and in 1710 president of the first cham¬
ber of inquests. These important places, which he de¬
termined to fill in a becoming manner, engaged him in
the most solid studies. The excelhnt work of M. Do-
mat charmed him, and made him eager to go back to
the fountain head. He spent several years in making
himself master of the Roman law, the ordonnances of
the French kings, their customs, and public law. M.
de Morville, procureur-general of the great council,
being appointed ambassador to the Hague in 1718, en¬
gaged M. Henault to accompany him. His personal
merit soon introduced him to the acquaintance of the
most eminent personages at that time there. The grand
pensionary, Heinsius, who, under the exterior of Lace¬
daemonian simplicity, kept up all the haughtiness of that
people, lost with him all that hauteur winch France it¬
self had experienced from him in the negociations of
the treaty of Utrecht. The agitation which all France
felt by Law’s system, and the consequent sending of the
pailiament into exile, was a trial to the wise policy of
the president Henault. His friendship for the first pre¬
sident, De Mesmes, led him to second all the views of
that great magistrate: he took part in all the neeocia-
tions, and was animated purely by the public good,
without any private advantage/ On the death of the
cardinal dti Bois, in 1732, he succeeded in his place at
the French academy. Cardinal Fleury recommended
him to succeed himself as director, and he pronounced
the eloge of M. de Malezieux.
Hist ory w’as M. Henault’s favourite study : not a
hare collection of dates, hut a knowledge of the laws
and manners of nations ; to obtain which lie drew in¬
struction from private conversations, a method he so
strongly recommends in his preface. After having thus
discussed the most important points of our public law,
5
he undertook to collect and publish the result of his in- Heimul
qniries, and he is deservedly accounted the first franur^-—y—.
of chronological abridgements: in which, without stop¬
ping at detached facts, he attends only to those which
form a chain of events that perfect or alter the govern¬
ment and character of a nation, and traces only the
springs which exalt or humble a nation, extending or
contracting the space it occupies in the world. His
work has had the fortune of those literary phenomena,
where novelty and merit united excite minds eager af¬
ter glory, and fire the ardour of young writers to press
after a guide whom few can overtake. The first edi¬
tion of the work, the result of 40 years reading, ap¬
peared in 1744, under the auspices of the chancellor
Daguesseau, with the modest title of an Essay. The
success it met with surprised him. He made continual
improvements in it, and it has gone through nine edi¬
tions, and been translated into Italian, English, and
German, and even into Chinese. As the best writings
are not secure from criticism, and are indeed the only
ones that deserve it, the author read to the academy of
Belles Lettres a defence of his abridgement. All the
ages and events of the French monarchy being present
to his mind, and his imagination and memory being a
vast theatre whereon he beheld the different movements
and parts of the actors in the several revolutions, he de¬
termined to give a specimen of what passed in his own
mind, and to reduce into the form of a regular drama
one of the periods of French history, the reign of Fran¬
cis II. which, though happy only by being short, ap¬
peared to him one of the most important by its conse¬
quences, and most easy to be confined within the stage
bounds. His friend the chancellor highly approved the
plan, and wished it to he printed. It accordingly went
through five editions; the harmony of dates and facts
is exactly observed in it, and the passions interested
without ofience to historic truth.
In 1755, he was chosen an honorary member of the
academy ot Belles Lettres, being then a member of the
academies ot Nanci, Beilin, and Stockholm. The
queen appointed him snperintendant of her house. ILs
natural spi ightlmess relieved her from tire serious attend¬
ance on his private morning lectures. The company of
persons most distinguished by their wit and birth, a ta¬
ble more celebrated for the choice of the guests than its
delicacies, the little comedies suggested by wit, and
executed by reflections, united at his house all the plea¬
sures of an agreeable and innocent life. All the mem¬
bers ot this ingenious society contributed to render it
agreeable, and the president was not behind any. He
composed three comedies : La Petite Muison, La Ju-
loux de Sot me me, and La Reveil .d? Epimenide, The
subject ot the last was the Cretan philosopher, who is
pretended to have slept 27 years. He is introduced
fancying that he had slept but one night, and astonish¬
ed at the change in the age o! all around him: he mis¬
takes his mistress for his mother; but discovering his
mistake, offers to marry her, which she refuses, though
he still continues to love her. The queen was particu¬
larly pleased with this piece. She ordered the president
to restore the philosopher’s mistress to her former youth :
he introduced Hebe, and this episode produced an a-
greeable entertainment. He was now in such favour
with her majesty, that on the place of superintendant
becoming vacant by the death of M. Bernard de Con-
bert
Henley.
HEN
[ 375 ]
HEN
nmilt mas*er requests, and the sum lie had paid for it
|| being lost to his family, Henault solicited it in favour of
nley. several persons, till at last the queen bestowed it on him-
r-^self, and consented that he should divide the profits with
his predecessor’s widow. On the queen’s death he held
the same place under the dauphiness.
A delicate constitution made him liable to much ill¬
ness ; which, however, did not interrupt the serenity of
his mind. He made several journeys to the waters of
Plombieres : in one of these he visited the deposed king
Stanislaus at Luneville •, and in another accompanied
his friend the marquis de Pauliny, ambassador to Swit¬
zerland. In 1763 he drew near his end. One morn¬
ing, after a quiet night, he felt an oppression, which
the faculty pronounced a suffocating cough. His con¬
fessor being sent to him, he formed his resolution with¬
out alarm. He has since said, that he recollected hav¬
ing then said to himself, “ What do I regret ?” and
called to mind that saying of Madame de Sevigne, “ I
leave here only dying creatures.” He received the sa¬
craments. It was believed the next night would be his
last ; but by noon next day he was out of danger.
“ Now (said he) I know what death is. It will not
be new to me any more.” He never forgot it during
the following seven years of his life, which, like all the
rest, were gentle and calm. Full of gratitude for the
favours of providence, resigned to its decrees, offering
to the Author of his being a pure and sincere devotion ;
he felt his infirmities without complaining, and per¬
ceived a gradual decay with unabated firmness. He
died Dec. 24. 1771, in his 86th year. He married in
1714 a daughter of M. le Bas de Montargis keeper of
the royal treasure, &c. who died in 1728 without lea¬
ving any issue.
HENDECAGON, in Geometi'y, a figure having
eleven sides and as many angles.
HENED-PENNY, in our old writers, a customary
payment of money, instead of hens at Christmas. It is
mentioned in a charter of King Edward III. Mon.
Aagl. tom. ii. p. 327. Du Cange is of opinion it may
he hen-penny, gallinagium, or a composition for eggs ;
but Cowel thinks it is misprinted hened-penny for he-
ved-penny or headpenny.
HENIOCHAS, or Heviochus, a northern con¬
stellation, the same as Auriga.
HENLEY, a town of Oxfordshire in England,
seated on the river Thames, over which there is a hand¬
some bridge. It sends malt, corn, and other things,
to London in barges. W. Long. O. 40. N. Lat. 51.
34- . . . , a '
Henley, a town of Warwickshire in England, seat¬
ed on the river Alne, in W. Long. o. 40. N. Lat. 52.
18.
HENLEY, John, better known by the appellation
of Orator Henley, a very singular character, was born at
Melton-Moubray, Leicestershire, in I691- His lather,
the Rev. Simon Henley, and his grandfather by his
mother’s side (John Dowel, M. A.), were both vicars
of that parish. Having passed his exercises at Cam¬
bridge, and his examination for the degree of B. A.
with the particular approbation of Mr Field, Mr Smales,
and the master of the college, he returned to his native
place, where he was first desired by the trustees of th«
school in Melton to assist in, and then^o take the di¬
rection of, that school $ which he increased and raised
from a declining to a flourishing condition. He esta¬
blished here a practice of improving elocution l>y the ' v—■ v
public speaking of passages in the classics, morning and
afternoon, as well as orations, &c. Here he was invited
by a letter from the Rev. Mr Newcombe to be a can¬
didate for a fellowship in St John’s ; hut as he had long
been absent, and therefore lessened his personal interest,
he declined appearing for it. Here likewise he began
his “ Universal Grammar,” and finished ten languages,
with dissertations prefixed, as the most ready introduction,
to any tongue whatever. In the beginning of this in¬
terval he wrote his poem on “ Esther,” which was ap¬
proved by the town, and well received. He was ordain¬
ed a deacon by Dr Wake, then bishop of Lincoln ; and
after having taken his degree of M. A. was admitted to
priest’s orders by Dr Gibson, his successor at that see.
He formed an early resolution to improve himself in
all the advantages of books and conversation the most
effectually, on the first opportunity, at London. But he
laid the basis of future proficiency in assisting at the cu¬
racy of his native town ; where lie preached many occa¬
sional sermons, particularly one at the assizes at Leices¬
ter j he then gave a vohintary warning for the choice
of a new master and curate, and came to town recom¬
mended by above 30 letters from the most considerable
men in the country, both of the clergy and laity ; but
against the inclination of his neighbours and his school,
which was now, as from his first entrance upon it, still
advancing: and his method being established and ap¬
proved, one of his own scholars was appointed to suc¬
ceed him.—In town he published several pieces, as a
translation of Pliny’s Epistles, of several works of Abbi
Vertot, of Montfaucon’s Italian Travels in folio, and
many other lucubrations. His most generous patron
was the earl of Macclesfield, who gave him a benefice
in the country, the value of which to a resident would
have been above 80I. a year; he had likewise a lecture
in the city ; and preached more charity sermons about
town, was more numerously followed, and raised more
for the poor children, than any other preacher, however
dignified or distinguished. But when he pressed his
desire and promise from a great man of being fijte-d in
town, it passed in the negative. He took the people
(it seems) too much from their parish-churches ; and as -
he vvas not so proper for a London divine, he was very
welcome, notwithstandinng all difficulties, to be a rural
pastor. But it was not for a second rustication, as he
informs us*, that he left the fields and the swains of* Oratory,
Arcadia to visit the great city : and as he knew it was Tramact.
as lawful to take a license from the king and parlia-P* Is> S'’0,
ment at Hicks’s-hall as at Doctors Commons (since
the ministerial powers of this kingdom are and ought
to be parliamentary only), he freely, without compul¬
sion, or being desired or capable of being compelled to
reside in the country, gave up his benefice and lecture,
certainties for an uncertainty ; believing the public
would be a more hospitable protector of learning and
science, than some of the upper world in his own
order.
Mr Henley, in answer to a cavil (that he borrowed
from books), proposed, “ that if any person would sin¬
gle out any celebrated discourse of an approved writer,
dead or living, and point out what he thought excel¬
lent in it, and the reasons ; he would submit it to the
world, whether the most famed composition might not
be
HEN [
be surpassed in their own excellency, either on that or
any difterent subject.”
Henley preached on Sundays upon theological mat¬
ter's, and on Wednesdays upon all other sciences. He
declaimed some years against the greatest persons, and
occasionally, says Warburton, did Pope that honour.
The poet in return thus blazons him to infamy :
Rut where each science lifts its modern type,
History her pot, Divinity his pipe,
While proud Philosophy repines to show.
Dishonest sight! his breeches rent below j
Imbrown’d with native bronze, lo Henley stands,
Tuning his voice, and balancing his hands.
How fluent nonsense trickles from his tongue !
How sweet the periods, neither said nor sung !
Still break the benches, Henley ! with thy strain,
While Kennet, Hare, and Gibson preach in vain.
O great restorer of the good old stage,
Preacher at once and zany of thy age !
O worthy thou of ^Egypt’s wise abodes,
A decent priest where monkeys were the gods !
But Fate with butchers plac’d thy priestly stall,
Meek modern faith to murder, hack, and maul:
And bade thee live to crown Britannia’s praise.
In Toland’s, Tindal’s, and in Woolston’s days.”
This extraordinary person (who died October 14.
1756) struck medals, which he dispersed as tickets to
his subscribers : a star rising to the meridian, with
this motto, Ad summa; and below, Inveniam viam,
aut faciam. Each auditor paid is. He was author
of a weekly paper called the Hyp Doctor, for which
he had look a-year. Henley used every Saturday to
print an advertisement in the Daily Advertiser, con¬
taining an account of the subjects he intended to dis¬
course on the ensuing evening at his oratory near Lin-
coln’s-inn-fields, with a sort of motto before it, which
was generally a sneer at some public transaction of the
preceding week. Dr Cobden, one of Geo. II.’s chap¬
lains, having, in 1748, preached a sermon at St James’s
from these words, “ Take away the wicked from be¬
fore the king, and his throne shall be established in
righteousness 5” it gave so much displeasure, that the
Doctor was struck out of the list of chaplains j and the
next Saturday the following parody of his text appear¬
ed as a motto to Henley’s advertisement:
Away with the wicked before the king,
And away with the wicked behind him ;
His throne it will bless
With righteousness,
And we shall know where to find him.”
His audience was generally composed of the lowest
ranks •, and it is well known that he even collected an
infinite number of shoe-makers, by announcing that he
could teach them a speedy mode of operation in their
business, which proved only to be, the making of shoes
by cutting off the tops of ready-made boots.
HENNA, or Alhenna. See Lawsonia.
HENNEBEBG, a county of Germany, in the
circle of Franconia ; is bounded on the north by Thu¬
ringia, on the west by Hesse, on the south by the bi-
shoprick of Wertsburg, and on the east by that of Bam¬
berg •, abounds in mountains and woods •, and is popu¬
lous and fertile. Mainingen is the capital town,
376 ] . H ,E N
Henneberg, a town of Germany, in the circle of Henuej
Franconia, which gives title to a county of the same II
name, with a castle. E. Long. 9. 17. N. Lat. 50., Hcn
4°.
HENNEBON, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of Morbihan, and situated on the river Blavet.
It enjoys a considerable trade, and contains 4600 inha¬
bitants. It is 62 miles west from Paris, in W. Long.
3. 11. N. Lat. 47. 48.
HENOTICUM, ('Hvor/xc?, q. d. “ reconcileative j”
of *»•», “ I unite”), in church history, a famous edict
of the emperor Zeno, published A. D. 482, and intend¬
ed to reconcile and reunite the Eutychians with the
Catholics. It was procured of the emperor by means
of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, with the assist¬
ance of the friends of Peter Mongus and Peter Trullo.
The sting of this edict lies here j that it repeats and
confirms all that had been enacted in the councils of
Nice, Constantinople, Ephesus, and Cbalcedon, against
the Arians, Nestorians, and Eutychians, without ma¬
king any particular mention of the council of Chalce-
don. It is in form of a letter, addressed by Zeno to
the bishops, priests, monks, and people of Egypt and
Libya. It was opposed by the Catholics, and condemn¬
ed in form by Pope Felix II.
HENRICANS, in ecclesiastical history, a sect so
called from Henry its founder, who, though a monk
and hermit, undertook to reform the superstition and
vices of the clergy. For this purpose he left Lausanne
in Switzerland, and removing from different places, at
length settled at Thoulouse in the year 1147, and there
exercised his ministerial function, till being overcome
by the opposition of Bernard abbot of Clairval, and con¬
demned by Pope Eugenius III. at a council assembled
at Rheims, he was committed to a close prison in 1148,
where he soon ended his days. This reformer rejected
the baptism of infants; severely censured the corrupt
manners of the clergy ; treated the festivals and cere¬
monies of the church with the utmost contempt, and held
clandestine assemblies for inculcating his peculiar doc¬
trines.
HENRY, or Cape-Henry, the south cape of Vir¬
ginia, at the entrance of Chesapeak bay. W. Long.
74. 50. N. Lat. 37. o.
Henry, the name of severad emperors of Germany,
and kings of England and France. See England,
France, and Germany.
Henry IV. emperor of Germany in 1056, styled
the Great, was memorable for his quarrels with Pope
Gregory II. whom at one time he deposed, for ha¬
ving presumed to judge his sovereign •, but at another,
dreading the effects of the, papal anathemas, he had
the weakness to submit to the most humiliating per¬
sonal solicitations and penances to obtain absolution )
which impolitic measure increased the power of the
pope, and alienated the affections of his subjects :
thus circumstanced, he reassumed the hero, but too
late j marched with an army to Rome, expelled Gre¬
gory, deposed him, and set up another pope. Gre¬
gory died soon after : but Urban II. and Pascal II.
successively, excited his ambitious sons, Conrad and
Henry, to rebel against him, and the latter was crown¬
ed emperor by the title of Henry V. in 1106; and lie
had the inhumanity to arrest his father, and to de¬
prive
HEN [ 377 1 HEN
prive Inin, not only of all his dignities, but even of
. the necessaries of life. The unfortunate Henry IV.
was reduced to such extremities (after having fought
62 battles in defence of the German empire), that he
solicited the bishop of Spire to grant him an under-
chaunter’s place in his cathedral, but was refused. He
died in the same year at Liege, aged 55, a martyr to
the ignorance and superstition of the age, and to his
own blind confidence in favourites and mistresses.
Henry IV. king of France (in 1589) and Navarre,
justly styled the Great, was the son of Anthony de
Bourbon, chief of the branch of Bourbon (so called
from a fief of that name which fell to them by mar¬
riage with the heiress of the estate). His mother was
the daughter of Henry d’Albert, king of Navarre ;
a woman of masculine genius $ intrepid, simple, and
rustic in her manners, but deeply versed in politics,
and a zealous Protestant. Foreseeing that her party
would want such a protector (for her husband was a
weak indolent prince), she undertook the care of the
education of the young hero : his diet was coarse j his
clothes neat, but plain j he always went bare-headed j
she sent him to school with the other children of the
same age, and accustomed him to climb the rocks and
neighbouring mountains, according to the custom of
the country. He was born in 1553 ; and in 1569, the
16th year of his age, he was declared the Defender
and Chief of the Protestants at Rochelle. The peace
of St Germain, concluded in 1570, recalled the lords
in the Protestant interest to court j and in 1572 Henry
was married to Margaret de Valois, sister to Charles IX.
king of France. It was in the midst of the rejoicings
for these nuptials that the horrid massacre of Paris
took place. Henry was reduced, by this infernal
stroke of false policy, to the alternative of changing
his religion or being put to death : he chose the for¬
mer, and was detained prisoner of state three years.
In 1587 he made his escape j put himself at the head
of the Huguenot party, exposing himself to all the
risks and fatigues of a religious war, often in want of
the necessaries of life, and enduring all the hardships
of the common soldiers j but he gained a victory this
year at Courtras, which established his reputation in
arms, and endeared him to the Protestants. On the
death of Henry III. religion was urged as a pretext
for one half of the officers of the French army to re¬
ject him, and for the leaguers not to acknowledge
him. A phantom, the cardinal de Bourbon, was set
up against him j but his most formidable rival was the
duke de Mayenne : however, Henry, with few friends,
fewer important places, no money, and a very small
army, supplied every want by his activity and valour.
He gained several victories over the duke j particular¬
ly that of Ivri in 1590, memorable for his heroic admo¬
nition to his soldiers : “ If you love your ensigns,
rally by my white plume ; you will always find it in
the road to honour and glory.” Paris held out against
bim, notwithstanding his successes : he took all the
suburbs in one day ; and might have reduced the city
by famine, if he had not humanely suffered his own
army to x-elieve the besieged j yet the bigotted friars
and priests in Paris all turned soldiers, except four of
the Mendicant order j and made daily military reviews
and processions, the sword in one hand and the cru¬
cifix in the other, on which they made the citizens
Vol. X. Part I. f
swear rather to die with famine than to admit Henry.
The scarcity of provisions in Paris at last degenerated
to an universal famine 3 bread had been sold, whilst any
remained, for a crown the pound, and at last it was
made from the bones of the charnel-house of St Inno¬
cents ; human flesh became the food of the obstinate
Parisians, and mothers ate the dead bodies of their
children. In fine, the duke of Mayenne, seeing that
neither Spain nor the league would ever grant him
the crown, determined to assist in giving it to the
lawful heir. He engaged the states to hold a confe¬
rence with the chiefs of both parties; which ended in
Henry’s abjuration of the Protestant religion at St
Dennis, and his consecration at Chartres in 1593.
The following year Paris opened its gates to him 3 in
1596, the duke of Mayenne was pardoned 3 and in
1598, peace was concluded with Spain. Henry now
showed himself doubly worthy of the throne, by his
encouragement of commerce, the fine arts, and manu¬
factures, and by his patronage of men of ingenuity
and sound learning of.every country : but though the
fermentations of Romish bigotry were calmed, the
leaven was not destroyed 3 scarce a year passed without
some attempt being made on this real fathey of his
people 3 and at last the monster Ravaillac stabbed him
to the heart in his coach, in the streets of Paris, on the
14th of May 1610, in the 57th year of his age and
22d of his reign.
Henry VIII. king of England, was the second
son of Henry VII. by Elizabeth the eldest daughter
of Edward IV. He was born at Greenwich, on the
28th of June 1491. On the death of his brother
Arthur, in Ij02, he was created prince of Wales 3
and the following year betrothed to Catharine of Ar-
ragon, Prince Arthur’s widow, the pope having grant¬
ed a dispensation for that purpose. Henry VIII. as¬
cended the throne, on the death of his father, the 22d
of April 1509, and his marriage with Catharine was
solemnized about two months after. In the beginning
of his reign he left the government of his kingdom en¬
tirely to his ministers 5 and spent his time chiefly in
tournaments, balls, concerts, and other expensive a-
musements. We are told that he was so extravagant
in his pleasures, that, in a very short time, he en¬
tirely dissipated i,8oo,oool. which his father had
hoarded. This will seem less wonderful, when the
reader is informed, that gaming was one of his favour¬
ite diversions. Nevertheless he was not so totally ab¬
sorbed in pleasure, but he found leisure to sacrifice to
the resentment of the people two of his father’s mini¬
sters, Empson and Dudley. A house in London, which
had belonged to the former of these, was in 1510 given
to Thomas Wolsey, who was now the king’s almoner,
and who from this period began to insinuate himself
into Henry’s favour. In 1513, he became prime mi¬
nister, and from that moment governed the king and
kingdom with absolute power. In this year Henry de¬
clared war against France, gained the battle of Spurs,
and took the towns of Terouenne and lournay3 but
before he embarked his troops, he beheaded the earl of
Suffolk, who had been long confined in the Tower. In
1521, he sacrificed the duke of Buckingham to the re¬
sentment of his prime minister Wolsey, and the same
year obtained from the pope the title of Defender of
the Faith.
3 B
Henry,
HEN [ 378 ] HEN
Henry, having been 18 years married, grew tired
of his wife, and in the year 1527 resolved to obtain a
divorce but after many fruitless solicitations, find¬
ing it impossible to persuade the pope to annul his
marriage with Catharine, he espoused Anne Boleyn in
the year 1531. During this interval his favourite
Wolsey was disgraced, and died ; Henry threw off
the papal yoke, and burnt three Protestants for heresy.
In 1535, he put to death Sir Thomas Moore, 1'isher,
and others, for denying his supremacy, and suppressed
all the lesser monasteries.
His most sacred majesty, having now possessed his
second queen about five years, fell violently in love
with Lady Jane Seymour. Anne Boleyn was accused
of adultery with her own brother, and with three
other persons : she was beheaded the 19th of May
1536. He married Jane Seymour the day following.
In 1537, he put to death five of the noble family of
Kildare, as a terror to the Irish, of whose disloyalty
he had some apprehensions ; and in the year follow¬
ing he executed the marquis of Exeter, with four
other persons of distinction, for the sole crime of cor¬
responding with Cardinal Pole. In 1538 and I539»
he suppressed all the monasteries in England, and
seized their revenues for his own use. The queen ha¬
ving died in child-bed, he this year married the prin¬
cess Ann of Cleves : but disliking her person, imme¬
diately determined to be divorced j and his obsequious
parliament and convocation unanimously pronounced
the marriage void, for reasons too ridiculous to be
recited : but this was not all ; Henry was so incensed
with his minister and quondam favourite, Cromwell,
for negociating this match, that he revenged himself
by the hand of the executioner. Yet this was not the
only public murder of the year 1540. A few days af¬
ter Cromwell’s death, several persons were burnt for
denying the king’s supremacy, and other articles of
heresy.
His majesty being once more at liberty to indulge
himself with another wife, fixed upon Catharine How¬
ard, niece to the duke of Norfolk. She was declared
queen in August 1540 j but they had been privately
married some time before. Henry, it seems, was so
entirely satisfied with this lady, that he daily blessed
God for his present felicity ; but that felicity was of
short duration : he had not been married above a year,
before the queen was accused of frequent prostitution,
both before and since her marriage: she confessed her
guilt, and was beheaded in February 1542. In July
1543» ,ie married his sixth wife, the lady Catharine
Parr, the widow of John Nevil Lord Latimer, and
lived to the year 1547 without committing any more
flagrant enormities: but finding himself now approach
towards dissolution, he made his will 5 and that the
last scene of his life might resemble the rest, he deter¬
mined to end the tragedy with the murder of two of his
best friends and most faithful subjects, the duke of
Norfolk and his son the earl of Surrey. The earl
was beheaded on the 19th of January j and the duke
was ordered for execution on the 29th j but fortunate¬
ly escaped by the king’s death on the 28th. They
were condemned without the shadow of a crime ; but
Henry’s political reason for putting them to death,
was his apprehension that, if they were suflered to
survive him, they would counteract some of his regu¬
lations in religion, and might be troublesome to his Henry,
son. Henry died on the 28th of January 1547, in ' ' 'r~
the 56th year of bis age, and rvas buried at Windsor.
As to bis character, it is pretty obvious from the
facts above related. Lord Herbert palliates bis crimes,
and exaggerates what he calls bis virtues. Bishop
Burnet says, “ be was rather to be reckoned among
the great than the good princes.” He afterwards ac¬
knowledges, that “ he is to be numbered among the
ill princes •, but adds, “ I cannot rank him with the
worst.” Sir Walter Raleigh, with infinitely more
justice, says, “ If all the pictures and patterns of a
merciless prince were lost to the world, they might
again be painted to the life out of the history of this
king.” He was indeed a merciless tyrant, a scurvy
politician, a foolish bigot, a horrible assassin. See
England, N° 253—292.
Henry of Huntingdon, an English historian, of
the 12th century, was canon of Lincoln, and after¬
wards archdeacon of Huntingdon. He wrote, 1. A
history of England, which ends with the year 1154.
2. A continuation of that of Bede. 3. Chronological
tables of the kings of England. 4. A small treatise
on the contempt of the world. 5. Several books of
epigrams and love-verses. 6. A poem on herbs ; all
which are written in Latin. His invocation of
Apollo and the goddess of Tempe, in the exordium
of his poem on herbs, may not be unacceptable as a
specimen of his poetry.
* Vatum magne parens, herbarum Phoebe repertor,
‘ Vosque, quibus resonant Tempe jocosa, Dese 1
‘ Si mihi serta prius hedera llorente pa\astis,
‘ Ecce meos flores, serte parata fero.’
Henry of Susa, in Latin de Sagusio, a famous ci¬
vilian and canonist of the 13th century, acquired such
reputation by his learning, that he was called the source
and splendour of the law. He was archbishop of Em-
brun about the year 1258, and cardinal bishop of
Ostia in 1262. He wrote A summary of the canon and
civil law ; and a commentary on the book of the decre¬
tals, composed by order of Alexander IV.
Henry the Minstrel, commonly called Blind Harry,
an ancient Scottish author, distinguished bv no particu¬
lar surname, but well known as the composer of an his¬
torical poem reciting the achievements of Sir William
Wallace. This poem continued for several centuries
to be in great repute j but afterwards sunk into neglect,
until very lately that it has been again released from
its obscurity by a very neat and correct edition pub¬
lished at Perth under the inspection and patronage of
the earl of Buchan.
It is difficult to ascertain the precise time in which
this poet lived, or when he wrote his history, as the
two authors who mention him speak somewhat differ¬
ently. Dempster, who wrote in the beginning of the
17th century, says that he lived in the year 1361 : but
Major, who was horn in the year 1446, says that he
composed this book during the time of his infancy,
which we must therefore suppose to have been a few
years posterior to 14465 for, if it had been composed
that very year, the circumstance would probably have
been mentioned. As little can we suppose, from Mr
Dempster’s words, that Henry was born in 1361 : for
though he says that he lived in that year, we must na-
1 turally.
HEN [3
eKry, turally imagine rather that he Was then come to the
-y-~^ years of maturity, or began to distinguish himself in
the world, than that he was only horn at that time.
The author of the dissertation on his life, prefixed to
the new edition of the poem, endeavours to reconcile
matters in the following manner : “ It is not indeed
impossible that he might be born in or about that year
(1361). In the time of Major’s infancy he might be
about 83 years of age. In that case, it may be sup¬
posed that it was the work of his old age to collect and
put in order the detached pieces of his history of
Wallace, which he had probably composed in those
parts of the country where the incidents were said to
have happened.”
We are entirely ignorant of the family from which
Henry was descended ; though, from his writings, we
should be led to suppose that he had received a liberal
education. In them he discovers some knowledge in
divinity, classical history, and astronomy, as well as of
the languages. In one place he boasts of his celibacy,
which seems to indicate his having engaged himself in
some of the religious orders of that age. From what
Major says further of him, we may suppose his profession
to have been that of a travelling hard j though it does
not appear that he was skilled in music, or had no other
profession than that just mentioned. His being blind
from his birth, indeed, makes this not improbable ;
though even this circumstance is not inconsistent with
the supposition of lus being a religious mendicant.
The particulars (says Major) which be heard related
by the vulgar, he wrote in the vulgar verse, in which
he excelled. By reciting his histories before princes
or great men, he gained his food and raiment, of
which he was worthy.” It is thus probable that he
would be a frequent visitor at the Scottish court j and
would be made welcome by those great families who
could boast of any alliance with the hero himself, or
took pleasure in hearing his exploits or those of his
companions.
With regard to the authenticity of his histories,
Major informs us only that he “ does not believe every
thing that he finds in such writings 5” but from other
testimonies it appears, that he consulted the very best
authorities which could at that time he had. Though,
according to the most early account of Henry, it ap¬
pears to have been at least 56 years after the death of
Wallace that Henry was born 5 yet he is said to have
consulted with several of the descendants of those who
had been the companions of that hero while he achie¬
ved his most celebrated exploits, and who were still
capable of ascertaining the veracity of what he publish¬
ed. The principal of these were Wallace of Craigie
and Liddle of that ilk ; who, he says, persuaded him
to omit in his history a circumstance which he ought
to have inserted. Besides these, he consulted with the
principal people of the kingdom ; and he utterly dis¬
claims the idea of having adhered entirely to any un¬
written tradition, or having been promised any reward
for what he wrote. His chief authority, according to
his own account, W’as a Latin history of the exploits
of Sir William, written partly by Mr John Blair and
partly by Mr Thomas Gray, who had been the com¬
panions of the hero himself. Henry’s account of these
two authors, is to the following purpose : “ They be¬
came acquainted with Wallace when the latter was
9 1 HEN
only about 16 years of age, and at that time a student Henry,
at the school of Dundee ; and their acquaintance with *
him continued till his death, which happened in his
29th year. Mr John Blair went from the schools in
Scotland to Paris, where he studied some time, and
received priests orders. He returned to Scotland in
1296, where he joined Wallace, who was bravely as¬
serting the liberties of his country. Mr Thomas Gray,
who was parson of Libberton, joined Wallace at the
same time. They were men of great wisdom and in¬
tegrity, zealous for the freedom of Scotland; and were
present with Wallace, and assisting to him, in most of
nia military enterprises. I hey were also his spiritual
counsellors, and administered to him godly comfort.
The history written by these two clergymen was at¬
tested by William Sinclair bishop of Dunkeld, who bad
himself been witness to many of Wallace’s actions.
I he bishop, if he had lived longer, was to have sent
their book to Rome, for the purpose of obtaining the
sanction of the pope’s authority.”
> Ihe book which Henry thus appeals to as Ills prin¬
cipal authority is now lost, so that we have no oppor¬
tunity of comparing it with what he has written. The
character given by Dempster of Henry, however, is
more favourable than that by Major. He tells us, that
“be was blind from bis birth; a man of singular happy
genius ; he was indeed another Homer. He did great
honour to his native country, and raised it above what
was common to it in his age. He wrote, in the ver¬
nacular verse, an elaborate and grand work, in ten
books, of the deeds of William Wallace.” In this
account there is a mistake ; for the poem contains
eleven or twelve books ; but Dempster, who wrote in
a foreign country, and had not a printed copy of
Henry’s work by him when he wrote his eulogium, is
excusable in a mistake of this kind.
With regard to bis poetical merit, it must undoubt¬
edly rank very far below that of Homer, whom indeed
he scarcely resembles in any other respects than that he
went about, as Homer is said to have done, reciting
the exploits of the heroes of his country, and that he
was blind. In this last circumstance, however, he was
still worse than Homer ; for Henry was born blind,
but Homer became blind after he had been advanced
in years. Hence Henry, even supposing his genius to
have been equal to that of Homer, must have lain un¬
der great disadvantages; and these are very evident in
his works. The descriptive parts are evidently defi¬
cient, and the allusions taken principally from the way
in which nature affects those senses of which he was
possessed. Thus, speaking of the month of March, he
calls it the month of right digestion, from the supposed
fermentation then begun in the earth. Of April he says
that the earth is then able, or has obtained a power of
producing its different vegetables ; and of this produc¬
tive power lie appears to have been more sensible than
of the effects which commonly strike us most sensibly.
“ By the working of nature (says he), the fields are
again clothed, and the woods acquire their worthy
weed of green. May brings along with it great celes¬
tial gladness. The heavenly hues appear upon the
tender green.” In another place he describes the deity
of some river, whom he calls Nymphceus, “ building
bis bower with oil and balm, fulfilled of sweet odour.”
By reason of these disadvantages, he seldom makes use
3 B 2 of
HEN [ 380 ] HEN
of similies with which Homer abounds so much ; and
few miraculous interpositions are to be found in his
poem, though the prophecies of Thomas Lermont
commonly called The Rhymer, and a prophetic dream
of Wallace himself are introduced, as well as the ghost
di Fawdon, a traitor who had joined Wallace, and
whom the latter in a fit of passion had killed. In
other respects, the same inextinguishable thirst of blood
which Homer ascribes to his hero Achilles is ascribed
to Wallace, though in all probability the mind of
Wallace was too much enlightened to admit of such
sentiments. A vast degree of courage and personal
strength are ascribed to him, by means of which the
exploits of the whole army are in effect transferred to
a single person. As long as he is invested with the
command, the Scots are victorious and irresistible $
when deprived of it, they are enslaved and undone.
After struggling for some time against an inveterate
and powerful faction, disdaining to feign submission,
he is taken by treachery, and died a martyr to the
freedom of his country. The poem, on the whole, is
valuable, on account of our being able to trace, by its
means, the progress which the English language had
made at that time in Scotland: the manners of the
Scots in that age : as the favourite dress of green
which at that time was the taste of the inhabitants of
Scotland, &c. With regard to the authenticity of his
relations, it is impossible to suppose any other thing
than that they are partly true and partly false. The
general thread of the story may undoubtedly be looked
upon to be genuine, though embellished with poetical
fictions and exaggei-ations j and his constant appeals to
the book already mentioned, though it is now lost,
must be looked upon as a strong testimony in his favour :
for we cannot suppose that at the time he lived, when
we may say that the transactions which he relates were
recent, he would have had the confidence to appeal to
a book which had not been generally known to have
an existence 5 and its being now lost can never be any
argument against it, when we consider the difficulty
there was of preserving books before the invention of
printing 5 the confusions in which Scotland was fre¬
quently involved ; and that the exploits of Wallace,
who must be supposed to have been a kind of rival to
the great Bruce, could not be so agreeable to the court
as those of the more successful hero; and therefore the
history of them might be suffered to fall into oblivion,
though written in elegant Latin, while a most ridicu¬
lous poem in that language on the battle of Bannock¬
burn has been preserved to this day.
Henry Prince of Tales, eldest son ofKing James VI.
of Scotland by his queen Anne sister of the king of
Denmark, and one of the most accomplished princes
of the age in which he lived, was born on the 19th of
February 1594* The birth of the prince was announ¬
ced by embassies to many foreign powers, with invi¬
tations to be present at the ceremony of his baptism,
which was thus delayed for a considerable time. Mr
Peter Young, who, along with the celebrated George
Buchanan, had been preceptor to his majesty, was
sent to the courts of Denmark, Brunswic, and Meck¬
lenburg, the duke of Mecklenburg being great-grand¬
father to the prince by the mother’s side ; the laird of
East "Weems to France and England ; and Sir Robert
Kieith, and Captain Murray provost of St Andrew’s,
2:
to the States General, who at that time were strug¬
gling against the Spanish tyranny, and not yet declared
a free state. All these ambassadors were cordially re¬
ceived, and others appointed in return except by the
courts of France and England. Henry IV. at that
time king of France, though the Scots ambassador had
formerly been one of his own servants, neither made
any present, nor appointed an ambassador. Queen
Elizabeth had designed to act in the same manner till
she heard of the behaviour of Henry 5 after which she
honoured James by appointing an ambassador of very
high rank, Robert earl of Sussex. This ambassador,
however, was so long of making his appearance, that
the queen imagined the ceremony would be over before
his arrival; for which reason she sent a message to the
earl, commanding him in that case not to enter Scot¬
land nor deliver her present. But James had been
more obsequious $ and not only delayed the ceremony
till the English ambassador arrived, but distinguished
him from the rest by having a canopy carried over his
head at the procession, supported by the lairds of Cess-
ford, Buccleugh, Duddope, and Traquair. The ce¬
remony was performed with great magnificence j after
which the ambassadors presented their gifts. That
from the United States was the most valuable. It
consisted of two gold cups worth 12,400 crowns, with
a box of the same metal, weighing in all about 400
ounces, containing besides the grant of a pension of
5000 florins annually to the prince for life. The Eng¬
lish ambassador gave a cupboard of plate curiously
wrought, and valued at 3000I. sterling j and the Danish
ambassador two gold chains, one for the queen and
another for the prince. The baptism was celebrated
on the 6th of September 1594, and the child named
Frederick-Henry and Henry-Frederick.
The young prince was now committed to the care
of the earl of Mar, who was assisted in this important
charge by Annabella countess-dowager of Mar, daugh¬
ter of William Murray of Tullibardine, and paternal
ancestor of the present duke of Athol. This lady was
remarkable for the severity of her temper, so that the
prince met with little indulgence while under her tui¬
tion } notwithstanding which, he showed great affection
for his governess all the time she had the care of him.
Next year, however (1595), t*ie queen engaged the
chancellor, Lord Thirlestane, in a scheme to get the
prince into her own power: but the king having found
means to dissuade her majesty from the attempt, showed
afterwards such marks of displeasure to the chancellor,
that the latter fell into a languishing disorder and died
of grief.
In his sixth year Prince Henry was committed to the
care of Mr Adam Newton a Scotsman, eminently skill¬
ed in most branches of literature, but particularly di¬
stinguished for his knowledge of the Latin language.
E nder his tutorage the prince soon made great progress
in that language, as well as in other branches of know¬
ledge ; insomuch that before he had completed his sixth
year, his father wrote for his use the treatise entitled
Basilican Doron, thought to be the best of all his works.
In his seventh year, Prince Henry began his corre¬
spondence with foreign powers. His first letter was
to the States of Holland 5 in which he expressed his
regard and gratitude for the good opinion they had
conceived of him, and of which he had been informed
by
HEN [ 381 ] HEN
by several persons who had visited that country; con-
' eluding with a request that they would make use of
his interest with his father in whatever he could serve
them, promising also his service in every other respect in
which he could be useful, until he should be able to give
farther instances of his good-will and affection.
At this early period the prince began to add to his
literary accomplishments some of the more martial kind,
such as riding, the exercise of the bow, pike, &c. as
well as the use of fire-arms j and indeed such was the
attachment he showed throughout his whole lifetime to
military exercises, that had he attained the years of
maturity, there can scarce be a doubt that he would
have distinguished himself in a most eminent manner.
In all his exercises he made surprising progress ; and
not only in those of the military kind, but in singing,
dancing, &c. On his ninth birth-day he sent a letter
in Latin to the king, informing him that he had read
over Terence’s Hecyra, the third book of Phaedrus’s
Fables, and two books of Cicero’s Epistles j and that
now he thought himself capable of performing some¬
thing in the commendatory kind of epistles. His ac¬
complishments were soon spoken of in foreign countries j
and these, along with the general suspicion that James
favoured the Catholic party, probably induced Pope
Clement VIII. to make an attempt to get him into
his hands. With this view he proposed, that if James
would entrust him with the education of the young
prince, he would advance such sums of money as would
effectually establish him on the throne of England.
This happened a little before the death of Elizabeth j
but James, notwithstanding his ambition to possess the
crown of England, of which he was not yet altogether
certain, withstood the temptation. He alleged, that it
would be unnatural for him, as a father, to allow his
son to be brought up in the belief of a doctrine which
he himself did not believe : and even though he should
act in his private capacity in such an unnatural manner,
he could not answer for it to the nation, he being
heir-apparent to the crown, and the kingdom at large
much interested in whatever concerned him. On the
death of the queen of England, James was obliged to
leave Scotland in such haste, that he had not time to
take a personal leave of his son, and therefore did so
by letter, which was answered by the prince in Latin.
The queen, however, who had been desired to follow
the king to London in three weeks, but to leave the
prince in Scotland, thought proper to make another
attempt to get her son into her own power. With
this view she took a journey to Stirling, where the
prince resided, but was opposed in her designs by the
friends of the house of Mar j and this affected her so
much, that she miscarried of a child of which she was
then pregnant. The king, hearing of this misfortune,
ordered the prince to be delivered to his mother; but
refused to inflict any punishment on the earl of Mar,
which the queen insisted upon, that nobleman having
been with the king at London, and entirely innocent
of the whole affair. Instead of punishing him, there¬
fore, he caused him to be acquitted by an act of the
public council at Stirling; invested him with the order
of the Garter ; made him a grant of several abbey and
Other church lands; and raised him to the post of lord
high treasurer after the disgrace of the earl of Somer¬
set ; in which employment he continued till he could
no longer perform the duties of his office through age
and infirmity.
In the month of July this year (1603) Prince
Henry was invested with the order of the Garter ; after
which he was presented to the queen in his robes, and
greatly commended by all who saw him on account cf
his majestic carriage and religious behaviour at the
altar, as well as the quickness of his understanding and
ready answers. Being obliged to leave London on
account of the plague, he retired to Otelands, a
royal palace near Weybridge in Surrey, where a sepa¬
rate household was appointed for him and his sister
Elizabeth. The appointment consisted at first of 70
servants, of whom 22 were to be above stairs and 48
below. In some weeks the number was augmented to
104, of whom 51 were above stairs and 53 below; but
before the end of the year they were augmented to
141, of whom 56 were above stairs and 85 below.
From Otelands he removed the same year to Nonsuch
in Surrey, and from thence to Hampton Court, where
he resided till Michaelmas 1604; after which he re¬
turned to his house at Otelands, his servants having all
this time been kept on board-wages.
In the tenth year of his age, Henry began to
show a wonderful desire of becoming master of all those
accomplishments which are necessary to constitute a
great prince. Without desisting from his attention to
polite literature, he applied himself in the most assidu¬
ous manner to the knowledge of naval and military
affairs. To give him the first rudiments of the former,
asmall vessel was constructed 28 feet long and 12 broad,
curiously painted and carved; on board of which he
embarked with several of the principal nobility, and
sailed down as far as Paul’s Wharf, where with the
usual ceremonies, he baptized it by the name of the Dis¬
dain. Mr Pett, the builder of this ship, was recom¬
mended to the prince by the high admiral in such
stro: g terms, that his highness took him immediately
into his service, and continued his favour to him as long
as he lived.
Prince Henry now began to show himself equally a
patron of military men and of learning. His martial
disposition induced him to take notice of Colonel Ed-
mondes, a brave Scots officer in the Dutch service,
who had raised himself solely by his merit. To him
he applied for a suit of armour to be sent over from
Holland : but though the colonel executed his com¬
mission, he reaped no benefit from his highness’s fa¬
vour, dying in a short time after the armour was pur¬
chased, before he had any opportunity of sending it
over. In matters of literature the prince appears to
have been a very good judge. He patronized divines,
and appears to have been naturally of a religious turn
of mind. His attachment to the Protestant religion ap¬
pears to have been excessive ; as it never was in the
power of the queen, who favoured the Catholic party,
to make the least impression upon him. Her machina¬
tions for this purpose were discovered by the Irench
ambassador; who, in a letter dated June 7. 1604,
informed his master of them, and that the Spaniards
were in hopes of being able by her means to alter the
religion in England, as well as to prejudice the prince
against France, which the queen said she hoped that
her son would one day he able to conquer like another
Henry V. By another letter, of date 22d October the
■*
HEN [ 382 ] HEN
ncniy. same year, the ambassador, after taking notice of the
-y. i. ,.i queen’s immoderate ambition, adds, that she used all
her efforts to corrupt the mind of the prince, by flat¬
tering his passions, diverting him from his studies, and
representing to him, out of contempt to his father, that
learning was inconsistent with the character of a great
general and conqueror j proposing at the same time a
marriage with the infanta of Spain. Notwithstanding
these remonstrances, however, the prince continued to
behave as usual, and to patronise the learned no less
than before. He presented John Johnston, one of the
king’s professors at St Andrew’s with a diamond, lor
having dedicated to him an Historical Description of
the kings of Scotland from the foundation of the mo¬
narchy to that time ; after which the professor added
a carmen encomiasticum, which was transmitted to his
highness in November 1605. Many other authors also
sought and obtained his countenance. In j6c6 Mr
John Bond ushered his edition of Horace into the
world with a polite dedication to the prince, whom
he highly compliments on account ol the progress he
had made in learning. In 1609 a book was sent over
to him from France by Sir George Carew, the Bri¬
tish ambassador there, tending to disprove the doctrine
of the Catholics concerning the church of Rome being
the first of the Christian churches. The same year the
learned Thomas Tydyat published his Emendatio Ecm-
gorum, which appeared under the patronage ot the
prince; and with this performance his highness was
so well pleased, that he took the author into his family
to read to him, and made him his chronographer and
cosmographer. Paul Buys or Busius also sent him a
letter with a dedication of the second part of his Pan¬
dects; in which he bestows upon him the highest com¬
pliments on the great expectations which were formed
of him, and of the hopes entertained by the reformed
Christian churches that he would prove a powerful sup¬
port to their cause, and antagonist to the errors of
Rome. In 1611 Dr Tooker, in his dedication of an
Answer to Becanus a Jesuit, who had written agnlnst a
piece done by his majesty himself, styles his highness
4* the Maecenas of all the learned.” Another treatise
against the same Becanus was also printed this year,
and dedicated to the prince.
Many other authors, whom our limits will not allow
us to take notice of, were fond of dedicating their per¬
formances to his highness ; nor was his correspondence
less extensive than his erudition. We have already
taken notice of his having written his first public letter
to the states of Holland. He was congratulated bv
the elector palatine, afterwards married to the princess
Elizabeth, on the discovery of the gunpowder-plot.
On the same occasion also Lord Spenser wrote him a
letter, accompanying it with the present of a sword and
target; “ instruments (says he) fit to be about you in
those treacherous times ; from the which, I trust, God
will ever protect your most royal father, &c.” Previous
to this he had corresponded in Latin with the doge of
Venice, the landgrave of Hesse, and the king of Den¬
mark ; in French with the duke of Savoy, and in La¬
tin with the duke of Brunswic and Uladislaus Ling of
Poland ; besides a number of other eminent persons too
tedious to enumerate.
_ The great accomplishments of Henry soon caused
him to be taken notice of by the most eminent princes
in Europe. In 1606 Henry IV. of France ordered jjcni
his ambassador to pay him special regard on all occa--y
sions. He desired him likewise to salute the prince
in the name of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XIII. and
to inform him of the regard the latter had for him. A
message was also sent by the same ambassador to M. de
St Anthoine, appointed to be riding-master to his high¬
ness, enjoining him to do his duty in that office: and
assuring him that his majesty would be as much pleased
with it as if the service had been done to himself. To
these messages the prince returned very proper answers;
and afterwards performed his exercise in the riding-
school before the ambassador himself, that the latter
might send an account thereof to his master. On this
occasion he mounted two horses, and acquitted himself
so well that the ambassador in a letter to M. de Ville-
roy, the French secretary, gave him the character of
“ a prince who promised very much, and whose friend¬
ship could not but be one day of advantage.” Flaving
then set forth the propriety of cultivating a good under¬
standing with him, he tells the secretary, that the dau¬
phin might make a return for some dogs which the
prince had sent him, by a suit of armour well gilt
and enamelled, together with pistols and a sword of the
same kind ; also two horses, one of them a barb.—
This year also the prince waited on his uncle the king
of Denmark, who had come to England on a visit to
King James ; and this monarch was so much pleased
with his company, that he presented him at parting
with his vice-admiral and best fighting ship, valued at
no less than 2500I. also with a rapier and hanger, va¬
lued at 2000 marks. The states of Holland were equally
ready to show their attachment. On the 25th of Au¬
gust this year they sent a letter to the prince in French,
accompanied with the present of a set of table-linen,
which they thought, as being the produce of their
own country, would be agreeable to him ; and they
requested his love and favour towards their state : in
return for which they promised to be always ready to
show their regard for him, and to do him all possible
service ; as the ambassador himself was ordered more
particularly to declare. About this time the prince
himself wrote a letter to Henry IV. acknowledging
the kindness which his majesty had shown him for se¬
veral years, and confirmed of late by the latter offering
him under his own royal hand his friendship and that
of the dauphin.
While James was this year employed in hunting,
the French ambassador, who had been obliged to quit
London on account of the plague, took frequent op¬
portunities of waiting upon his highness, as did also
the Spanish ambassador, whose ostensible reason was
to inform him about some horses which were to be
sent him from Spain. The prince’s partiality towards
Fiance, however, was so evident, that the French am¬
bassador, in a letter dated 31st October 1606, mentions,
that “ as far as he could discover, his highness’s incli¬
nation was entirely towards France, and that it would
he wrong to neglect a prince who promised such great
things. None of his pleasures (continued he) savour
the least of a child. He is a particular lover of horses
and whatever belongs to them : but is not fond of hunt¬
ing ; and when he goes to it, it is rather for the plea¬
sure of galloping than that which the dogs give him.
He plays willingly enough at tennis, and another Scottish
5 diversion
HEN [ 383 ] HEN
enry. diversion very like mall; but tins always with persons
■v—' elder than himself, as if he despised those of his own
age^- He studies two hours a-day, and employs the
rest of his time in tossing the pike, or leaping, or
shooting with the bow, or throwing the bar, or vault¬
ing, or some other exercise of the kind, and he is ne¬
ver idle. He shows himself likewise very good-natu¬
red to his dependents, supports their interests against
any persons whatever, and pushes whatever he under¬
takes for them or others with such zeal as gives suc¬
cess to it. For besides his exerting his whole strength
to compass what he desires, he is already feared by
those who have the management of affairs, and espe¬
cially by the earl of Salisbury, who appears to be
greatly apprehensive of the prince’s ascendant j as the
prince, on the other hand, shows little esteem for his
lordship.” In this letter the ambassador further goes
on to remark, that some of the prince’s attendants had
formerly been made to expect pensions from France ;
and he was of opinion that they ought to be gratified
on account of the interest they had with the prince.
He adds, that the queen had less affection for Prince
Henry than for his brother the duke of York, after¬
wards Charles I.; which the prince seemed to have
discovered, and sometimes used expressions to that pur¬
pose: that the king also seemed to be jealous of his
son’s accomplishments, and to be displeased with the
quick progress he made.
In 1607 the prince received the arms and armour
which Henry IV. sent him as a present j and these be¬
ing accompanied with a letter, the prince returned an
answer by a Mr Douglas, who was introduced to the
king of France by the ambassador Sir George Carew.
His majesty, contrary to custom, opened the prince’s
letter immediately ; and was so much surprised at the
beauty of the character, that he could not be satisfied
that it was the prince’s hand until he compared the
signature with the rest of the writing. In his letter
to the British court on this occasion, the ambassador
sets forth in strong terms the affection expressed by the
French monarch for the prince 5 “ accounting of him
as of his own son, as he hoped that his good brother of
Great Britain would do the like of the Dauphin.”
The French ambassador also gave a character of his
highness similar to that already mentioned; remark¬
ing, “ that the prince had great accomplishments and
courage ; would soon make himself talked of, and pos¬
sibly give jealousy to his father, and apprehensions to
those who had the greatest ascendant at court.” With
regard to the pensions to his attendants, he was at first
of opinion that they ought to be granted ; but after¬
wards altered his mind, perceiving that there was little
probability of the prince being influenced by any of
his attendants, as he was much more inclined to be
guided by his own judgment than by the suggestions of
others.—In the month of July this year the Dutch
ambassadors came recommended to Prince Henry by
the States, who wrote to him that they had ordered
their ambassadors to kiss his highness’s hands on their
part, and desired him to continue his friendship to their
republic, and to allow their ambassadors a favourable
audience, and the same credit as to themselves.
All this attention paid him by foreign powers, all
his attention to his own improvements in learning and
the military art, and all the temptations which we
cannot but suppose a youth in his exalted station to Henry,
have been exposed to, seem never to have shaken the ——-
mind of this magnanimous prince in the least, or to
have at any time made him deviate from the strict line
of propriety. We have already mentioned his attach¬
ment to the Protestant religion ; and this appears not
to have been grounded upon any prejudice or opinion
inculcated upon his infant mifid by those who had the
care of him, but from a thorough conviction of the truth
of the principles which he professed. On the discovery
ot the gunpowder-plot, he was so impressed with grati¬
tude towards the Supreme Being, that he never after¬
wards omitted being present at the sermon preached
on the occasion. In his 14th year the prince showed
himself capable of distinguishing the merit of religious
discourses, and paid particular regard to such divines as
were most remarkable for their learning and abilities.
Among others, he honoured with his attention the
learned and eloquent Mr Joseph Hall, then rector of
Halstead in Suffolk, afterwards dean of Worcester, and
successively bishop of Exeter and Norwich. His high¬
ness was so much pleased with a book of Meditations
published by that divine, that he pressed him to preach
before h im ; and having heard two of his sermons, he
engaged him as one of his chaplains ; inviting him af¬
terwards to stay constantly at his court, while the other
chaplains waited only in their turns; promising, more¬
over to obtain from the king such preferments as should
fully satisfy him. Mr Hall, however, from a reluc¬
tance to leave his new patron Lord Denny, afterwards
earl of Norwich, did not accept of these honourable
and advantageous proposals.
In his family the prince took the utmost care to pre¬
serve decency and regularity. He ordered boxes to be
kept at his three houses of St James’s, Richmond, and
Nonsuch, for the money required of those who were
heard to swear ; the fines levied on such offenders be-
ing given to the poor. He had, indeed, a particular
aversion to the vice of swearing and profanation of the
name of God. When at play, he never was heard to
do so ; and on being asked why he did not srvear at
play as well as others ; he answered, that he knew no
game worthy of an oath. The same answer he is said to
have given at a hunting-match. The stag, almost quite
spent, crossed a road where a butcher was passing with
his dog. The stag was instantly killed by the dog ;
at which the huntsmen were greatly offended, and en¬
deavoured to irritate the prince against the butcher :
but his highness answered coolly, “ What if the butch¬
er’s dog killed the stag, what could the butcher help
it?” They replied, that if his father had been so served,
he would have sworn so that no man could have endu¬
red. “ Away,” cried the prince, “ all the pleasure in
the world is not worth an oath.”
The regard which Prince Henry had for religion
was manifest from his attachment to those who be¬
haved themselves in a religious and virtuous manner.
Among these was Sir John Harrington, whose father
had been knighted by Queen Elizabeth, and created
by King James a baron of England in 1603 by the
title of Lord Harrington of Exton in Rutland. He
was entrusted with the care of the Princess Elizabeth
after her marriage with the elector palatine, whom he
attended to Heydelberg in 1613, and died at Worms
on the 24th of August following. His son, who in the •
year;-
HEN [ 384 ] HE N
Henry.
year 1604 had been created knight of the Bath, was,
as soon as he came to the j ears of discretion, remark¬
able for his piety j insomuch that he is said to have
kept an exact diary of his life, and to have examined
himself every week as to the progress he had made in
piety and virtue, and what faults he had committed
during that time. He was affable and courteous to
all, and remarkable for his humanity to those in dis¬
tress j all which good qualities so endeared him to the
prince, that he entered into as strict a friendship with
him as the disproportion between their stations would
allow. There are still several letters extant which
passed between them, chiefly upon classical subjects.
This worthy and accomplished nobleman died in Fe¬
bruary 1614.
In his friendship Prince Henry appears to have been
very sincere, and inviolably attached to those whom he
once patronised. He had a great regard for the un¬
fortunate Lady Arabella Stewart, sister of Henry Lord
Darniey, the king’s father} and there is still extant a
letter from this lady to the px-ince in return for some
kindness he had bestowed on a kinsman of hers at her
recommendation. He expressed much compassion for
her misfortunes} she having excited the king’s jea¬
lousy on account of her marriage with Mr William
Seymour, afterwards earl and marquis of Hertford,
and restored in 1660 to the dukedom of Somerset.
But on her attempting to escape from the house in
Highgate where she was confined, and to go abroad
with her husband, his highness expressed some resent¬
ment against her ; though in all probability his ap¬
prehensions, as well as those of the king, were ill-
founded.
As early as the year 1605, the prince, though then
only in his nth year, manifested his gratitude and at¬
tachment to those who had served him, in the instance
of his tutor Mr Newton already mentioned. That
gentleman had been promised by his majesty the dean¬
ery of Durham upon the demise of the archbishop of
\ork. On this promise Mr Newton had relief for
two years } and as soon as the prelate died, his high¬
ness took care to put the king in mind of his promise ;
in consequence of which, Mr Newton was installed in
bis office on the 27th of September 1606.
Mr Pett, the gentleman who first instructed the
prince in naval aflairs, having been involved with many
others in an enquiry concerning their conduct in their
respective employments in the royal navy, the prince
showed a laudable desire of protecting their innocence.
The inquiry was set on foot by the earl of Northamp-
ton, lord privy seal and warden of the cinque ports,
who had received a commission from the king for the
purpose. It was carried on by his agents, however,
with such violence and malice, as not only occasioned
great trouble and expence to the parties concerned,
but almost ruined the navy, besides augmenting his
majesty’s expences much more than formerly.' Mr
Pett’s trial began on the 28th of April 1609} at which
time tlie reports being very favourable to him, the
king determined to examine into the state of the mat-
. ter himself. For this purpose he went to Woolwich on
the 8th of May, attended by the prince } and appoint-
ed Sir Thomas Chaloner, his highness’s governor, and
Sir Henry Briggs then professor of geometry in Gre¬
sham college, to decide the controversy which was
then agitated about the proportion of the ships. The j'€IV
measurers declared in favour of Mr Pett; on which -y
the prince exclaimed, “ Where be now those perjured
fellows, that dare thus to abuse his majesty with false
informations ? Do they not worthily deserve hanging?”
During the whole time he stood near Mr Pett to en¬
courage him } and when the king declared himself sa¬
tisfied of his innocence, the prince took him up from
his knees, expressing his own joy for the satisfaction
which his father had received that day } protesting
that he would not only countenance Mr Pett for the
future, but provide for him and his family as long as
he lived.
The courage, intrepid disposition, and martial turn
of this prince, were manifest from his infancy. It is
related of Alexander the Great, that at a very early
period of his life he showed more skill than all his fa¬
ther’s grooms in the breaking of his favourite horse
Bucephalus. An anecdote somewhat similar is re¬
corded of Prince Henry. He was hardly ten years
of age, when he mounted a very high-spirited horse,
in spite of the remonstrances of his attendants } spurred
the animal to a full gallop } and having thoroughly
wearied him, brought him back at a gentle pace, ask¬
ing his servants at his return, “ How long shall I con¬
tinue in your opinion to be a child ?” From the very
first time that he embarked on board the small vessel
formerly mentioned, he continued to pay the utmost
attention to naval affairs. In August 1607, he visited
the royal navy at Woolwich, where he was received by
Mr Pett, and conducted aboard the Royal Anne, where
he had 31 large pieces of ordnance ready to be fired.
This was done unexpectedly as soon as the prince
reached the poop } at which he expressed great satis¬
faction. After visiting the dock-yard, and surveying
what was done of a ship then building for himself, he
went ashore, and having partaken of an entertainment
prepared for him by Mr Pett, he was by him conduct¬
ed to the mount, where the ordnance were again
charged and ready to be placed for firing. The prince
insisted upon an immediate discharge, but suffered him¬
self to be persuaded against it by Mr Pett’s represen¬
tation of the danger of firing so many ordnance loaded
with shot while his highness stood close by : on a signal
given by him, however, by holding up his handker¬
chief, after he had removed to a proper distance with
his barge, the ordnance were discharged as he had de¬
sired. In his 16th year he paid several visits to Wool¬
wich, in order to see the above-mentioned ship which
was building for himself. When finished, it was the
largest that had ever been seen in England : the keel
being 114 feet in length, and the cross-beam 44 feet}
carrying 64 pieces of great ordnance } the burden about
1400 tons} and the whole curiously ornamented with
carving and gilding. His highness having received
this ship in a present from his majesty, went to see it
launched on the 24th of September 1609. The nar¬
rowness of the dock, however, having prevented its be¬
ing done at that time, the prince, who staid behind the
rest of the company in order to prepare for the cere¬
mony next morning, returned by three o’clock through
a storm of rain, thunder, and lightning} and standing
on the poop while the ship was launched, gave it the
name of the Prince Royal.
In 1611 his highness made a private visit to Cha¬
tham,
\
HEN [3
enrv> flmm, where he first went on hoard the Prince Royal,
t and afterwards from ship to ship; informing himselt
particularly of every thing of moment relating to the
state of all the different ships, and even pinnaces lying
there at that time. Next day he went by water up
to Stroud ; where, contrary to all the remonstrances
of his attendants, he caused the ordnance to be shot
over his barge. From Stroud he went to Gravesend,
where the magistrates received him with a discharge
of all their small arms and the ordnance of the block¬
houses.
About the middle of January 1612, Prince Henrv
ordered all his majesty’s master-shipwrights and build¬
ers to attend him, to consider of a proposition con¬
cerning the building of ships in Ireland made by a
Mr Barrel. Some of his propositions were, that he
should build any ship from iod to 600 tons, with two
decks and a half, at the rate of five pounds per ton ;
that he would build any ship from 6oo to xooo tons,
with three whole decks, at the rate of seven pounds
per ton ; that he should build a ship of 6oo tons within
a certain time, &c. Mr Pett was employed to see
that this contract was fulfilled on the part of Mr Bur-
rel. Among the prince’s papers, a list of the royal
navy was found after his death, with an account of all
the expences of fitting out, manning, &c. which must
now be accounted a valuable addition to the naval hi¬
story of those times. His passion for naval affairs na¬
turally led him to a desire of making geographical dis¬
coveries ; of which, however, only two instances have
reached our times. One was in 1607, when he recei¬
ved from Mr Tindal his gunner, who had been em¬
ployed by the Virginia company, a draught of James’s
river in that country, with a letter dated 22d June the
same year. In this letter Mr Tindal remarks, that his
fellow’-adventurers had discovered that river; and that
no Christian had ever been there before; that they were
safely arrived and settled ; that they found the coun¬
try very fruitful ; and that they had taken a real and
public possession in the name and to the use of the
king his highness’s father. The other instance was in
the year 1612, the same in which he died, when he
employed Mr Thomas Button, an eminent mariner, to
go in quest of a north-west passage. Mr Button ac-
cordinaly set sail with two ships, named the Resolution
and Discovery; the same designations with those in
which the late Captain Cook made his last voyage.
Both of them were victualled for 18 months: but
wintering in these northern regions, they did not re¬
turn till after the prince’s decease, so that Captain
Button was never sent on another voyage: neverthe¬
less, he returned fully convinced of the existence of such
a passage; and even told the celebrated professor Briggs
ot Gresham college, that he had convinced the king of
his opinion.
The martial disposition of the prince, which was
conspicuous on all occasions, eminently displayed it¬
self on the occasion of his being invested in the prin¬
cipality of Wales and duchy of Cornwall, which took
place in the year 1610. Previous to this ceremony,
he, under the name and character of Mceliailes, lord of
the isles, caused a challenge to be given, in the roman¬
tic style of those times, to all the knights in Great
Britain. The challenge, according -to custom, was
accepted ; and on the appointed dav, the prince, as-
Vol. X. Part I. f
85 ] HEN
sisted only by the duke of Lenox, the earls of Arun¬
del and Southampton, Lord Hay, Sir Thomas Somer¬
set, and Sir Richard Preston, who instructed his high¬
ness in arms, maintained the combat against 56 earls,
barons, knights, and esquires. Prince Henry himself
gave and received 32 pushes of the pike, and about 360
strokes of swords, performing his part very gracefully,
and to the admiration of all who saw him, he being’
not yet 16 years ol age. Prizes were bestowed upon
the earl of Montgomery, Mr Thomas Barry, and Sir
Robert Gordon, for their behaviour at this combat.
The ceremony of installation was performed on the
4th ot June 1610, at which time every kind of mag¬
nificence that could be devised was displayed. Among
other pageants used on this occasion was that of Nep¬
tune riding on a dolphin and making speeches to the
prince ; also of a sea-goddess upon a whale. After
the ceremony the prince took his place on the left
hand of his majesty ; sitting there in his royal robes,
with the crown on his head, the rod in one hand, and
in the other the patent creating him prince of Wales
and duke ol Cornwall. A public act was then read,
testifying that he had been declared prince of Great
Britain and Wales. He was afterwards served at table
with a magnificence not urtworthy of royalty itself;
the whole concluding with a grand masquerade and
tournament.
In one instance, the extreme desire which Prince
Henry had of being instructed in military affairs, car¬
ried him beyond those bounds which European nations
have prescribed to one another. In 1607 the prince
de Joinville, brother to the duke of Guise, came to
England, having been obliged to leave France in con¬
sequence of his having made love to the countess de
Moret the king’s mistress. After having been for a few
weeks magnificently entertained at court, he departed
for France in the beginning of June. The prince
took an opportunity of sending to Calais in the train
of the prince an engineer in his own service, who took
the opportunity of examining all the fortifications of
the town, particularly those of the Rix-Banc. This
was discovered by the French ambassador, who imme¬
diately gave notice of it to court, but excused the
prince, as supposing that what he had done was more
out of curiosity than any thing else ; and the court
seemed to be of the same opinion, as no notice was ever
taken of the affair, nor was the friendship between King
Henry and the prince in tlie smallest degree interrupt¬
ed. The martial disposition of his highness was great¬
ly encouraged by some people in the military line, who
put into his hands a paper entitled “ Propositions for
War and Peace.” Notwithstanding this title, how¬
ever, the aim of the author was evidently to promote
war rather than peace ; and for this the. following ar¬
guments were used. t. Necessity ; for the preserva¬
tion of our own peace, the venting of factious spirits,
and instructing the people in arms. 2. The benefits
to be derived from the spoils of the enemy, an augmen¬
tation of revenue from the conquered countries, See.
This was answered by Sir Robert Colton in the follow¬
ing manner. 1. That our wisest princes had always
been inclined to peace. 2. That foreign expeditions
were the causes of invasions from abroad, and rebel¬
lions at home, endless taxations, vassalage, and dan¬
ger to the state from the extent of territory, &c. It
3 C doe*
Henry.
HEN
[ 386 ]
HEN
Henry, iloes not appear, however, that the prince was at all
——"vmoved by these pacific arguments; on the contiary,
his favourite diversions were tilting, charging on horse¬
back with pistols, &c. He delighted in conversing
with people of skill and experience in war concerning
every part of their profession ; caused new pieces ot
ordnance to be made, with which he learned to shoot
at a mark ; and was so careful to furnish himself with
a breed of good horses, that no prince in Europe could
boast of a superiority in this respect. He was solici¬
ted by Sir Edward Conway to direct his attention to
the affairs of the continent, where Sigismund III. of
Poland threatened, in conjunction with the king of
Denmark, to attack Gustavus Adolphus, the young
king of Sweden •, but the death of the prince, which hap¬
pened this year, prevented all interference of this kind.
To his other virtues, Prince Henry added those of
frugality without avarice, and generosity without ex¬
travagance. As early as the year 1605 he began to
show an attention to his interest as duke of Cornwall,
and to take proper measures for securing his revenues
there. In 1610 he settled and appointed the officers
of his household, making his choice with the greatest
prudence, and giving orders for the management and
regulation of his affairs with all the wisdom and gra¬
vity of an old counsellor. Some lands weie now al¬
lotted to him for his revenues } and instead of dimi¬
nishing his income during the short time he was in pos¬
session of them, they were found at his death to be
some thousands of pounds better than when he obtain¬
ed them. At this time he showed much reluctance to
gratify any of his servants except by promises, as not
thinking himself yet authorized to give any thing away ;
but a short time before his death, he conferred pensions
on some of them •, and there is no reason to doubt,
that had his life been prolonged he would have reward¬
ed them all according to their merit.
Though Prince Henry never interfered much in
public business, yet in any little transactions he had of
this kind, he always displayed great firmness and reso¬
lution, as well as absolute propriety of conduct. In a
letter from Sir Alexander Seton, earl of Dunfermling,
he is commended for the firmness and resolution with
which he repelled the calumnies of some who “ had
rashly, and with the highest intemperance of tongue,
endeavoured to wound the Scottish nation.” By this
he alluded to some very gross and scurrilous invec¬
tives thrown out against the whole body of the Scots
by Sir Christopher Pigot, in a debate in the house of
commons on an union between the two kingdoms.
This gentleman declared his astonishment at the pro¬
posal of uniting a good ami fertile country to one poor,
barren, and in a manner disgraced by nature ; and for
associating rich, frank, and honest men, with such as
were beggars, proud, and generally traitors and rebels
to their kings ; with many other shameful expressions
of the same kind. His majesty was highly offended
with the whole council; and Sir Christopher, after
being obliged in parliament to retract his words, was
expelled the house and imprisoned ; in consequence of
which, the king was addressed by the states of Scot¬
land, who thanked him for the zeal he had manifested
for the honour of their country. In another instance,
where the prince wished Mr Fullerton, a Scotsman, to
supersede Sir Robert Car, one of the attendants of his
3 '
brother the duke of York, contrary to the inclination Henr
of the king and earl of Salisbury, his highness carried —v
his point, by persuading Sir Robert of himself to give
up the place in question.
Under this year, 1611, the elegant Latin historian of
Great Britain from 1572 to 1628, Robert Johnston,
places a story, which, though unsupported by any au¬
thority but his own, and improbable in itself, must
not be omitted here. The prince, according to this
writer, requested the king that he might be appointed
to preside in the council. This demand was seconded
by the king’s favourite, Car Viscount Rochester, who
urged his majesty to lay his son’s request before the
council. But the earl of Salisbury, jealous of the
growing power of Rochester, and a thorough master
of artifice and dissimulation, used all his efforts to de¬
feat whatever measures were proposed by his rival and
being asked soon after his opinion upon this point,
whether it was for the public interest that the prince
should preside in the council, answered, that he thought
it dangerous to divide the government, and to invest
the son with the authority of the father. Many others
of the privy council having delivered their opinions on
the same question, that ol the earl of Salisbury was
adopted by the majority. But his lordship soon took
an opportunity, in a secret conference with the prince,
to lament his own situation, and to persuade his big! - I
ness that Lord Rochester had the only influence in the
palace, and privately counteracted all his designs. The
prince, on his part, resented the denial of his request,
and his exclusion from public business. It was not
long before Lord Rochester discovered the earl of Sa¬
lisbury’s practice against him with the prince j to whom
he therefore went to clear himself-, but his high¬
ness turned from him with great indignation, and
would not hear his justification. The queen likewise,
highly displeased with the viscount, refused to see him,
and sought all means of lessening his power. This
forwardness imputed to the prince by the historian, in
endeavouring to intrude himself into the management
of public affairs, is not (as Dr Birch remarks) at all
suitable to the character of his highness, or to any
other accounts which we have of him ; nor ought it
to be believed upon the credit of a writer who cites
no authority for it, nor indeed for scarce any other
assertions in his history, how extraordinary so ever they
appear to he, and who frequently ventures to enlarge
upon subjects which it was impossible for him to have
known. However, it is not much to be doubted, that
the prince had no great esteem for Lord Rochester,
whose rise to the power of a favourite and a minister
he so much disliked, if we may believe a satirical writer
of Memoirs *, that he was reported either to have* Fi ;
struck his lordship on the back with a racket, or very
hardly forborne it. And another historian, not much ^^, 5
less satirical, Arthur Wilson f, mentions the bicker-^ /A
ings betwixt the prince and the viscount; and that Sir jaw
James Elphinston one day observing his highness to be sect. •
discontented with the viscount, offered to kill him ; f°r^
which the prince reproved him, and said that if thereby
were cause he would do it himself. But to wave suchjf jifs 1
very suspicious authorities, it will be sufficient, in order
to judge of his highness’s opinion of the viscount, and
his administration at the very height of it,^ to hear
what himself says in a letter to Sir Thomas Ldmondes
ot
HEN [ 387 ] HEN
of the loth of September 1612; “As matters go now
here, I will deal in no businesses of importance for some
respects.”
It is not to Ge supposed but that the marriage of a
prince so accomplished and so much admired would en¬
gage the attention of the public. This was indeed the
case. The queen, who favoured the interest of Spain,
proposed a match with the infanta, and the king of
Spain himself seemed to be inclined to the match. In
1611 a proposal was made for a double marriage be¬
twixt the prince of Wales and the eldest daughter of
the house of Savoy, and between the prince of Savoy
and the lady Elizabeth j but these overtures were
very coolly received, being generally disagreeable to
the nation. Sir Walter Raleigh, at that time prisoner
in the Tower, wrote two excellent treatises against
these matches •, in one of which he styles the prince
The most excellent and hopeful, as he does also in the
introduction to his Observations on the royal navy and
sea-service. About the year 1612, his marriage be¬
came an object of general attention. In this aflair the
king seems to have inclined to match his son with the
princess who promised to bring the largest dowry y the
nation at large to have been influenced by motives of
religion ; and the prince himself to have remained en¬
tirely passive, and to have been willing to bestow his
person with the most perfect indifference on whatso¬
ever princess should be chosen for him. This appears
from a letter to the king dated 5th October 1612, in
which he considers the match with the second princess
of France as in a manner concluded. Proposals had
indeed been made of sending her over to England for
her education, she being only nine years of age at that
time 5 but Villeroy the French minister was of opi¬
nion, that this ought to be delayed for a year longer.
Tiie reasons assigned by the prince for wishing her
coming to England at that time were merely political:
1. Because the French court, by having the princess in
their power, might alter her mind as they pleased :
2. That there would thus be a greater likelihood of
converting her to the Protestant religion 5 and 3.
That his majesty’s credit would be better preserved
when both daughters (the eldest being promised to the
prince of Spain) should be delivered at the same time,
though the conclusion of the one marriage might be
much later than of the other. _ With regard to the
exercise of her leligion, the prince expressed himself
rather in severe terms, wishing his majesty only to al¬
low her to use it in “ her most private and secret
chamber.” He then argues with the most philosophic
indifference of the propriety of a match with the
French princess rather than with one of the house of
Savoy : concluding at last in the following words ;
“ If I have incurred in the same error that I did last
by the indifterence of my opinion, I humbly crave par¬
don of your majesty, holding it fitter for your majesty
to resolve what course is most convenient to be taken
by the rules of the state, than for me who am so little
acquainted with subjects ot that nature : pnd besides,
your majesty may think, that my part to play, which
is to be in love with any ot them, is nut yet at hand.”
On the whole, it appeared, that there never was any
real design in the king or prince to bring this matter
to a conclusion ; and that the proposal had been made
only with a view to break oft' the match of the eldest
daughter with the prince of Spain, which could not
now be done.
Prince Henry, notwithstanding his indifference in
matrimonial matters, applied himself with the utmost
assiduity to his former employments and exercises, the
continual fatigue of which was thought to impair his
health. In the 19th year of his age his constitution
seemed to undergo a remarkable change : be began to
appear pale and thin, and to be more retired and se¬
rious than usual. He complained now and then of a
giddiness and heavy pain in his forehead, which ob¬
liged him to stroke up his brow before he put on his
hat: he frequently hied at the nose, which gave great
relief, though the discharge stopped some time before
his death. These forebodings of a dangerous malady
were totally neglected both by himself and his attend¬
ants, even after he began to be seized at intervals with
fainting fits. Notwithstanding these alarming symp¬
toms, lie continued his usual employments. On the
arrival of Count de Nassau in England, he waited
upon him as though nothing had been the matter 5
and when the subject of the princess Elizabeth’s mar¬
riage came to be canvassed, he interested himself deeply
in the affair, and never desisted till the match with the
elector palatine was concluded. In the beginning of
June 16x2, the prince went to Richmond, where he
continued till the progress : and notwithstanding the
complaints above mentioned, he now took the oppor¬
tunity of the neighbourhood of the Thames to learn
to swim. This practice in an evening, and after sup¬
per, was discommended by several of his attendants j
and was supposed to have stopped the bleeding at the
nose, from which he had experienced such salutary
eft’ects. He could not, however, be prevailed upon
to discontinue the practice ; and took likewise great
pleasure in walking by the river side in moon-light to
hear the sound and echo of the trumpets, by which he
was undoubtedly too much exposed to the evening
dews. Through impatience to meet the king his fa¬
ther, he rode 60 miles in one day ; and having rested
himself during the night, he rode the next day 36
miles to Belvoir Castle, where lie met the king at the
time appointed. Dining the heat of the season also
he made several other fatiguing journeys, which must
undoubtedly have contributed to impair his health.
At the conclusion of the progress, he gave a grand
entertainment to the court from Wednesday till Sun¬
day evening, when the king and queen with the prin¬
cipal nobility attended at supper. Next day he hasten¬
ed to his house at Richmond, where he expected the
elector palatine, and began to give orders for his re¬
ception, also to take measures for rewarding his ser¬
vants. To some of these he gave pensions, and pro¬
mised to gratify the rest as soon as possible. From
this time, however, his health daily declined. His
countenance became more pale, and his body more
emaciated : he complained now and then of drowsiness;
which frequently made him ask his attendants concern¬
ing the nature and cure of an epidemic fever, probably
of the putrid kind, which at that time prevailed in
England, and was supposed to have been brought
thither from Hungary. He now began frequently to
sigh, as is usual for persons afflicted with disorders of
that’ kind. The malady increased in the beginning of
October, though he used his utmost endeavours to
3 C 2 conceal
Henry.
HEN [ 388 ] HEN
Henry, conceal it, and occupied himself as usual j only that
■“■"'v now, instead of rising early in the morning as before,
he would commonly keep his bed till nine. On the
10th of that month he had two slight fits of an ague,
which obliged him to keep his chamber ; and on the
13th his distemper seemed to be augmented by a vio¬
lent diarrhoea, which, however, gave so much relief
next day, that he insisted upon being removed from
Richmond to St James’s, in order to receive the elec¬
tor palatine. On his arrival there, some of his attend¬
ants began to be alarmed by the signs of sickness
which appeared upon him, though he himself made no
complaint, and even allowed his physician to go to his
own house. The elector arrived on the 16th, and the
prince waited upon him at Whitehall $ but his disease
had now gained so much ground, that his temper un¬
derwent a very considerable alteration, and he became
peevish and discontented with almost every thing:
nevertheless he still continued to give orders about what
related to the ceremony of his sister’s marriage j and
kept company as much as he could with the elector
and the count de Nassau, with whose conversation he
seemed to be particularly delighted. So great was his
activity even at this time, that he played a match at
tennis on the 24th of October. At this time he expo¬
sed himself in his shirt, seemingly without any inconve¬
nience; but at night he complained of a greater degree
of lassitude than usual, and of a pain in his head. Next
day, being Sunday, he attended divine service, and
heard two sermons ; after which he dined with his ma¬
jesty, seemingly with a good appetite, but the paleness
and ghastly appearance of his countenance were much
remarked. About three in the afternoon he was obliged
to yield to the violence of his distemper; being seized
with a great faintness, shivering, and headach, with other
symptoms of a fever, which from that time never left him.
Several physicians were called ; but they differed much
in their opinions, if indeed any agreement amongst them,
considering the state of medicine at that time, could
have been of service. On the first of November he was
blooded ; an operation which Dr Butler, one of his phy¬
sicians, had hitherto opposed, but now consented to in
compliance with his fellows. The impropriety of it
was manifest by the thin and dissolved state of the blood
which was taken away, and still more by his becomino-
much worse next day. As at that time the Peruvian
bark, the great antidote in putrid diseases, was un¬
known, and no proper methods of treatment seem to have
been employed, it is not to be wondered that he sunk
under the disease. Among other absurd remedies used
on this occasion was “ a cock cloven by the back and
apphed to the soles of his feet.” He expired on the
6th of November 1612, at the age of 18 years 8 months
and 17 days. On opening his body, the lungs were
found black, spotted, and full of corrupted matter •
the diaphragm was also thickened in many places • the
blood-vessels in the hinder part of the head were di¬
stended with blood, and the ventricles full of water-
the liver was in some places pale and lead-coloured •
the gall-bladder destitute of bile, and distended with
wind ; and the spleen in many places unnaturally black.
His funeral was not solemnized till the 7th of Decem¬
ber following. Many funeral sermons were published
in honour of him, and the two universities published
collections of verses on this occasion. The most emi¬
nent poets of that age also exerted themselves in honour Htnr?
of the deceased prince ; particularly Donne, Brown, r-
Chapman, Drummond of Hawthornden, Dominic Bau-
dius of Leyden, &c.
His highness’s family continued together at St
James’s till the end of December 1612, when it was
dissolved ; and upon the day of their dissolution, Mr
Joseph Hall, his chaplain, preached to them a most pa¬
thetic farewel sermon on Revel, xxi. 3. In th is he
speaks of his deceased master in the highest terms of
commendation, as the glory of the nation, ornament of
mankind, hope of posterity, &c.; and that he, who
was compounded of all loveliness, had infused an har¬
mony into his whole family, which was “ the most
loving and entire fellowship that ever met in the court
of any prince.” The exhortation, with which the
preacher concludes, is: “ Go in peace, and live as
those that have lost such a master, and as those that
serve a master whom they cannot lose.”
Prince Henry was of a comely stature, about five feet
eight inches ; of a strong, straight, well-made body,
with somewhat broad shoulders and a small waist ; of
an amiable and majestic countenance: bis hair of an
auburn colour ; lie was long-faced, and had a broad-
forehead, a piercing eye, a most gracious smile, with
a terrible frown. He was courteous, loving, and af¬
fable; naturally modest, and even shame faced ; most
patient, which he showed both in life and death ; slow
to anger, so that even when he was offended he
would govern it and restrain himself to silence. He
was merciful to offenders, after a little punishment to
make them sensible of their faults. His sentiments of
piety were strong and habitual; and his zeal for the
interests of religion was such, that lie would, if he had
lived, have used his endeavours for reconciling the di¬
visions among its professors. He usually retired three
times a day for his private devotions, and was scarce-
once a month absent from the public prayers, where
his behaviour was highly decent and exemplary, and
bis attention to the preacher the most fixed imaginable.
He had the greatest esteem for all divines whose cha¬
racters and conduct corresponded with their profession ;
but could not conceal bis indignation against such as
acted inconsistently with it, and he above all things
abhorred flattery and vain-glory in them. He had a
thorough detestation for popery, though he treated
those of that religion with great courtesy ; showing,
that his hatred was not levelled at their persons, but
their opinions. And he was so immoveable in his at¬
tachment to the Protestant religion, that not long be¬
fore bis death, as Sir Charles Cornwallis* assures us,#j)iioeta
he made a solemn protestation that he would never join
in marriage with one of a different faith. illustriev*
The prince was so exact in all the duties of^f^J
filial piety, and bore so true a reverence and re- s,r Chari
spect for the king his father, that though some-Cornwall*
times, out of his own inclination, or by the excite-Pr‘nte^in
ment of others, he moved his majesty in some things
relating to the public, or his own particular interests,
or those of others ; yet upon the least word or look vol. iv.
or sign given him of his majesty’s disapprobation, hep-3j0-
would instantly desist from pursuing the point, and
return either with satisfaction upon finding it disagree¬
able to the king, or with such a resolved patience that
he neither in word nor action gave so much as any ap¬
pearance
HEN C 389 1 HEN
enry. pearance of being displeased or discontented. He ad-
1 -V—^ hered strictly to justice on all occasions j and never suf¬
fered himself to determine rashly, or till after a due
examination of both parties. This love of justice
showed itself very early by favouring and rewarding
those among his pages and other young gentlemen,
placed about him, who, by men of great judgment,
were thought to be of tbe best behaviour and most me¬
rit. And when he was but a little above five years of
age, and a son of the earl of Mar, somewhat younger
than himself, falling out with some of his highness’s
pages, did him some wrong, the prince reproved him
for it, saying, “ I love you, because you are my lord’s
son, and my cousin : but if you be not better condi¬
tioned, I will love such a one better j” naming the
child who had complained of him. He was of singular
integrity, and hated flattery and dissimulation : tbe lat¬
ter of which he esteemed a base quality, especially in
a prince : nor cosld he ever constrain himself to treat
those kindly who did not deserve his love. A noble¬
man in the highest favour with tbe king, had written
to him, by special command of his majesty, a letter,
wherein he recommended to his highness a matter of
very great consequence to be instantly answered •, and
in his subscription had used these words, “ Yours be¬
fore all the world.” His highness directed Sir Charles
Cornwallis to draw up an answer, who, having writ¬
ten it, added some words of favour to the nobleman to
precede the prince’s signing. His highness having
read and considered the letter, allowed it entirely with¬
out alteration : But with regard to tbe words of sub¬
scription, notwithstanding the great haste which tbe
dispatch required, he ordered it to be new written, and
the words objected to by him to be left out', alleging,
that he to whom he wrote had dealt with him untruly
and unfaithfully, and that his hand should never affirm
what his heart did not think. His temperance, ex¬
cept in the article of fruit, was as eminent as bis ab¬
horrence of vanity and ostentation, which began to
show themselves when he was very young. When he
was taught to handle tbe pike, and bis master in¬
structed him both by word and example to use a kind
of stateliness in marching and holding of bis band j
though he learned all other things, be would not con¬
form himself to that affected fashion : and if some¬
times, upon earnest intreaty, he offered to use it, he
would laugh at himself, and presently return to his
own more modest and decent manner. And though
he was a perfect master of dancing, he never practised
it except when he was strongly pressed to it. The
same modesty appeared in whatever he said or did :
But it was no impediment to his generous and heroic
disposition, which made him perform all his exercises
best before much company and the greatest personages.
His clothes \vere usually very plain, except on oc¬
casions of public ceremony, or upon receiving foreign
ambassadors, when be would assume a magnificence of
dress, and an air of majesty, which immediately after
he laid aside. Having once worn a suit of Welsh frize
for a considerable time, and being told that it was too
mean for him, and that he ought not to keep even a
rich suit so long j his answer was, that be was not
ashamed of bis country cloth, and wished that it would
last lor ever.
In quickness of apprehension and memory few of the
5-
same age ever went beyond this prince 5 and fewer still Henry
in a right judgment of what he was taught. When he ' 1
began to have some knowledge of the Latin tongue,
being desired to choose a motto out of several sentences
collected by bis tutor for his use, alter reading over
many good ones, he pitched upon that of Silius Itali-
cus, Fax mentis honestce gloria. And being asked by
tbe king one day, which were the best verses that he
had learned in the first book of Virgil’s iEneid, he
answered these :
Rex erat JEneas nobis, cjuojustior alter
Nec pietateJuit, nee hello major armis.
Reading likewise another verse of the same poet,
Tros Tyriusvc mihi nullo discrimine agetur,
he said he would make use of it with this alteration,
Anglus Scotusve mihi nullo discrimine agetur.
Besides his knowledge of the learned languages, he
spoke the Italian and French ; and had made a consi¬
derable progress in philosophy, history, fortification,
mathematics, and cosmography; in the two last of which
he was instructed by that excellent mathematician Mr
Edward Wright. He loved and endeavoured to do
somewhat of every thing, and to be excellent in tbe
most excellent. He greatly delighted in all rare in¬
ventions and arts, and military engines both at land
and sea; in shooting and levelling great pieces of ord¬
nance; in the ordering and marshalling of armies; in
building and gardening; in music, sculpture, and paint¬
ing, in which last art be brought over several works of
great masters from all countries.
Fie had a just opinion of tbe great abilities of Sir
Walter Raleigh ; and is reported to have said, that,
“ no king but bis father would keep such a bird in a
cage.” And it is affirmed, that bis highness, but a
few months before bis death, obtained the lands and
castle of Sherburn in Dorsetshire, the confiscated estate
of Sir Walter, with an intention of returning it to
him. That eminent writer, soldier, and statesman,
bad a reciprocal regard for tbe prince, to whom he
bad designed to address a discourse, “ Of the Art of
War by Sea,” which las highness’s death prevented the
author from finishing. Fie had written likewise to the
prince another “ Discourse of a Maritimal Voyage, with
the passages and incidents therein:” But this has never
yet appeared in print. He had also intended, and, as
he expresses it, hewn out a second and third volume of
his General History, which were to have been directed
to his highness : “ but it has pleased God (says he)
to take that glorious prince out of this world, to whom
they were directed ; whose unspeakable and never-
enough lamented loss hath taught me to say with Job,
Versa est in luctum cithara me a, Sf organum meum in
vcoem jlentiwn.”
In the government of bis household and management
of bis revenues, though be was so very young, bis ex¬
ample deserved to be imitated by all other princes.
He not only gave orders, but saw almost every thing
done himself: so that there were scarce any of his do¬
mestics whom he did not know by name. And among
these there was not one even suspected papist; his di¬
rections being very peremptory for setting down tbe
names of all communicants, that he might know if
there *
HEN [ 39° ] HEN
Henry, there were any of his family who did absent themselves
-“—"V" —' from the communion. His family was large, consist¬
ing of few less than 500, many of them young gentle¬
men born to great fortunes, in the prime ot their
■years, when their passions and appetites were strong,
their reason weak, and their experience little. But
his judgment, the gravity of his princely aspect, and
his own example, were sufficient restraints upon them ;
his very eye served instead ot a command 5 and his
looks alone had more effect than the sharpest reprehen¬
sions of other princes. If any disputes or contests arose
among his servants, he would put a stop to them at the
beginning, by referring them to some of his principal
officers, whom he thought most intelligent in points
of that nature, and to understand best what compen¬
sation was due to the injured, and what reproof to the
offender; so that in so numerous a family there was
not so much as a blow given, nor any quarrel carried
to the least height.
Though he loved plenty and magnificence in his
house, he restrained them within the rules of frugality
and moderation, as we have already noticed. ■ By this
economy he avoided the necessity of being rigid to his
tenants, either by raising their farms or fines, or seek¬
ing or taking advantage of forfeitures. Nor was he
tempted to make the profit which both law and right
afforded him, of such who had in the time of former
princes purchased lands belonging to his duchy of
Cornwall, which could not by law be alienated from
it j for he gave them, upon resuming these lands, a
reasonable satisfaction. Neither did his economy re¬
strain him from being liberal where merit or distress
called for it j at the same time he was never known to
give, or even promise, any thing, but upon mature de¬
liberation. Whatever abuses were represented to him,
he immediately redressed, to the entire satisfaction of
the persons aggrieved. In his removal from one of his
houses to another, and in his attendance on the king
on the same occasions, or in progresses, he would suffer
no provisions or carriages to be taken up for his use,
without full contentment given to the parties. And
h£ was so solicitous to prevent any person from being
prejudiced or annoyed by himself or any of bis train,
that whenever he went out to hawk before harvest was
ended, he would take care that none should pass through
the corn •, and, to set them an example, would himself
ride rather a furlong about.
His speech was slow, and attended with some impe¬
diment, rather, as it was conceived, by custom and a
long imitation of some who first instructed him, than
by any defect of nature, as appeared from his having
much corrected it by using at home amongst his ser¬
vants, first short discourses, and then longer, as he
found himself enabled to do it. Yet he would often
say of himself, that he had the most unserviceable
toneme of any man living.
He had a certain height of mind, and knew well
bow to keep his distance ; which indeed he did to all,
admitting no near approach either to his power or his
secrets. He expressed himself,upon occasions ofl’ered,
to love and esteem most such of the nobility as were
most anciently descended, and most nobly and honestly
disposed. He had an entire affection for bis brother the
duke of York, and his sister Elizabeth ; though some¬
times, by a kind of rough play with the former, and
an appearance of contradicting the latter in what he Hem-
discerned her to desire, he took a pleasure in givingy* ‘ -
them, in their tender years, some exercise of their pa¬
tience. A wi-iter * of less authority than Sir Charles * Fram l
Cornwallis, from the latter of whom we have these
particulars, adds, that the prince seemed to have more '■
affection for his sister than his brother, whom he would f/i(? 1
often taunt till he made him weep, telling him that0/Kin
he should be a bishop, a gown being fittest to hide his^0®**, 1
legs, which were subject in his childhood to be crook-secti 4
ed.
With regard to any unlawful passion for women, to
the temptations of which the prince’s youth and situa¬
tion peculiarly exposed him, his historian, who knew
him, and observed him much, assures us, that having
been present at great feasts made in the prince’s house,
to which he invited the most beautiful ladies ot the
court and city, he could not discover by his highness’s
behaviour, eyes, or countenance, the least appearance
of a particular inclination to any one of themnor
was he at any other time witness of such words or ac¬
tions as could justly be a ground of the least suspicion
of his virtue; though he observes, that some persons
of that time, measuring the prince by themselves, were
pleased to conceive and report otherwise of him. It
is indeed asserted by the writer of Anlicus Coquinarice,
believed upon good grounds to be William Saunder-
son, Esq. author of the “ Complete History of Mary
Queen of Scotland, and her son and successor King
James,” that the prince made court to the countess ol
Essex (afterwards divorced from the earl, and married
to the viscount Rochester), before any other lady then
living. And Arthur Wilson mentions the many amo¬
rous glances which the prince gave her, till discover¬
ing that she was captivated with the growing fortunes
of Lord Rochester, and grounded more hope upon him
than the uncertain and hopeless love of his highness,
he soon slighted her. The learned and pious antiqua¬
ry, Sir Simonds D’Ewes, in a manuscript life of him¬
self, written with his own hand, and brought down to
the year 1637, is positive, that, “ notwithstanding the
inestimable Prince Henry’s martial desires and initia¬
tion into the ways of godliness, the countess, being
set on by tbe earl of Northampton her father’s uncle,
first caught his eye and heart, and afterwards prosti¬
tuted herself to him, who first reaped the fruits of her
virginity. But those sparks of grace which even then
began to show their lustre in him, w’th those more he¬
roic innate qualities derived from virtue, which gave
the law to his more advised actions, soon raised him
out of the slumber of that distemper, and taught him
to reject her following temptations with indignation
and superciliousness.” But these authorities, Dr Birdi
observes, ought to have little weight to the prejudice
of the prince’s character, against the direct testimony
in his favour from so well informed a writer as Sir
Charles Cornwallis.
The immature death of the prince concurring with
the public apprehensions of the powrer of the papists,
and the ill opinion which the nation then had of the
court, gave immediate rise to suspicions of its being
hastened by poison. And these suspicions were height¬
ened by the very little concern shown by some persons
in great stations. “ To tell you (says Richard earl of
Dorset in a letter to Sir Thomas Edmondes, ot the
23 d
HEN [ 39i ] HEN
lem-y. of November 1612) that our rising sun is set ere
scarcely he had shone, and that with him all our glory
lies buried, you know and do lament as well as we, and
better than some do, and more truly; or else you are
not a man, and sensible of this kingdom’s loss.” And
it is certain, that this loss made so little impression up¬
on the king and his favourite, that the lord viscount
Kochester on the 9th of November, three days after
it, wrote to Sir Thomas Edmondes to begin a nego-
eiation for a marriage between Prince Charles and the
second daughter of France. But the ambassador, who
had more sense of decency, thought it improper to en¬
ter upon such an affair so soon after the late prince’s
death. Mr Beaulieu, secretary to Sir Thomas Ed¬
mondes, in a letter of the I2th of November 1612, to
Mr Trumbull, then resident at Brussels, after styling
the prince “ the flower of his house, the glory of his
country, and the admiration of all strangers, which in
all places had imprinted a great hope on the minds of
the well affected, as it had already stricken terror into
the hearts of his enemies,” adds, “ who perhaps (for
of this lamentable accident we have yet no particular
relation) fearing the growing virtues of that young
prince, have used the traiterous venom of their abomi¬
nable practices to cut him off' in his youth. And this
I do not apprehend without cause, considering the seve¬
ral advertisements which I saw a month ago coming out
of England, Holland, and Calais, of strange rumours
which were in these parts, of some great and imminent
practice in hand, for the success whereof it was written,
that in some places our adversaries had made solemn
prayers : and out of Calais it was especially advertised,
that in your parts they were in expectation of the death
of some great prince. But,, alas ! we did little appre¬
hend, that such ominous prognostications would have
lighted upon the person of that vigorous young prince,
whose extraordinary great parts and virtues made many
men hope and believe, that God had reserved and des¬
tined him, as a chosen instrument, to be the standard-
bearer of his quarrel in these miserable times, to work
the restoration of his church, and the destruction of the
Romish idolatry.
With the above notion his royal highness’s mother
the queen was peculiarly impressed, according to Dr
Welwood ; who, in his Notes on Arthur Wilson’s
Life of King James I. in the Complete History of
England, p. 714. informs us, though without giving
any authority, that when the prince fell into his last
illness, the queen sent to Sir Walter Raleigh for some
iff' his cordials, which she herself had taken some time
before in a fever with remarkable success. Raleigh
sent it, together with a letter to the queen, wherein
he expressed a tender concern for the prince j and,
boasting of his medicine, stumbled unluckily upon an
expression to this purpose, “ that it would certainly
cure him or any other of a lever, except in case ot
poison."" As the prince took this medicine, and e.ied
notwithstanding its virtues, the queen, in the agony
of her grief, showed Raleigh’s letter j and laid so much
c weight on the expression about poison, that as long as
she lived she could never he persuaded hut that the
cte, prince had died by that means. Sir Anthony Weldon *
«W<*, suggests that the prince was poisoned. The same no-
77- 78. lion is countenanced by Wilson in his History f- j and
'^•'’J-was adopted by Dr Welwood, as already mentioned:
Who likewise, in another work, his Memoirs, after Henry,
styling the prince “ the darling of mankind, and a *»—-y——
youth of vast hopes and wonderful virtues,” remarks,
that it was the general rumour at the time of his death,
that his highness was poisoned ; and that there is in
print a sermon preached at St James’s upon the disso¬
lution of his family, that boldly insinuated some such
thing. By this sermon Dr Welwood must mean that
of Mr Hall cited above * in which, however, at least as
it is reprinted in the .London edition of his works in
1617, in folio, there is not to be found any expres¬
sion that carries the least insinuation of that kind. The
writer of the memoirs adds, that Sir Francis Bacon, in
his speech at the trial of the earl of Somerset, had
some reflections upon the intimacy of that lord with
Sir Thomas Overbury, which seemed to point that
way \ there being several expressions left out of the
printed copy that were in the speech. Bishop Burnet
likewise tells us, that he was assured by Colonel Titus,
that he had heard King Charles I. declare, that the
prince his brother was poisoned by the means of the
viscount Rochester, afterwards earl of Somerset. But
it will be perhaps sufficient to oppose to all such sug¬
gestions the unanimous opinion of physicians who at¬
tended the prince during his sickness, and opened his
body after his death ; from which, as Dr Welwood him¬
self observes, there can be no inference drawn that he
was poisoned. To which may be added the authority
of Sir Charles Cornwallis J, who was well informed, t Life an^
and above all suspicion in this point, and who pronoun- l?Tcatfi,
ces the rumours spread of his highness’s having been ^
poisoned vain 5 and was fully convinced that his death
was natural, and occasioned by a violent fever.
Henry, Philip, a pious and learned nonconformist
minister, was the son of Mr John Henry, page of the
back-stairs to James duke of York, and was born at
Whitehall in 1631. He was admitted into Westmin¬
ster school at about 12 years of age j became the fa¬
vourite of Dr Bushby, and was employed by him, with
some others, in collecting materials for the Greek
grammar he afterwards published. From thence he
removed to Christ-church, Oxford ; where, having ob¬
tained the degree of master of arts, he was taken into
th^ family of Judge Puleston, at Emeral in Flintshire,
as tutor to his sons, and to preach at Worthenbury.
He soon after married the only daughter and heiress
of Mr Daniel Matthews of Broad-oak near Whit¬
church, by whom he became possessed of a competent
estate. When the king and episcopacy were restored,
he refused to conform, was ejected, and retired with
his family to Broad-oak : here, and in the neighbour¬
hood, he spent the remainder of his life, about 28
years, relieving the poor, employing the industrious,
instructing the ignorant, and exercising every opportu¬
nity of doing good. His moderation in his nonconfor¬
mity was eminent and exemplary ; and upon all occa¬
sions he bore testimony against uncharitable and sclns-
matical separation. In church-government he wished,
for Archbishop Usher’s reduction of episcopacy. He
thought it lawful to join in the common prayer in pub¬
lic assemblies j which, during the time of his silence and
restraint, he commonly attended with his family with
reverence and devotion.
Henry, Matthew, an eminent dissenting minister
and author, was the son of the former, and was born,
in.
HEN [ 392 ] HEN
Henry. ,n ^ie year 1662. He continued under his father’s
v—— care till he was 18 years of age j in which time he be¬
came well skilled in the learned languages, especially
in the Hebrew, which his father had rendered familiar
to him from his childhood ; and from first to last the
study of the Scriptures was his most delightful em¬
ployment. He completed his education in an academy
kept at Islington by Mr Doolittle, and was afterwards
entered in Gray’s Inn for the study of the law j where
he became well acquainted with the civil and munici¬
pal law of his own country, and from his application
and great abilities it was thought he would have be¬
come very eminent in that profession. But at length,
resolving to devote his life to the study of divinity, in
1685 he retired into the country, and was chosen pa¬
stor of a congregation at Chester, where he lived about
25 years, greatly esteemed and beloved by his people.
He had several calls from London, which he constantly
declined j but was at last prevailed upon to accept an
unanimous invitation from a congregation at Hackney.
He wrote, I. Expositions of the Bible, in 5 vols. folio.
2. The life of Mr Philip Henry. 3. Directions for
daily communion with God. 4. A method for prayer.
5. Four discourses against vice and immorality. 6. The
communicant’s companion. 7. Family hymns. 8. A
scriptural catechism. And 9. A discourse concerning
the nature of schism. He died of an apoplexy at
Nantvvich, when upon a journey, in 17143 and was in¬
terred at Trinity-church in Chester.
Henry, Dr Robert, author of the “ History of
Great Britain, written on a new plan,” was the son
of Ja mes Henry farmer at Muirtown in the parish of
St Ninian’s, North Britain, and of Jean Galloway
daughter of Galloway of Burrovvmeadow in
Stirlingshire. He was born on the 18th of February
1718 j and having early resolved to devote himself to
a literary profession, was educated first under a Mr
John Nicolson at the parish-school of St Ninians, and
for some time at the grammar-school of Stirling. He
completed his course of academical study at the uni¬
versity of Edinburgh, and afterwards became master
of the grammar-school of Annan. He w'as licensed
to preach on the 27th of March 1746, and was the
first licentiate of the. presbytery of Annan after its
erection into a separate presbytery. Soon after, he
received a call from a congregation of Presbyterian
dissenters at Carlisle, where he was ordained in Novem¬
ber ^2748. In this station he remained 12 years, and
on the 13th of August 1760 became pastor of a dis¬
senting congregation in Berwick upon Tweed. Here
he married, in 1763, Ann Baldorston daughter of
Thomas Balderston surgeon in Berwick ; by whom he
had no children, but with whom he enjoyed to the end
of his life a large share of domestic happiness. He
was removed from Berwick to be one of the ministers
of Edinburgh in November 17683 was minister of the
church of the New Grey Friars from that time till
November 1776 3 and then became colleague-minister
in the Old church, and remained in that station
till his death. The degree of Doctor in Divinity
was conferred on him by the university of Edinburgh
in 17703 and in 1774 ^le 'vas unanimously chosen
moderator of the general assembly of the church of
Scotland, and is the only person on record who obtained
that distinction the first time he was a member of as- Ileni> ,
sembly. v- ; <
From these facts, which contain the outlines of Dr
Henry’s life, few events can be expected to suit the
purpose of the biographer. Though he must have
been always distinguished among his private friends,
till he was translated to Edinburgh he had few oppor¬
tunities of being known to the public. The composi¬
tion of sermons must have occupied a chief part of hrs
time during his residence at Carlisle, as his industry in
that station is known to have rendered his labours in
this department easy to him during the rest of his life.
But even there he found leisure for other studies j and
the knowledge of classical literature, in which he emi¬
nently excelled, soon enabled him to acquire an extent
of information which qualified him for something more
important than be bad hitherto in his view.
Soon after bis removal to Berwick, he published a
scheme for raising a fund for the benefit of the widows
and orphans of Protestant dissenting ministers in the
north of England. This idea was probably suggested
by the prosperity of the fund which had almost 30 years
before been established for a provision to ministers wi¬
dows, &c. in Scotland. But the situations of the clergy
of Scotland were very different from the circumstances
of dissenting ministers in England. Annuities and pro¬
visions were to be secured to the families of dissenters,
without subjecting the individuals (as in Scotland) to
a proportional annual contribution, and without such
means of creating a fund as could be the subject of an
act of parliament to secure the annual payments. Tire
acuteness and activity of Dr Henry surmounted these
difficulties ; and, chiefly by his exertions, this useful
and benevolent institution commenced about the year
1762. The management was entrusted to him for se¬
veral years 3 and its success has exceeded the most san¬
guine expectations which were formed of it. The plan
itself, now sufficiently known, it is unnecessary to ex¬
plain minutely. But it is mentioned here, because Dr
Henry was accustomed in the last years of bis life to
speak of this institution with peculiar affection, and {a
reflect on its progress and utility with that kind of sa¬
tisfaction which a good man can only receive from “ the
labour of love and of good works.”
It was probably about the year 1763 that he first
conceived the idea of his History of Great Britain : a
work already established in the public opinion ; and
which will certainly be regarded by posterity, not only
as a book which lias greatly enlarged the sphere of hi¬
story, and gratifies our curiosity on p variety of sub¬
jects which fall not within the limits prescribed by pre¬
ceding historians, but as one of the most accurate and
authentic repositories of historical information which
tliis country has produced. The plan adopted by Dr
Henry, which is indisputably bis own, and its pecu¬
liar advantages, are sufficiently explained in bis general
preface. In every period, it arranges, under separate
beads or chapters, the civil and military history of
Great Britain ; the history of religion 3 the history of
our constitution, government, laws, and courts of ju¬
stice 3 the history of learning, of learned men, and of
the chief seminaries of learning 3 the history of arts ;
the history of commerce, of shipping, of money or coin,
and of the price of commodities 3 and the history
of
HEN ' [ 393 ] HEN
enry. of manners, virtues, vices, customs, language, dress,
-Y*"—^ diet, and amusements. Under these seven heads, which
extend the province of an historian greatly beyond its
usual limits, every thing curious or interesting in the
history of any country may be comprehended. But
it certainly required more than a common share of li¬
terary courage to attempt on so large a scale a subject
so intricate and extensive as the history of Britain from
the invasion of Julius Caesar. That Dr Henry neither
overrated his powers nor his industry, could only
have been proved by the success and reputation of his
works.
But he soon found that his residence at Berwick was
an insuperable obstacle in the minute researches which
the execution of his plan required. His situation
there excluded him from the means of consulting the
original authorities ; and though he attempted to
find access to them by means of his literary friends,
and with their assistance made some progress in his
work, his information was notwithstanding so incom¬
plete, that he found it impossible to prosecute his plan
to his own satisfaction, and was at last compelled to
relinquish it.
By the friendship of Gilbert Laurie, Esq. lord
provost of Edinburgh, and one of his majesty’s com¬
missioners of excise in Scotland, who had married the
sister of Mrs Henry, he was removed to Edinburgh in
1768 j and it is to this event that the public are in¬
debted for his prosecution of the History of Great
Britain. His access to the public libraries, and the
means of supplying the materials which these did not
afford him, were from that time used with so much
diligence and perseverance, that the first volume of his
History in quarto was published in ly?1* ^ie second
in 1774, the third in 1777, the fourth in 1781, and
the fifth (which brings down the History to the acces¬
sion of Henry VII.) in 1785. The subject of these
volumes comprehends the most intricate and obscure
periods of our history j and when we consider the
scanty and scattered materials which Dr Henry has
digested, and the accurate and minute information
which he has given us under every chapter of the work,
we must have a high opinion both of the learning and
industry of the author, and of the vigour and activity
of his mind : especially when it is added, that he em¬
ployed no amanuensis, but completed the manuscript
■ with his own hand; and that, excepting the first vo¬
lume, the whole book, such as it is, was printed from
the original copy. Whatever corrections were made
on it, were inserted by interlineations, or in revising the
proof sheets. He found it necessary, indeed, to con¬
fine himself to a first copy, from an unfortunate tre¬
mor in his hand, which made writing extremely in¬
convenient, which obliged him to write with his paper
on a book placed on his knee instead fof a table, and
which unhappily increased to such a degree that in
the last years of his life he was often unable to take
his victuals without assistance. An attempt which he
made after the publication of the fifth volume to em¬
ploy an amanuensis did not succeed. Never having
been accustomed to dictate his compositions, he found
it impossible to acquire a new habit ; and though he
persevered but a few days in the attempt, it had a sen*
sible effect on his health, which he never afterwards
recovered.—An author has no right to claim indul-
Vol. X. Part I. +
gence, and is still less intitled to credit, from the pub- Henry,
lie, for any thing which can be ascribed to negligence —v—■
in committing his manuscripts to the press ; but con¬
sidering the difficulties which Dr Henry surmounted,
and the accurate research and information which di¬
stinguish his history, the circumstances which have
been mentioned are far from being uninteresting, and
must add considerably to the opinion formed of his
merit among men who are judges of what he has done.
He did not profess to study the ornaments of language;
but his arrangement is uniformly regular and natural,
and his style simple and perspicuous. More than this
he has not attempted, and this cannot be denied him.
He believed that the time which might be spent in
polishing or rounding a sentence, was more usefully em¬
ployed in investigating and ascertaining a fact: And
as a book of facts and solid information, supported by
authentic documents, his history will stand a comparison
with any other history of the same period.
But Dr Henry had other difficulties to surmount
than those which related to the composition of his
work. Not having been able to transact with the
booksellers to bis satisfaction, the five volumes were
originally published at the risk of the author. When
the first volume appeared, it was censured with an un¬
exampled acrimony and perseverance. Magazines, re¬
views, and even newspapers, were filled with abusive
remarks and invectives, in which both the author and
the book were treated with contempt and scurrility.
When an author has once submitted his works to the
public, he has no right to complain of {.he just severity
of criticism. But Dr Henry had to contend with the
inveterate scorn of malignity. In compliance with the
usual custom, he had permitted a sermon to be pub¬
lished which he had preached before the society in
Scotland for propagating Christian knowledge in 1773 >
a composition containing plain good sense on a com¬
mon subject, from which he expected no reputation.
This was eagerly seized on by the adversaries of his
History, and torn to pieces with a virulence and aspe¬
rity which no want of merit in the sermon could justify
or explain. An anonymous letter had appeared in a
newspaper to vindicate the History from some of the
unjust censures which had been published, and asserting
from the real merit and accuracy of the book the au¬
thor’s title to the approbation of the public. An an¬
swer appeared in the course of the following week,
charging him, in terms equally confident and indecent,
with having written this letter in his own praise. The
efforts of malignity seldom fail to defeat their purpose,
and to recoil on those who direct them. Dr Henry
had many friends, and till lately had not discovered
that he had any enemies. But the author of the ano¬
nymous vindication was unknown to him, till the
learned and respectable Dr Macqueen, from the indig¬
nation excited by the confident petulance oi the an¬
swer, informed him that the letter had been written
by him. These anecdotes are still remembered. I he
abuse of the History, which began in Scotland, was
renewed in some ol the periodical publications in South
Britain; though it is justice to add (without meaning
to refer to the candid observations of English critics),
that in both kingdoms the asperity originated in the
same quarter, and that paragraphs and criticisms writ¬
ten at Edinburgh were printed in London. The same
3 D spirit
HEN' [ 394 ] HEN
spirit appeared in Strictures published on the second
and third volumes j but by this time it had in a great
measure lost the attention of (lie public. 1 he male¬
volence was sufficiently understood, and had long be¬
fore become fatal to the circulation ot the periodical
paper from which it originally proceeded. Ihe book,
though printed for the author, had sold beyond his
most sanguine expectations 5 and had received both
praise and patronage from men of the first literary
characters in the kingdom : and though, from the
alarm which had been raised, the booksellers did not
venture to purchase the property till after the publica¬
tion of the fifth volume, the work was established in
the opinion of the public, and at last rewarded the au¬
thor with a high degree of celebrity, which he happily
lived to enjoy.
In an article relating to Dr Henry’s life, not to have
mentioned the opposition which his History encounter¬
ed, would have been both affectation and injustice.
The facts are sufficiently remembered, and are unfor¬
tunately too recent to be more minutely explained.
That they contributed at first to retard the sale of the
work is undeniable, and may be told without regret
now that its reputation is established, The book has
raised itself to eminence as a History of Great Britain
by its own merits j and the means employed to ob¬
struct its progress have only served to embellish its
success.
Dr Henry was no doubt encouraged from the first
by the decided approbation of some of his literary
friends, who were allowed to be the most competent
judges of his subject 5 and in particular by one of the
most eminent historians of the present age, whose his¬
tory of the same periods justly possesses the highest
reputation. The following character of the first and
second volumes was drawn up by that gentleman, and
is well intitled to be inserted in a narrative of Dr
H enry’s life. “ Those who profess a high esteem for
the first volume of Dr Henry’s history", I may venture
to say, are almost as numerous as those who have per¬
used it, provided they be competent judges of a work
of that nature, and are acquainted with the difficulties
which attend such an undertaking. Many of those
who had been so well pleased with the first were impa¬
tient to see the second volume, which advances into a
field more delicate and interesting •, but the Doctor
hath shown the maturity of his judgment, as in all the
rest, so particularly in giving no performance to the
public that might appear crude or hasty, or composed
before he had fully collected and digested the materials.
I venture with great sincerity to recommend this vo¬
lume to the perusal of every curious reader who desires
to know the state of Great Britain in a period which
was hitherto been regarded as very obscure, ill supplied
with writers, and not possessed of a single one that de¬
serves the appellation of a good one. It is wonderful
what an instructive, and even entertaining, book the
Doctor has been able to compose from such unpromising
materials I Tantum seines juncturaque pollet. "When
we see those barbarous ages delineated by so able a pen,
we admire the oddness and singularity of the manners,
customs, and opinions, of the times, and seem to be
introduced into a new world 5 but we are still more
surprised, as well as interested, when we reflect that
those strange personages were the ancestors of the pre¬
5
sent inhabitants of this island.—The object of an anti- jfeni
quary bath been commonly distinguished from that of —v~v
an historian ; for though the latter should enter into
the province of the former, it is thought that it should
only be quanto hasta, that is, so far as is necessary,
without comprehending all the minute disquisitions
which give such supreme pleasure to the mere anti¬
quary. Our learned author hath fully reconciled these
two characters. His historical narrative is as full as
those remote times seem to demand, and at the same
time his inquiries of the antiquarian kind omit nothing
which can be an object of doubt or curiosity. The
one as well as the other is delivered with great perspi¬
cuity, and no less propriety, which are the true orna¬
ments of this kind of writing. All superfluous embel¬
lishments are avoided j and the reader will hardly find
in our language any performance that unites together
so perfectly the two great points of entertainment and
instruction.”—The gentleman who wrote this charac¬
ter died before the publication of the third volume.—
The progress of his. work introduced Dr Henry to
more extensive patronage, and in particular to the
notice and esteem of the earl of Mansfield. That ve¬
nerable nobleman, who is so well intitled to the grati¬
tude and admiration of his country, thought the merit
of Dr Henry’s history so considerable, that, without
any solicitation, after the publication of the fourth
volume, he applied personally to his majesty to bestow
on the author some mark of his royal favour. In con¬
sequence of this, Dr Henry w'as informed by a letter
from Lord Stormont, the secretary of state, of his ma¬
jesty’s intention to confer on him an annual pension
for life of tool. “ considering his distinguished talents
and great literary merit, and the importance of the
very useful and laborious work in which he was so suc¬
cessfully engaged, as titles to his royal countenance
and favour.” The warrant was issued on the 28th of
May 1781 ; and his right to the pension commenced
from the 5th of April preceding. This pension he en¬
joyed till his death, and always considered it as infer¬
ring a new obligation to persevere steadily in the pro¬
secution of his work. From the earl of Mansfield he
received many other testimonies of esteem both as a
man and as an author, which fee was often lieard to
mention with the most affectionate gratitude. The oc¬
tavo edition of his history, published in was *11*
scribed to his lordi-hip. The quarto edition had been
dedicated to the king.
The property of the work had hitherto remained
with himself. But in April 1786, when an octavo
edition was intended, he conveyed the property to
Messrs Cadeil and Strachan j reserving to himself what
still remained unsold of the quarto edition, which did
not then exceed eighty-one complete sets. A few co¬
pies were afterwards printed of the volumes of which
the first impression was exhausted, to make up addi¬
tional sets: and before the end of 1786, he sold the.
whole to Messrs Cadell and Strachan. By the first,
transaction he was to receive locol. and by the se¬
cond betwixt 300!. and 400I.: about 1400I. in all.
These sums may not be absolutely exact, as they
are set down from memory j but there cannot be a
mistake of any consequence on the one side or the other.
—-Dr Henry had kept very accurate accounts of the
sales from the time of the original publication j and af-
HEP
[
jcnry ter his last transaction with Messrs Cadell and Strachan,
(| he found that his real profits had amounted in whole
par Sul- about 3300 pounds j a striking proof of the intrin-
tlinns. sjc mer[t 0f a work which had forced its way to the
"""v public esteem unprotected by the interest of the book¬
sellers, and in spite of the malignant opposition with
which the first volume had to struggle.
The prosecution of his history had been Dr Henry’s
favourite object for almost 30 years of his life. He had
naturally a sound constitution, and a more equal and
larger portion of animal spirits than is commonly pos¬
sessed by literary men. But from the year 1785 his
bodily strength was sensibly impaired. Notwithstanding
this, he persisted steadily in preparing his sixth volume,
which brings down the history to the accession of Ed¬
ward VI. The materials of this volume were left in the
bands of his executors almost completed. Scarcely any
thing remained unfinished but the two short chapters on
arts and manners j and even for these he had left mate¬
rials and authorities so distinctly collected, that there
was no great difficulty in supplying what was wanting.
This sixth volume was published in the year 1793,
with a life of the author prefixed ; and it was found
intitled to the same favourable reception from the pub¬
lic which had been given to the former volumes. It
Was written under the disadvantages of bad health and
great weakness of body. The tremulous motion of his
hand had increased so as to render writing much
more difficult to him than it had ever been j but
Bie vigour of his mind and his ardour were unim¬
paired j and independent of the general character of
his works, the posthumous volume will be a lasting
monument of the strength of his faculties, and of the
literary industry and perseverance which ended only
with his life.
Dr Henry’s original plan extended from the invasion
of Britain by the Homans to the present times. And
men of literary curiosity must regret that he did not
live to complete his design ; but he has certainly finish¬
ed the most difficult parts of his subject. The periods
after the accession of Edward VI. afford materials
more ample, better digested, and much more within the
reach of common readers.
Till the summer of 1790 he was able to pursue his
studies, though not without some interruptions. But
at that time his health greatly declined ; and, with a
constitution quite worn out, he died on the 24th of No¬
vember of that year, in the 73d year of bis age.
HENT1NGS, in Agriculture, a term used by the
farmers for a particular method of sowing before the
plough. The corn being cast in a straight line just where
the plough is to come, is by this means presently
ploughed in. By this way of sowing they think they
save a great deal of seed and other charge, a dexterous
boy being as capable of sowing this way out of bis hat
as the most skilful seedsman.
Henting is also a term used by the ploughmen, and
others, to signify the two furrows that are turned from
one another at the bottom, in the ploughing of a ridge.
The word seems to be a corruption of ending, because
those furrows made an end of ploughing the ridges.
The tops of the ridges they call veerivgs.
HEPAR sulphuris, or Liver of Sulphur, a combi¬
nation of alkaline salt and sulphur. See SuLPHURET,
Chemistry, N6 9I8. and 1029.
species of Anemone. See Bo-
Qihtt)
Asyfiiv
oi KaS
Argil
(aov x
5 as
^10), &c.
And that of Aristophanes, in his Plutus ;
Ejrss-tb (AtiTgi %6igit.
They are also called trimetri catalectici.
Hephthemimeris, or Hepthcmimeres, is also a cae¬
sura after the third foot $ that is, on the seventh half-
foot. It is a rule, that this syllable, though it be short
in itself, must be made long on account of the caesura,
or to make it an Hepthemimeris. As in that verse of
Virgil,
Et fui'iis agitatus amor, et conscia virtus.
It may be added, that the caesura is not to be on the
fifth foot, as it is in the verse which Dr Harris gives
us for an example :
We latus niveum molli sullus Hyacintho.
This is not a hephthemimeris caesura, but a henneami-
meris, i. e. of nine half feet.
HEPTACHORD, in the ancient poetry, signified
verses that were sung or played on seven chords, that
is, on seven different notes. In this sense it was ap¬
plied to the lyre when it had but seven strings. One
of the intervals is also called an heptachord, as con-
3 D 2 taining
Hepta¬
chord.
395 1 HEP
HEPATIC, in Medicine and Anatomy, any thing Hepatic
belonging to the liver.
Hepatic Air, or Sulphurated Hydrogen Gas, a per¬
manently elastic fluid of a very disagreeable odour,
somewhat like that of rotten eggs. See Chemistry
N° 442.
Hepatic Aloes, the inspissated juice of a species of
Aloe. See Materia Medica Index.
Hepatic Stone. See Lifer Stone.
See Sulphureous waters, Che-
Hepatic Water.
mistry, p. 706.
HEPATICA, a
TANY Index.
HEPATITIS, in Medicine, an inflammation of the
liver. See Medicine Index.
HEPATOSCOPIA, (formed of rirrag liver, and
ey-emu, I consider}, in antiquity, a species of divination,
wherein predictions were made by inspecting the livers
of animals.
Hepatoscopia is also used as a general name for
divination bv entrails.
HEPHiESTIA, in Grecian antiquity, an Athenian
festival in honour of Vulcan, the chief ceremony of
which was a race with torches. It was performed in
this manner : The antagonists were three young men,
one of whom, by lot, took a lighted torch in his hand,
and began his course ; if the torch was extinguished be¬
fore be finished the race, he delivered it to the second ;
and he in like manner to the third : the victory was his
who first carried the torch lighted to the end of the
race j and to this successive delivering of the torch we
find many allusions in ancient writers.
HEPHTHEMIMERIS (composed of \rrru, seven,
vpisrvs, half, and pigos, part}, in the Greek and Latin
poetry, a sort of verse consisting of three feet and a syl¬
lable j that is, of seven half feet.
Such are most of the verses in Anacreon :
HER
[ 396 ] HER
Hepta¬
chord
Heraclea.
taining the same number of degrees between the ex¬
tremes.
HEPTAGON, in Geometry, a figure consisting of
seven sides and as many angles. In fortification, a
place is termed a heptagon, that has seven bastions tor
its defence.
HEPTAGONAL numbers, in Arithmetic, a sort
of polygonal numbers, wherein the difference of the
terms of the corresponding arithmetical progression is
5. One of the properties of these numbers is, that if
they be multiplied by 40, and 9 be added to the pro¬
duct, the sum will be a square number.
HEPTANDRIA, in Botany, (from \xrct, scptem,
and ayojg, a man); the seventh class in Linnaeus’s sex¬
ual method, consisting of plants with hermaphrodite
flowers, which have seven stamina or male organs. See
Classification under BoTANY.
HEPTANGULAR, in Geometry, an appellation
given to figures which have seven angles.
HEPTARCHY (compounded of the Greek s55-t«,
“ seven,” and imperium, “ government”), a go¬
vernment composed of seven persons, or a country go¬
verned by seven persons, or divided into seven king¬
doms.
The Saxmn heptarchy included all England, which
was cantoned out into seven independent petty king¬
doms, peopled and governed by different clans and co¬
lonies, viz. those of Kent, the South Saxons, West Sax¬
ons, East Saxons, Northumberland, the East Angles,
and Mercia. The heptarchy was formed by degrees
from the year 455, when first the kingdom of Kent
was erected, and Hengist assumed the title of king of
Kent immediately after the battle of Eglesford ; and
it terminated in 827 or 828, when King Egbert re¬
united them into one, made the heptarchy into a mo¬
narchy, and assumed the title of king of England. It
must be observed, however, that though Egbert became
monarch of England, he was not perfectly absolute.
The kingdom which he actually possessed consisted of
the ancient kingdoms of Wessex, Sussex, Kent, and
Essex, that had been peopled by Saxons and Jutes.
As for the other three kingdoms, whose inhabitants
were Angles, he contented himself with preserving the
sovereignty over them, permitting them to be governed
by kings who were his vassals and tributaries.
The government of the heptarchy, reckoning from
the founding of the kingdom of Mercia, the last of the
seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, lasted 243 years $ but
it the time spent by the Saxons in their conquests from
the arrival of Hengist in 449 be added, the heptarchy
will be found to have lasted 378 years from its com¬
mencement to its dissolution. The causes of the dis¬
solution of the heptarchy were the great inequality
among the seven kingdoms, three of which greatly
surpassed the others in extent and power j the default
of male heirs in the royal families of all the kingdoms,
that of Wessex excepted ; and the concurrence of
various circumstances which combined in the time of
Egbert.
HERACLEA, an ancient city of Turkey in Eu¬
rope, and in Romania, with the see of an archbishop of
the Grecian church, and a sea-port. It was a very fa¬
mous place in former times, and there are still some re¬
mains of its ancient splendour. Theodore Lascaris took
it from David Comnenus, emperor of Trebisond, when
it fell into the hands of the Genoese, hut Mahomet II. ue,.n{
took it from them •, since which time it has been in the ||
possession of the Turks. It is near the sea. E. Long. Herat!
27. 58. N. Lat. 40. 59.
HERACLEONITES, a sect of Christians, the fol-
low'ers of Heracleon, who refined upon the Gnostic di¬
vinity, and maintained that the wmrld was not the im¬
mediate production of the Son of God, but that he was
only the occasional cause of its being created by the de-
miurgus. The Heracleonites denied the authority of
the prophecies of the Old Testament, maintaining that
they were mere random sounds in the air j and that St
John the Baptist was the only true voice that directed
to the Messiah.
HERACLEUM, Madness, or Hogweed; a genus
of plants belonging to the pentamlria class; and in the
natural method ranking under the 45th order, Vmbel-
lutce. See Botany Index.
HERACLIDAi, the descendants of Hercules,
greatly celebrated in ancient history. Hercules at his
death left to his son Hyllus all the rights and demands
which he had upon the Peloponnesus, and permitted
him to marry lole as soon as he came of age. The po¬
sterity of Hercules were not more kindly treated by
Euristheus than their father had been, and they were
obliged to retire for protection to the court of Ceyx,
king of Trachinia. Euristheus pursued them thither;
and Ceyx, afraid of his resentment, begged the Hera-
clidse to depart from his dominions. From Trachinia
they came to Athens, where Theseus, the king of the
country, who had accompanied their father in some of
his expeditions, received them with great humanity, and
assisted them against their common enemy Euristheus.
Euristheus was killed by the hand of Hyllus himself,
and his children perished with him, and ail the cities of
the Peloponnesus became the undisputed property of
the Heraclidae. Their triumph, however, was short;
their numbers were lessened by a pestilence ; and the
oracle informed them, that they had taken possession of
the Peloponnesus before the gods permitted their re¬
turn. Upon this they abandoned Peloponnesus, and
came to settle in the territories of the Athenians, where
Hyllus, obedient to his father’s commands, married lole
the daughter of Eurytus. Soon after he consulted the
oracle, anxious to recover the Peloponnesus ; and the
ambiguity of the answer determined him to make a se¬
cond attempt. He challenged to single combat A-
treus, the successor of Euristheus on the throne of My-
cenaj; and it was mutually agreed that the undisturbed
possession of the Peloponnesus should be ceded to who¬
soever defeated his adversary. Echemus accepted the
challenge for Atreus, and Hyllus was killed, and the
Heraclidm a second time departed from Peloponnesus.
Cleodaeus the son of Hyllus made a third attempt, and
was equally unsuccessful; and his son Aristomachus
some time after met^vith the same unfavourable recep¬
tion, and perished in the field of battle. Ai istodemus,
Temenus, and Chresphontes, the three sons of Aristo--
machus, encouraged by the more expressive word of an
oracle, and desirous to revenge the death of their pro¬
genitors, assembled a numerous force, and with a fleet
invaded all Peloponnesus. Their expedition was at¬
tended with much success; and after some decisive bat¬
tles, they became masters of all the peninsula. The re-
CQTery of the Peloponnesus by the descendants ot Her¬
cules
i
HER
8'
cules forms an interesting epoch in ancient history,
which is universally believed to have happened 80 years
jraclins. after the Trojan war, or 1190 years before the Christian
' era. This conquest was totally achieved about 120
years after the first attempt of Hyllus, who was killed
about 20 years before the Trojan war. As it occasion¬
ed a world of changes and revolutions in the affairs of
Greece, insomuch that scarce a state or people but were
turned upside down thereby, the return of the He-
raclidae is the epocha of the beginning of profane hi¬
story : all the time that preceded it is reputed fabulous.
Accordingly, Ephorus, Cunranus, Calisthenes, and The-
opompus, only begin their histories from hence.
HERACLIDES o/Pontus, a Greek philosopher,
the disciple of Speusippus, and afterwards of Aristotle,
flourished about 336 B. C. His vanity prompted him
to desire one of his friends to put a serpent into his bed
just as he was dead, in order to raise a belief that he
was ascended to the heavens among the gods : but the
cheat was discovered. All his works are lost.
HERACLITUS, a famous Eph esian philosopher,
who flourished about the 69th Olympiad, in the time
of Darius Hystaspes. He is said to have continually
bewailed the svicked lives of men, and, as often as he
came among them, to have fallen a-weeping; contrary
to Democritus, who made the follies of mankind a sub¬
ject of laughter. He retired to the temple of Diana,
and played at dice with the boys there ; saying to the
Ephesians who gathered round him, “ Worst of men,
what do you wonder at ! Is it not better to do thus than
to govern you ?” Darius wrote to this philosopher to
come and live with him; but be refused the offer: at
last, out of hatred to mankind, he retired to the moun¬
tains, where lie contracted a dropsy by living on herbs,
which destroyed him at 68 years of age. His writings
gained him so great reputation, that his followers were
called Herac/itians. Laertius speaks of a treatise upon
nature, divided into three books, one concerning the
universe, the second political, the third theological.
This book he deposited in the temple of Diana j and it
is said, that he affected to write obscurely, lest it should
he read by, the vulgar, and become contemptible. The
fundamental doctrine of his philosophy was, that fire is
the principle of all things j and the ancient philosophers
have collected and preserved admirable apophthegms of
this philosopher.
HERACLIUS, an eastern emperor, was descended
ii'om a Cappadocian family, who was sent to subdue the
tyrant Phocas, whom he totally vanquished in 610.
In consequence of this victory, young Heraclius was
raised to the throne by the suffrages of the senate and
people. He confined Crispus, the son-in-law of Phocas,
sn a monastery, whose defection had contributed to his
success. Having humbly requested peace from the
Persian monarch, who was extending his conquests all
over the Asiatic part of the empire, his exorbitant and
unjust conditions so exasperated Heraclius, that at once
he started from inglorious ease to a conspicuous hero,
raised a considerable army by vast exertions, conquered
the king of Persia, and established his winter-quarters
on the banks of the Halys. He next year penetrated
into the very heart of Persia, and having resisted the
attack of a threefold army of Persians, lie surprised the
town of Salban.
[ 397 ]
HER
Another of his expeditions was against the Tigris, and Heraclins,
he fought ci battle near the site of the ancient Nineveh Herald,
in 627, about the end of the year, at which time he
gained a complete victory over the Persians, having
slain three of their chiefs with his own hand. He re¬
covered 300 Roman standards, and set a vast number
of captives at liberty. In 628, he made the Persian
king put an end to the persecution of the Christians,
renounce the conquests of his father upon the Roman
empire, and restore the true cross taken from Jerusalem.
When at Emesa, he first heard of the name of Mahomet,
who invited him to embrace his new faith, but without
success. He brought a reproach on his name by adhe¬
ring to the doctrine of the Monothelites, but chiefly by
espousing his niece Martina for his second wife, by
whose influence he divided tlie succession between Con¬
stantine and Heracleonas, his son by Martina. He
fell into a dropsical complaint, by which he was carried
oft in the month of February 641, in the 31st year of
his reign.
HERALD, says Verstegan, is derived from the
Saxon word Here/uwlt, and by abbreviation Heralt,
which in that language signifies the champion of an
army 5 and, growing to be a name of office, it was gi¬
ven to him who, in the army, had the special charge
to denounce war, to challenge to battle and combat, to
proclaim peace, and to execute martial messages. But
the business of heralds with us is as follows, viz. to
marshal, order, and conduct all royal cavalcades, cere¬
monies at coronations, royal marriages, installations,
creations of dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, barons,
baronets, and dubbing of knights 5 embassies, funeral
processions, declarations of war, proclamations of peace,
&c. ; to record and blazon the arms of the nobility
and gentry $ and to regulate any abuses therein through
the English dominions, under the authority of the earl
marshal, to whom they are subservient. The office of
Windsor, Chester, Richmond, Somerset, York, and
Lancaster heralds, is to be assistants to the kings-at-
arms, in the different branches of their office : and they
are superior to each other, according to creation, in the
above order.
Heralds were formerly held in much greater esteem
than they are at present j and were created and christen¬
ed by the king, who, pouring a gold-cup of wine on
their head, gave them the herald-name : but this is now
done by the earl marshal. They could not arrive at
the dignity of herald without having been seven years
pursuivant; nor could they quit the office of herald,
but to be made king-at-arms.
Richard III. was the first who formed them, in this
kingdom, into a college ; and afterwards great privile¬
ges were granted them by Edward VI. and Philip and
Mary.
The origin of heralds is very ancient. Stentor is
represented by Homer as herald of the Greeks, who had
a voice louder than 50 men together^ The Greeks
called them Kjjgvjcss, and ufiqvpvho&Kts and the Romans,
feciales. The Romans had a college of heralds, ap¬
pointed to decide whether a war were just or unjust j
and to prevent its coming to open hostilities, till all
means had been attempted for deciding the difference
in a pacific way.
HERALDRY,
t 393 ]
HERALDRY,
definition,
origin, &c.'
of Heral¬
dry.
A SCIENCE which teaches how to blazon, or ex¬
plain in proper terms, all that belongs to coats-
of-arms j and how to marshal, or dispose regularly, di¬
vers arms on a field. It also teaches whatever relates
to the marshalling of solemn cavalcades, processions,
and other public ceremonies at coronations, installations,
creations of peers, nuptials, christening of princes, fu¬
nerals, &c.
Arms, or coats-of-arms, are hereditary marks of ho¬
nour, made up of fixed and determined colours and fi¬
gures, granted by sovereign princes, as a reward for
military valour, a shining virtue, or a signal public ser¬
vice ; and which serve to denote the descent and alli¬
ance of the bearer, or to distinguish states, cities, socie¬
ties, &c. civil, ecclesiastical, and military.
Thus heraldry is the science, of which arms are the
proper object 5 but yet they differ much both in their
origin and antiquity. Heraldry, according to Sir
George Mackenzie, “ as digested into an art, and
subjected to rules, must be ascribed to Charlemagne
and Frederick Barbarossa, for it did begin and grow
with the feudal law.” Sir John Feme is of opinion,
that we did borrow arms from the Egyptians ; mean¬
ing, from their hieroglyphics. Sir William Dugdale
mentions , that arms, as marks of honour, were used by
great commanders in war, necessity requiring that their
persons should be notified to their friends and followers.
The learned Alexander Nisbet, in his excellent system
of heraldry, says, that arms owe their rise and begin¬
ning to the light of nature, and that signs and marks of
honour were made use of in the first ages of the world,
and by all nations, Imvever simple and illiterate, to di¬
stinguish the noble from the ignoble. We find in Ho¬
mer, Virgil, and Ovid, that their heroes had divers fi¬
gures on their shields, whereby their persons were di¬
stinctly known. Alexander the Great, desirous to ho¬
nour those of his captains and soldiers who had done any
glorious action, and also to excite an emulation among
the rest, did grant them certain badges to be borne on
their armour, pennons, and banners, ordering, at the
same time, that no person or potentate, through his em¬
pire, should attempt or presume to give or tolerate the
bearing of those signs upon the armour of any man, but
it should be a power reserved to himself 5 which prero¬
gative has been claimed ever since by all other kings
and sovereign princes within their dominions.
After these and many other different opinions, all
that can be said with any certainty is, that in all ages,
men have made use of figures of living creatures, or
symbolical signs, to denote the bravery and courage
either of their chief or nation, to render themselves
the more terrible to their enemies, and even to distin¬
guish themselves or families, as names do individuals.
The famous C. Agrippa, in his treatise of the vanity
of sciences, cap. 81. has collected many instances of
these marks of distinction, anciently borne by king¬
doms and states that were any way civilized, viz.
The Egyptians'
The Athenians
The Goths
The Romans
The Franks
The Saxons
o
S-
O
fan ox,
| an owl,
j a bear,
] an eagle,
j a lion,
fa horse.
Heredit
The last is still borne in the arms of his present Britan¬
nic majesty. As to hereditary arms of families, Wil¬
liam Camden, Sir Henry Spelman, and other judici¬
ous heralds, agree, that they began no sooner than to¬
wards the latter end of the nth century. According
to Father Menestrier’s opinion, a French writer, whose
authority is of great weight in this matter, Henry I’Oi-
seleur (the Falconer) who was raised to the imperial
throne of the West in 920, hy regulating tournaments
in Germany gave occasion to the establishment of fami¬
ly-arms, or hereditary marks of honour, which unde¬
niably are more ancient and better observed among the
Germans than in any other nation. Moreover, this
last author asserts, that with tournaments first came up
coats-of-arms ; which were a sort of livery, made up of
sevei-al lists, fillets, or narrow pieces of stuff of divers
colours, from whence came the fess, the bend, the
pale, &c. which were the original charges of family-
arms j for they who never had been at tournaments,
had not such marks of distinction. They who insisted
themselves in the Croisades, took up also several new
figures hitherto unknown in armorial ensigns $ such as
alerians, bezants, escalop-shells, martlets, &c. but more
particularly crosses, of difl’erent colours for distinction’s
sake. From this it may be concluded, that heraldry,
like most human inventions, was insensibly introduced
and established ; and that, after having been rude and
unsettled for many ages, it was at last methodised,
perfected, and fixed, by the Croisades and tourna¬
ments.
These marks of honour are called arms, from their
being principally and first worn by military men at war
and tournaments, who had them engraved, embossed,
or depicted on shields, targets, banners, or other mar¬
tial instruments. They are also called coats-of-arms,
from the custom of the ancients embroidering them on
the coats they wore over their arms, as heralds do to
this day.
Arms are distinguished by different names, to denote
the causes of their bearing j such as,
ARMS
Of Dominion,
Of Pretension,
Of Concession,
Of Communion,
Of Patronage,
Ot Family,
01 Alliance,
Of Succession.
Arms of dominion or sovereignty are those which em¬
perors, kings, and sovereign states, do constantly bear ;
being, as it were, annexed to the territories, kingdoms,
and
( ap. L HERA
j editary and province?, they possess. Thus the three lions are
j is, &c. the arms of England, the fleurs-de-lis those of France,
1 "V &c.
Arms of pretension, are those of such kingdoms, pro¬
vinces, or territoiies, to which a prince or lord has some
claim, and which he adds to his own, although the said
kingdoms or territories be possessed by a foreign prince
or other lord. Thus the kings of England have quar¬
tered the arms of France with their own, ever since
Edward HI. laid claim to the kingdom of France,
which happened in the year 1330, on account of his
being son to Isabella, sister to Charles the Handsome,
who died without issue.
0^ concession, or augmentation of honour, are
either entire arms, or else one or more figures, given
by princes as a reward for some extraordinary service.
We read in history, that Robert Bruce, king of Scot¬
land, allowed the earl of Wintoun’s ancestor to bear,
in his coat-armour, a crown supported by a sword, to
show that he, and the clan Seaton, of which he was
the head, supported his tottering crown. Queen Anne
granted to Sir Cloudesly Shovel, rear-admiral of Great
Britain, a cheveron between two fleurs-de-lis in chief,
and a crescent in base, to denote three great victories
he had gained ; two over the French, and one over the
Turks.
Arms of community, are those of bishoprics, cities,
universities, academies, societies, companies, and other
bodies corporate.
Arms of patronage, are such as governors of pro¬
vinces, lords of manors, patrons of benefices, &c. add
to their family-arms, as a token of their superiority,
rights, and jurisdiction. These arms have introduced
into heraldry, castles, gates, wheels, ploughs, rakes,
harrows, &.c.
Arms offamily, or paternal arms, are those that be¬
long to one particular family, that distinguish it from
others, and which no person is suffered to assume with¬
out committing a crime, which sovereigns have a right
to restrain and punish.
Arms of alliance, are those which families or private
persons take up and join to their own, to denote the al¬
liances they have contracted by marriage. This sort
of arms is either impaled, or borne in an escutcheon of
pretence, by those who have married heiresses.
Arms of succession, are such as are taken up by them
who inherit certain estates, manors, &c. either by will,
entail, or donation, and which they either impale or
quarter with their own arms ; which multiplies the
titles of some families out of necessity, and not through
ostentation, as many imagine.
These are the eight classes under which the divers
sorts of arms are generally ranged j but there is a sort
which blazoners call assumptive arms, being such as are
taken up by the caprice or fancy of upstarts, though
of ever so mean extraction, who, being advanced to a
degree of fortune, assume them without a legal title.
This, indeed, is a great abuse of heraldry j and com¬
mon only in Britain, for on the continent no such prac¬
tice takes place.
We now proceed to consider the essential and inte¬
gral parts of arms, which are these :
L D R Y.
Chap. I. Of the Shield or Escutcheon,
399
Of the
Shield, &c.
The Escutcheon,
The Tinctures,
The Charges,
The Ornaments.
The shield or escutcheon is the field or ground where¬
on are represented the figures that make up a coat of
arms : for these marks of distinction were put on buck¬
lers or shields before they were placed on banners,
standards, flags, and coat-armour j and wherever they
may be fixed, they are still on a plane or superficies
whose form resembles a shield.
Shields, in Heraldry called escutcheons ov scutcheons,
from the Latin word scutum, have been, and still are,
of different forms according to different times and
nations. Among ancient shields, some were almost
like a horse-shoe, such as is represented by n° 1. in the
figure of Escutcheons j others triangular, somewhat
rounded at the bottom, as n° 2. The people who in- Plate
habited Mesopotamia, now called Diarheck, made use CCLIV.
of this sort of shield, which it is thought they had of
the Trojans. Sometimes the shield was heptagonal,
that is, bad seven sides, as n° 3. The first of this
shape is said to have been used by the famous triumvir
M. Antony. That of knights-banneret was square,
like a banner, as n° 4. As to modern escutcheons, those
of the Italians, particularly of ecclesiastics, are gene¬
rally oval, as n° 5. The English, French, Germans,
and other nation?, have their escutcheons formed differ¬
ent ways, according to the carver’s or painter’s fancy j
see the various examples, contained from n° 6—16 of
the figure. But the escutcheon of maids, widows, and
of such as are born ladies, and are married to private
gentlemen, is of the form of a lozenge : See n° 17—20.
Sir George Mackenzie mentions one Muriel, countess
of Strathern, who carried her arms in a lozenge, anno
1284, which shows how long we have been versant in
heraldry.
Armorists distinguish several parts or points in escut¬
cheons, in order to determine exactly the position of
the bearings they are charged with j they are here de¬
noted by the first nine letters of the alphabet, ranged
in the following manner:
A the dexter chief
B the precise middle chief. 
C the sinister chief.
D the honour point.
E the fess point.
F the nombril point.
G the dexter base.
H—- —the middle precise base.
I- -~—the sinister base.
The knowledge of these points is of great importance,
and ought to be well observed, for they are frequently
occupied with several things of different kinds. It is
necessary to observe, that the dexter side of the escuU
cheon is opposite to the left hand, and the sinister side
to the right hand of the person that looks on it.
Chap. II. Of Tinctures, Furs, Lines, and Dif~-
ferences.
Sect. I. Of Tinctures.
By tinctures is meant that variable hue of arms
which is common both to shields and their bearings,.
According
i Ji i
D
E
F
G H I
400
H E R A L
The According to the French heralds, there are but
Tincture*, seven tinctures in armoury j of which two are metals,
1 »■ ’ the other five are colours.
The Metals are,
G»W> l .armed l0*
Silver, ^
be
1
f
::J
j Argent.
The Colours are.
Blue, ■) f Azure.
Bed, | Gules.
Green, ^ termed ^
Purple
Black,
Vert.
Purpure.
^ Sable.
When natural bodies, such as animals, plants, cele¬
stial bodies, &c. are introduced into coats of arms,
they naturally retain their natural colours, which is ex¬
pressed in this science by the word proper.
Besides the five colours above mentioned, the Eng¬
lish writers on Heraldry admit two others, viz.
Orange,
Blood-colour,
termed
7 Tenny.
3 Sanguine.
Or
Argent
Sable
Gules
Azure
Vert
Purpure
Tenny
Sanguine
Topaz
Pearl
Diamond
Ruby
Sapphire
Emerald
Amethyst
Jacinth
Sardonix
3
Sol.
Luna.
Saturn.
Mars.
Jupiter.
Venus.
Mercury.
DragonVhead.
Dragon’s.tail.
R Chap.
“ But I crave leave to say, that these are but mere
But these two are rarely to be found in British
bearings.
These tinctures are represented in engravings and
drawings (the invention of the ingenious Silvester Pe¬
tra Sancta, an Italian author of the 17th century) by
dots and lines, as in fig. ii. n® I—9.
Oris expressed by dots.
Argent needs no mark, and is therefore plain.
Azure, by horizontal lines.
Gules, by perpendicular lines.
Vert, by diagonal lines from the dexter chief to the
sinister base points.
Purpure, by diagonal lines from the sinister chief to
the dexter base points.
Sable, by perpendicular and horizontal lines crossing
each other.
Tenny, by diagonal lines from the sinister chief to
the dexter base points, traversed by horizontal
lines.
Sanguine, by lines crossing each other diagonally from
dexter to sinister, and from sinister to dexter.
Sir George M'Kenzie observes, that “ some fan¬
tastic heralds have blazoned not only by the ordinary
colours and metals, but by flowers, days of the week,
parts of a man’s body, &c. and have been condemned
for it by the heralds of all nations. Yet the English
have so far owned this fancy,” (the most judicious of
them, as Mr Cartwright and others reprobate it as
absurd), “ that they give it for a rule that the coats of
sovereigns should be blazoned by the planets, those of
noblemen by precious stones 5 and have suited them in
the manner here set down.
fancies $ and are likewise unfit for the art, for these
reasons: 1st, The French (from whom the English
derive their heraldry, not only in principles, but in
words of the French language) do not only not use
these different ways of blazoning, but treat them en
ridicule, adly, The Italian, Spanish, and Latin he¬
ralds use no such different forms, but blazon by the
ordinary metals and colours. 3dly, Art should imitate
nature *, and as it would be an unnatural thing in com¬
mon discourse not to call red red because a prince
wears it, so it is unnatural to use these terms in he¬
raldry. And it may fall out to be very ridiculous in
some arms: for instance, if a prince had for his arms
an ass couchant under his burden gules, how ridiculous
would it be to say he had an ass couchant Mars ?—A
hundred other examples might be given ; but it is
enough to say, that this is to confound colours with
charges, and the things that are borne with colour?.
4thly, It makes the art unpleasant, and deters gentle¬
men from studying it, and strangers from understand¬
ing what our heraldry is; nor could the arms of our
princes and nobility be translated in this disguise into
Latin or any other language. But that which con¬
vinces most that this is an error is, because it makes
that great rule unnecessary, whereby colour cannot be
put upon colour, nor metal upon metal ; but this can¬
not hold but where metals and colours are expressed.”
The English heralds give different names to the
roundlet (N° 10), according to its colour. Thus, if
it is
Ths F
Or,
Argent,
Azure,
Gules,
Vert,
Purpure,
Sable,
Tenny,
Sanguine,
The French, and
f Bezant.
Plate.
Hurt.
Torteau.
• it is called a < Pompey.
Golpe.
Pellet.
Orange.
__ Guze.
all other nations, do not admit
such a multiplicity of names to this figure*, but call
them Bezants, after an ancient coin struck at Constan¬
tinople, once Byzantium, if they are Or and Torteaux
or of any other tincture, expressing the same.
Sect. II. O f Furs.
Furs represent the hairy skin of certain beasts, pre¬
pared for the doublings or linings of robes and gar¬
ments of state: and as shields were anciently covered
with furred skins, they are therefore used in heraldry
not only for the linings of the mantles, and other or¬
naments of the shields, but also in the coats of arms
themselves.
There are three different kinds in general use, viz.
1. Ermine ; which is a field argent, powdered with
black spots, their tails terminating in three hairs. (Fig.
ii. N° 11.).
2. Counter-ermine, where the field is sable, and the
powdering white. (N° 12.).
3. Vair, (N° 15.), which is expressed by blue and
white skins, cut into the forms of little bells, ranged in
rows opposite to each other, the base of the white
ones
hap. II. HERA
fLines, ones being always next to that of the blue ones. Vair
is usually of six rows j if there be more or fewer, the
number ought to be expressed ; and if the colours are
different from those above mentioned, they must like¬
wise be expressed.
The English multiply the furs, as well as the names
of the tinctures, though no other nation has adopted
such varieties. Thus they give us,
1. White, which is the natural colour of the ermine j
but it is used on no other occasion but in the descrip¬
tions of mantles.
2. Ermines, which is the same with contra-ermine.
3. Erminois; the field is Or, the powdering Sable,
(N° 13.). For the use of this fur Guillim cites Bara,
p. 14.; but no such fur is to be feund in Bara.
4. Pean; the field is Sable, the powdering Or,
(N° 14.). The French use no such term : but they call
all furs or doublings des pannes ov pennes ; which term
has possibly given rise to this mistake, and many
others, in those who do not understand the French
lauguage.
Erminites ; the same as Ermine, with the addi¬
tion of a red hair on each side of the black. Sir George
M‘Kenzie calls these distinctions “ but fancies, for er-
minites signifies properly little ermines.'''
6. Counter-vair ; when the bells of the same tincture
are placed base against base, and point against point,
7. Potent-counter-potent, anciently called Vairy-cup-
py, as when the field is filled with crutches or potents
counter-placed, (N° 17.).
It may not be improper to observe, that the use of
the tinctures took its rise from the several colours
used by warriors whilst they were in the army, which
S. de Petra Sancta proves by many citations. And
because it was the custom to embroider gold and silver
on silk, or silk on cloth of gold and silver, the heralds
did therefore appoint, that in imitation of the clothes
so embroidered, colour should never be used upon co¬
lour, nor metal upon metal.
Sect. III. Of the Lines used in the parting of Fields.
Escutcheons are either of one tincture, or more
than one. Those that are of one only, that is, when
some metal, colour, or fur, is spread all over the sur¬
face or field, such a tincture is said to be predominant:
but in such as have on them more than one, as most
have, the field is divided by lines j which, according to
their divers forms, receive various names.
Lines may be either straight or crooked. Straight
lines are carried evenly through the escutcheon : and
are of four different kinds j viz. a perpendicular line | j
a horizontal, — j a diagonal dexter, \ ; a diagonal si¬
nister, /.
Crooked lines are those which are carried unevenly
through the escutcheon with rising and falling. French
armorists reckon 11 different sorts of them 5 Guillim
L D R Y.
admits of 7 only $ but there are 14 distinct kinds,
the figures and names of which are as in fig. 1. (a),
N° 1—14. viz.
I. The engrailed. 2. The invented. 3. The wavy.
4. The embattled, or crenelle. 5. The nebule. 6. The
raguly. 7. The indented. 8. The dancette. 9. The
dove-tail. 10. The grafted. 11. The embattled aronde.
12. The battled embattled. 13. The pattee or dovetail.
14. Champaine.
The principal reason why lines are thus used in he¬
raldry, is to difference bearings which would be other¬
wise the same ; for an escutcheon charged with a chief
engrailed, differs from one charged with a chief wavy,
as much as if the one bore a cross and the other a
saltier.
As the fore-mentioned lines serve to divide the field,
it must be observed, that if the division consists of two
equal parts made by the perpendicular line, it is called
parted per pale ; by the horizontal line, parted per fess ,•
by the diagonal dexter, parted per bend; by the diago¬
nal sinister, parted per bend sinister i examples of which
will be given in the sequel of this treatise.
If a field is divided into four equal parts by any of
these lines, it is said to be quartered; which may be
done two ways, viz.
Quartered or parted per cross ; which is made by a
perpendicular and horizontal line, which, crossing each
other at the centre of the field, divide it into four
equal parts called quarters. See Plate CCLIV. under
fig. 1. (a).
Quartered or parted per saltier; which is made by
two diagonal lines, dexter and sinister, that cross one
another in the centre of the field, and likewise divide
it into four equal parts. Ibid.
The escutcheon is sometimes divided into a greater
number of parts, in order to place in it the arms of the
several families to which one is allied j and in this case
it is called a. genealogical achievement. These divisions
may consist of 6, 8, 12, and 16, quarters fas under
fig. x. (a)], and even sometimes of 20, 32, 64, and
upwards ; there being examples of such divisions fre¬
quently exhibited at pompous funerals. An extraordi¬
nary instance of this kind was exhibited at the pompous
funeral of the Viscountess Townshend, whose corpse
was brought from Dublin castle in Ireland to Rainham-
hall in Norfolk, one of the principal tenants on horse¬
back carrying before the hearse a genealogical banner,
containing the quarterings of his lordship’s and her
ladyship’s family, to the amount of upwards of 160
coats. Sir George Booth, rector of the valuable liv¬
ing of Ashton under Line, bears six distinct coats of
arms in his shield; viz. those for Booth, Barton, Ve¬
nables, Mountfort, Ashton, Egerton ; and has besides
a right to 37 other coats : but Sir William Dugdale
very justly objects to so many arms being clustered to¬
gether in one shield or banner, on account of the diffi¬
culty of knowing and distinguishing one coat of arms
from another.
Sect.
401
Of Lines.
(a) Bordures are still introduced into English coats of arms, but for particular reasons, which heralds can
best explain. They are by the French frequently taken for a principal figure, and numbered among the rest
©1 the ordinaries.
VoL. x. Part II. f 3 E
f
402
Of Differ-
cnces. SiiCT. IV. Of the Differences of Co:its of Anns.
Armorists have invented divers differences or cha-
racteristical marks, whereby bearers ot the same coat
of arms are distinguished each from others, and their
nearness to the principal bearer demonstrated. Ac¬
cording to J. Guillim, these differences are to be consi¬
dered either as ancient or modern.
Art. i. Of Ancient Differences.
Those he calls ancient differences consist in bordures
(a) j which is a bearing that goes all round, and paral¬
lel to the boundary of the escutcheon, in form of a hem,
and always contains a fifth part of the field in breadth.
Bordures were used in ancient times for the distinguish¬
ing not only of one nation or tribe from another, but
also to note a diversity between particular persons de¬
scended of one family and from the same parents.
This distinction, however, was not expressly signified
bv invariable marks ; nor were bordures always ap¬
propriated to denote the different degrees of consan-
wuinity; for, as Sir Henry Spelman observes in his
>Aspilogia, p. 140. ancient heralds, being fond ol per¬
spicuous differences, often inverted the paternal tinc¬
ture, or sometimes inserted another charge in the escut¬
cheon, such as bends, croslets, cantons, or the like j
which irregularity has, I suppose, induced modern ar¬
morists to invent and make use of others.”
p. >t _ There are bordures of different forms and tinctures,
CCLV. as in the examples, fig. 3.
N° 1. is “ Sable, a Bordure Argent j” borne by the
right hon. Sackville Tufton, earl of Thanet.—When a
bordure is plain, you are not to mention it, as it is al¬
ways understood so in heraldry, though it be not ex¬
pressed j but if it has any other form, you are to sig¬
nify it.
2. “ Gules, a Bordure engrailed Argent 5” borne
by the right hon. Charles Gray, Lord Gray.—This is
called engrailed, from the French word engrele, which
signifies a thing the hail has fallen upon and broken
off the edges, leaving it with little semicircles struck
out of it.
3. “ Gules, a Bordure engrailed Or borne by the
right hon. George Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury. You
must observe, that in a bordure or ordinary formed of
these lines, the points are represented on all sides to¬
wards the field, and the semicircles turned towards the
bordure or ordinary.
4. “ Argent, a Bordure invected Azure.”—This
is quite contrary to the last; for as the other turns its
points from the bordure into the field, so contrarywise
this does, by the inversion of the points from the field
into the bordure. Such a charge or any other formed
of these lines is seldom to be met with in English coats
of arms.
5. “ Gules, a Bordure indented Argent.”—This
word indented requires very little explanation, the sig¬
nification being obvious to all persons, from its figure,
which is composed of tracks resembling teeth, called in
Latin dentes.
6. “ Azure, a Bordure Ermine.”
7. “ Vert, a Bordure Vair.”
8. “ Ermine, a Bordure compony, or gobony, Or
Chap. I
and Sable.”—This is so termed from its being com- Ancienl
posed of small equal pieces. J. Guillim calls this Differ*n
hovdure gobonated, which implies the same meaning j ces.
but the word being obsolete, is not used by modern v^~
heralds.
9. “ Quarterly, Azure and Gules, a bordure com¬
pony Argent and Azure 5” borne by his grace Henry
Somerset, duke of Beaufort, &c.
10. “ Azure, a Bordure counter-compony Argent
and Gules.”—Observe, that the counter-compony does
always consist of two tracks and no more.
11. “ Or, a Bordure cheeky Argent and Sable.”—
This has a great resemblance with the last bordure,
having only one track more ; therefore you must take
care, before you blazon, to number them, or else you
may easily err in taking the one for the other.
12. “ Gules, a Bordure Argent, charged with eight
Trefoils slipped proper, that is, Vert.”—All nations
use few terms in blazoning bordures j but English ar¬
morists, in order possibly to raise the dignity of this
science, have perplexed it, and rendered it unintelli¬
gible to all foreigners, by introducing into it several
mystical proper names, among which may be reckoned
the following ones, viz. They call a bordure, if char¬
ged with eight plants, fruits, flowers, or leaves, verdoi)
of such vegetables j or enaluron of such birds j enurnij
of beasts \ perflew of furs j and entoyre of inanimate
things of what kind soever.
13. “ Gules on a Bordure Azure, eight Stars Or.”
14. “ Argent, a Bordure compony of the last and
Gules, the first charged with Roses of the second, barb¬
ed and seeded proper.” This bordure is borne by his
grace Charles Lenox duke of Richmond, &c.
15. “Ermine, with a Bordure engrailed Gules j”
the coat of arms of the right hon. Henry-Benedict
Barnewall, Viscount Kingsland, &c. of Ireland.—This
ancient and noble family is of French extraction, and
allied to the dukes of Little-Bretagne, where the name
continues still in great repute.
16. “ Argent, a Bordure Sable charged with eight
Besants $” borne by the right hon. ' Cole,
Lord Ranelagh, of Ireland.
17. “ Party per pale Argent and Gules, a Bordure
charged with eight Escallops counterchanged j” the
coat of arms of the right hon. William Maule, earl
of Panmure, &c. of Ireland. This very ancient family
is originally French, and derives its surname from tire
town and lordship of Maule in Normandy, where the
same arms are still to be seen in the parish-church.
17. “ Azure, a Bordure quarterly, the first and
fourth Ermine, the second and third counter-compony
Argent and Azure.”
19. “ Purpure, a Bordure compony Or and Gules,
each of the last charged with a Besant.”
20. “ Quarterly Or and Gules, within a Bordure
Vert, charged with eight Escallops Or.”
Wre shall conclude this head with observing, that a
bordure is never of metal upon metal, and seldom of
colour upon colour, but rather of the tincture which
the principal bearing or charge is of. Thus Sir ——
Dalziel of Glenae, whose predecessor was a younger
brother of the noble family of Carnwath, has, within
a Bordure Argent, the paternal coat of the ancient
name of Dalziel, viz. “ Sable, a hanged man with his
arms extended, Argentformerly they carried him
- hanging
H E R A L D R Y.
HERALDRY,
)hap. II.
Modern banging on a gallow?. This bearing, though so very
Differ- singular for a coat of arms, was given as a reward to
ences. one of the ancestors of the late Robert Dalziel, earl of
-'-Y ' Carnwatb, to perpetuate the memory of a brave and
hazardous exploit performed, in taking down from a
wallows the body of a favourite and near relation of
King Kenneth II. hung up by the Piets ; which story
is thus related by Alexander Nisbet: “ The king being
exceedingly grieved that the body of his minion and
kinsman should be so disgracefully treated, he proffer¬
ed a great reward to any of his subjects who would ad¬
venture to rescue his corpse from the disgrace his cruel
enemies had unjustly put upon it: but when none
would undertake this hazardous enterprise, at last a
valorous gentleman came and said to the king, T^al%ieli
which signifies, “ I dare j” and he did actually per¬
form that noble exploit to the king’s satisfaction and
his own immortal honour, and in memory of it got
the aforesaid remarkable bearing: and afterwards his
posterity took the word Dal%iel for their surname, and
the interpretation of it, l dare, continues even to this
day to be the motto of that noble family.” We can
have no better proof of the truth of this tradition than
this, that the heads of this ancient family have for
many ages carefully retained this bearing without any
alteration or addition.
Art. 2. Of Modern Differences.
The modern differences which the English have a-
dopted not only for the distinguishing of sons issued out
of one family, but also to denote the difference and sub¬
ordinate degrees in each house from the original ances¬
tors, are nine, viz.
Plate For the heir or first son, the Label ; 2d son, the
CCL1Y. Crescent j 3d son, the Mullet; 4th son» the Martlet j
imdevfig. 1.^ sonj the Annulet; 6th son, the Flower-de-luce;
7th son, the Rose ; 8th son, the Cross moline ; 9th
son, the Double Quarter-foil.
By these differences, the six sons of Thomas Beau¬
champ, the 15th earl of Warwick, who died in the
34th year of King Edward III. are distinguished in an
old window of the church of St Mary at Warwick ;
so that although they are called modern differences,
their usage with the English is ancient.
It must be observed, that, of all the fore-mentioned
marks of distinction, none but the label is affixed on
the coats of arms belonging to any of the royal family ;
which the introducers of this peculiarity have, however,
thought proper to distinguish by additional pendants
and distinct charges on them.
As to the distinction to be made in the arms of the
offspring belonging to each of the above-mentioned
brothers, it is expressed by figures on the top and
Plate margin of the table contained in fig. 4* For instance,
CCLV. The heir or first son of the second house, beareth a
crescent charged with a label during his father’s life
only. The second son of the second house, a crescent
charged with another crescent. The third son of the
second house, a crescent charged with a mullet. The
fourth son of the second house, a crescent charged
with a martlet. The fifth son of the second house, a
crescent charged with an annulet. The sixth son of the
second house, a crescent charged with a flower-de-luce ;
and so on of the other sons, taking care to have them
of a different tincture.
In what part of the escutcheon these differences
should be borne is not certain ; for Guillim, Morgan, Difi'e
and others, give us many different examples of their ence
position. The honour-point would be the properest^
place, if the arms would admit of it ; but that is not al¬
ways the case, as that part may be charged with some
figure in the paternal coat, which cannot with propriety
receive the difference. There are instances where
these are borne as perfect coats of arms, as the exam¬
ples subjoined to the Table of Blouses sufficiently show ;
which are to be blazoned thus:
The first is “ Azure, a Label Argent.”—When
such a label is borne as a difference, the pendants, ac¬
cording to G. Leigh, signify that he is but the third
person ; the dexter pendant referring to his father,
the sinister to his mother, and the middle one to him¬
self.
The second is “ Argent, a Label of five points
Azure ;” borne by the name of Hentington. If a la¬
bel has more or less than three pendants or points, they
are to be expressed as in the foregoing example.
The third is “ Azure, a Crescent Argent,” borne
by the name of Lucy.-—The reason G. Leigh assigns
for the second son’s having a crescent for a difference
is to show that he should increase the family by adding
to it riches and reputation.
The fourth is “ Argefit, a Mullet Sable, on a
Chief Azure, a Fleur-de-lis Or;” borne by the name
of Rogers, in Gloucestershire.—-A mullet or spur was
appointed for the third son’s difference, as the last
mentioned author says, to show that he should follow
chivalry.
The fifth is “ Azure, a Fleur-de-lis Argent;” borne
by the right hon. Henry Digby, Baron Digby of Gea-
shil, in King’s county, Ireland.
These few examples, among many more that might
be given, demonstrate the impropriety of adopting these
modern differences, as they are called, for marks of ca¬
dency to distinguish the different branches of a family ;
for it is impossible to distinguish the uncle or grand¬
uncle, from the nephew, or grand-nephew, if each of
them are second, third or fourth sons ; and in the course
of succession these differences w'ould multiply to such a
number, that it would be impossible to delineate them
distinctly in most cases. But as they are given by-
most of the English writers on heraldry, though no fo¬
reign nation uses them, it was thought proper to insert
them here.
Sisters, except of the blood-royal, have no other
mark of difference in their coats of arms, but the form
of the escutcheon (as observed before) ; therefore they
are permitted to bear the arms of their father, even as
the eldest son does after his father’s decease. The rea¬
son of which is by Guillim said to be, that when they
are married, they lose their surname, and receive that
of their husbands.
Next to these diminutions, G. Leigh, J. Guillim,
and after them Dr Harris in his Lexicon Jdechnicvm,
set forth at large divers figures, which they pretend
were formerly added to the coats of such as were to
be punished and branded for cowardice, fornication,
slander, adultery, treason, or murder, for which they
give them the name of abatements of honour j but as
they produce but one instance of such whimsical bear-
infifs, we have not inserted them here. Besides, arms
3 E 2 being
4C4-
HERA
Honour- being marks of honour, they cannot admit of any note
ahle Ordi- of infamy } nor would any body now-a-days bear them
nar‘es- if they were so branded. It is true, a man may be
* ' ^ degraded for divers crimes, particularly high treason j
but in such cases the escutcheon is reversed, trod upon,
and torn in pieces, to denote a total extinction and
suppression of the honour and dignity of the person to
whom it belonged.
Chap. III. Of the Charges.
Armorists call a charge whatsoever is contained
in the field, whether it occupy the whole or only a
part thereof. All charges are distinguished by the
names of honourable ordinariesr sub-ordinaries, and
common charges.
Honourable ordinaries, the principal charges in he¬
raldry, are made of lines only, which, according to their
disposition and form, receive different names.
Sub-ordinaries are ancient heraldic figures, frequent¬
ly used in coats of arms, and which are distinguished by
terms appropriated to each of them.
Common charges are composed of natural, artificial,
and even chimerical things*, such as planets, creatures,
vegetables, instruments, &c.
Sect. I. Of Honourable Ordinaries.
The: most judicious armorists admit only of nine ho¬
nourable ordinaries, viz.
The Chief
The Pale
The Bend
The Bend sinister
The Fess
The Bar
The Cheveron
The Cross
and
The Saltier.
Ot these, but six have diminutives, which are called
as follows : That of the chief is a fillet; the pale has a
pallet and endorse; the bend, z.bendlet,cost,?LX\& ribband;
the bend sinister has the scarp and bdton ; the bar, the
closet and harulet; the cheveron, a chevronel and couple-
close. All which will be treated of in their order.
Art. i. Of the Chief.
The chief is an ordinary determined by an hori¬
zontal line, which, if it is of any other form but
straight, must be expressed. It is placed in the upper
part, of the escutcheon, and containeth in depth the
third part of the field. Its diminutive is a fillet the
content of which is not to exceed one-fourth of the
chief, and standeth in the lowest part thereof. This
ordinary is subject to be charged with variety of fi¬
gures ; and may be indented, wavy, nebule, &c. as in
the examples, fig. j.
Plate N° I. is “ Or, a Chief indented Azure;” borne
L by the right hon. Edmund Butler, Viscount Mount-
garret, &c. of the kingdom of Ireland. This great
and illustrious family of the Butlers, so renowned for
the many valiant and loyal persons it has produced is
descended from the ancient counts of Brion in Norman
dy j but since King Henry II. conferred the office of
chief butler of Ireland upon one of the family, he and
his successors have assumed the name oi Butler.
2. “ Azure, a Chief engrailed Or.”
3* “ a Chief inverted Vert,”
L D R Y.
4. “ Vert, a Chief undy Or.”
5. “ Azure, a Chief nebule Argent.”
6. “ Or, a Chief cheeky Azure and Argent.”
7. “ Ermine, a Chief quarterly Or and Gules
borne by the name of Peckham.
8. “ Argent, a Chief Sable, in the lower part there¬
of a Fillet of the Field.”
9. “ Azure, fretty Argent, a Chief Or j” borne
by the right hon. Hayes St Eeger, Viscount Ho-
neraile, &c. of the county of Cork in Ireland. This
ancient and noble family is of French extraction 5 and
is descended from Sir Robert Sent Legere, knight,
who, in 1066, accompanied William duke of Nor¬
mandy in his expedition into England j and the fa¬
mily have a tradition, that he, with his own hand,
supported the said duke when he quitted the ship to
land in Sussex.
10. “ Argent, on a Chief engrailed Azure, a
Tortoise passant Or j” borne by the name of Bid-
good.
11. “ Argent, on a Chief Gules, two Spur revels
Or 5” borne by the right hon. John St John, Lord
St John of Bletshoe, &c. Of this ancient family,
which derive their surname from a place called St John,
in Normandy, was John de St John, Esq. who ha¬
ving a principal employment in the army of the Nor¬
man duke, attended him in his expedition into Eng¬
land.
12. “ Argent, on a Chief Vert, two Spears Heads
erect of the Field, the points imbrued Gules 5” borne
by the right hon. George Brodrick, Viscount Middle-
ton, &c. of the kingdom of Ireland. This family is
lineally descended from George de Brodrick, who came
into England in the reign of William II.
I3* on a Chief Sable, three Escallops of the
field,” for the name of Graham; and borne quartered
in the arms of his Grace William Graham, duke, mar¬
quis, and earl of Montrose, &c. with Argent three
Roses Gules. According to the Scots writers this great
and noble family is descended from the renowned Greme
or Grame, who in the year 404 was general of King
Fergus II.’s army, and in 420 forced his way through
the wall built by the Romans between the rivers Forth
and Clyde to keep out the Scots from molesting them
in their possessions, and the said breach has ever since
been called Grantees Dike.
14. “ Argent, on a chief indented Gules, three
Crosses pattee of the Field $” borne by the right hon.
John Percival earl of Egmont, &c. This very ancient
and noble family is supposed, from circumstances little
short of positive proof, to have sprung from a younger
branch of the sovereign dukes of Bretagne in France,
of the same name. They were transplanted into Nor¬
mandy before the Conquest, possessed of great estates
and power, and invested with the office of chief butler.
Upon the Norman invasion, two of this family came
over into England with the Conqueror, from one of
which the descent of the present earl of Egmont is de¬
duced by the clearest and most indisputable proofs of
historians and records.
15. “ Azure, on a Chief indented Or, three Spur-
revels Gules borne by the right hon. Charles Moore,
earl of Drogheda, &c. of the kingdom of Ireland.
This noble family, which is of French extraction, came
into England soon after the Conquest, and made their
first
Chap.
Of
Chi
lap. HI.
HERALDRY.
first residence in the manor of Moore-court, in the
county of Kjent.
16. “ Ermine, on a Chief indented Azure, three
ducal coronets Or 5” home by the name of Lytton.
17. “ Azure, on a Chief Or, three Martlets Gules,”
for the name of Wi'uy; and borne by Sir Cecil Wray,
Bart, of Lincolnshire.
' 18. “ Ermine, on a Chief Gules; five Lozenges of
the firstborne by the name of Dixin.
19. “ Argent, fretty Gules, on a Chief of the second,
three Leopards Faces Or:” borne by the right hon.
Henry Liddel, Lord Ravensworth. This noble lord is
descended from the ancient lords of Liddle-castle, in the
county of Durham, where they have been proprietors
of great coal-mines time out of mind.
20. “ Ermine, a Chief party per pale Azure and
Or; on the dexter the Sun in his splendour, on the sini¬
ster a Cross pattee Gules.” The arms of the bishopric
of Raphoe, in the kingdom of Ireland.
Art. 2. Of the Pale.
The Pale is an ordinary, consisting of two perpen¬
dicular lines drawn from the top to the base of the
escutcheon, and contains the third middle part of the
field. Its diminutives are, the pallet, which is the half
of the pale; and the endorse, which is the fourth park
of a pale. This ordinary and the pallet may receive
any charge, but the endorse should not be charged.
The endorse, besides, is never used, according to J.
Leigh, but to accompany the pale in pairs, as cotices
do the bend; but Sir John Feme is of a different opi¬
nion, fig. 6.
Plate Ex. 1. “ Gules, a Pale Orby the name of Grand-
1CLT. main.
2. “ Party per Pale Argent and Gules, a Pale
counterchanged.”
3. “ Argent, a Pale between two Endorses Gules.”
4. “ Party per Pale, 1st, Paly of six Argent and
Sable, 2d, Azure ;” borne by the name of Trenchard.
5. “ Pale of six Or and Azure.”
6. “ Argent, three Pallets undy Sable;” by the
name of Downes.
7. “ Party per Pale, Argent and Gules ;” borne by
the right honourable John Waldegrave, Earl Walde-
grave, &c. This noble earl is descended from John
de Waldegrave, who was sheriff of London in the year
1205, in the seventh year of King John.
8. “Party per Pale indented, Or and Gules;”
borne by the right honourable Thomas Bermingham,
baron of Athenry, in the kingdom of Ireland. Of this
ancient and noble family, which are of English extrac¬
tion, and took their name from the town of Berming¬
ham in the county of Warwick, was William de Ber-
mingham, who was possessed of the town of that name
in the reign of Henry II. which continued in that fa-
niily till the reign of Henry VIII.
9- “ Quarterly per Pale dove-tail, Gules and Or ;”
borne by the right honourable Thomas Bromley, Lord
Montfort, &c. This noble lord is maternally descend¬
ed from Sir Walter Bromleghe of Bromleghe, in the
county of Stafford, who flourished in the reign of King
John. Sir Thomas Bromley, another of his lordship’s
ancestors, was constituted lord high chancellor of
England, 21 Elizabeth ; in which post he died, 29 E-
lizabeth.
10. “ Argent, a Pale flory counterflory Sable.”
11. “ Argent, a Pale lozengy Sable ;” borne by the
name of Savage.
12. “ Argent, a Pale indented Vert;” borne by the
the name of Dickson.
13. “ Argent, on a Pale engrailed Sable, three
Crescents Or;” borne by the name of Ashly.
14. “ Ermine on a Pale engrailed azure, three
Lions Heads couped Or ;” borne by the name of A-
very.
15. “ Vert, on a Pale radiant Or, a Lion rampant
Sable ;” borne by the right honourable James O’Hara,
Lord Tyrawley, &c. in the kingdom of Ireland. This
noble lord is descended from Milesius king of Spain,
by his eldest son Hiberius, who, with his brother Here-
mon, established a colony in Ireland. Sir Charles
O’Hara, father to the present lord, was created baron
of Tyrawley by Queen Anne, Jan. 10. 1706, being at
that time a lieutenant-general, and colonel of the royal
regiment of fusileers : and the next year was made ge¬
neral in Spain, where his son, Lord James, was wound¬
ed at the battle of Almanza.
16. “ Azure, a Pallet Argent.”
17. “ Vert, an Endorse Or.”
18. “ Argent on two Pallets Sable, six Cross-cros-
lets fitchy Or;” borne by the name of Betimes, of the
county of Salop.
19. “ Argent, two Endorses Gules, in Chief three
Mullets Sable;” borne by the name of Vautort.
20. “ Azure, on a Pale walled with three pieces on
each side Or, an Endorse Sable ;” borne by the name
of Sublet de Noyers, a family of distinction in France.
Art. 3. Of the Bend and Bend-sinister.
The bend is an ordinary formed by two diagonal
lines, drawn from the dexter-chief to the sinister-base :
and contains the fifth part of the field in breadth, if un¬
charged ; but if charged, then the third. Its diminu¬
tives are, the bendlet, which is the half of a bend ; the
cost or cotice, when two of them accompany a bend,
which is the fourth part of a bend ; and the ribband, the
moiety of a cost, or the eighth part of the field.
There is also the bend-sinister, which is of the same
breadth as the bend, but drawn the contrary way: this
is subdivided into a scrape, which is the half of the
bend, and into a baton, which is the fourth part of
the bend, but does not extend itself to the extremities
of the field, there being part of it seen at both ends.
See the examples, fig. 7.
Ex. 1. “Argent, a Bend wavy Sable;” borne by
the right honourable John Wallop, earl of Portsmouth,
&.c. This noble earl is descended from the Wallops
of Hampshire, a Saxon family, who were possessed of
lauds to a considerable value in the county at the time
of the Conquest.
2. “ Cheeky Or, and Azure, a Bend Ermine ;”
borne by the right honourable John Ward, Viscount
Dudley and Ward, &c. The ancestors of this noble
lord were anciently of the county of Norfolk, of which
was Simon Ward, who had large possessions in the
reign of Edward I. and was in France and Scotland in
the reigns of King Edward II. and III.
3. “ Azure, a Bend engrailed Argent, between
two Cotices Or;” borne by the right honourable
Matthew Fortescue, Lord Fortescue, as also by the
rig lit r
405
Of the
Ber.L
Plate
CCLVI.
/
4c6
Of the
Bend.
H E R A L D R Y.
Chap
right honourable Hugh Fortescue-Aland, Baron For-
tescue, in the kingdom of Ireland, this last nobleman
bearing a crescent in his arms for difference, The fa¬
mily of Fortescue is descended from Sir llichard le
Forte, a person of extraordinary strength and courage,
who accompanied William duke of Normandy in his in¬
vasion of England j and bearing a strong shield before
the duke, at the battle of Hastings, had three horses
killed under him, and from that signal event the name
and motto of the family were assumed ; for the Latin
word, scutum, or the old French word escue “ a shield,”
being added to for'te, “ strong,” compose their name j
and the motto is, Forte scutum salus ducum.
4. “ Sable, a Bend Argent between two Cotices in¬
dented Or;” borne by the name of French.
5. “ Paly of six Or and Sable, a Bend counter-
changed j” borne by the right honourable Frederick
Calvert, Baron Baltimore. The original of this family
is from an ancient and noble house of that surname in
the earldom of Flanders, whereof Sir George Calvert,
knight, among other honourable employments, was
secretary of state to King James I. by whom he was
created a baron, Feb. 20. 1624, an^ fr°m whom he had
a grant to him, and his heirs, of the province of Mary¬
land and Avalon in America.
6. “ Party per Bend crenelle Argent and Gules j”
borne by the right honourable Edmund Boyle, earl of
Cork and Orrery, &c. in the kingdom of Ireland. This
noble lord is said to be descended from Sir Philip Boyle,
a knight of Arragon, who, in the reign of King
Henry VI. tilted at a tournament with Sir Joseph
Astley, knight of the Garter.
7. “ Argent, three Bendlets enhansed Gules j”
as the English express it, but the phrase enhansed is
used by no other nation. The proper blazon of this
arms is, Parted per bend, 1st bendy of six gules, and
argent \ 2d of the last. Borne by the right honour¬
able William Byron, Lord Byron. From Doomsday-
book it appears, that this family was possessed of numer¬
ous manors and lands in the reign of the Conqueror;
and that Sir John Byron, one of his lordship’s an¬
cestors, attended King Edward III. in his wars in
France.
8. “ Ermine, a Bend voided Gules j” borne by the
name of Ireton.
9. “ Argent three Bendlets wavy Azure 5” borne
by the name of Wilbraham.
10. “ Bendy of six pieces Argent and Azure.” Ob¬
serve, that when the shield is filled with an equal num¬
ber of bendlets of metal and colour, it is called bendy ;
but if the number of them is unequal, they are to be
blazoned by the name bendlets, and their number spe¬
cified,
11. 44 Party per bend Azure and Argent, two Bend¬
lets engrailed counterchanged j” borne by the name of
Frenes.
12. 44 Quarterly, Or and Gules, a Bend over-all
Vair:” borne by his grace Lionel Cranfield Sackville,
duke of Dorset and earl of Middlesex, &c. The an¬
cestors of this family were lords of the town and sebr-
niory of Sackville in Normandy, and came over with
the Conqueror when he invaded England in 1066.
13. 44 Gules on a Bend Argent, three Trefoils slip¬
ped properborne by the right honourable George
William Hervey, earl of Bristol, &c. This noble lord
3
derives his pedigree from Robert Fitz-Hervey, aoft
younger son of Hervey duke of Orleans, who came ami
over from France with William the Conqueror. '
14. 44 Argent, on a bend Gules cotised Sable j three 1
pairs of Wings conjoined of the first j” borne by the
right honourable Richard Wingfield, Viscount Powers-
court, in the kingdom of Ireland. This noble lord
is denominated from the manor of Wingfield in Suffolk,
where they had a seat before the Norman conquest,
called Whig field-castle.
15. “ Gules, on a Bend centre Ermine cotised Or,
three Boars heads couped Argent j” borne by the
right honourable George Edgcumbe, Lord Edgcumbe,
&.c. The ancestors of this noble lord received their
name from the manor of Edgcumbe, in Devonshire.
One of this lord’s ancestors was Sir Richard Edgcumbe,
who came over to England with the earl of Richmond,
having a great share in the victory he obtained over
King Richard III. at Bosworth, by which the earl
made his way to the throne of England.
16. 44 Argent, a Bend-sinister Gules.”
17. “ Or, a Bendlet Gules.”
18. 44 Argent, a Ribband Gules.”—The name of
this bearing corresponds well with its form, being both
long and narrow, which is the shape of a ribband.
19. 44 Azure, a Scrape Or.”—This bearing, as
Guillxm observes, is that kind of ornament called now*
a-days a Scarf, which is used by officers on duty, and
usually worn after the same manner.
20. This contains three Batons. The first is com-
pony ermine and azure ; set over the royal arms, for
his grace William Fitzroy duke of Cleveland. The se¬
cond is compony argent and azure j set over the royal
arms, for his grace Augustus Henry Fitzroy, duke of
Grafton. The third is gules, charged with three roses
argent, seeded and barbed proper j set over the royal
arms, for his grace George Beauclerk, duke of St Al¬
bans. The grandfathers of these noble dukes being
natural sons of King Charles II. is what entitles them
to the royal arms.
Art. 4. Of the Fess and Bar.
The Fess is an ordinary which is produced by two
parallel lines, drawn horizontally across the centre of
the field, and contains in breadth the third part there¬
of. Some English writers say it has no diminutive,
for a bar is a distinct ordinary of itself.
The Bar, according to their definition, is formed of
two lines, and contains but the fifth part of the field:
which is not the only thing wherein it differs from the
fess; for there may be more than one in an escutcheon,
placed in different parts thereof, whereas the fess is
limited to the centre-point j but in this the French
differ from them. The bar has two diminutives ■, the
barulet, which contains the half of the bar; and the
closet, which is the half of the barulet. When the
shield contains a number of bars of metal and colour
alternate, of even number, that is called harry of so
many pieces, expressing their number. See the exam¬
ples, fig. 8. _ c
N° 1. is 44 Argent, a Fess indented Sable j” borne
by the right honourable John West, Earl Delaware, &c.
This noble family is descended from tbe Wests, a great
family in the west of England j but in the reign of
Edward II. they appear to have been seised of ma¬
nors
Clip-I1L
r Fessuor3 and lands in the county of Warwick. Sir Iho-
r °[jar. nias de West, knight, one of his lordship’s ancestors,
u » being at the battle of Cressy, and there taking John
the French king prisoner, had granted him, tor that
remarkable action, an augmentation to his achieve¬
ment, vix. a Crampette Or, distinguished by the chape
of a sword in the middle ; the chape being given him
by the said king, as an acknowledgement of his be-
ccmino- his prisoner : his cognizance was a rose parted
per pale, argent, and gules ; which two badges are
still borne in the achievement of the present Lord De¬
laware.
2. “ Argent, a Fess wreathed Azure and Gules ,
borne by the right honourable John Carmichael, earl
of Hyndford. Of this ancient family, which is said to
assume their surname from the lands of Carmichael,
in the county of Lanark, in Scotland, where they still
have their chief seat, was Sir John Carmichael, who
accompanied Archibald, earl of Douglas, to the assist¬
ance of Charles VI. of France, against the English j
and signalizing his valour at the battle of Baughey in
April 1421, and breaking his spear when the French
and Scots got the victory, had thereupon added to his
paternal coat, a dexter arm holding a broken spear,
which is now the crest of the family.
2. “ Party per Fess Or and Argent, a Fess nebule
Gules borne by the name of Anteshed.
4. “ Party per Fess indented Or and Azure
borne by the name of Saunders.
5. “ Cheeky Or and Azure on a Fess Gules, a
Crescent Argent for difference j” borne by the right
honourable Hugh Clifford, Lord Clifford, of Chudley.
This noble lord is descended from Waller de Clifford,
of Clifford castle, in the county of Hereford, who came
over into England with the Conqueror ; of which fa¬
mily was fair Rosamond, mistress to King Henry II.
6. “ Argent, on a Fess Azure, three Lozenges
Or}” borne by the right honourable Basil Fielding,
earl of Denbigh and Desmond, &c. This noble earl
is descended from the earls of Hapsburg, in Germany.
Geoffroy earl of Hapsburg, being oppressed by Ro-
dolph emperor of Germany, came over into England,
and one of his sons served King Henry III. in his
wars, whose ancestors laying claim to the territories of
Lauffenburg and Rhin-Fielding, in Germany, be took
the name of Fielding.
7. “ Or, on a Fess Gules, three Fleurs-de-lis of the
firstborne by the name of Lennavd. I his is in the
first and fourth quarters of the right honourable Thomas
Barret Lennard Lord Dacre’s arms.
8. “ Ermine, on a less Gules, a Lion passant Or 5”
borne by the right honourable John Proby, Baron
Carysfort, &c. 111 the kingdom of Ireland.
9. “ Sable, a Fess Ermine, between three Cres¬
cents Or borne by the right honourable George
William Coventry, earl of Coventry, &c. I his noble
earl is descended from John Coventry, a native of the
city of Coventry, and afterwards mercer and lord may¬
or of London, in the reign of Henry V.: from whom
descended Thomas Coventry, one of the justices of the
court of common-pleas, in the reign of Queen Eliza¬
beth ; whose son Thomas was recorder of London, and
afterwards lord keeper of the great seal in the reign of
King Charles I.
10. “ Sable, a Fess cheeky, Or and Azure, between
4°7
three Besants j” borne by the right honourable Ridge-Qfihe Fess
way Pitt, earl and baron of Londonderry, &c. Of this and Bar.
noble, family, which were anciently of Bandfort, in —"v"—'
the county of Dorset, was Thomas Pitt, Esq. who, in
the reign of Queen Anne, was made governor of Fort
St George in the East Indies, where he resided many
years, and purchased a diamond, which he sold to the
king of France for 125,000!. sterling, weighing 136
carats, and commonly known at this day by the name
of Pitt's diamond,
11. “ Or, on a Fess Sable, between three Muscovy
Ducks proper, a Rose of the Field j” borne by the
right honourable John Bateman, Viscount Bateman,
&c. Of this noble family, which was anciently seated
at Halesbrook, near St Omers in Flanders, was Giles
Bateman, Esq. whose son was a merchant of London,
and was father to Sir James Bateman, knight, who in
1712, was chosen member of parliament for Ilchester
in the county of Somerset, and re-chosen in 1713.
12. “ Sable, on a fess Argent, between three Leo¬
pards passant guardant Or, three Escallops Gules j”
borne by the right honourable Wills Hill, earl ofHills-
borough, &c. Of this family, which, in the reign of
Queen Elizabeth, were of note in the county of Downe,
was Sir Moses Hill, who, during O’Neile’s rebellion,
was one of those gentlemen who associated under the
earl of Essex to suppress it j and afterwards served un¬
der Arthur Lord Chichester, lord deputy, and by King
James I. was appointed provost-marshal of the whole
province of Ulster in Ireland.
13. “ Gules, two Bars Or j” borne by the right
honourable Simon Harcourt, earl of Harcourt, &c.
This noble earl is descended from the Harcourts of
Normandy, who took their name from a place called
Harcourt, in that province, where the family usually
resided. Gervaise, count de Plarcourt, with his two
sons Jeffrey and Arnold, came over with the Conquer¬
or, when he invaded England in 1066.
14. “ Ermine, two Bars Gules j” borne by the
right honourable Thomas Nugent, earl of Westmeath,
Baron Delvin.
15. “ Argent, two Bars indented Sable j” borne
by the right honourable Godart Ginkle, earl of Ath-
lone. Godart, who was the first earl, was descended of
a very ancient family in the united provinces of Hol¬
land, where he was baron de Reede and Ginkle, &c.
In 1691, he was a lieutenant-general of King William’s
forces in Ireland j where, in June the same year, he took
Ballymore for the English $ and, in July following
the Irish town of Athlone, which last exploit is one of
the greatest recorded in history.
16. “ Argent, three Bars gemels Gules borne
by the right honourable Richard Barry, earl of Barry¬
more, &c. This noble family, who have been re¬
nowned for their loyalty and valour, are said to derive
their surname from the island of Barry, in the county
of Glamorgan, in Wales $ and from their riches and
estates Jrave been called by the people Barrymore, or
the Great Barry.
17. “ Or, a 'F ess-couped Gules, between two Lions
passant Sable borne by the right honourable Samuel
Masham, Lord Masham, &c. This noble lord is de¬
scended from Sir John Masham, who flourished m the
reign of King Henry VI. and was buried at Thorne-
ham, in the county ol Suffolk, in 1455*
HERALDRY.
408
H E H A L D R Y.
Of the iB. “ Argent, a Lion rampartt guardant Gules,
Cheveron. debruised by a Less Azure, between three Etoiles is-
v_ suing out of as many Crescents of the second j” borne
by the right honourable Robert Dillon, earl of Roscom¬
mon, &c. in the kingdom of Ireland. This noble
family is derived from Logan, surnamed Dilune or
Delioti, which signifies brave and valiant, to whom the
duke of Aquitaine gave his daughter in marriage, in
whose right, after her father’s death, he became prince
and sovereign of Aquitaine, which continued in his
posterity till Henry II. married Alionora, daughter
and heir to William V. duke of Aquitaine, and about
1172 obtained that principality by superior force j
and, to prevent any disturbance, brought Sir Henry
Delion or Dillon, and his brother Thomas, then in¬
fants, to England, their father being slain.
19. “ Or, two Bars Azure, a Chief quarterly of the
second and Gules, the 1st and 4th charged each with
two Fleurs-de-lis of France j the 2d and 3d with a
Lion of England j” borne by his grace John Manners,
duke of Rutland, marquis of Granby, &c. This chief
was anciently Gules $ and the charge thereon is an ho¬
norary augmentation, showing his grace’s descent from
the blood-royal of King Edward IV.
20. “ Barry of ten pieces Argent and Azure, over
all six Escutcheons; 3, 2, I, Sable, each charged with
a Lion rampant of the first, armed, and lasgued Gules,
a Crescent for difference borne by the right ho¬
nourable James Cecil, earl of Salisbury, &c. This
noble earl is descended from the famous William Cecil,
Lord Burleigh, statesman in the reigns of Edward VI.
and Elizabeth. This great man left two sons, Thomas
and Robert, who were both made earls in one day,
May 4. 1603. Robert, the younger son, ancestor of
the present noble lord, was created earl of Salisbury in
the morning; and Thomas, the eldest, earl of Exeter
in the afternoon.
Art. 5. Of the Cheveron.
The Cheveron, which represents two rafters of a
house well joined together, or a pair of compasses half
open, takes up the fifth part of the field with the Eng¬
lish, but the French give it the third. Its diminutives
are, The cbeveronel, which contains the half of a che-
veron ; and the couple close, which is the half of a
cheveronel, that is, its breadth is but the fourth part
of a cheveron. Leigh observes, that this last diminu¬
tive is never borne but in pairs, or with a cheveron be¬
tween two of them. The French have but one dimi¬
nution of this ordinary called Etaye, containing the
third part of its breadth.
rrr vj Examples of cheverons are given in fig. 9. viz.
1. S£ Argent, a Cheveron Gules between three Tor-
teauxy” borne by the right honourable Bennet Sher-
rard, earl of Harborough, &c. This noble earl is
lineally decended from Scherard, who was possessed of
manors and lands to a great value in the counties of
Cheshire and Lancashire in the reign of William the
Conqueror. Geoffroy, another of the earl’s ancestors,
was three times sheriff of Rutlandshire, in the reigns of
King Edward IV. and King Richard III.
2. “ Sable, a Cheveron between three Etoiles Ar¬
gent;” borne by the right honourable Marmaduke
Langdale, Lord Langdale. This noble lord is descend¬
ed from the Langdales of Yorkshire, who resided at the
Chap. II
town of Langdale, from whence they took their name, 0f
in the reign of King John ; but his ancestor, who Chevert
makes the greatest figure in history, is Sir Marmaduke v—
Langdale, who raised forces in the north of England
in defence of King Charles I. ; was victorious in num¬
berless battles and sieges ; and when his majesty, by
the united forces of England and Scotland, was at
length overpowered, he attended King Charles II. in
his exile, and returned to England with his majesty at
the restoration.
3. “ Sable, a Cheveron between three Leopards
Heads Or ;” borne by the right honourable William
Wentworth, earl of Stafford, &c. All genealogists
agree, that the name of Wentworth is of Saxon origi¬
nal, and taken from the manor of Wentworth in York-
shiie, where, in the reign of William the Conqueror,
lived Reginald de Wenteworde, as it is spelt in Dooms¬
day-book.
4* Argent, a Cheveron between three Griffons
passant Sable, a Crescent for difference ;” borne by the
right honourable Heneage Finch, earl of Ailesford,
&c. This family is descended from Herbert Fitz-
Herbert, earl of Pembroke, and chamberlain to King
Henry 1. They took the name of Finch in the reign
of King Edward I. One of the ancestors of this fa¬
mily was the right honourable Heneage Finch, earl of
Nottingham, who was constituted lord high-chancellor
of England in 1675; and lord high-steward on the
trials of Philip earl of Pembroke, and William Viscount
Stafford, in 1680.
5* “ Azure, a Cheveron Ermine, between three
Escallops Argent;” borne by the right honourable
George Townshend, Viscount Townshend, &c. This fa¬
mily is of Norman extraction, and came into England
about the time of the Conquest. Charles, Lord Viscount
Townshend, grandfather of the present viscount, was ap¬
pointed principal secretary of state in the reign of King
George I. in 1720, and continued so to the end of his
majesty’s reign ; when, upon resigning the seals, they
were returned to him again by his late majesty King
George II. who continued him in that honourable of¬
fice to the year 1730.
6. “ Azure, a Cheveron between three Mullets
Or ; ’ borne by the right honourable John Chetwind
Viscount Chetwind, &c. of the kingdom of Ireland.
Of this family, which hath been of great antiquity in
the county of Salop, taking their surname from Chet-
wynd in that county, was Adam de Chetwynd, who
married Agnes daughter of John Lord Lovel, baron of
Dockinges, and lord of Minster Lovel in Oxfordshire;
and by her had issue Sir John de Chetwynd, who, in
the 37th of Henry III. had a charter of free-warren,
through all his demesne in the counties of Salop, Staf¬
ford and Warwick.
7. “ Argent, a Cheveron Gules, between three square
Buckles Sable ;” borne by the right honourable Mat¬
thew Ducie-Morton, Lord Ducie, &c. This noble
lord is descended from the Ducies in Normandy. Af¬
ter they came into England, King Edward I. confer¬
red on them the lordship of Morton in Staffordshire,
and several other lordships and manors, which the fa¬
mily enjoyed for many years. Sir Robert Ducie, one
of his lordship’s ancestors, was lord mayor of London in
the. reign of King Charles I. and though he lent his
majesty 8o,oool. which tvas lost by the king’s being
driven
C ap. III. HERA
, ^ driven out of London, he died, however, worth
Cj eron. 40,000].
*- r-—' 8, “ Argent, a Cheveron Cheeky Gules, and of
the Field, between three Bugle-horns strung Sable,
garnished of the second j” borne by the right honour¬
able lord Hugh Semple, Lord Semple. The princi¬
pal family of this name was Semple of Eliotson in Ren¬
frewshire, where they had large possessions and offices, as
stewards and bailiffs under the family of Stewart, pro¬
prietors of that county before they came to the crown.
The first Lord Semple was Sir Robert, who being
much in favour with King James IV. was by him crea¬
ted Lord Semple in 1489.
9. “ Argent, a Cheveron engrailed between three
Lions passant Sable j” borne by the right honourable
and the reverend Philip Smithe, Viscount Strangford.
One of this lord’s ancestors was John Smithe, Esq.
who acquired a considerable estate whilst he was farmer
of the customs in the reign of Henry VIII. He
left two sons, John and Sir Thomas $ which last was
sent ambassador by King James I. to the empress of
Russia.
10. “ Quarterly Argent and Azure, a Cheveron
engrailed counter-changed 5” borne by the name of
Chamber.
11. “ Party per Cheveron engrailed Gules and Ar¬
gent, three Talbots Heads erased counter-changed j”
borne by the right honourable Anthony Duncombe,
Lord Feversham, &c. His lordship is descended from
the Duncombes of Barley-end in Buckinghamshire. Sir
Charles Duncombe, uncle to the present lord, was
lord mayor of London in 1709 5 and this nobleman was
created Lord Feversham and baron of Dowton in
Wiltshire, June 23. 1744*
12. “ Paly of six, Argent and Gules, on a Che¬
veron Azure, three Cross-croslets Or j” borne by the
name of Carpenter, Baron Carpenter, of Killaghy in
Ireland. This ancient and noble family are of great
antiquity in the county of Hereford, and have been
lords of the manor of the Home, in the parish of Del-
wyn, near Weobly, for above 300 years. George, the
first Lord Carpenter, was so created May 4. 1719.
13. “ Azure, on a Cheveron Or, between three
Besants, a Bay Leaf Proper j” borne by the right hon¬
ourable James Hope, earl of Hopeton, &c. This noble
family is descended from Henry Hope, a native of
Holland, who, about two centuries ago, came over
and settled in Scotland. Charles Hope, Esq. grand¬
father of the present earl, was created an earl by Queen
Anne, April 15. 1703.
14. “ Vert, on a Cheveron between three Unicorns
Heads erased Argent, horned and maned Or, three
Mullets Sable borne by the name of Ker, being the
1st and 4th quarters in the arms of his grace JohnKer,
duke of Roxburgh, &c. This ancient family is said
to come from Normandy. John Ker, marquis of Beau¬
mont and Cesford, the first duke of Roxburgh, was so
created April 27. 1707.
15. “ Azure, on a Cheveron Or, between three
Bears Heads couped Argent, muzzled Gules, a Roe¬
buck’s Head erased, between two Hands holding
Daggers all proper $” borne by the right honourable
Donald Mackay, Lord Reay. This family is said to
derive their descent from Alexander, a younger son of
Ochonacker, who, about the end of the twelfth cen-
Vol. X. Part II. f
L D R Y.
tury, came from Ireland ; and the fourth in descent
from him was Donald of Strathnavern, whose son was
named Y More; and from him began the surname
of Mac Y, Mackie, or Mackay. Donald, the first lord
of this family, was created baronet in 1625, an^ on
June 20. 1628, was created Baron Reay of the county
of Caithness, by Charles I.
19. “ Ermine, on a Cheveron Azure, three Foxes
Heads erased Or, and in a Canton of the second a
Fleur-de-lis of the third $” borne by the right hon¬
ourable Stephen, earl of Uchester, &c. Of the family
of Fox there have been many persons of note living in
the counties of Dorset, Somerset, Wilts, and Hants,
particularly Richard Fox, bishop of Winchester. His
lordship was created Lord Uchester and Baron Strange-
ways, May 11. 1741, 14 George II. and earl of Uche-
ster in June 1756.
17. “ Or, two Cheveronels Gules borne by the
right honourable John Monson, Lord Monson. This
noble lord is descended from John Monson, who flou¬
rished in the reign of King Edward III. from whom
descended another John, who attended King Henry V.
in his wars in France. Sir John Monson, Bart, father
of the present lord, was created Lord Monson, May
28. 1718.
18. “ Or, on a Fess, between two Cheveronels
Sable, three Cross-croslets of the first j” borne by the
right honourable George Walpole, earl of Orford, &c.
This family took their name from Walpole in Norfolk,
where they resided before the Conquest. Sir Robert
Walpole was, in King George II.’s reign, elected
knight of the Garter in 1726, and created earl of Or¬
ford, February 9. 1741-2.
19. “ Azure, three Cheveronels interlaced Or,
and a Chief of the last j” borne by the name of Fit%-
Hugh.
20. “ Argent, three Cheveronels Gules, in Chief a
Label Azure 5” borne by the right honourable Wil¬
liam Wildman Barrington, Viscount Barrington, &c.
This family is of Norman extraction ; in which duchy,
whilst it continued annexed to the English crown, there
were to be seen the remains of a castle, bearing the
name of Chute, or Shute, and formerly in the family,
with other monuments in several towns of that duchy.
John Shute, the late Viscount Barrington, was in 1708
made a commissioner of the customs, and succeeded to
the estates of Francis Barrington, Esq. and of John
Wildman of the county of Berks, who made him their
heir ; and in pursuance of the will of the former, he
took the name and arms of Barrington. On June II.
1720, he was created Viscount Barrington.
Art. 6. Of the Cross.
The Cross is an ordinary formed by the meeting of
two perpendicular with two horizontal lines in the
fess-point, where they make four right angles; the
lines are not drawn throughout, but discontinued the
breadth of the ordinary, which takes up only the fifth
part of the field when not charged j but if charged,
then the third. It is borne as well engrailed, in¬
dented, &c. as plain.
There is so great a variety of crosses used in he¬
raldry, that it would be a very difficult task to treat
of them all. Guillim has mentioned 39 different sorts j
De la Columbiere, 72 j Leigh, 46 $ and Upton declares
3 F he
40 9
Of the
Cross.
^.io HERA
Of the he dares not ascertain all the various crosses borne in
Cross, arms, for that they are almost innumerable ; therefore,
^ as their forms cannot be expected here, we will only
take notice of such as are most commonly seen at pre-
Ptate sent in coats-of-arms. See Fig. 10.
CCLVI. Tta first is “ Quarterly, Ermine and Azure, a
Cross Or;” borne by his grace Thomas Osborne, duke
of Leeds, &c. This noble duke is descended from
the honourable family of the Osbornes of Ashford, in
the county of Kent; Sir Thomas Osborne, the grand¬
father to the present duke, was advanced to the peer¬
age by King Charles II.
2. “ Gules, a Cross engrailed Argent, a Lozenge
in the dexter-chief of the second borne by the right
honourable Edward Leigh, Lord Leigh. This family
took their surname from the town of High Leigh in
Cheshire, where they resided before the Norman con¬
quest. Sir Thomas Leigh, the first lord of this fami¬
ly, was created Baron Leigh of Stonely, hy King
Charles 1. on July I. 1643.
3. “ Gules, a Cross Argent fretty Azureborne
by the right honourable Nicholas Taaffe, Viscount
Taaffe, of Corran, &c. in Ireland. Of this noble and
ancient family was Richard Taafl’e, who lived in 1282 ;
as in 1306 did John Taaffe, who was archbishop of Ar¬
magh ; and, in 1479, the order of the Garter being
established in Ireland, Sir Nicholas Taaffe was one of
the first members; and John, his son and heir, was
created a baron and viscount by Charles I. August 1.
1628.
4. “ Sable, a Cross raguly Or borne by the name
of Stow ay.
5. “ Argent, on a Cross Sable, a Leopard’s face
Or;” borne by his grace Henry Brydges duke of
Chandos, &c. The ancestors of this noble family took
their name from the city of Bruges in Flanders; and
one of them came over with William the Conqueror,
and had a considerable share in the victory obtained
near Hastings in Sussex, 1066. James, the father of
the present duke, was created Viscount Wilton and earl
of Caernarvon, October 19. 1714; and marquis of
Caernarvon and duke of Chandos, -  ■ 30. 1719.
6. “ Or, on a Cross Sable, a patriarchal Cross of
the Field ;” borne by the right honourable Thomas
Vesey, baron of Knapton in the kingdom of Ireland.
The truly noble family of Vescey or Vesey, derives its
origin from Charles the Great, king of France, and
emperor of the West, who died at Aix-la-Chapelle in
Germany, January 28. 814. His lordship’s father was
created a peer April 10. 1750.
7. “ Argent, on a Cross Gules, five Escallops Or;”
borne by the right honourable Wrilliam Villiers earl of
Jersey, &c. This noble earl is descended from the fa¬
mily of Villiers in Normandy, some of whom came over
to England with the Conqueror ; several manors and
lands in England being soon after granted to Fagan
de Villiers, one of this earl’s ancestors. The first peer
of this family was created a baron and viscount, March
20. 1690.
8. “ Sable, on a Cross within a Bordure engrailed
Or, five Pellets;” borne by the right honourable
Francis Greville, earl of Brooke and Warwick, See.
The ancestors of this noble family are of Norman ex¬
traction, and came over with William the Conqueror,
who conferred manors and lands on them in England,
L D R Y. Chap. 1
of a considerable value ; and at length they obtained ofth
the government of the castle of Warwick, the present Cross
seat of the family. Sir Fulke, the first peer of this fa-v
mily, was created Baron Brooke by King James I.
January 9. 1620.
9. “ Argent, a Cross bottony Sable,” borne by the
name of Winwood.
10. “ Or, a Cross-croslet Gules,” borne by the name
of Taddington.
11. “Azure, a Cross potent fitchy Or.” This en¬
sign is said to have been borne by Ethelred king of
the West Saxons ; and crosses of this sort are frequently
met with in coats of arms.
12. “ Party per pale, Gules and Argent ; a Cross
potent quadrate in the Centre, between four Crosses
patee counter-changed ;” the arms of the episcopal see
of Litchfield and Coventry. This see was originally
fixed at Litchfield ; from thence removed to Chester,
and from both to Coventry. It contains the whol«
county of Stafford, except two parishes; all Derby¬
shire ; the better part of Warwickshire, and near half
Shropshire ; divided into the four archdeaconries of
Coventry, Stafford, Derby, and Salop. The parishes
are 557 in number; but, including chapels, they
amount to 643.
13. “ Azure, a Cross moline Argentborne by
his grace Cavendish Bentinck, duke of Portland, &e;
This noble duke is descended from a very ancient
and distinguished family in the United Provinces of
Holland, of which was William Bentinck, Esq. who
in his youth was page of honour to William prince of
Orange, afterwards William III. king of Great Bri¬
tain, and, on the accession of W illiam and his con¬
sort, was made groom of the stole, privy-purse to
his majesty, lieutenant-general of his majesty’s ar¬
my, &c. and also created baron of Cirencester, Vis¬
count Woodstock, and earl of Portland, April 19.
1689.
14. “ Argent, a Cross patonce Sable borne by
the name of Rice.
15. “ Sable, a Cross patee xArgent;” borne by the
name of Maplesden.
16. “ Azure, a Cross flowery Or;” borne by the
name of Cheney.—This is said to have also been the
arms of Edwin, the first Christian king of Northum¬
berland.
17. “ Argent, six Cross-croslets fitchy 3, 2, I,
Sable, on a Chief Azure, two Mullets pierced Or,”
borne by his grace Flenry Clinton, duke of New¬
castle, &c. This noble family is descended from Jef¬
frey de Clinton, lord chamberlain and treasurer to
King Henry I. grandson to William de Tankerville*
chamberlain of Normandy; from whom descended
William de Clinton, chief justice of Chester, governor
of Dover castle, lord warden of the king’s forests
south of Trent. Edtvard Lord Clinton, another. of
this noble earl’s ancestors, was constituted lord high
admiral of England for life, in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, who created him earl of Lincoln, May 4-
I572*
18. “ Gules, a Cheveron between ten Crosses pa¬
tee, six above and four below, Argent ;” borne by the
right honourable Frederick Augustus Berkeley, earl of
Berkeley, &c. This noble family is descended from
Robert Fitz-Harding, who obtained a gi-ant of Berke¬
ley-
cj p. nr. hera
I t ;he ley-castle in Gloucestershire, which the family still in-
S ier. lierits, and from whence they obtained the surname of
^ Berkeley, from Henry duke of Normandy, afterwards
king of England ; the said Robert Fitz-Harding
was descended from the royal line of the kings of
Denmark.
19. “ Azure, three mullets Or, accompanied with
seven Cross-croslets fitchy Argent, three in Chief, one
in Fess, two in Flanks, and the last in Base j” borne
by the right honourable James Somerville, Lord So¬
merville. The first of this name on record is Sir Wal¬
ter de Somerville, lord of Wichmore, in the county of
Stafford, who came to England with William the Con¬
queror.
20. “ Gules, three Crosses recercelfce, voided Or,
a Chief vairy ermine and contre ermine j” borne by
the right honourable John Peyto Verney, Baron Wil¬
loughby de Broke. This noble lord is descended from
William de Vernai, who flourished in the reign of
King Henry I. 1119.
Art. 7. Of the Saltier.
The Saltier, which is formed by the bend and bend-
iinister crossing each other in right angles, as the in¬
tersecting of the pale and fess forms the cross, contains
the fifth part of the field ; but if charged, then the
third. In Scotland, this ordinary is frequently called
a St Andrew's Cross. It may, like the others, be borne
ate engrailed, wavy, &c. as also between charges or char-
t All. ged with any thing. See examples, fig. 11.
N° 1. is “ Argent, a Saltier Gules 5” borne by his
grace James Fitz-Gerald, duke of Leinster, &c. This
noble lord is descended from Otho, or Other, a rich
and powerful lord in the time of King Alfred, de¬
scended from the dukes of Tuscany ; who passing from
Florence into Normandy, and thence into England,
there the family flourished, until Richard Strongbow,
earl of Pembroke, their kinsman, engaged them to
partake in his expedition to Ireland, in which Maurice
Fitz Gerald embarked, and was one of the principal
conquerors of that kingdom, for which he wras reward¬
ed with a great estate in lands in the province of Lein¬
ster, and particularly the barony of Offaley, and the
castle of Wicklow ; and died, covered with honours,
in the year 1177, 24 Henry II.
2. “ Gules, a Saltier Argent, between twelve Cross-
croslets Or borne by the right Iron. Other-Lewis
Windsor Hickman, earl of Plymouth, &c. This noble
earl is descended from Robert Fitz-Hicman, lord of
the manor of Bloxham, Oxfordshire, in the 56 Hen. III.
12725 and he is maternally descended from the noble
family of the Windsors, who were barons of the realm
at the time of the Conquest.
3. “ Vert, a Saltier wavy Ermine 5” borne by the
name of JFakeman of Beckford, in Gloucestershire.
4. “ Ermine, a Saltier counter-compony Or and
Gules 5” borne by the name of Ulmston.
5. “ Argent, a Saltier Azure with a Bezant in the
centre 5” borne by the right hon. Philip Yorke, earl of
Hardwicke, &c. He was in October 1733 constitut¬
ed lord chief-justice of the king’s bench, and Novem¬
ber 23. in the same year, created Baron Hardwicke of
Hardwicke.
6. “ Argent on a Saltier Gules an Escallop Or j”
L D R Y.
the arms of the bishoprick of Rochester.—This dio¬
cese, the least in England, comprehends only a small
part of Kent, in which there are 150 churches and
chapels; and the two parishes of Iselham in Cam¬
bridgeshire, and Frekenham, in Suffolk. It has only
one archdeacon, that of Rochester. For many years
it was in the immediate patronage of the archbishop of
Canterbury.
7. “ Party per Saltiere, Azure and Argent, on a
Saltier Gules, a Crescent of the second for difference 5”
quartered by the right hon. William Hall Gage, Vis¬
count Gage, of Castle-Island in Ireland. This noble
family is of Norman extraction, and derives descent from
de Gaga or Gage, who attended William I. in his ex¬
pedition to England 5 and, after the conquest thereof,
was rewarded with large grants of lands in the forest
of Dean, and county of Gloucester, near which forest
he fixed his residence, by building his seat at Clerenwell,
in the same place where the house of Gage now stands:
he also built a great house in the town of Cirencester,
at which place he died, and was buried in the abbey
there. Sir Thomas Gage, the eighth baronet, was
created baron of Castle-Bar, and Viscount Gage, 1721.
8. “ Gules, on a Saltier Argent, a Rose of the first
barbed and seeded proper 5” borne by the right hon.
George Neville, Lord Abergavenny, premier baron of
England.
9. “ Or, on a Saltier Azure, nine Lozenges of
the first;” the paternal arms of the right hon. John
Dairymple, earl of Stair, &c. Of this family, which
took their surname from the barony of Dalrymple,
lying on the river Dun in Ayrshire, Scotland, was
Adam de Dalrymple, who lived in the reign of Alex¬
ander III.
10. “ Argent, on a Saltier engrailed Sable, nine
Annulets Or borne by the name of Leak.
ir. “ Gules, a Saltier between four Crescents Or;”
borne as the second and third quarters in the coat-of-
arms of the right honourable Charles Kinnaird, Lord
Kinnaird. George Kinnaird, Esq. one of the pre¬
sent lord’s ancestors, being of great service to King
Charles II. during the usurpation of Oliver Cromwell,
he was by that prince, at his restoration, made one of
the privy-council ; and December 28. 1682, created a
baron.
12. “ Argent, a Saltier engrailed between four Ro¬
ses Gules,” for Lennox ; and borne as first and fourth
quarters in the coat-of-arms of the right hon. Francis
Napier, Lord Napier. This family is said to be de¬
scended from the ancient thanes or stewards of Len¬
nox in Scotland, but took the surname of Napier
from the following event. King David II. in his wars
with the English, about the year 1344, convocating
his subjects to battle, the earl of Lennox sent his se¬
cond son Donald, with such forces as his duty obliged
him; and coming to an engagement, where the Scots
gave ground, this Donald, taking his father’s standard
from the bearer, and valiantly charging the enemy with
the Lennox men, the fortune of the battle changed ;
and they obtained the victory: whereupon every one
advancing, and reporting their acts, as the custom was,
the king declared they had all behaved valiantly, but
that there was one among them who had na pier, that
is, no equal; upon which the said Donald took the
3 F 2 name
Of the
Saltier.
heraldry.
Of the name of Napier, and had, in reward for his good ser-
Saitier. vices, the lands of Gosfield, and other estates in the
—-v—' county of Fife.
13. “ Gules, a Saltier Or, surmounted of another
Vert,” for the name of Andrews; and borne by Sir
William Andrews, hart, of Denton in Northampton¬
shire, who is descended from Sir Robert Andrews of
Normandy, knight, who came into England with W il¬
liam the Conqueror. Sir William Andrews, the first
baronet of this family, was created December II.
1^41, /-w
l/}. “ Azure, a Saltier quarterly quartered Or and
Argent.” The arms of the episcopal see of Bath and
■Wells.—The diocese of Bath and W'ells contains all
Somersetshire, except a few churches in Bristol. And
in it there are three archdeaconries, viz. those of Wells,
Bath, and Taunton. The number of the parishes is
388, though, according to some, the total number of
the churches and chapels amounts to 503.
15. “ Party per Saltier Argent and Gules, a Saltier
counter-changed.”
16. “ Party per Pale indented Argent and Sable,
a Saltier counter-changed 3” borne by the name of
Scote.
17. “ Argent, three Saltiers couped and engrailed
Sable 3” borne by the name of Benton.
18. “ Argent, a Saltier Gules, and a chief Er¬
mine 3” borne by the right hon. Francis Thomas
Fitz-Maurice, earl of Kerry, Sec. This very ancient
and noble family is a branch of the family of Kildare,
who are originally descended from the great duke of
Tuscany, and of which was Otho, a noble baron of Italy,
whose son Walter, attending the Norman conqueror
into England, was made constable of the castle of
Windsor. Raymond, one of the present earl’s ances¬
tors, had a principal hand in the reduction of Ireland
to the subjection of Henry II. and Dermoid Mac-
Carty, king of Cork, sought his aid against his son
Cormac O’Lehanagh, which he undertook, and deli¬
vered the king from his rebellions son 3 for which that
prince rewarded him with a large tract of land in the
county of Kerry, where he settled his son Maurice, who
gave his name to the county, which he called Clan-
Maurice, and is enjoyed by the present earl of Kerry,
who is Viscount Clan-Maurice. Thomas the first earl,
and father of the last, was the 2ist Lord Kerry, who
was created earl January 17. 1722.
19. “ Sable, a Saltier Argent, on a Chief Azure,
three Fleurs-de-lis Or 3” borne by the right hon. John
Fitz-Patrick, earl of Upper Ossory, and baron of
Gowran in Ireland. This most ancient and princely
family is descended from Heremon, the first monarch
of the Milesian race in Ireland 3 and after they had
assumed the surname of Fitz-Patrick, they were for
many ages kings of Ossory, in the province of Leinster.
John, the first earl of this family, succeeded his father
Richard as Lord Gowran, June 9. 1727, was created
earl October 5. 1751, and died 1758.
20. “ Party per Pale Argent and Gules, three Sal¬
tiers counter-changed 3” borne by the name of Lane.
These arms are also borne, without the least alteration,
by the name of Kingsman ; for which similitude we can
no otherwise account, than by supposing there has been
some mistake made through many transcriptions.
Chap. I
Sub-
Sect. II. Of Sub-Ordinaries. Ordinari
Besides the honourable ordinaries and the diminu¬
tions already mentioned, there are other heraldic fi¬
gures, called sub-ordinaries, or ordinaries only, which,
by reason of their ancient use in arms, are of worthy
bearing 5 viz. The Gyron, Franc-quarter, Canton,
Pairle, Fret, Pile, Orle, Inescutcheon, Tressure, An¬
nulet, Flanches, Flasques, Voiders, Billet, Lozenge,
Gutts, Fusil, Rustre, Mascle, Papillone, and Diaper.
See Plate CCLIV. fig. 1. (a.)
The Gyron is a triangular figure formed by two
lines, one drawn diagonally from one of the four an¬
gles to the centre of the shield, and the other is drawn
either horizontal or perpendicular, from one of the
sides of the shield, meeting the other line at the centre
of the field.
Gyronny is said, when the field is covered with six,
eight, ten, or twelve gyrons in a coat-of-arms : but a
French author would have the true gyronny to consist
of eight pieces only, as in the fig. which represents the
coat-of-arms of Flora Campbell countess of Loudon,
&c. whose ancestor was created baron of Loudon in
1604 by James VI. and earl of the same place, May 12.
1633, the 9th of Charles I.
The Franc-quarter is a square figure, which occu¬
pies the upper dexter quarter of the shield. It is but
rarely carried as a charge. Silvestra Petra Sancta
has given us a few instances of its use.
The Canton is a square part of the escutcheon,
somewhat less than the quarter, but without any fixed
proportion. It represents the banner that was given
to ancient knights-bannerets, and, generally speaking,
possesses the dexter-chief point of the shield, as in the
fig. 3 but should it possess the sinister corner, which is
but seldom, it must be blazoned a canton-sinister.
James Cotes reckons it as one of the nine honour¬
able ordinaries, contrary to most heralds opinion. It
is added to coats of arms of military men as an aug¬
mentation of honour: thus John Churchill, baron
of Eyemouth in Scotland, and one of the ancestors of
the present duke of Marlborough, being lieutenant
general to King James II. received from him a canton
argent, charged with the red-cross of England, added
to his paternal coat, “ which is Sable, a lion rampant
Argent.”
The Pairle is a figure formed by the conjunction of
the upper half of the saltier with the under half of the
pale.
The Fret is a figure representing two little sticks in
saltier, with a mascle in the centre interlaced. J. Gib¬
bon terms it, Wat heralds time-lovers knot; but many
dissent from his opinion.
Fretty is said when the field or bearings are covered
with a fret of six, eight, or more pieces, as in the fig.
The word fretty may be used without addition, when
it is of eight pieces 3 but if there be less than that
number, they must be specified.
The Pile, which consists of two lines, terminating
in a point, is formed like a wedge, and is borne en¬
grailed, wavy, &c. as in the fig. It issues in general
from the chief, and extends towards the base 3 yet there
are some piles borne in bend, and issuing from other
parts
-I E R A L D R Y.
C ip. TIE
Kjij. parts of the field, as may be seen in Plate CCLVII.
On wies. fig. 12. N° 12, &C.
^ —w j^jjg Orle is an ordinary composed of two lines
going round the shield, the same as the bordure, but its
breadth is but one half of the latter, and at some di¬
stance from the brim of the shield, as in the fig.
The Inescutcheon is a little escutcheon borne with¬
in the shield ; which according to Guillim’s opinion,
is only to be so called when it is borne single in the
fess point or centre 5 see the fig. on Plate CCLIV.
hut modern heralds, with more propriety, give the
name of inescutcheon to such as are contained in Plate
CCLVII. fig. 12. N° 2. and call that which is fixed
on the escutcheon of pretence, which is to con¬
tain the arms of a wife that is an heiress, as mention¬
ed above.
The Tressure is an ordinary commonly supposed to
be the half of the breadtli of an orle, and is generally
borne flowery and counter-flowery, as it is also very
often double, and sometimes treble. See the fig.
(Plate CCLIV.). This double tressure makes part
of the arms of Scotland, as marshalled in the royal at-
chievement, Plate CCLIX. fig. 21. N° 7. and was
granted to the Scots king by Charlemagne, being
then emperor and king of France, when he entered
into a league with Achaius king of Scotland, to show
that the French lilies should defend and guard the
Scottish lion.
lte The Annulet, or ring, is a well-known figure, and is
| f [,fV. frequently to be found in arms through every kingdom
in Europe.
The Flanches are formed by two curved lines, or
semicircles, being always borne double. See the figure.
W. Leigh observes, that on two such Flanches two
sundry coats may be borne.
The Flasques resemble the flanches, except that the
circular lines do not go so near the centre of the field ;
(see the figure). J. Gibbon would have these two or¬
dinaries to be both one, and vivote flank; alleging that
the two other names are but a corruption of this last:
but as G. Leigh and J. Guillim make them two dis¬
tinct and subordinate ordinaries, we have inserted them
here as such.
The Voiders are by Guillim considered as a subor¬
dinate ordinary, and are not unlike the flasques (see
the figure), but they occupy less of the field.
The Billet is an oblong square figure, twice as long
as broad. Some heralds imagine, that they represent
bricks for building *, others more properly consider
them as representing folded paper or letters.
The Lozenge is an ordinary of four equal and pa¬
rallel sides, but not rectangular ; two of its opposite
angles being acute, and the other two obtuse. Its
shape is the same with those of our window-glasses,
before the square came so much in fashion. See the
figure.
Gutts, or drops, are round at bottom, waved on the
sides, and terminate at the top in points. Heralds have
given them different names according to their different
tinctures : thus if they are
Yellow"^ Cd'Qr
White / 11 1 j d'Eau
Eed V they are called
Blue J [^de Lartnes
Blac'k" }‘hey are called
The Fusil is longer than the lozenge, having its up¬
per and lower part more acute and sharp than the
other two collateral middle parts, which acuteness is
occasioned by the short distance of the space between
the two collateral angles •, which space, if (he fusil is
rightly made, is always shorter than any of the four
equal geometrical lines whereof it is composed. See
the fig. ibid.
I he Rustre is a lozenge pierced round in the middle
(see the figure). They are called by the German rut-
ten. Menestrier gives an example of them in the arms
of Lebaret in France, argent three rustres azure.
The Mascle is pretty much like a lozenge, but void¬
ed or perforated through its whole extent, showing a
narrow border, as in the figure. Authors are divided
about the resemblance ; some taking it for the mash of
a net, and others for the spots of certain flints found
about Rohan ; and as no writer has given a clearer ac¬
count in support of this last opinion than Columbiere,
author of La Science Heraldique, we shall transcribe it
for the satisfaction of the curious.
“ Rohan (says he) bears Gules, nine Mascles, Or,
3, 3, 3. Opinions have varied very much about the
original of the mascles or mashes, as being somewhat
like the mashes of nets : but for my own part, having
often observed that those things which are remarkable
and singular in some countries, have sometimes occa¬
sioned the lords thereof to represent them in their
escutcheons, and to take them for their arms, I am
of opinion, that the lords of Rohan, who, I believe,
are the first that bore these figures in their arms though
descended from the ancient kings and princes of Bre¬
tagne, took them, because in the most ancient viscounty
of Rohan, afterwards erected into a duchy, there are
abundance of small flints, which being cut in two,
this figure appears on the inside of them 5 as also the
carps, which are in the fish-ponds of that duchy, have
the same mark upon their scales; which, being very
extraordinary and peculiar to that country, the an¬
cient lords of the same had good reason, upon obser¬
ving that wonder, to take those figures for their arms,
and to transmit them to their posterity, giving them
the name of macles, from the Latin word macula, sig¬
nifying a spot j whence some of that house have taken
for their motto, Sine macula macla, that is, A mascle
without a spot.”
Papillone is an expression used for a field or charge
that is covered with figures like the scales of a fish.
Mons. Baron gives as an example of it the arms ot
Monti, Gueules Papellone d’Argent. The proper term
for it in English would be scallop work.
Diapering is said of a field or charge shadowed with
flourishings or foliage with a colour a little darker than
that on which it is wrought. The Germans irequently
use it j but it does not enter into the blazoning or
description of an arms, it only serves to embellish the
coat.
If the fore-mentioned ordinaries have any attributes,
that is, if they are engrailed, indented, wavy, &c. they
must be distinctly specified, after the same manner as
the honourable ordinaries.
See examples of subordinaries, &c. fig. xii.
1. “ Gules,
413
§ub-
Ordinaries.
4H
HERA
Sub- I. “ Gules, an Orle Ermine }” borne by the name
Ordinaries, of Humfranville.
2. “ Argent, three Inescutcheons Gules borne
by the name of Play, and the 2d and 3d quarters in
the coat-of-arms of the right hon. Thomas Hay, earl ol
Kinnoul, &c.-—The first of the name of Hay that
bore these arms, got them, as Mr Nisbet observes, be¬
cause he and his two sons, after having defeated a
party of the Hanes at the battle of Loncarty, anno
042, were brought to the king with their shields all
stained with blood.
3. “ Argent, a Fret Sable 5” borne by the right
hon. Lionel Talmash, earl of Dysart. &c. This fami¬
ly was advanced to the peerage by King Charles I. in
1646.
4. “ Or fretty of Gules, a Canton Ermine borne
by the right hon. Henry Noel, earl of Gainsborough,
&c. This nobleman is descended from Noel,
who came into England with William the Conqueror,
and, in consideration of his services, obtained a grant
of several manors and lands of very great value. Sir
Edward, who w'as knighted by King James on his ac¬
cession to the throne, and created a baronet June 29.
1611, was the first advanced to the honour of Baron
Noel, March 23. 1616.
5. “ Girony of eight Pieces Or and Sablethe 1st
and 4th quarters of the coat-of-arms of the right hon.
John Campbell, earl of Breadalbane, &c. This an¬
cient and noble family is descended, in a regular suc¬
cession, from Duncan the first Lord Campbell, ancestor
of the family of Argyll. John, the first earl, in con¬
sideration of his personal merit, was, from a baronet,
created Lord Campbell, Viscount Glenorchie, and earl
of Breadalbane, Jan. 28. 1677, by Charles II.
6. “ Lozengy Argent and Gules j” borne by the
right hon. George Fitz-William, Earl Fitz-William,
&c. This noble earl is descended from Sir William
Fitz-William, marshal of the army of William the
Conqueror at the battle of Blastings in Sussex, by
which victory that prince made his way to the
throne.
7. “ Sable, a Mascle within a Tressure flowery Ar¬
gent borne by the name of Hoblethorne.
8. “ Gules, three Mullets Or, within a Bordure of
the latter, charged with a double Tressure flowery, and
counter-flowery with Fleurs-de-lis of the first*,” borne
by the noble family of Sutherland, &c. This family,
in the peerage, is among the oldest in Britain, if not
in all Europe *, the title of earl being conferred on one
of their ancestors in 1067.
9. “ Azure, a Pile Ermine,” for the name of Wyche;
and is quartered as first and fourth in the coat-of-arms
of Sir Cyril Wyche, Bart.
10. “ Or, on a Pile engrailed Azure, three Cross-
croslets fitchy of the first j” borne by the name of
Higdon.
11. “ Or, on a Pile Gules, three Lions of England
between six Fleurs-de-lis Azure the first and fourth
quarters of his grace Edward Seymour, duke of Somer¬
set, &c. granted him by King Henry VIII. on his mar¬
riage with the lady Jane Seymour.
12. “ Ermine, two Piles issuing from the dexter and
sinister sides, and meeting in base Sable j” for the name
of Holies.
.13. “ Argent, three Piles, one issuing from the Chief
J
L D n Y. Chap
between the others reversed, Sable for the name of
Hulse, and borne by Sir Edward Hulse, Bart.
14. “ Azure, a Pile wavy bend ways Or j” borne
by the name of Aldham.—There is no mention made
of its issuing out of the dexter corner of the escut¬
cheon, for this is sufficiently determined by the term
bend ways.
15. “ Or, three Piles in Bend, each point enseign-
ed with a Fleur-de-lis Sable j” borne by the name of
Norton.
16. “ Argent, three Piles meeting near the point of
the base Azure j” borne by the name of Bryan.
17. “ Party per Pale and per Bend Or and Azure
counterchanged 3” borne by the name of Johnson.—
This bearing is equal to two gyrons ; see p. 412. col. 2.
18. “ Party per Pale and per Cheveron Argent and
Gules counterchanged.”
19. “ Party per Pale chappc Or and Vert counter-
changed.” This is a bearing seldom to be met with.
20. “ Party per Fess Gules and Argent, a Pale
counterchanged j” borne by the name of Lavider.
Sect. III. Of Common Charges borne in Coats-of-
arms.
It has been already observed, that in all ages men
have made use of the representation of living creatures,
and other symbolical signs, to distinguish themselves in
war 3 and that these marks, which were promiscuously
used for hieroglyphics, emblems, and personal devices,
gave the first notion of heraldry. But nothing shows
the extent of human wit more, than the great variety of
these marks of distinction, since they are composed of
all sorts of figures, some natural, others artificial, and
many chimerical; in allusion, it is to be supposed, to
the state, quality, or inclination of the bearer.
Hence it is, that the sun, moon, stars, comets, me¬
teors, &c. have been introduced to denote glory, gran¬
deur, power, &c. Lions, leopards, tygers, serpents,
stags, &c. have been employed to signify courage,
strength, prudence, swiftness, &c.
The application to certain exercises, such as war,
hunting, music, &c. has furnished lances, swords, pikes,
arms, fiddles, &c. ; architecture, columns, cheverons,
&c. 3 and the other arts several things that relate to
them.
Human bodies, or distinct parts of them, also clothes,
and ornaments, have, for some particular intention,
found place in armory 3 trees, plants, fruits, and
flowers, have likewise been admitted to denote the
rarities, advantages, and singularities, of diflerent
countries.
The relation of some creatures, figures, &c. to par¬
ticular names, has been likewise a very fruitful source
of variety in arms. Thus the family of Coningsby
bears three coneys 3 of Arundel, six swallows ; of Ur-
son, a bear 3 of Lucie, three pikes, in Latin tres lucios
pisces; of Starkey, a stork 3 of Castleman, a castle
triple-towered 3 of Shuttleworth, three weavers shut¬
tles, &c.
Besides these natural and artificial figures, there are
chimerical or imaginary ones used in heraldry, the re¬
sult of fancy and caprice 3 such as centaurs, hydras,
phoenixes, griffons, dragons, &.c. Which great variety
of figures shows the impossibility of comprehending all
common
Clip. ID.
, tn,a| common charges in a work of this nature ; therefore
] ures. such only shall be treated of as are most frequently
u v—^ borne in coats-of-arms.
Art. i. Of Natural Figures borne in Coats-oj-arms.
Among the multitude of natural things which are
used in coats-of-arms, those most usually borne are, for
the sake of brevity as well as perspicuity, distributed
into the following classes, viz.
Celestialfigures; as, the sun, moon, stars, See. and
their parts.
Effigies of men, women, &c. and their parts.
Beasts} as, lions, stags, foxes, boars, &c. and their
parts.
Birds; as, eagles, swans, storks, pelicans, &c. and
their parts.
Fishes; as dolphins, whales, sturgeons, trouts, &c.
and their parts.
Reptiles and insects; as, tortoises, serpents, grass¬
hoppers, &c. and their parts.
Vegetables; as trees, plants, flowers, herbs, &c. and
their parts.
Stones; as diamonds, rubies, pebbles, rocks, &c.
These charges have, as well as ordinaries, divers at¬
tributes or epithets, which express their qualities, posi¬
tions, and dispositions. Thus the sun is said to be in
his glory, eclipsed, &c. j the moon, in her complement,
increscent, &c. Animals are said to be rampant, pas¬
sant, &c. Birds have also their denominations such as
close, displayed, &c. Fishes are described to be hau-
riant, naiant, &c.
HERALDRY.
415
Celestial
Figures.
late
LVII.
;• 13.
I. Examples of Celestial Figures.
1. “ Azure, a Sun in his Glory 5” borne by the
name of St Clere; and is found in the first and fourth
quarters of the coat-of-arms of the most noble William-
John Ker, marquis of Lothian, &c. It is needless to
express the colour of the sun, nothing being capable to
denote it but gold.
2. “ Azure, one Ray of the Sun, bendways Gules,
between six Beams of that Luminary Argent $” borne
by the name of Aldam. There is no mention made of
their issuing out of the dexter-corner of the escutcheon ;
for this is implied in the term bendways, for the reason
mentioned before.
3. “ Argent, five rays of the Sun issuing out of the
sinister corner Gules j” borne by the name of Mudt-
shidcler, a family of distinction in Franconia.
4. “ Or, a Sun eclipsed.” This bearing is seldom
to be met with, except in emblematic or hieroglyphic
figures; and might be expressed Sable, because that
hue is accidental and not natural.
5. “ Gules, the Moon in her complement Or, illu¬
strated with all her light proper.” This is sufficient
without naming the colour, which is Argent.
6. “ Azure, a Moon decrescent proper $” borne by
the name of Delaluna.
7. “ Gules, a Moon increscent Or j” borne by the
name of Descus.
8. “ Argent, a Moon in her detriment. Sable.”
This word is used in heraldry to denote her being
eclipsed,
9. “ Azure, a Crescent Argent}” borne by the
same of Lucy. This bearing is also used as a differ¬
ence, it being assigned to the second son, as before-
mentioned.
10. “Gules, three Crescents Argent j” borne by' 'r“
Oliphant, Lord Oliphant (at present dormant). A-
mongst the ancestors of this noble family was David de
Olipbant, one of those barons who, in 1142, accom¬
panied King David I. into England with an army, to
assist his niece Matilda, against King Stephen ; but
after raising the siege of Winchester, the said King
David was so closely pursued, that had it not been for
the singular conduct of this brave person, the king
would have been taken prisoner.
11. “ Azure, a Crescent between three Mullets
Argent $” borne by Arbuthnot, Viscount and Baron
Arbuthnot. In the year 1105, family
marrying a daughter of the family of Oliphard, sheriff
of the county of Kincardine, with her he had the lands
of Arbuthnot in that county, from whence he took bis
surname. Robert Arbuthnot was the first of this family
who, for his loyalty to King Charles I. was, Nor. 16.
1641, dignified with the title of Baron and Viscount
Arbuthnot.
12. “ Gules, a Star issuing from between the Horns
of a Crescent Argent.”
13. “ Azure, a Star of 16 points Argent j” borne
by the name of Huitson.
14. “ Argent, three Mullets pierced Sable j” borne
by the name of Wollaston.
15. “ Azure, six Mullets, 3, 2, 1, Or $” borne by
the name of Welsh.
16. “ Ermine, a Mullet of six points Gulfcs, pier¬
ced ;” borne by the name of FLessenhul.—When a mul¬
let has more than five points, their number must, in
blazoning, be always named.
17. “ Argent, a Rainbow with a Cloud at each
end proper.” This is part of the crest to the earl ot
Hopeton’s coat-of-arms, which is inserted in fig. ix.
N° 13. The whole of it is a globe split on the top,
and above it is the rainbow, &c.
18. “ Party per Fess crenelle Gules and Azure,
three Suns proper j” borne by the name of Pierson.
19. “ Gules, a Mullet between three Crescents Ar¬
gent j” borne by the name of Oliver.
20. “ Gules, a Chief Argent, on the lower part
thereof a Cloud, the Sun’s resplendent rays issuing
throughout proper j” borne by the name of Leeson.
II. Examples of E ffigies of Men, fyc. and their Parts.
1. “ Azure, the Virgin Mary crowned, with her Fig-. 14.
Babe in her right arm and a sceptre in her left, all
Or $” the coat-of-arms of the bisboprick of Salisbury.
2. “ Azure, a Presbyter sitting on a Tomb-stone,
with a Crown on his head and a Glory Or, his right
hand extended, and holding in his left an open Book
Argent, with a sword cross his mouth Gules j” the
coat-of-arms of the bishoprick of Chichester.
3. “ Azure, a Bishop habited in his pontificals sitting
on a chair of state, and leaning on the sinister side
thereof, holding in his left hand a Crosier, his right
being extended towards the dexter chief of the escut¬
cheon, all Or, and resting his feet on a cushion Gules,
tasseled of the second ;” the coaCof-arms of the bishop-
rick of Clogher in Ireland.
4. “ Azure, a Bishop habited in his pontificals,
holding before him, in a Pale, a Crucifix proper
the
416
Effigies
©(' Men.
HERA
the coat of arms of the bishop of Waterfortl in Ire¬
land.
5. “ Or, a man’s Leg conped at the midst of the
thigh Azure 5” borne by the name of Haddon.
6. “ Azure, three sinister hands couped at the wrist,
and erected Argent j” borne by the ancient family of
Malmaijis.
7. 44 Argent, three sinister hands couped at the wrist,
and erected Gules j” borne by the name of Maynard.
—By these two last examples it appears that different
coats of arms may be easily made from the same fi¬
gure or figures, by varying the colours only, without
the addition of any other charge, counter-changings,
partings, &c.
8. “ Argent, a Man’s Leg erased at the midst of
the thigh Sable j” borne by the name of Tdrime.
9. 44 Gules, three Legs armed proper, conjoined in
the Fess point at the upper part of the thighs, flexed
in triangles, garnished and spurred, Or.” This is the
coat of arms of the Isle of Man $ and is quartered by
the most noble John Murray, duke of Athol, titular
lord or king of that isle.
iq. “ Gules, three dexter Arms vambraced fess-
ways, in Pale proper j” borne by the name of Arm¬
strong. This coat is very well adapted to the bearer’s
name, and serves to denote a man of excellent conduct
and valour.
11. 44 Or, three Legs couped above the knee Sable
borne by the name of Hosy.
12. 44 Vert, three dexter Arms conjoined at the
shoulders in the Fess-point, and flexed in triangle Or,
with fists clenched Argent j” borne by the name of
Tremain.
13. 44 Argent, a Man’s Heart Gules, with two
equilateral triangles interlaced Sable $” borne by the
name of Villages, a family of distinction in Provence.
14. 44 Azure, a sinister Arm, issuing out of the
dexter-chief, and extended towards the sinister-base
Argent.”
15. 44 Argent, a dexter Hand couped at the wrist,
and erected, within a bordure engrailed Sable j” borne
by the name of Manley.
16. 44 Argent, a Man’s Heart Gules, ensigned with
a Crown Or, and on a Chief Azure, three Mullets of
the first.” The paternal coat of the name of Douglas,
and quartered in the arms of the dukes of Hamilton
and Queensberry ; as also in those of the earls of Mor¬
ton and March, and the lord IVIordington.
17* Gules, a oaracen’s Head affrontce, erased at
the neck Argent, environed about the temples with a
wreath of the second and Sable j” borne by the name
of Mergith.
18. Argent, three Blackamoors Heads couped
proper, banded about the head Argent and Gules
borne by the name of Tanner.
19* Gules, three Besants, each charged with a
man’s face affrontee properborne by the name of
Gamin.
20. 44 Or, a Blackamoor’s Head couped proper,
banded about the head Argent j” borne by the name
of Us toe.
Observe, that when half of the face, or little more,
of human figures, is seen in a field, it is then said to be
tn profile; and when the head of a man, woman, or
3
L D R 1l . Chap. I|
other animal, is represented with a full face, then it is p .. j
termed affroiitae. of°iioj
III. Examples of the different Positions of Lions, fyc. ^ ^
in Coats-f-Arms.
x. 44 Or, a Lion rampant Gules j” quartered byp;
Percy, duke of Northumberland, &c.
2. 44 Azure, a Lion rampant-guardant Or j” borne
by the name of Filz-Hammond.
3. 44 Gules, a Lion rampant-reguardant Or j” quar¬
tered by Cadogan, Lord Cadogan, &c.
4. 44 Ermine, a Lion saliant Gules j” borne by the
name of JVorlsy.
5. 44 Azure, a Lion statant-guardant Or j” borne
by the name of Bromfeld.
6. 44 Or, a Lion passant Gules 5” borne by the name
of Games.
7. 44 Argent, a Lion passant guardant Gules crown¬
ed Or;” quartered by the right honourable James
Ogilvy, earl of Findlater, &c.
8. 44 Gules, a Lion sejant Argent.”
9. 44 Or, a Lion rampant double-headed Azure
borne by the name of Mason.
10. 44 Sable, two Lions rampant-combatant Or,
armed and langued Gules;” borne by the name of
Carter.
11. 44 Azure, two Lions rampant-adossee Or.” This
coat-of-arms is said to have been borne by Achilles at
the siege of Troy.
12. 44 Sable, two Lioncels counter-passant Argent,,
the uppermost towards the sinister side of the escut¬
cheon, both collared Gules;” borne by the name of
Glegg.—It is the natural disposition of the lion not to
bear a rival in the field : therefore two lions cannot be
borne in one coat-of-arms, but must be supposed to be
lion’s whelps, called lioncels $ except when they are
parted by an ordinary, as in fig. viii. N° 17. or so dis¬
posed as that they seem to be distinctly separated from
each other, as in fig. xv. N° 20. In the two foregoing
examples they are called lions, because in the loth they
seem to be striving for the sovereignty of the field,
which they would not do unless they were of full
growth ; and in the nth they are supposed to represent
two valiant men, whose dispute being accommodated
by the prince, are leaving the field, their pride not suf¬
fering them to go both one way.
13. 44 Argent, a Demi-lion rampant Sable;” borne
by the name of Mervin.
14. 44 Gules, a Lion couchant between six Cross-
croslets, three in Chief, and as many in Base, Argent;”
for the name of Tynte ; and is the first and fourth quar¬
ter of the arms of Sir Charles-Kemys Tynte, Bart.
15. 44 Azure, a Lion dormant Or.”
16. 44 Or, out of the midst of a Fess Sable, a Lion
rampant naissant Gules ;” borne by the name of Etnme.
This form of blazon is peculiar to all living things that
shall be found issuing out of the midst of some ordinary
or other charge.
17* 44 Azure, three Lioncels rampant Or;” borne
by Fienes, Viscount and Baron Saye and Sele.
18. 44 Gules, a tricorporated Lion issuing from three
parts of the Escutcheon, all meeting under one Head
in the Fess-point Or, langued and armed Azure;”
borne
ip. III.
;ient borne by the name of Crouchback. This coat appertain-
n»ls. e(J to Edmund Crouchback earl of Lancaster, in the
i " reign of his brother King Edward I.
19. “ Gules, a besant between three Demi-lions
rampant Argent $” borne by Bennet, earl of Tanker-
ville, &c. This noble earl is descended from the fa¬
mily of the Bennets in Berkshire, who flourished in the
reign of King Edward III. Charles, Lord Ossulston,
was created earl of Tankerville on October 19. 1714,
by George I.
20. “ Party per Pale Azure and Gules, three Lions
rampant Argentborne by Herbert earl of Pem¬
broke, Sec. This noble family is descended from Henry
Fitz-Koy, natural son to Henry I. Sir William Her¬
bert, one of the ancestors of the present earl, was mas¬
ter of the horse to King Henry VIII. lord president of
the marches of Wales, and knight of the Garter. He
was also, by that king, advanced to the dignity of Ba¬
ron Herbert of Caerdiff, Oct. 10. 1551, and the very
next day created earl of Pembroke.—Observe, that if
a lion, or any other beast, is represented with its limbs
and body separated, so that they remain upon the field
at a small distance from their natural places, it is then
termed Dehache or couped in all its parts; of which ve¬
ry remarkable bearing there is an instance in armery,
which is, “ Or, a Lion rampant Gules, dehache, or
couped in all its parts, within a double Tressure flowery
and counter-flowery of the second j” borne by the name
of Maitland.
IV. Examples of other Quadrupeds, and their Partst
borne in Coats-of-Arms.
1. “ Sable, a Camel statant Argent >” borne by the
name of Camel.
2. “ Gules, an Elephant statant Argent, tusked
Or.”
3. “ Argent, a Boar statant Gules, armed Or j”
borne by the name of Trewarthen.
4. “ Sable, a Bull passant Or borne by the name
of Fit%-Geffrey.
5. “ Sable, three Nags Heads erased Argent j”
borne by Blayney, Baron Blayney of Monaghan, in
Ireland. This noble family is descended in a direct
line from Cadwallader, a younger son of the prince of
Wales 5 and the first peer was Sir Edward Blayney,
knight, who was created a baron by King James I.
July 29. 1621.
6. “ Argent, three Boars Heads erased and erect
Sable, langued Gules,” for the name of Booth.
<7. “ Azure, three Boars heads erased Or j” quar¬
tered by his grace Alexander Gordon duke of Gordon,
&c. Of this great and noble family, which took their
surname from the barony of Gordon in the county of
Berwick, there have been, besides those in North Bri¬
tain, several of great distinction in Muscovy ; and in
the time of King Malcolm IV. 1160, this family was
very numerous, and flourished in the county afore¬
said.
8. “Argent, three Bulls Heads erased. Sable, arm¬
ed Or;” borne by Skeffington, earl of Massareene,
&c. of Ireland. This ancient and noble family derives
its name from the village of Skeffington, in the county
of Leicester, of which place Simon Skeffington was
lord in the reign of Edward I. and from him descended
Vol. X. Part II. f
HERALDRY.
A.
417
Sir William Skeffington, knight, made so by King Birds,
Henry VII. ' *Phhes,&c.
9. “ Argent, two Foxes counter-saliant, the dexter ' 
surmounted of the sinister Gules j” for the name of
Kadrod Hard, an ancient British family, from which
is descended Sir   Wynne, Bart, who
bears this quartered, second and third, in his coat-of-
arms.
10. “ Argent, three Bulls passant Sable, armed and
unguled Or 5” for Ashley, and quartered by the right
honourable Anthony-Ashley Cooper, earl of Shaftes¬
bury, &c. This noble earl is descended from Richard
Cooper, who flourished in the reign of King Hen. VIII.
and purchased the manor of Paulet in the county of
Somerset, of which the family are still proprietors.
But his ancestor who makes the greatest figure in his¬
tory is Sir Anthony-Ashley Cooper, who was created
Baron Ashley of Winbourn, April 20. 1661, and af¬
terwards earl of Shaftesbury April 23. 1672.
n. “ Ermine, three Cats passant in Pale Argent j”
for the name of Adams.
12. “ Gules, two Grehounds rampant Or, respecting
each other j” borne by thd name of Dogget.
13. “ Or, an Ass’s Head erased Sable 5” borne by
the name of Hackwell.
14. “ Gules, three Lions gambs erased Argent j”
for the name of Neuidigate.
15. “ Argent, three Lions Tails erected and erased
Gules $” borne by the name of Cork.
16. “ Azure, a Buck’s Head cabossed Argent j”
borne by Legge, earl of Dartmouth, &c. This noble
family is descended from Signior de Lega, an Italian
nobleman, who flourished in Italy in the year 1297.
What time the family came into England is uncertain 5
but it appears they were settled at Legge-place, near
Tunbridge in Kent, for many generations j and Tho¬
mas, one of their ancestors, was twice lord-mayor of
London, viz. in 1346 and 1353.
17. “ Argent, two Squirrels sejant adossde Gules,”
for the name of Samwell.
18. “ Gules, a Goat passant Argent 5” borne by the
name of Baker.
19. “ Sable, a Stag standing at gaze Argent j”
borne by the name oi Jones, of Monmouthshire.
20. “ Azure, three Holy Lambs Or j” borne by
the name of Bow.
V. Examples of Birds, Fishes, Beptiles, &c.
1. “ Ermine, an Eagle displayed Sable j” borne by Fig. 17.
the name of Beddingfitld.
2. “ Gules, a swan close proper j” borne by the
name of Leigham.
3. “ Argent, a Stork Sable, membered Gules $”
borne by the name of Starkey.
4. “ Gules, a Pelican in her nest with wings elevat¬
ed, feeding her young ones Or j vulned proper j” borne
by the name of Came.
5. “ Argent, three Peacocks in their pride proper j”
borne by the name of Bawne.
6. “ Sable, a Goshawk Argent, perching upon a
stock in the Base-point of the Escutcheon of the second,
armed, jessed, and belled Or j” borne by the name ot
Wheele. * ’ >
3G
7-
4i8
HERALDRY.
Birds. 7* “ Or, a Raven proper 5” borne by the name of
Fishes, &c. Corbet. .
» 1.» g. “ Argent, three Cocks Gules, crested and jow-
lopped Sable, a Crescent surmounted of a Crescent for
difference 5’* borne by Cockayne, Viscount Cullen, of
Donegal in Ireland. Of this ancient family was An¬
dreas Cockayne of Ashburne in the county of Derby,
who lived in the 28th year of Edward I. Charles, son
to Sir ‘William Cockayne lord-mayor of London, 1619,
was the first who was advanced to the peerage, by
Charles I. August II. 1642.
9. “ Sable, a Dolphin naiant embowed Or $” borne
by the name of Symonds. This animal is borne by the
eldest son of the French king, and next heir to the
crown, no other subject in that kingdom being permit¬
ted to bear it. In England, where that rule cannot
take place, there are several families that have dolphins
in their coats-of-arms.
10. “ Argent, three Whales Heads erect and erased
Sableborne by the name of Whalley.
11. “Gules, three Escallops Argent j” borne by
K.eppel, earl of Albemarle, &c. This family is de¬
scended from Arnold Joost van Keppel, a nobleman of
the province of Guelderland in Holland, who came
over into England with the prince of Orange in 1688,
to whom he was then a page of honour, and afterwards
master of the robes, and was by him created a peer of
England, by the title of earl of Albemarle, in the duchy
of Normandy in France, February 10. 1696.
1 2. “ Azure, three Trouts fretted in Triangle Ar¬
gent borne by the name of Troutbeck.
13. “ Vert, a Grashopper passant Or.”
14. “ Azure, three Bees two and one volant in pale
Argentborne by the name of Bye.
15. “ Vert, a Tortoise passant Argent j” borne by
the name of Gawdy.
16. “ Gules, an Adder nowed Or j” borne by the
name of Nathiley. Adders^ snakes, and serpents, are
said to represent many things, which being according
to the fancy of the ancients, and a few modern authors
who have adopted their opinions, it is needless to en¬
large upon. It is certain they often occur in armory:
but the noblest is that of the duchy of Milan, viz.
“ Argent, a Serpent gliding in Pale Azure, crowned
Or, vorant an Infant issuing Gules.” The occasion of
this bearing was this : Otho, first viscount of Milan,
going to the Holy Land with Godfrey ,of Bouillon, de¬
feated and slew in single combat the great giant Volux,
a man of extraordinary stature and strength, who had
challenged the bravest of the Christian'" army. The
viscount having killed him, took his armour, and among
it his helmet, the crest whereof was a serpent swallow¬
ing an infant, worn by him to strike terror into those
who should be so bold as to engage him.
17. “ Ermine, a Rose Gules barbed and seeded pro¬
per borne by Boscawen Viscount Falmouth, &c.
This family is descended from Richard Boscawen, of
the town of Boscawen, in the county of Cornwall,
who flourished in the reign of King Edward VI. Huob
the first peer of this ancient family, was created baron
of Boscawen Rose, and Viscount Falmouth, on the 13th
of June 1720, 6th of George L
18. “ Azure, three Laurel leaves slipped Or;” borne
by the name of Leveson, and quartered by the right ho-
Chap. I
nourable Granville-Leveson Gower, earl of Gower, Artifici
&C. Fifuil
17. “ Azure, three Garbs Or;” borne by the name '"■‘•v
of Cuming. These are sheaves of wheat; but though
they were barley, rye, or any other corn whatsoever,
it is sufficient, in blazoning, to call them Garbs, tell¬
ing the tincture they are of.
20, “ Gules, three Cinquefoils Argentborne by
Lambart, baron of Cavan, &c. in Ireland. Of tins
ancient family, which is of Frelnch extraction, was Sir
Oliver, who in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, attend¬
ing the earl of Essex to Spain, was there knighted by
him, and afterwards returning with that earl into Ire¬
land, was, for his singular service in the north against
O’Neal earl of Tyrone, made camp-master-general, and
president of Connaught; and February 17. 1617, was
created Lord Lambart and baron of Cavan by King
James I.
It must be observed, that trees and plants are some¬
times said to be trunked, eradicated, fructuated, or ra-
guled, according as they are represented in arms.
Art. 2. Of Artificial Figures borne in Coats-of-
Arms.
After the various productions of nature, artificial fi¬
gures, the objects of arts and mechanics, claim the next
rank. They may be distributed into the following clas¬
ses, viz.
Warlike instruments ; as swords, arrows, battering-
rams, gauntlets, helmets, spears, pole-axes, &c.
Ornaments used in royal and religious ceremonies; as
crowns, coronets, mitres, wreaths, crosiers, &c.
Architecture; as towers, castles, arches, colunlns,
plummets, battlements, churches, portcullises, &c.
Navigatmi; asships,anchors, rudders, pendants, sails,
oars, masts, flags, galleys, lighters, &c.
All these bearings have different epithets, serving ei¬
ther to express their position, disposition, or make :
viz. swords are said to be erect, pommeled, hiked, &c. ;
arrows, armed, feathered, &c.; towers, covered, em¬
battled, &c.; and so on of all others, as will appear
by the following examples.
1. “ Sable, three Swords, their points meeting in^’S*1
the Base Argent, pommeled and hiked Or, a Crescent
in chief of the second for difl’erence borne by Powlet,
duke of Bolton, 8tc. This noble duke is descended
from Hercules, lord of Tournon in Picardy, who came
over to England with Jeffrey Plantagenet earl of An¬
jou, third son of King Henry II. and among other lands
had the lordship of Paulet in Somersetshire conferred on
him. William Powlet, the first peer of this illustrious
and loyal family, was treasurer of the household to
King Henry \ III. and by him created Baron St John
of Basing, in the county of Southampton, March 9.
I538, . . '
2. “ Argent, three Battering-rams barways in Pale,
headed Azure and hooped Or, an Annulet for differ*
ence borne by Bertie, earl of Abington, &c. The
first of the family of Bertie that bore the title of earl of
Abington was James Bertie Lord Norris of Rycote,
being created earl, Nov. 30. 1682, by Charles II.
3. “ Azure, three left-hand Gauntlets with their
backs forward Or borne by Fane, earl of Westmore¬
land, &c. This noble earl is descended from the Fanes,
lap. III.
Hficial an ancient family which resided atBadsal in Kent, from
Lures, which descended Francis Fane, son and heir of Sir Tho-
V*' mas Fane, knight, by Mary his wife, sole daughter and
heiress to Henry Nevil Lord Abergavenny, afterwards
created Baroness Despenser. The said Francis was a
knight of the Bath and in the reign of King James I.
was created Baron Burghersh and earl of Westmore¬
land Dec. 29. 1614.
4. “ Azure, three Arrows their points in base Or
borne by Archer, Lord Archer, &c. This noble lord
is descended from John de Archer, who came over
from Normandy with William the Conqueror ; and this
family is one of the most ancient in Warwickshire, be¬
ing settled at Umberslade in that county ever since the
reign of Henry II. His lordship is the first peer j and
was created Lord Archer and baron of Umberslade by
King George II. July 14. 1747*
5. ”“ Gules, two Helmets in chief proper, garnished
Or, in a Base of a Garb of the third $” borne by Chol-
mondeley, earl of Cholmondeley, &c. This noble earl
is descended from the ancient family of Egerton in
Cheshire, which flourished in the time of the Conquest,
from whom also the duke of Bridgewater was descended.
The first English peer of this branch was Hugh Vis¬
count Cholmondeley of Kells, in Ireland, who, joining
with those who opposed the arbitrary measures of King
James II. was on the accession of King William and
Queen Mary created Lord Cholmondeley of Nampt-
wich, in the county of Chester.
6. “ Argent, a ship with its sails furled up Sable
quartered by Hamilton, earl of Abercorn, &c. The
descent of this noble family is from that of the duke of
Hamilton : for James, the fourth Lord Hamilton and
second earl of Arran, marrying Lady Margaret Doug¬
las daughter of James the third earl of Morton, by her
had four sons, James, John, Claud, and David : where¬
of Claud was progenitor of the lord we are now speak¬
ing of j and in consideration of his merit and loyalty to
Mary queen of Scots, James VI. created him Lord
Paisley in 1591, as also earl of Abercorn, baron of Ha¬
milton, &c. July 10. 1606.
7. “ Or, an Anchor in pale Gules 5” quartered by
the most noble George Johnston, marquis of Annan-
dale, &c. The Johnstons are an ancient and warlike
family, and derive their surname from the barony of
Johnston in Annandale.
8. “ Sable, three Spears heads erect Argent, im¬
brued Gules, on a chief Or, as many Pole-axes A-
zure $” borne by King, Lord King, &c. Peter King
Esq. the first lord of this ancient family, was chosen
recorder of the city of London, July 27* I7°^> ant^ on
the 12th of September following had the honour of
knighthood conferred on him. He was constituted
lord-chief-justice of the common pleas in the first year
of King George I. 1714 > on the 5th of April follow¬
ing was sworn of his majesty’s most hofiourable privy-
council, and on May 19. 1723 was created a peer of
this kingdom by the title of Lord King, baron of Ock¬
ham.
9. “ Gules, three Clarions Or j” quartered by Car¬
teret, earl of Granville, &c. This ancient family
derives its pedigree from Offerey de Carteret, who
attended William the Conqueror in his descent upon
England, and contributed to the victory he obtained.
HERALDRY.'
419
over King Harold, at Hastings in Sussex, 1066 : he Artiflcial
had manors and lands in England conferred on him by Figures,
that prince, as a reward for his eminent services.v——
George the first earl was, in consideration of his own
merit and the services of his ancestors, created a peer
of Great Britain, October 19. 1681.
10. “ Argent, a Maunch Sable j” borne by Hast¬
ings, earl of Huntingdon, Stc. This family is de¬
scended from Hugh de Hastings, a younger son of the
ancient and noble family of the Hastings, earl of Pem¬
broke, of which family was William de Hastings, steward
of the househould to King Henry I.—William, the first
Lord Hastings, was created a baron on July 6. 1461,
by King Edward IV.
11. “ Azure, a circular Wreath Argent and Sable,
with four Hawks Bells joined thereto in quadrature
Or j” borne by Jocelyn, Viscount Jocelyn, &.c. This
noble family is of great antiquity j for, after the Ro¬
mans had been masters of Britain 500 years, wearied
with the wars, they took their final farewell of it, and
carried away with them a great many of their brave old
British soldiers, who had served them in their wars
both at home and abroad, to whom they gave Armo¬
rica in France, for their former services, which coun¬
try was from them afterwards called Little Britain.
It is supposed that there were some of this family
amongst them $ and that they gave the name of Joce~
lyn to a town in this country, which still preserves
that name 5 and it is thought probable that they return¬
ed with William the Conqueror j for we find, in l©66,
mention made of Sir Gilbert Jocelyn. The first lord
of the family, was created Baron Newport, of Newport
in Ireland, on Nov. 29. 1743, and viscount in Nov.
I75I*
11. “ Gules, three Towers Argent;” quartered by
Fowler, Viscount Ashbrook, 8cc. William Fowler,
Esq. was advanced to the peerage by King George II.
and created baron of Castle Durrow in the county of
Kilkenny, Oct. 27. 1733 > and his son was created
Viscount Ashbrook, of Ashbrook in Ireland, on Sep¬
tember 30. 1751 j now extinct.
13. “ Gules, two Keys in Saltier Argent, in Chief
a Royal Crown proper the arms of the archbishopric
of York.
14. “ Gules, two Swords in Saltier Argent, pom¬
meled and hiked Orthe arms of the bishopric of
London.
15. “ Sable, a Key in Bend, surmounted by a
Crosier in Bend-sinister, both Or;” the arms of the
bishopric of St Asaph.
16. “ Gules, two Keys adossee in Bend, the upper¬
most Argent, the other Or, a Sword interposed be¬
tween them in Bend-sinister of the second, pommeled,
and hiked of the third ;” the arms of the bishopric of
Winchester.
17. “ Gules, three Mitres with their pendants Or;”
the arms of the bishopric of Chester.
18. “ Sable, three Ducal Coronets paleways Or;”
the arms of the bishopric of Bristol.
19. “ Gules, a Sword erect in Pale Argent, pom¬
meled and hiked Or, surmounted by two Keys in
Saltier of the last;” the arms of the bishopric of Exeter.
20. “ Gules, three Ducal Coronets, Or;” the arms
of the bishopric of Ely*
3 G 3 Art.
420
H E K A
Chimerical
Figures.
Fig. rp.
Art. 3. Or Chimerical Figures.
The last and the oddest kind of bearings in coats-of-
arms, is comprehended under the name of chimerical
figures; that is to say, such as have no real existence,
but are mere fabulous and fantastical inventions.
These charges, griffons, martlets, and unicorns except¬
ed, are so uncommon in British coats, that in order to
make up the same number of examples hitherto contain¬
ed in each collection, several foreign bearings are in¬
troduced here ; which, however, as they are conform
to the laws of heraldry, will also contribute both to
entertain and instruct the reader. Those most in use
are the following, viz.
Angels, Cherubims, Tritons, Centaurs, Martlets,
Griffons, Unicorns, Dragons, Mermaids, Satyrs, Wi-
verns, Harpies, Cockatrices, Phoenixes.
These, like the foregoing charges, are subject to va¬
rious positions and dispositions, which, from the princi¬
ples already laid down, will be plainly understood from
the following examples.
N° 1. is “ Gules, an Angel standing affrontee, with
his hands conjoined and elevated upon his breast, ha¬
bited in a long Robe close girt Argent, his Wings dis¬
played Orborne by the name of Brangor de Cere-
visia, a foreign prelate, who assisted at the council of
Constance, 1412. This example is quoted by Guillim,
Sect. III. Chap. I.
2. “ Sable, a Cheveron between three Cherubim
Or •j” borne by the name of Chaloncr, of Yorkshire
and Cheshire.
3. “ Azure, a Fess indented between three Cheru¬
bim Argent.” These arms were granted to John
Ayde, Esq. of Doddington in Kent, by Sir William
Segar, garter.
4. “ Gules, a Cherub having three pair of Wings,
the uppermost and lowermost counter-crossed Saltier-
ways, and the middlemost displayed Argent j” borne
by the name of Buocasoco, a foreign predate. This ex¬
ample is copied from Menestrier’s Methods du Blcison,
p. 120. N® viii.
3. “ Azure, a Griffon segreant Or, armed and
langued Gules, between three Crescents Argent 5”
quartered by Bligh, Lord Clifton, &c. The ancestor
of this noble family, who lived in London, going over
to Ireland in the time of Oliver Cromwell, as an agent
to the adventurers there, acquired a good estate, and
laid the foundation for the grandeur of this family.
6. “ Gules, three Martlets Or*,” borne by the name
of Macgill. Guillim observes, that this bird, which
is represented without feet, is given for a difference to
younger brothers, to put them in mind, that, in order
to raise themselves, they are to trust to their wings of
virtue and merit, and not to their legs, having but little
land to set their feet on.
7. “ Azure, three Mullets Argent within a double
Tressure counter-flowery Or, in the centre a Martlet
of the last j” borne by Murray, Lord Elibank. Sir Gi¬
deon Murray, knighted by King James VI. by whom
be was made treasurer-depute, was third son of Sir
Andrew Murray of Blackbarony. His son Patrick,
in respect of his loyalty to Charles I. was on May 16.
1628 made a baronet, and in 1643 created Lord Eli¬
bank.
L D R Y. Chap. I'l f
8. “ Sable, a Cockatrice displayed Argent, crested, Crownij 5,
membered, and jowlopped Gules.” y- |
9. “ Argent, a Mermaid Gules, crined Or, holding
in her right hand a Comb, and in her left a Mirror,
both proper j” borne by the name of Ellis.
10. “ Argent, a Wivern, his Wings elevated, and
his Tail nowed below him Gules j” borne by the name
of Drakes.
11. “ Or, a Dragon passant Vert.”
12. “ Gules, a Centaur or Sagittary in full speed
reguardant proper.” This was the coat-of-arms of
Stephen surnamed of Blois, son to Adela daughter of
William the Conqueror, and of Stephen earl of Blois 5
and on this descent grounding his pretension to the
crown of England he was proclaimed king in 1135,
and reigned to the 2Jth of October 1154.
13. “ Argent, an Unicorn sejant Sable, unguled
and horned Or 3” borne by the name of Marling.
14. “ Argent, a Dragon’s Head erased Vert, hold¬
ing in his Mouth a sinister Hand couped at the Wrist
Gul es 3” borne by the name of Williams.
15. “Gules, three Unicorns Heads couped Or 3”
borne by the name of Paris.
16. “ Argent, a Wivern volant Bend ways Sable 3”
borne by the name of Raynon.
17. “ Azure, a Lion Sejant guardant winged Or,
his Head encircled with a Glory, holding in his fore-
paws an open book, wherein is written, Pax tibi,
Marce, Evangelista mens; over the dexter side of the
Book a Sword erect, all proper.” These are the arms
of the republic of Venice.
18. “ Azure, a Bull saliant and winged Or,” borne
by the name of Cadenct, a family of distinction of Pro¬
vence.
19. “ Argent, a Wivern with a human Face af¬
frontee hooded and winged Vert,” borne by the
name of Buseraghi, an ancient and noble family of
Luques.
20. “ Azure, a Harpy displayed, armed, crined,
and crowned Or.” These are the arms of the city of
Nuremberg in Germany.
To the fore-mentioned figures may be added the
montegre, an imaginary creature, supposed to have the
body of a tyger with a satyr’s head and horns 3 also
those which have a real existence, but are said to be
endowed with extravagant and imaginary qualities, viz.
the salamander, beaver, cameleon, &c.
Chap. IV. Of the External Ornaments of Escut¬
cheons.
The ornaments that accompany or surround escut¬
cheons were introduced to denote the birth, dignity, or
office, of the persons to whom the coat-of-arms apper-
taineth 5 which is practised both among the laity and
clergy. Those most in use are of ten sorts, viz. Crowns,
Coronets, Mitres, Helmets, Mantling#, Chapeaux,
Wreaths, Crests, Scrolls, Supporters.
Sect. I. Of Crowns.
The first crowns were only diadems, bands, or
fillets 3 afterwards they were composed of branches
of divers trees, and then flowers were added to
them.
Among
d>P. iv.
U" Among the Greek?, the crowns given to those who
u ' carried the prize at the Isthmian games, were of pine ;
at the Olympic, of laurel $ and at the Nemean, of
smallage.
The Romans had various crowns to reward martial
exploits and extraordinary services done to the repub¬
lic ; for which see the detached article CROWN in this
Dictionary, and Plate CLXIV.
Examples of some of these crowns are frequently
met with in modern achievements, viz. I. The mural
crown in that of Lord Montfort, which was conferred on
Sir John Bromley, one of his lordship’s ancestors, as an
augmentation to his arms, for his great courage at the
battle of Le Croby. Part of the crest of Lord Archer
is also a mural crown. And there are no less than
ten English baronets, whose arms are ornamented with
the same crown. 2. The naval or rostral crown is
still used with coats-of-arms, as may be seen in those
of Sir William Burnaby, Bart, now admiral of the red
squadron, and of John Clerke, Esq. as part of their
crests. 3. Of the castrense or vallary crown, we have
instances in the coats-of-arms of Sir Reginald Graham,
and of Isaac Akerman, Esq. 4. The crest ol Grice
Blackney, Esq. is encompassed with a civic crown.
5. The radiated crown, according to J. Yorke, was
placed over the arms of the kings of England, till the
time of Edward III. It is still used as a crest on
the arms of some private families ; those, for example,
borne by the name of Whitfield, are ornamented with
it. The celestial crown is formed like the radiated,
with the addition of a star on each ray 5 and is only
used upon tombstones, monuments, and the like.—
Others of the ancient crowns are still borne, as crests,
by several families.
But modern crowns are only used as an ornament,
which emperors, kings, and independent princes set on
their heads, in great solemnities, both to denote their
sovereign authority, and to render themselves more
awful to their subjects. These are the most in use in
heraldry, and are as follows :
1 JOi The imperial crown (N° 1.) is made of a circle of
gold, adorned with precious stones and pearls, height¬
ened with fleurs-de-lis, bordered and seeded with pearls,
raised in the form of a cap voided at the top like a
crescent. From the middle of this cap rises an arched
fillet enriched with pearls, and surmounted of a mound,
whereon is a cross of pearls.
The crown of the kings of Great Britain (2.) is a
circle of gold, bordered with ermine, enriched with
pearls and precious stones, and heightened up with
four crosses patee and four large fleurs-de-lis alter¬
nately j from these rise four arched diadems adorned
with pearls, which close under a mound, surmounted
of a cross like those at bottom. Mr Sandford, in
his Genealogical History, p. remarks, that Ed¬
ward IV. is the first king of England that in his
seal, or on his coin, is crowned with an arched dia¬
dem.
The crown of the kings in France (3.) is a circle
♦namelled, adorned with precious stones, and heighten¬
ed up with eight arched diadems, rising from as many
fleurs-de-lis, that conjoin at the top under a double
fleur-de-lis, all of gold.
The crowns of Spain, Portugal, and Poland, are
all three of the same form, and are, amongst others,
421
thus described by Colonel Parsons, in his Genealogical Coronets.
Tables of Europe, viz. A ducal coronet, heightened v — - >
up with eight arched diadems that support a mound,
ensigned with a plain cross. Those of Denmark and
Sweden are both of the same form, and consist of eight
arched diadems, rising from a marquis’s coronet, which
conjoin at the top under a mound ensigned with a cross-
bottony.
The crowns of most other kings are circles of gold,
adorned with precious stones, and heightened up with
large trefoils, and closed by four, six, or eight diadems,
supporting a mound, surmounted of a cross.
The Great Turk (4.) bears over his arms a turban,
enriched with pearls and diamonds, under two coronets,
the first of which is made of pyramidical points height¬
ened up with large pearls, and the uppermost is sur¬
mounted with crescents.
The Pope, or bishop of Rome, appropriates to him¬
self a Tiara (N° 5.), or long cap of golden cloth, from
which hang two pendants embroidered and fringed at
the ends, semee of crosses of gold. This cap is enclosed
by three marquises coronets $ and has on its top a
mound of gold, whereon is a cross of the same, which
cross is sometimes represented hy engravers and paint¬
ers pometted, recrossed, flowery, or plain.—It is a
difficult matter to ascertain the time when the popes
assumed the three forementioned coronets. A patched-
up succession of the holy pontiffs, engraved and pub¬
lished some years ago by order of Pope Clement XIII.
for the edification of his good subjects in Great Bri¬
tain and Ireland, represents Marcellos, who was cho¬
sen bishop of Rome anno 310, and all his successors,
adorned with such a cap: but it appears, from very
good authority, that Boniface VIII. who was elected
into the see of Rome anno 1295, first compassed his
cap with a coronet ; Benedict XII. in 1335, added a
second to it j and John XXII f. in 1411, a third ; with
a view to indicate by them, that the Pope is the sove¬
reign priest, the supreme judge, and the sole legislator
amongst Christians.
Sect. II. Of Coronets.
The coronet of the prince of W ales, or eldest son
of the king of Great Britain (N° 7.), was anciently a
circle of gold set round with four crosses patee, and as
many fleurs-de-lis alternately j but since the Restora¬
tion, it has been closed with one arch only, adorned
with pearls, and surmounted of a mound and cross, and
bordered with ermine like the king’s.
Besides the aforesaid coronet, his royal highness the
prince of Wales has another distinguishing mark of
honour, peculiar to himself, called by the vulgar the
prince's arms, viz. A plume ot three ostrich-feathers,
with an ancient coronet of a prince of Wales. Under
it, in a scroll, is the motto, Ich Dien, which in the
German or old Saxon language signifies, “ I serve
(see N° 6.). This device was at first taken by Edward
prince of Wales, commonly called the Black Prince,
after the famous battle ot Cressy, in 134^ where ha¬
ving with his own hand killed John king of Bohemia,
he took from his head such a plume, and put it on his
The coronet of all the immediate sons and bro¬
thers of the kings of Great Britain, is a circle of gold,
bordereau
HERALDRY.
422
Coronets, bordered with ermine, heightened up with four fleurs-
v de-lis, and as many crosses patee alternate, (see IN e.).
 The particular and distinguishing form of such co¬
ronets as are appropriated to princes of the blood-royal,
is described and settled in a grant of Charles II. the
13th of his reign. ...
The coronet of the princesses of Great Britain is a
circle of gold, bordered with ermine, and heightened up
with crosses-patee, fleurs-de-lis, and strawberry leaves
alternate (N° 9.) *, whereas a prince’s coronet has only
fleurs-de-lis and crosses.
A duke’s coronet is a circle of gold bordered with
ermine, enriched with precious stones and pearls, and
set round with eight large strawberry or parsley leaves ;
CN°I0-)- '
A marquis’s coronet is a circle of gold, bordered
with ermine, set round with four strawberry leaves, and
as many pearls on pyramidical points of equal height,
alternate; (N° 11.). _
An earl’s coronet is a circle of gold, bordered with
ermine, heightened up with eight pyramidical points
or rays, on the tops of which are as many large pearls,
and are placed alternately, with as many strawberry-
leaves, but the pearls much higher than the leaves:
(N* 12.).
A viscount’s coronet differs from the preceding ones
as being only a circle of gold bordered with ermine,
with large pearls set close together on the rim, with¬
out any limited number, which is the prerogative above
the baron, who is limited: (see N° I3-)*
A baron’s coronet, (N° 14.), which was granted by
King Charles II. is formed with six pearls set at equal
distances on a gold circle, bordered with ermine, four
of which only are seen on engravings, paintings, &c.
to show he is inferior to the viscount.
The eldest sons of peers, above the degree of a ba¬
ron, bear their father’s arms and supporters with a la¬
bel, and use the coronet appertaining to their father’s
second title *, and all the younger sons bear their arms
with proper differences, hut use no coronets.
As the crown of the king of Great Britain is not
quite like that of other potentates, so do most of the
coronets of foreign noblemen differ a little from those
of the British nobility *, as for example, the coronet of
a French earl is a circle of gold with 18 pearls set on
the brim of it; a French viscount’s coronet is a circle
of gold only enamelled, charged with four large pearls ;
and a French baron’s coronet is a circle of gold ena¬
melled and bound about with a double bracelet of
pearls ; and these coronets are only used on French
noblemen’s coats-of-arms, and not worn on their heads,
as the British noblemen and their ladies do at the
king’s coronation.
Sect. III. Of Mitres.
The archbishops and bishops of England and Ire¬
land place a mitre over their coats-of-arms. It is a
round cap pointed and cleft at the top, from which
hang two pendants fringed at both ends; with this
difference, that the bishop’s mitre is only surrounded
with a fillet of gold, set with precious stone, (see fig. 23.
N° 6.), whereas the archbishop’s issues out of a ducal
coronet, (see fig. 20. N° I51)*
Chap, I#
This ornament, with other masquerade garments, Helmiif*
is still worn by all the archbishops and bishops of the ancwf!
church of Rome, whenever they officiate with solemn!-MantlilK
ty; but it is never used in England, otherwise than‘-—V'1 f
on coats-of-arms, as before mentioned.
Sect. IV. Of Helmets.
The Helmet was formerly worn as a defensive wea¬
pon, to cover the hearer’s head, and is now placed over
a coat-of-arms as its chief ornament, and the true mark
of gentility. There are several sorts, distinguished, 1st,
by the matter they are made of; 2dly, by their form ;
and, 3dly, by their position.
1st, As to the matter they are, or rather were,
made of: The helmets of sovereigns were of burnished
gold damasked; those of princes and lords, of silver
figured with gold ; those of knights, of steel adorned
with silver, and those of private gentlemen of polishejl
steel.
2dly, As to their form : Those of the king and the
royal family, and noblemen of Great Britain, are open-
faced and grated, and the number of bars serves to
distinguish the bearer’s quality ; that is, the helmet
appropriated to the dukes and marquises is different
from the king’s, by having a bar exactly in the middle,
and two on each side, making but five bars in all, (see
fig. 21. N° I.) ; whereas the king’s helmet has six bars,
viz. three on each side, (ibid. N° 70* The other
grated helmet with four bars is common to all degrees
of peerage under a marquis. The open-faced helmet
without bars denotes baronets and knights. The close
helmet is for all esquires and gentlemen.
jdly, Their position is also looked upon as a mark
of distinction. The grated helmet in front belongs to
sovereign princes. The grated helmet in profile is com¬
mon to all degrees of peerage. The helmet standing
direct without bars, and the beaver a little open, de¬
notes baronets and knights. Lastly, the side-standing
helmet, with the heaver close, is the way of wearing it
amongst esquires and gentlemen. See N* I, 2, 3, 4,
and 7, inserted in fig. 21. Ornaments.
Sect. V. Of Mantlings.
MantliNGS are pieces of cloth jagged or cut into
flowers and leaves, which now-a-days serve as an orna¬
ment for escutcheons. They were the ancient cover¬
ings of helmets, to preserve them, or the bearer, from
the injuries of the weather, as also to prevent the ill
consequences of their too much dazzling the eye in
action. But Guillim very judiciously observes, that
their shape must have undergone a great alteration
since they have been out of use, and therefore might
more properly be termed flourishings than mantlings.
See the examples annexed to the helmets represented
in fig. 21.
The French heralds assure us, that these mantlings
were originally no other than short coverings which
commanders wore over their helmets, and that, going
into battles with them, they often, on their coming
away, brought them back in a ragged manner, oc¬
casioned by the many cuts they had received on their
heads; and therefore the more hacked they were, the
more
HERALDRY.
ip. IV.
eaux7 more honourable they were accounted ; as our colours
aths, in time of war are the more esteemed for having been
c- shot through in many places.
' Sometimes skins of beasts, as lions, bears, &c. were
thus borne, to make the bearer look more terrible,
and that gave occasion to the doubling of mantlings
with furs.
Sect. VI. Of Chapeaux.
A Chapeau is an ancient hat, or rather cap, of dig¬
nity worn by dukes, generally scarlet-coloured velvet
on the outside, lined and turned up with fur j of late
frequently to be met with above an helmet, instead of
a wreath, under gentlemen’s and noblemen’s crests.
Heretofore they were seldom to be found, as of right
appertaining to private families; but by the grants of
Robert Cooke, Clarencieux, and other succeeding he¬
ralds, these, together with ducal coronets, are now fre¬
quently to be met with in families, who yet claim not
above the degree of gentlemen. See the representa¬
tion of the chapeau, N® 5. fig. 2X.
Sect. VII. Of Wreaths.
The Wreath is a kind of roll made of two skains of
silk of different colours twisted together, which ancient
knights wore as a head-dress when equipped for tourna¬
ments. The colours of the silk are always taken from
the principal metal and colour contained in the coat-
of-arms of the bearer. They are still accounted as one
of the lesser ornaments of escutcheons, and are placed
between the helmet and the crest: (see fig. 21. N° 6.).
In the time of Henry I. and long after, no man, who
was under the degree of a knight, had his crest set on
a wreath j but this, like ether prerogatives, has been
infringed so far, that every body now a-days wears a
wreath.
Sect. VIII. Of Crests.
The Crest is the highest part of the ornaments of a
coat-of-arms. It is called crest, from the Latin word
crista, which signifies comb or tuft, such as many
birds have upon their heads, as the peacock, pheasant,
See. in allusion to the place on which it is fixed.
Crests were formerly great marks of honour, because
they were only worn by heroes of great valour, or by
such as were advanced to some superior military com¬
mand, in order that they might be the better distin¬
guished in an engagement, and thereby rally their men
if dispersed \ but they are at present considered as a
mere ornament. The crest is frequently a part either
of the supporters, or of the charge borne in the escut¬
cheon. Thus the crest of the royal achievement of
Great Britain is a “ Lion guardant crowned,” as may
be seen in fig. 21. N° 7. The crest of France is a
double Fleur-de-luce. Out of the many crests borrow¬
ed from supporters, are the following, viz. The duke
of Montagu’s, “ A Griffon’s head coup’d Or, back’d
and wing’d Sable the marquis of Rockingham’s,
“ A Griffon’s head argent, gorg’d with a ducal coro¬
net $” the earl of Westmoreland’s, “ A Bull’s head
Argent, py’d Sable, armed Or j” and Lord Archer’s,
423.
which is, “ Out of a mural crown Or, a Wyvern’s head The Scroll
Argent.” There are several instances of crests that and Snp-
are relative to alliances, employments, or names 5 and P01,161'8' .
which on that account have been changed. f
Sect. IX. Of the Scroll.
The Scroll is the ornament placed above the crest,
containing a motto, or short sentence, alluding thereto,
or to the bearings $ or to the bearer’s name, as in the
two following instances. The motto of the noble
earl of Cholmondeley is, Cassis tutissima virtue ; i. e.
“ Virtue is the safest helmet j” on account of the hel- N
met in the coat-of-arms. The motto of the right ho¬
nourable Lord Fortescue is, Forte scutum salus clucum ;
i. e. “ A strong shield is the safety of the command¬
ers alluding to the name of that ancient family.
Sometimes it has reference to neither, but expresses
something divine or heroic j as that of the earl of
Scarborough, which is, Murus cereus cnnscientia Sana ;
i. e. “ A good conscience is a wall of brass.” Others
are enigmatical j as that of the royal achievement,
which is Dieu et mon Droit, i. e. “ God and my
right j” introduced by Edward III. in 1340, when he
assumed the arms and title of king of France, and be¬
gan to prosecute his claim, which occasioned long and
bloody wars, fatal by turns to both kingdoms : or that
of the prince of Wales, which is Ich dien, “ I serve,”
the origin of which has been already mentioned.
Mottos, though hereditary in the families that first
took them up, have been changed on some particular
occasions, and others appropriated in their stead, in¬
stances of which are sometimes met with in the history
of families.
Sect. X. Of Supporters.
Supporters are figures standing on the scroll, and
placed at the side of the escutcheon j they are so call¬
ed, because they seem to support or hold up the shield.
The rise of supporters is, by F. Menestrier, traced up
to ancient tournaments, wherein the knights caused
their shields to be carried by servants or pages under
the disguise of lions, bears, griffons, blackamoors, &c.
who also held and guarded the escutchfeons, which the
knights were obliged to expose to public view for
some time before the lists were opened. Sir George
Mackenzie, who dissents from this opinion, says, in his
Treatise on the Science of Heraldry, chap. xxxi. p. 93.
“ That the first origin and use of them was from the
custom which ever was, and is, of leading such as are
invested with any great honour to the prince who
confers it: thus, when any man is created a duke,
marquis, or knight of the Garter, or any other orderB
he is supported by, and led to the prince, betwixt two
of the quality, and so receives from him the symbols
of that honour 5 and in remembrance of that solemni¬
ty, his arms are thereafter supported by any two crea¬
tures he chooses.” Supporters have formerly been
taken from such animals or birds as are borne in the
shields, and sometimes they have been chosen as bear¬
ing some allusion to the names of those whose arms
they are made to support. The supporters of the
arms of Great Britain, since King James the Firsts
accession
HERALDRY.
424
Supporters, accession to the throne, are a Lion rampant guarclant
' yi < croivned Or, on the dexter side, and an Unicorn Argent,
crowned, armed, ungvled, maned and gorged with an
antique Crown, to which a chain is affixed, all Or, on
the sinister *, as it appears by fig. 21. N° 7.
Th is last figure represents the coat-of arms of the
king of Great Britain, or the royal achievement, as
it has been marshalled since the accession of Iving
George I. in 1714, and is blazoned as follows, viz.
ARMS. Quarterly, in thefirst grand quarter Gules,
three Lions rampant guardant in pale Or, the imperial
ensigns of England ; impaled with Or, a Lion rampant,
with a double tressure flowery and counter-flowery
Gules, the royal arms of Scotland. The second ts Axure,
three Fleurs-de-lis Or, the arms of France. The third
is Azure, a Harp Or, stringed Argent, the ensign of
Ireland. The fourth grand quarter is Gides, two Lions
passant guardant in pale Or, for Brunswick; impaled
with Or semee of Hearts Proper, a Lion rampant
A%ure, for Lunenburg; with grafted in base Gules a
Horse current Argent, for ancient Saxony ; and in a
shield surtout Gules, the Crown of Charlemagne Or, as
arch-treasurer of the empire ; the whole within a Gar¬
ter, inscribed with this motto, Honi soit q,ui MAI. Y
PENSE, as sovereign of that noble order, given by the
founder King Edward III.
CREST. On a Helmet full-faced, grated and sur¬
mounted of a Croivn, a Lion guardant crowned Or; the
mantlings of the last, and lining, Ermine.
SUPPORTERS. On the Dexter side a Lion ram¬
pant guardant Or, crowned as the Crest. On the Si¬
nister side an Unicorn Argent, crowned, armed, maned,
and unguled Or,gorged with an antique Crown; a Chain
affixed thereto, refecting over the back, and passing over
the hind legs of the last, both standing on a Scroll in¬
scribed with this motto, I)lEU ex mon droit, from
which issue the two Boy a l Badges of his Majesty'1 s chief
Dominions, viz. on the Dexter side a Bose party per
Pule Argent and Gules, stalked and leaved proper, for
England ; and on the Sinister side a Thistle proper, for
Scotland ; being so adorned by King James I. upon his
succeeding to the crown of England. As king of
Scotland, he bore two unicorns, as above, for his sup¬
porters ; but upon the union of that kingdom with Eng¬
land, 1603, he introduced one of the above supporters
on the sinister side of the royal achievement, and which
continues to this day.
It is to be observed, that bearing coats-of-arms sup¬
ported, is, according to the heraldrical rules of Eng¬
land, the prerogative, 1st, Of those called nobiles ma-
jores, viz. dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and ba¬
rons ; 2d, Of all knights of the Garter, though they
should be under the degree of barons ; 3d, Of knights
of the Bath, who both receive on their creation a grant
of supporters. And, lastly, of such grants as the king
chooses to bestow tins honour upon ; as in the in¬
stance of Sir Andrew Fountain, who was knighted by
Philip earl of Pembroke, when lord lieutenant of Ire¬
land, Fountain being then his secretary; and on his
return to England, King William granted him sup¬
porters to his arms, viz. two Griffins Gules and Or.
In Scotland, all the chiefs of clans or names have
the privilege of claiming supporters ; also the baro¬
nets. But by act of parliament, 10th September
Chap, la
1672, none are allowed to use either arms or support- Rules !
ers, under a penalty and confiscation of all moveables He*a!c|j
whereon arms are put, without the Lord Lyon’s autho- ^ I
rity.
Chap V. Of the Rules or Laws of Heraldry.
The several escutcheons, tinctures, charges, and or¬
naments of coats-of-arms, and their various properties,
being now explained ; it may not be improper to sub¬
join such rules for blazoning the same, as the ancient
usage and laws of heraldry have established amongst
us.
I. The frst and most general rule is, to express
one’s self in proper terms, so as not to omit any thing
that ought to be specified, and at the same time to be
clear and concise without tautology ; as in Ex. xiv.
Chap. III. art. 1. and also in Ex. II. art. 7. wherein
these expressions of the Field, or of the First, prevent
the repetition of the forementioned tincture.
II. One must begin with the tincture of the field,
and then proceed to the principal charges which possess
the most honourable place in the shield, such as Fess,
Cheveron, &c. always naming that charge first which
lies next and immediately upon the field ; as in Ex. I c.
Chap. III. art. 5.
III. After naming the tincture of the field, the ho¬
nourable ordinaries, or other principal figures, you must
specify their attributes, and afterwards their metal or
colour, as in Ex. 16. Examples of Effigies, &c.
IV. Wh en an honourable ordinary, or some one
figure, is placed upon another, whether it be a Fess,
Cheveron, Cross, &c. it is always to be named after
the ordinary or figure over which it is placed, with one
of these expressions, sur tout, ox over all, as in Ex. 20.
Chap. III. art. I.
V. In the blazoning of such ordinaries as are plain,
the bare mention of them is sufficient; but if an ordi¬
nary should he made of any of the crooked lines men¬
tioned above, its form must be specified ; that is, whe¬
ther it be Engrailed, Wavy, &c. as in Ex. 1. 2. 3.
Chap. III. art. I.
VI. When a principal figure possesses the centre of
the field, its position is not to be expressed : or (which
amounts to the same thing) when a bearing is named,
without specifying the point where it is placed, then it
is understood to possess the middle of the shield; as in
Ex. 1 Examples of other Quadrupeds, &c.
VII. The number of the points of mullets or stars
must be specified when more than five; and also if a
mullet or any other charge be pierced, it must be men¬
tioned as such, to distinguish it from what is plain ; as
in Ex. 13. 14- Examples of Celestial Figures.
VIII. When a ray of the sun, or other single figure,
is borne in any other part of the escutcheon than the
centre, the point it issues from must be named ; as in
Ex. 3. Examples of Celestial Figures.
IX. The natural colour of trees, plants, fruits, birds,
&c. is no otherwise to be expressed in blazoning but
by the word proper, as in Ex. 2. 7. Examples of Birds,
&c.; but if discoloured, that is, if they dift'er from
their natural colour, it must be particularized ; as in
Ex. 1. 2. Examples of other Quadrupeds, &c.
X. When three figures are in a field, and their po¬
sition
HERALDRY.
trap. VI, HERA
U shal- sition Is not mentioned in the blazoning, they are al>
|,g. ways understood to be placed, two above, and one be-
low ; as in fig, 23. N° 3.
XI. When there are many figures of the same spe¬
cies borne in a coat-of-arms, their number must be
observed as they stand, and distinctly expi’essed j as in
Ex, 1. Of Artificial Figures, fyc.
But for the better understanding of this last rule, we
have inserted examples of the different dispositions of
figures, wherein they are properly represented, viz.
Ttvo may be ranged in Pale, in Fess, &c. See
fig. 22. N° I and 2.
Three may be 2 and I, as also in Bend, &c. See
N° 3 and 4.
Four, are placed 2 and 2, or cantoned, as in
N° 5.
Five, I, 3, I, in Cross j or 2, I, 2, in Saltier. See
K° 6 and 7.
Six, 3, 2, I, in Pile j or 2, 2, 2, Paleways. See
N° 8 and 9.
FAght, in Orle, or on a Bordure. See N° 10.
Nine, 3, 3, 3, Bar ways j or 3, 3, 2, I, in Pile.
See N° 11 and 12.
Ten, 4, 3, 2, x, in Pile j or else, 4, 2, 4, Barways.
See N° 13 and 14. „
Twelve, are placed 4, 4, 4, Barways. See N° 15.
There are other positions called irregular; as for
example, when three figures which are naturally placed
2 and I, are disposed I and 2, &c. It must also be
observed, that when the field is strewed with the same
figures, this is expressed by the word semee: but, ac¬
cording to a French armorist’s opinion, if the figures
screwed on the field are whole ones, it must be denoted
by the words sans nomhre ; whereas, if part of them is
cut off at the extremities of the escutcheon, the word
scmec or semi is then to be used.
Chap. VL Of Marshalling Goats-af-arms,
By marshalling coats-of-arms, is to be understood
the art of disposing divers of them in one escutcheon,
and of distributing their contingent ornaments in proper
places. ,
Various causes may occasion arms to be thus con¬
joined, which J. Guillim comprises under two heads,
viz. manifest and obscure.
What this learned and judicious herald means by
manifest causes in the marshalling of coats-of-arms, are
such as betoken marriages, or a sovereign’s gift, grant¬
ed either through the special favour of the prince, or
for some eminent services. Concerning marriages it is
to be observed,
I. When the coats-of-arms of a married couple,
descended of distinct families, are to be put together
in one escutcheon, the field of their respective arms is
conjoined Palewavs, and blazoned parted per pale, Ba¬
ron and Femme, two coats; first, &(c. In which case the
baron’s arms are always to be placed on the dexter side,
and the femme’s arms on the sinister side, as in N° I
and 2, fig. 23. Of arms marshalled, which are,
1. The coat-of-arms of the Rev. Edward Barnard,
IX D. chaplain in ordinary to his majesty, provost of
Eton-college, canon of Windsor, &c. impaled with that
of S. Hagatt, his spouse.
2. The coat-of-arms of the Rev. Thomas Dampier,
Voju X. Part II. +
L D R y. 42 .
D. IX chaplain in ordinary to his majesty, prebendary Mai-vh*!
of Durham, canon of Windsor, &c. impaled with that ling-
of F. Walker, his spouse. w—
If a widower marry again, his late and present
wife’s arms are, according to G. Leigh, “ to be both
placed on the sinister side in the escutcheon with his
own, and parted per Pale. The first wife’s coat shall
stand on the Chief, and the second on the Base j or
he may set them both in Pale with his own, the first
wufe’s coat next to himself, and Ins second outermost.
If be should marry a third wife, then the two first
matches shall stand on the Chief, and the third shall
have the whole Base. And if he take a fourth wife,
she must participate one half of the Base with the
third wife, and so will they seem to be so many coats
quartered.” But it must be observed, that these
forms of impaling are meant of hereditary coats,
whereby the husband stands in expectation of having
the hereditary possessions of his wife united to his pa¬
trimony.
II. In the arms of femmes joined to the paternal
coat of the baron, the proper differences by which thev
were borne by the fathers of such women must be in¬
serted.
III. If a coat-of-arms that lias a Bordure be im¬
paled with another, as by marriage, then the Bordure
must be wholly omitted in the side of the arms next
the centre.
IV. The person that marries an heiress, instead of
impaling his arms with those of his wife, is to bear
them in an escutcheon placed in the centre of his
shield, after the same manner as the baronet’s badge
is marshalled in N° 3. and which, on account of its
showing forth his pretension to her estate, is called an
escutcheon of pretence, and is blazoned surtout, i. e.
over-all, as in the escutcheon borne in the fourth quar¬
ter of the royal achievement. But the children are
to bear the hereditary coat-of-arms of their father
and mother quarterly, which denotes a fixed inheritance,
and to transmit them to posterity. The first and fourth
quarters generally contain the father’s arms, and the
second and third the mother’s $ except the heirs should
derive not only their estate, but also their title and dig¬
nity, from their mother.
V. If a maiden or dowager lady of quality marry a
commoner, or a nobleman inferior to her rank, their
coats-of-arms may be set aside of one another in two
separate escutcheons, upon one mantle or drapery, and
the lady’s arms ornamented according to her title $ see
N° 4. and 6. which represent the coats-of-arms of Gen.
C. Montagu, and Lady Elizabeth Villiers Viscountess
Grandison.
VI. Archbishops and bishops impale the arms dif¬
ferently from the fore-mentioned coats, in giving the
place of honour, that is, the dexter side, to the arms
of their dignity, as it is expressed in N° 6. which re¬
presents the coat-of-arms of Dr Philip Yonge, Lord
bishop of Norwich. It may be observed of the above
prelates, that they thus bear their arms, parted per
Pale, to denote their being joined to their cathedral
church in a sort of spiritual marriage.
With respect to such armorial ensigns as the sove¬
reign thinks fit to augment a coat-of-arms with, they
may be marshalled various ways, as may be seen by
the arms of his grace the duke of Rutland, inserted in
3 H fig- 8.
426 HERA
Of Escut- fig-. 8. N° 19. and the example contained In fig. u.
cheons. 1 x.
" ‘ To those augmentations may be added, 1st, The
baronet’s mark of distinction, or the arms of the pro¬
vince of Ulster in Ireland, granted and made heredi¬
tary in the male hue by Iving James I. woo elected
this dignity on the 22ii of May 1611, in the 9th
year of his reign, in order to propagate a plantation
in the fore-mentioned province. Jhis mark is rir-
genf, a sinister Hand rouped at the JFi'ist, and erected
Gules; which may be borne either in a canton, or in
an escutcheon, as will best suit the figures of the arms.
See fig. 23. N° 3. which represents the coat-of-arms
of Sir William Lorrayne, of Kirk-harle, Northumber¬
land, and are thus blazoned : Quarterly, Sable and
Argent, a plain Cross counter-quartered of the Field.
The Crest,—A Laurel-tree covped, two branches sprout¬
ing out proper, and fixed to the loiver part thereof with
a Belt Gules, edged and buckled Or. This, according
to tradition in the family, was granted for some worthy
action in the field.
2dly, The ancient and respectable badge of the
most noble order of the Garter, instituted by King
Edward III.' 1349, in the 27th year of his reign ;
and which, ever since its institution, has been looked
upon as a great honour bestowed on the noblest per¬
sons of this nation and other countries. This honour¬
able augmentation is made to surround, as with a gar¬
ter, the arms of such knights, and is inscribed with
this motto, Honi soit qui mal y pense: see N° 7. which
represents the coat-of arms of his grace the duke of
Montagu, earl of Cardigan, Baron Brundenel of Stan-
ton-Wevil, constable and lieutenant of Windsor-cas-
tle, knight of the most noble order of the Garter,
and baronet, president of St Luke’s Hospital, and
F. R. S.
This nobleman, whose arms were Argent, a Cheve-
ron Gules between three Morions proper, has, since the
decease of John duke of Montagu, taken the name and
arms of Montagu, on account of his being married to
Lady Mary Montagu, youngest daughter, and one of
the co-heiresses of his grace.
So far the causes for marshalling divers arms in one
shield, &c. are manifest. As to such as are called ob¬
scure, that is, when coats-of-arms are marshalled in
such a manner, that no probable reason can be given
why they are so conjoined, they must be left to heralds
to explain, as being the properest persons to unfold these
and other mysteries of this science.
Chap. VII. Of Funeral Escutcheons.
After having treated of the essential parts of the
coats-of-arms, of the various charges and ornaments
usually borne therewith, of their attributes and dispo¬
sitions, and of the rules for blazoning and marshalling
them, we shall next describe the several funeral escut¬
cheons, usually called hatchments; whereby may be
known, after any person’s decease, what rank either he
or she held when living; and if it be a gentleman’s
hatchment, whether he was a bachelor, married man,
or widower, with the like distinctions for gentlewo¬
men.
Plate The hatchment, fig. 24. N° 1. represents such as are
CCLX. affixed to the fronts of houses, when any of the nobility
L D R Y. Chap.
and gentry dies; the arms therein being those of a pri- of
vale gentleman and his wife parted per pale ; the dex- ci.
ter side, which is Gules, three Bars Or, lor the bus-
band ; having the ground without the escutcheon black,
denotes the man to be dead ; and the ground on the
sinister side being white, signifies that the wife is living,
which is also demonstrated by the small hatchment,
N° 2. which is here depicted without mantling, helmet,
and crest, for perspicuity’s sake only.
When a married gentlewoman dies first, the hatch¬
ment is distinguished by a contrary colour from the
former; that is, the arms on the sinister side have the
ground without the escutcheon black ; whereas those
on the dexter side, for her surviving husband, are upon
a white ground: the hatchment of a gentlewoman is,
moreover, differenced by a cherub over the arms instead
of a crest. See N° 3.
"When a bachelor dies, his arms may be depicted
single or quartered, with a crest over them, hut never
impaled as the two first are, and all the ground with¬
out the escutcheon is also black. See N° 4.
When a maid dies, her arms, which are placed in a
lozenge, may be single or quartered, as those of a
bachelor ; but, instead of a crest, have a cherub over
them, and all the ground without the escutcheon is also
black. See N° 5.
When a widower dies, his arms are represented im¬
paled with those of his deceased wife, having a helmet,
mantling, and crest over them, and all the ground with¬
out the escutcheon black. See N° 6.
When a widow dies, her arms are also represented
impaled with those of her deceased husband, but enclo¬
sed in a lozenge, and, instead of a crest, a cherub is
placed over them ; all the ground without the escut¬
cheon is also black. See N° 7.
If a widower or bachelor should happen to be the
last of his family, the hatchment is depicted as in N°6.
and that of a maid or widow, whose family is extinct
by her death, is depicted as in N° 7. with this differ¬
ence only, that a death-head is generally annexed to
each hatchment, to denote, that death lias conquer¬
ed all.
By the fore-mentioned rules, which are sometimes
neglected through the ignorance of illiterate people,
may be known, upon the sight of any hatchment, what
branch of the family is dead ; and by the helmet or
coronet, what title and degree the deceased person
was of.
The same rules are observed with respect to the es¬
cutcheon placed on the hearse and horses used in pom¬
pous funerals, except that they are not surmounted with
any crest, as in the foregoing examples of hatchments,
but are always plain. It is necessary, however, to en¬
sign those of peers with coronets, and that of a maiden
lady with a knot of ribbands.
In Scotland, a funeral escutcheon not only shows forth
the arms and condition of the defunct, but is also a
proof of the gentility of his descent; and such persons
for whom this species of escutcheon can be made out,
are legally entitled to the character of gentlemen of
blood, which is the highest species of gentility. The
English hatchment above described exhibits no more
than a right to a coat-of-arms which may be acquired
by purchase, and is only the first step towards establish¬
ing gentility in a family.
The
HERALDHX
pljite rrziv.
A.
/, /.a a',s’ J)//'//:/?/:*-( j:s
jV° JEnyrazIed p. The Dovetail 20. T/ie Rafted
2.2hvec2ecZ
3 The TTaxy
>Ss. »>—
The SmhaTthed
3. Ths 3\2ehu/e
A/umrui
A' TheTtequle
X\ -S^- .
/; 7'he Thderited
WWAMAM
<5 The2)ance7he
VVWWMVWWWIA
77 T7ie JZ->nha2Zled aronde
/2.7ia//2ed Tmha/2h(Z
7.?. 2‘7ieT)ovet/zi7
24. r/7te Ohanipaine
r
22resc'ertt .3Jh/Z/e? 4d2<rrZ/et 3.d//Jit/Y*2
2Zahe7 y v A
Z.T'7<?wer 4e hir 7. Pose tf.OrossZlfoTme ^.Quater/bil
. Oensa/of/ie/'d
trkreaper Cross QuartvperPeSS dtcTizevemenZ
Can2on
Pel
Frel/v
Cyron
Inescutcheon Treasure
mr
/Torirhes
4/o,re//'
2tus/re
tyranny
T.C/Ur/c Sculp t
HERALDRY.
PLATE CCLV.
BORDURES ' riff. 3.
TCleri, Sculps
JTK11A LjyiVY
CC/J7
Chjevekox me. lif..“
FESSES&BARS Fw.S
r>E\jjs
Ayj
CJtOSSES Fig. JO
2 3 4
TCla-k Sculp
HERALDRY.
jPZA TE CC/J/f
SALTIERS. Fig. 11. OTUJIJVARIES &;c. Ftg. 12.
7!Oler& ScuJf*
rLA Tt; acz/x
C H OWNS /'\</. 20.
3
America
DI SPO SITIONS Fiy.
TdtrlSaJp*
IIE UAL]) It Y
/j/.yI JE rrrx
/}'/.2.’i Jr///.s- Jim:\'Z/ff/7f'r/
/ jr/, 2d J'f/jff'rr/ 'f?7//c7/ Ts
liiitifiii
.l_j §
T.AVJ* OT
B A 1.< AllU^\S
i:.Aiu. or
i» oxTuoTijsr
iiiVUJ. or
.si-.Ar oivnt
jTalu7ot
i. cviiTorro^j
HWFH
J.AJLU.
nrSjY
AIASTEK ox:
I. OXBOTN
I k vnr, oi1
|m Vl KHMr.I ST.
JiA HJ. OT
« O TIHli »s
CVTTTKKLi:
or i.vyj.y
i. onx>
r ox.xtijl.
no.ss or ]
«ai.is\oou:\\1
r i. o n n
3*XVTTM M O NI»
r. AIM. OK
\vri try <> x
1.03.1 j>
JVKIMMOM>
TCirri: Sculp?
1
HERALDRY.-
hip. VII.
[r?cut. The funeral escutcheon, as exhibited in Scotland,
■ons. France, and Germany, is in form of a lozenge, above
v—' six feet square of black cloth j in the centre of which
is painted, in proper colours, the complete achieve¬
ment of the defunct, with all its exterior ornaments
and additional marks or badges of honour ; and round
the sides are placed the sixteen arms of the families
from which he derives his descent, as far back as the
grandfather’s grandfather, as the proofs of his genti*
lily : they exhibit the armorial bearings of his father
and mother, his two grandmothers, his four great¬
grandmothers, and his eight great-grandmothers mo¬
thers; if all these families have acquired a legal right
to bear arms, then the gentility of the person whose
proof it is must be accounted complete, but not other¬
wise. On the four corners are placed mort-heads,
and the initials of his name and titles or designation ;
and the black interstices are semee or powdered with
tears, as in the figure, N° 8. which is the escutcheon
of the right honourable James 5th earl of Balcarras,
chief of the ancient surname of Ltndesay.
On the morning of the interment, one of these is
placed on the front of the house where the deceased
lies ; and another on the church in which he is to be
buried, which after the burial is fixed above the grave.
The pall, too, is generally adorned with these proofs
of gentility, and the horses of the hearse with the de¬
funct’s arms.
427
Of Escut¬
cheons.
HER
raldus HER ALDUS, Desiderius, in French Herault, a
rbace counse^or °f ^ie parliament of Paris, has given good
Plants", proofs of uncommon learning by very different works.
His Adversaria appeared in 1599 ; which little book,
if the Scaligerana may be credited, he repented the
having published. His notes on Tertullian’s Apology,
on Minutius Felix, and on Arnobius, have been
esteemed. He also wrote notes on Martial’s Epigrams.
He disguised himself under the name of David Lsidh-
resserus, to write a political dissertation on the indepen¬
dence of kings, some time after the death of Henry IV.
He had a controversy with Salmasius, Dejure Attico
ac Romano; but did not live to finish what he had
written on that subject. What he had done, however,
*Vas printed in 1650. He died in June 1649.
Patin says, that “ he was looked upon as a very learned
man, botji in the civil law and in polite literature, and
wrote with great facility on any subject he pitched
on.” Gaille, speaking of such Protestant writers as
condemned the executing of Charles I. king of Eng¬
land, quotes the Pacifique Royal en deuil, by Herault.
This author, son to our Desiderius Heraldus, was a
minister in Normandy, when he was called to the ser¬
vice of the Walloon-church of London under Charles I.
and he was so zealous a royalist, that he was forced to
fly to France, to escape the fury of the commonwealth-
men. He returned to England after the Restoration,
and resumed his ancient employment in the TV alloon-
church at London ; some time after which he obtained
a canonry in the cathedral of Canterbury, and enjoyed
it till his death.
HERB, in Bota?iy, a name by which Linnaeus de¬
nominates that portion of every vegetable which arises
from the root, and is terminated by the fructification.
It comprehends, 1. The trunk, stalk, or stem. 2. I he
leaves. 3. Those minute external parts called by the
same author the fulcra or supports of plants. 4. The
buds, or, as he also terms them, the winter-quarters
of the future vegetable.
HEBB-Christopher. See Actea, Botany Index.
HEBB-Robcrt, a species of Geranium. See Ge¬
ranium, Botany Index.
HERBACEOUS plants, are those which have
succulent stems or stalks that die down to the ground
HER
every year. Of herbaceous plants, those are annual ^eipjlG®'
which perish stem and root and all every year ; bien- |j
nial, which subsist by the roots two years ; perennial Herbert.
which are perpetuated by their roots for a series of11 ■ y *
years, a new stem being produced every spring.
HERBAGE, in Law, signifies the pasture provided
by nature for the food of cattle; also the liberty to feed
cattle in the forest, or in another person’s ground.
HERBAL, signifies a book that treats of the classes,
genera, species, and virtues of plants.
Herbal, is sometimes also used for what is some¬
times called hortus siccus, or a collection of dried
plants.
HERBELOT, Bartholemew d’, a French writer,
eminent for his oriental learning, was born at Paris in
1625. He travelled several times into Italy, where
he obtained the esteem of some of the most learned
men of the age. Ferdinand II. grand duke of Tus¬
cany, gave him many marks of his favour ; a library
being exposed to sale at Florence, the duke desired
him to examine the manuscripts in the oriental lan¬
guages, to select the best of them, and to mark the
price ; which being done, that generous prince pur¬
chased them, and made him a present of them. M.
Colbert being at length informed of Herbejot’s merit,
recalled him to Paris, and obtained a pension for him
of 1500 livres : he afterwards became secretary and in¬
terpreter of the oriental languages, and royal profes¬
sor of the Syriac tongue. He died at Paris in 1695.
His principal work is entitled Ribliotliecpue Onentale,
which he first wrote in Arabic, and afterwards trans¬
lated into French. It is greatly esteemed. M. Her-
belot’s modesty was equal to his erudition ; and his
uncommon abilities were accompanied with the ut¬
most probity, piety, and charity, which he practised
through the whole course of his life.
HERBERT, Mary, countess of Pembroke, was
sister of the famous Sir Philip Sidney, and wife of Hen¬
ry earl of Pembroke. She was not only a lover of the
muses, but a great encourager of polite literature ; a
character not very common among ladies. Her bro¬
ther dedicated his incomparable romance Arcadia to
her from which circumstance it hath been called The
Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia. She translated a dra-
3 H 2 rnatic
HER \ [ 428 ] HER
Herb«t. matlc piece from the French, entitled Antonins, a tra-
t—■ ■' gedy; though it is said she was assisted by her lord’s
chaplain, Dr Babington, afterwards bishop of Exeter.
She also turned the Psalms of David into English metre;
but it is doubtful whether these works were ever print¬
ed. She died in 1621 ; and an exalted character of
her is to be found in Francis Osborne’s Memoirs of
King James I.
Herbert, Edward, Lord Herbert of Cherbnry in
Shropshire, an eminent English writer, was born in
1581, and educated at Oxford, after which he tra¬
velled, and at his return was made knight of the Bath.
James I. sent him ambassador to Louis XIII. in behalf
of the Protestants who were besieged in several cities
of France ; and continued in this station till he was re¬
called, on account of a dispute between him and the
constable de Luines. In 1625 he was advanced to the
dignity of a baron in the kingdom of Ireland, by the
title of Lord Herbert of Castle Island ; and in 1631 to
that of Lord Herbert of Cherbury in Shropshire. Af¬
ter the breaking out of the civil wars, he adhered to
the parliament ; and in 1644 obtained a pension, on
account of his having been plundered by the king’s
forces. He wrote a History of the Life and Reign of
Henry VIII. which was greatly admired ; a treatise
Ee vei'itate; and several other works. He died at
London in 1648.
“ Lord Herbert (says Mr Granger), stands in the
first rank of the public ministers, historians, and phi¬
losophers of his age. It is hard to say whether his per¬
son, his understanding, or his courage, was the most
extraordinary ; as the fair, the learned, and the brave,
held him in equal admiration. But the same man was
wise and capricious ; redressed wrongs, and quarrelled
for punctilios ; hated bigotry in religion, and was him¬
self a bigot to philosophy. He exposed himself to
such dangers as other men of courage would have care¬
fully declined : and called in question the fundamen¬
tals of a religion which none had the hardiness to dis¬
pute besides himself.”
Herbert, JFilham, earl of Pembroke, was born at
Wilton in Wiltshire, 1580; and admitted to New-
college in Oxford in 1592, where he continued about
two years. In 1601 he succeeded to his father’s ho¬
nours and estate ; was made K. G. in 1604 ; and go¬
vernor of Portsmouth six years after. In 1626, he
was elected chancellor of the university of Oxford; and
about the same time made lord steward of the kino’s
household. He died suddenly at his house called Bay-
aard's castle, in London, April 10. 1630 ; according
to the calculation of his nativity, says Wood, made
several years before by Mr Thomas Allen of Gloucester-
hall. Clarendon relates concerning this calculation
that some considerable persons connected with Lord
Pembroke being met at Maidenhead, one of them at
supper drank a health to the lord steward; upon which
another said, that he believed his lordship w-as at that
time very merry ; for he had now outlived the day,
which it had been prognosticated upon his nativity he
would not outlive ; but he had outlived it now, for
that was his birth day, which had completed his" age
to 50 years. The next morning, however, they re¬
ceived the news of his death. Whether the noble hi¬
storian really believed this and other accounts relating
i® astrology, apparitions, providential interpositions,
4
&c. which he has inserted in his history, we do not Hcffc
presume to say : he delivers them, however, as if he did H
not actually disbelieve them. Lord Pembroke was not
only a great favourer of learned and ingenious men, but
was himself learned, and endowed with a considerable ^
share of poetic genius. All that are extant of his pro¬
ductions in this way were published with this title :
“ Poems written by William earl of Pembroke, &c.
many' of which are answered by way of repartee by Sir
Benjamin Rudyard, with other poems written by them
occasionally and apart,” 1660, 8vo.
Herbert, Sir Thomas, an eminent gentleman of
the Pembroke family, was born at York, where bis
father was an alderman. William earl of Pembroke
sent him to travel at his expence in 1626, and he spent
four years in visiting Asia and Africa : his expectations
of preferment ending with the death of the earl, he
went abroad again, and travelled over several parts of
Europe. In 1634, he published, in folio, a Relation
of some Years Travel into Africa and the Great Asia,
especially the Territories of the Persian monarchy, and
some parts of the Oriental Indies and isles adjacent.
On the breaking out of the civil war, he adhered to
the Parliament ; and at Oldenby, on the removal of
the king’s servants, by the desire of the commissioners
from the parliament, he and James Harrington were
retained as grooms of his bed-chamber, and attended
him even to the block. At the Restoration he was cre¬
ated a baronet by Charles II. for his faithful services
to his father during his two last years. In 1678 he
wrote Threnodia Carolina, containing an account of
the two last years of the life of Charles I. and he as¬
sisted Sir William Dugdale in compiling the third vo¬
lume of his Monasticon Anglicanvm. He died at York
in 1682, leaving several MSS. to the public library at
Oxford, and others to that of the cathedral at York.
HERBIVOROUS animals, those which feed only
on vegetables.
HERCULANEUM is the name of an ancient city
of Campania in Italy, which was destroyed by an
eruption of Vesuvius in the first year of the emperor
Titus, or the 79th ol the Christian era, and lately ren¬
dered famous on account of the curious monuments of
antiquity discovered in its ruins ; an account of which
has been published by order of the king of Naples, in
a work of six volumes folio.—The epocha of the foun¬
dation of Herculaneum is unknown. Dionysius Hali-
carnassensis conjectures that it may be referred to 6q
years before the war of Troy, or about 1342 years be¬
fore Christ ; and therefore that it lasted about 1400
years.
The thickness of the heap of lava and ashes by
which the city was overwhelmed, has been much in¬
creased by fiery streams vomited since that catastrophe ;
and now forms a mass 24 feet deep, of dark gray
stone, which is easily broken to pieces. By its non¬
adhesion to foreign bodies, marbles and bronzes are
preserved in it as in a case made to fit them ; and exact
moulds of the faces and limbs of statues ate frequently
found in this substance. The precise situation of this
subterraneous city was not known till the year 1713)
when it was accidentally discovered by some labourers,
who, in digging a well, struck upon a statue on the
benches of the theatre. Many others were afterwards
dug out and sent to France by the prince of Elboeuf.
HER
[ 429 ]
HER
cula. But little progress was made in tlie excavations till
am. Charles infant of Spain ascended the Neapolitan throne j
v—by whose unwearied efforts and liberality a very con¬
siderable part of Herculaneum has been explored, and
such treasures of antiquity drawn out as form the most
curious museum in the world. It being too arduous
a task to attempt removing the covering, the king
contented himself with cutting galleries to the princi¬
pal buildings, and causing the extent of one or two of
them to be cleared. Of these the theatre is the most
considerable. On a ballustrade which divided the or¬
chestra from the stage was found a row of statues ; and,
on each side of the pulpitum, the equestrian figure of
a person of the Nonia family. They are now placed
under porticoes of the palace ; and from the great
rarity of equestrian statues in marble would be very
valuable objects, were their workmanship e.ven less ex¬
cellent than it is : one of them in particular is a very
fine piece of sculpture. Since the king of Spain left
Naples, the digging has been continued, but with less
spirit and expenditure : indeed the collection of curio¬
sities brought out of Herculaneum and Pompeii is al¬
ready so considerable, that a relaxation of zeal and
activity becomes excusable. They are now arranged
in a wing of the palace ; and consist not only of statues,
busts, altars, inscriptions, and other ornamental ap¬
pendages of opulence and luxury ; but also comprehend
an entire assortment of the domestic, musical, and chi-
rurgical instruments used by the ancients $ tripods of
elegant form and exquisite execution, lamps in endless
variety, vases and basons of noble dimensions, chande¬
liers of the most beautiful shapes, pateras and other
appurtenances of sacrifice, looking-glasses of polish¬
ed metal, coloured glass, so hard, clear, and well
stained, as to appear emeralds, sapphires, and other
precious stones j a kitchen completely fitted up with
copper-pans lined with silver, kettles, cisterns for heat¬
ing water, and every utensil necessary for culinary
purposes $ specimens of various sorts of combustibles,
retaining their form though burnt to a cinder j corn,
bread, fish, oil, wine, and flour j a lady’s toilet, fully
furnished with combs, thimbles, rings, paint, ear¬
rings, &c. Among the statues, which are numerous,
connoisseurs allow the greatest share of merit to a Mer¬
cury and a sleeping faun : the busts fill several rooms j
but very few of the originals whom they were meant
to imitate are known. The floors are paved with an¬
cient mosaic. Few rare medals have been found in
these ruins $ the most curious is a gold medallion of
Augustus struck in Sicily in the 15th year of his reign.
The fresco paintings, which, for the sake of preserva¬
tion, have been torn off the walls and framed and
glazed, are to be seen in another part of the palace.
“ The elegance of the attitudes, and the infinite va¬
riety of the subjects (Mr Swinburne observes), stamp
them as performances worthy of the attention of artists
and antiquarians ; but no pictures yet found are ma¬
sterly enough to prove that the Greeks carried the art
of painting to as great a height of perfection as they
did that of statuary. Yet can we suppose those au¬
thors incapable of appreciating the merits of an Apelles
or a Zeuxis, who with so much critical discernment
have pointed out the beauties of the works of a Phidias
or a Praxiteles, beauties that we have still an oppor¬
tunity of contemplating ? would they have bestowed
equal praises upon both kinds of performances if either Hercula-
ot them had been much inferior to the other ? I think neunr,
it is not probable ; and we must presume, that the Hercules,
capital productions of the ancient painters, being of
more perishable materials than busts and statues, have
been destroyed in the fatal disasters that have so often
afflicted both Greece and Italy. Herculaneum and
Pompeii were but towns of the second order, and not
likely to possess the masterpieces of the great artists,
which were usually destined to adorn the more celebra¬
ted temples, or the palaces of kings and emperors.”
A more valuable acquisition than bronzes and pictures
was thought to be made, when a large parcel of manu¬
scripts was found among the ruins. Hopes were en¬
tertained that many, works of the classics, which time
has deprived us of, were now going to be restored to
light, and that a new mine of science was on the point
of being opened. But the difficulty of unrolling the
burnt parchment, of pasting the fragments on a flat
surface, and of deciphering the obscure letters, have
proved such obstacles, that very little progress has been
made in the work. A priest invented the method of
proceeding; but it was found not to answer. A great
many other processes have since been tried, but none
has been entirely successful. And the value of the
writings which has been unrolled has by no means cor¬
responded to the public expectation. See Hercula¬
neum, Supplement.
HERCULES, in fabulous history, a most renown¬
ed Grecian hero, who after death was ranked among
the gods, and received divine honours. According to
the ancients, there were many persons of the same
name. Diodorus mentions three, Cicero six, and some
authors extend the number to no less than forty-three.
Of all these, one generally called the Theban Hercules,
is the most celebrated ; and to him, as may easily be
imagined, the actions of the others have been attribu¬
ted. He is reported to have been the son of Jupiter
by Alcmena (wife to Amphitryon king of Argos),
whom Jupiter enjoyed in the shape of her husband
while he was absent; and in order to add the greater
strength to the child, made that amorous night as long
as three. Amphitryon having soon after accidentally
killed his uncle and father-in-law Electryon, was oblig¬
ed to fly to Thebes, where Hercules was born. The
jealousy of Juno, on account of her husband’s amour
with Alcmena, prompted her to destroy the infant. For
this purpose she sent two serpents to kill him in the
cradle, but young Hercules strangled them both. He
was early instructed in the liberal arts, and Castor the
son of Tyndarus taught him how to fight, Eurytus how
to shoot with a bow and arrows, Autolicus to drive a
chariot, Linus to play on the lyre, and Eumolpus to
sing. He, like the rest of his illustrious contemporaries, ,
soon after became the pupil of the centaur Chiron, and
under him he perfected and rendered himself the most
valiant and accomplished of the age. In the 18th year
of his age he resolved to deliver the neighbourhood of
Mount Cithreron from a huge lion which preyed on
the flocks of Amphitryon his supposed father, and
which laid waste the adjacent country. He went to
the court of Thespius king of Thespis, who shared in
the general calamity ; and he received here a tender
treatment, and was entertained during 50 days. The
50 daughters of the king became mothers by Hercules
during
HER [ 430 ] , HER
Hercules, during his stay at Thespis, and some say that it was et-
 v—fected in one night. After he had destroyed the lion
of Mount Cithoeron, he delivered his country from the
annual tribute of 100 oxen which it paid to Erginus.
Such public services became universally known j and
Creon, who then sat on the throne of rIhebes, reward¬
ed the patriotic deeds of Hercules by giving him his
daughter in marriage, and entrusting him with the go¬
vernment of his kingdom.
Euristheus, the son of Amphitryon, having succeeded
his father, soon became jealous of Hercules ; and fear¬
ing lest he might by him be deprived of his crown,
left no means untried to get rid of him. 01 this Her¬
cules was not insensible, because he was perpetually en¬
gaging him on some desperate expedition j and there¬
fore went to consult the oracle. But being answered
that it was the pleasure of the gods that he should
serve Euristheus 12 years, he fell into a deep melan¬
choly, which at last ended in a furious madness ; du¬
ring which, among other desperate actions, he put
away his wife Megara, and murdered all the children
he had by her. As an expiation of this crime, the
king imposed upon him twelve labours surpassing the
power of all other mortals to accomplish, which never¬
theless our hero performed with great ease. The fa¬
vours of the gods had indeed completely armed him
when he undertook his labours. He had received a
coat of armour and helmet from Minerva, a sword from
Mercury, a horse from Neptune, a shield from Jupi¬
ter, a bow and arrows from Apollo, and from Vul¬
can a golden cuirass and brazen buskin, with a cele¬
brated club of brass according to the opinion of some
writers.
The first labour imposed upon him was the killing
oi a lion in Nemea, a wood ofAchaia 5 whose hide was
proof against any weapon, so that he was forced to
seize him by the throat and strangle him. He carried
the dead beast on his shoulders to Mycenae, and ever
after clothed himself with the skin. Euristheus wTas
so astonished at the sight of this beast, and at the cou¬
rage of Hercules, that he ordered him never to enter
the gates of the city when he returned from his expe¬
ditions, but to wait for his orders without the walls.
He even made himself a brazen vessel into which he
retired whenever Hercules returned.—The second la¬
bour was to destroy the Lernaean hydra, which had
seven beads according to Apollodorus, 50 according
to Simonides, and 100 according to Diodorus. This
celebrated monster he first attacked with his arrows j
but soon after he came to a close engagement, and by
means of his heavy club he destroyed the heads of his
enemy. This, however, was productive of no advan¬
tage j for as soon as one head was beaten to pieces by
the club, immediately two sprang up ; and the labour
of Hercules would have remained unfinished, had not
he commanded his friend Idas to burn with a hot iron
the root of the head which he had crushed to pieces.
This succeeded j and Hercules became victorious, open¬
ed the belly of the monster, and dipped his arrows in
the gall to render the wounds which he gave fatal and
incurable.—He was ordered in his third labour to
bring alive and unhurt into the presence of Euristheus
a stag, famous for its incredible swiftness, its golden
horns, and brazen feet. This celebrated animal fre¬
quented the neighbourhood of Oenoe 5 and Hercules
3
was employed for a whole year rn continually pursuing fjerci
it: at last he caught it in a trap, or when tired, or, -y
according to others, by slightly wounding it and lessen¬
ing its swiftness.—The fourth labour was to bring
alive to Euristheus a wild boar which ravaged the
neighbourhood of Erymanthus. In this expedition he
destroyed the centaurs, and caught the boar by closely
pursuing him through the deep snow. Euristheus was
so frightened at the sight of the boar, that, according
to Diodorus, be hid himself in bis brazen vessel for
some days.—In his fifth labour Hercules was ordered
to clean the stables of Augeas, where 3000 oxen had
been confined for many years.—For his sixth labour he
was ordered to kill the carnivorous birds which rava¬
ged the country near the lake Stymphalis in Arcadia.
—In his seventh labour he brought alive into Pelopon¬
nesus a prodigious wild bull which laid waste the island
of Crete.—In his eighth labour he was employed in
obtaining the mares of Diomedes, which fed upon hu¬
man flesh. He killed Diomedes, and gave him to be
eaten by his mares, which he brought to Euristheus.
They were sent to Mount Olympus by the king of
Mycenae, where they were devoured by the wild beasts ;
or, according to others, they were consecrated to Ju¬
piter, and their breed still existed in the age of Alex¬
ander the Great.—For his ninth labour, he was com¬
manded to obtain the girdle of the queen of the Ama¬
zons.—In his tenth labour he killed the monster Ge-
ryon king of Gades, and brought to Argos bis nume¬
rous flocks which fed upon human flesh. This was in
Iberia or Spain ; in the furthest parts of which he
erected his two pillars, as the utmost limits of the then
known world. These ten labours he achieved, as the
fable says, in about eight years. In this last expedi¬
tion he is likewise affirmed to have killed Antaeus, a
famous giant of a monstrous size, who, when weary
with wrestling or labour, was immediately refreshed by
touching the earth. Hercules overcame hint in wrest¬
ling, and slew him j and after him the tyrant Busiris,
in bis way through Egypt. This bloody man used to
sacrifice all his guests and strangers upon bis altars $ and
designing to have done the same by Hercules, was
slain by him, together with all his attendants.—His
eleventh labour was the carrying away the Hesperian
golden apples kept by a dragon : (See Hesperides).
—The twelfth and last, and most dangerous of his la¬
bours, was to bring upon earth the three-headed dog
Cerberus. Descending into hell by a cave on Mount
Tsenarus, he was permitted by Pluto to carry away
his friends Theseus and Pirithous, who were con¬
demned to punishment in hell, and Cerberus also was
granted to his prayers, provided be made use of no
arms but only force to drag him away. Hercules, as
some report, carried him back to bell after he had
brought him before Euristheus.
Many other exploits are said to have been performed
by Hercules ; in particular, he accompanied the Ar¬
gonauts to Colchis before he delivered himself up to
the king of Mycenae. Pie assisted the gods in their
wars against the giants, and it was through him alone
that Jupiter obtained a victory. He conquered Lao-
medon, and pillaged Troy. When lole, the daughter
of Eurytus king of Oechalia, of whom he was deeply
enamoured, was refused to his intreaties, he became
the prey of a second fit of insanity, and he murdered
Iphitus,
jl jles.
—
HER [43
I,.!, itus, the only one of the sons of Enrytus who fa-
1 voured his addresses to lole. lie was some time after
purified of the murder, and Ids insanity ceased j but
the gods persecuted him, and he was visited by a dis¬
order which obliged him to apply to the oracle of
Delphi for relief. The coldness with which the Pythia
received him irritated him, and he resolved to plunder
Apollo’s temple and carry away the sacred tripod.
Apollo opposed him, and a severe conflict was begun,
which nothing hut the interference of Jupiter with his
thunderbolts could have prevented. He was upon
this told by the oracle that he must be sold as a slave,
and remain three years in the most abject servitude to
recover from his disorder. He complied ; and Mer¬
cury, by order of Jupiter, conducted him to Omphale,
queen of Lydia, to whom he rvas sold as a slave. Here
he cleared all the country from robbers; and Omphale,
who was astonished at the greatness of his exploits,
married him. Hercules had Agelaus and Lamon by
Omphale, from whom Croesus king of Lydia was de¬
scended. He became also enamoured of one of Om-
phale’s female servants, by whom he bad Alceus. Af¬
ter he had completed the years of his slavery, he re¬
turned to Peloponnesus, where he re-established on the
throne of Sparta Tyndarus, who had been expelled by
Hippocoon. He became one of Dejanira’s suitors,
and married her after he had overcome all his rivals.
He was obliged to leave Calydon his father-in law’s
kingdom, because he had inadvertently killed a man
with a blow of his fist, and it was on account of this
expulsion that he was not present at the hunting of
the Calydonian boar. From Calydon he retired to
the court of Ceyx king of Tracbinia. The king re¬
ceived him and his wife with great marks of friendship,
and purified him of the murder which he had commit¬
ted at Calydon. Hercules rvas still mindful that he
bad once been refused the hand of lole; he therefore
made war against her father Eurytus, and killed him
with three of his sons. Pole fell into the hands of her
father’s murderer, and found that she was loved by
Hercules as much as before. She accompanied him
to Mount Oeta, where he was going to raise an altar
and offer a solemn sacrifice to Jupiter. As he had
not then the shirt and tunic in which he arrayed him¬
self to offer a sacrifice, he sent Lichas to Trachin to
his wife Dejanira, in order to provide himself a proper
dress, Dejanira had some time before been attempted
by the Centaur Nessus, as he was ferrying her over the
river Euenus *, and Hercules beholding it from the
shore, had given him a mortal wound with an arrow.
The monster finding himself dying, advised her to mix
some oil with the blood which flowed from his wound,
and to anoint her husband’s shirt with it, pretending
that it would infallibly secure him from loving any other
woman j and she, too well apprised of his inconstancy,
had actually prepared the poisoned ointment accord-
ingly.—Lichas coming to her for the garments, un¬
fortunately acquainted her with his having brought
away lole $ upon which she, in a fit of jealousy, anoint¬
ed his shirt with the fatal mixture. This had no sooner
touched his body, than he felt the poison diffuse itself
through all his veins ; the violent pain of which caused
him to disband his army, and to return to Trachin.
His torment still increasing, he sent to consult the
t ] HER
oracle for a cure ; and was answered, that he should jjen
cause himselt to he conveyed to Mount Oeta, and there ——\
rear up a great pile of wood, and leave the rest to Ju¬
piter. By the time he had obeyed the oracle, his pains
being become intolerable, tie dressed himself in his
martial habit, flung himself upon the pile, and desired
the bystanders to set fire to it. Others say that he
lelt the charge of it to his son Philoctetes •, who having
performed his father’s command, had his bow and ar¬
rows given him as a reward for his obedience. At
the same time Jupiter, to he as good as his word, sent
a flash ol lightning, which consumed both the pile and
the hero j insomuch that loliius, coming to take up
his bones, found nothing but ashes: from which they
concluded, that he was passed from earth to heaven,
and joined to the gods. His friends showed their
gratitude to his memory by raising an altar where the
burning pile bad stood. Menoetius the son of Actor
offered him a sacrifice of a hull, a wild boar, and a,
goat, and enjoined the people of Opus yearly to ob¬
serve the same religious ceremonies. His worship soon
became as universal as his fame j and Juno, who had
ones persecuted him with such fury forgot her resent¬
ment, and gave him her daughter Hebe in marriage.
Hercules has received many surnames and epithets, either
from the place where his worship was established, or
from the labours which he achieved. His temples were
numerous and magnificent, and his divinity revered.
No dogs or flies ever entered his temple at Rome 5
and that of Gades, according to Strabo, was always
forbidden to women and pigs. The Phoenicians of¬
fered quails on his altars j and as it was supposed that
he presided over dreams, the sick and infirm were sent
to sleep in his temples, that they might receive in their
dreams the agreeable presages of their approaching re¬
covery. The white poplar was particularly dedicated
to his service.
It is observed, that there are none even of the twelve
great gods of antiquity that have so many ancient mo¬
numents relating to them as Hercules. The famous
statue of Hercules, in the Farnese palace at Rome, is
well known to the connoisseurs : this represents him
resting after the last of his twelve labours above recited,
leaning on his club, and holding the apples of the
Hesperides in his hand. In this statue, as in all the
other figures of him, he is formed, by the breadth of
his shoulders, the spaciousness of his chest, the large¬
ness of his size, and the firmness of his muscles, to
express strength and a capacity of enduring great fa¬
tigue, which constituted the chief idea of virtue among
the ancient heathens. His other attributes are his
lion’s skin, his club, and his bow.—Hercules is re¬
presented by the ancients as an exemplar of virtue :
however, the Hercules Bibux, or drunken Hercules, is
no uncommon figure j and his amours are described
both by the poets and artists. Thus, the Cupids are
made to take away his club, and he is exhibited in the
posture of bending under a little hoy j by which actions
we perceive, that he who conquered all difficulties was
a slave to love. His children are as numerous as the
labours and difficulties which he underwent j and in¬
deed they became so powerful soon after his death, that
they alone had the courage to invade all Peloponnesus.
See Heraclid^;.
The
HER [ 432 ] HER
Hercu’c* The apotheosis of Hercules, or the establishment of
H his altars in the principal cities of Greece, is fixed by
Rcre iitary Xhrasybulus 29 years before the taking of Troy.
, ^ , Hercules has been particularly honoured by the
Greeks under the name of Musagetes, “ the conductor
of the Muses and at Rome under that of Hercules
Musarum. He is represented on medals with a lyre
in his hand j and the reverse is marked with the figure
of the nine Muses, with their proper symbols.
Hercules, in Astronomy, one of the constellations
of the northern hemisphere.—The stars in the constel¬
lation Hercules in Ptolemy’s catalogue are 29 } in
Tycho’s, 28 ; in the Britannic catalogue, 113.
Hercules's Pillars, in antiquity, a name given to
two lofty mountains, one situated on the most southern
extremity of Spain, and the other on the opposite part
of Africa. They were called by the ancients Abyla
and Calpe. They were reckoned the boundaries of the
labours of Hercules ; and according to ancient tra¬
dition, they were joined together till they were severed
by the arm of the hero, and a communication opened
between the Mediterranean and Atlantic seas.
HERCYNIA silya, in Ancient Geography, the
largest of forests. Its breadth was a journey of nine
days to the best traveller. Taking its rise at the limits
of the Helvetii, Nemetes, and Rauraci, it run along
the Danube to the borders of the Daci and Anartes,
a length of 60 days journey, according to Csesar, who
appears to have been well acquainted with its true
breadth, seeing it occupied all Lower Germany. It
may therefore be considered as covering the whole of
Germany j and most of the other forests may be con¬
sidered as parts of it, though distinguished by particular
names : consequently the Hartz, in the duchy of Bruns-
wic, which gave name to the whol£, may be considered
as one of its parts. The name Hartz denotes “ resi¬
nous,” or, “ pine-trees.” By the Greeks it is called Or-
cyntus, as a name common to all the forests in Germa¬
ny } in the same manner as Hercynius was the name gi¬
ven by the Romans ; and both from the German Hartz.
HERD, among hunters, an assemblage of black or
fallow beasts in contradistinction to flock. See Flock.
—In the hunting language there are various terms
used for companies of the divers kinds of game. We
say a herd of harts or bucks, a bevy of roes, a rout of
wolves, a richess of martens, &c.
HEREDITAMENTS, whatever moveable things
a person may have to himself and his heirs by way of
inheritance; and which, if not otherwise bequeathed,
descend to him who is next heir, and not to the execu¬
tor as chattels do.
HEREDITARY, an appellation given to what¬
ever belongs to a family by right of succession from
heir to heir.
Hereditary is also figuratively applied to good or
ill qualities supposed to be transmitted from father to
son : thus we say virtue and piety are hereditary qua¬
lities in such a family ; and that in Italy the hatred of
families is hereditary. And indeed the gout, king’s evil,
-madness, &c. may really be hereditary diseases.
Hereditary Right, in the British constitution. The
grand fundamental maxim upon which the jus corona,
or right of succession to the throne of Britain depends,
Sir William Blackstone takes to be this : That the
crown is, by common law and constitutional custom,
hereditary, and this in a manner peculiar to itself: but Heredi|
that the right of inheiitance may from time to time be Risk
changed or limited by act of parliament; under which v '
limitations the crown still continues hereditary.
1. The crown is in general hereditary, or descend¬
ible to the next heir, on the death or demise of the last
proprietor. All regal governments must be either he¬
reditary or elective: and as there is no instance where¬
in the crown of England has ever been asserted to be
elective, except by the regicides at the infamous and
unparalleled trial of King Charles I.; it must of con¬
sequence be hereditary. Yet in thus asserting an he¬
reditary right, a jure divino title to the throne is by no
means intended. Such a title may be allowed to have
subsisted under the theocrative establishments of the
children of Israel in Palestine ; but it never yet subsist¬
ed in any other country ; save only so far as kingdoms,
like other human fabrics, are subject to the general
and ordinary dispensations of Providence. Nor indeed
have njure divino and an hereditary right any necessary
connection with each other; as some have very weakly
imagined. The titles of David and Jehu were equally
jure divino as those of either Solomon or Ahab ; and
yet David slew the sons of his predecessor, and Jelm
his predecessor himself. And when our kings have the
same warrant as they had, whether it be to sit upon
the throne of their fathers, or to destroy the house of
the preceding sovereign, they will then, and not before,
possess the crown of England by a right like theirs,
immediately derived from heaven. The hereditary
right, which the laws of England acknowledge, owe#
its origin to the founders of our constitution, and to
them only. It has no relation to, nor depends upon,
the civil laws of the Jews, the Greeks, the Romans,
or any other nation upon earth ; the municipal law#
of one society having no connection with, or influence
upon, the fundamental polity of another. The found¬
ers of our English monarchy might perhaps, if they
had thought proper, have made it an elective mo¬
narchy ; but they rather chose, and upon good rea¬
son, to establish originally a succession by inheritance.
This has been acquiesced in by general consent, and
ripened by degrees into common law ; the very same
title that every private man has to his own estate.
Lands are not naturally descendible, any more than
thrones: but the law has thought proper, for the be¬
nefit and peace of the public, to establish hereditary
succession in the one as well as the other.
It must be owned, an elective monarchy seems to be
the most obvious, and best suited of any to the rational
principles of government, and the freedom of human
nature ; and accordingly we find from history, that, in
the infancy and first rudiments of almost every state,
the leader, chief magistrate, or prince, hath usually
been elective. And, if the individuals who compose
that state could always continue true to first principles,
uninfluenced by passion or prejudice, unassailed by cor¬
ruption, and unawed by violence, elective succession
were as much to be desired in a kingdom as in other
inferior communities. The best, the wisest, and the
bravest man, would then be sure of receiving that crown
which his endowments have merited ; and the sense of
an unbiassed majority would be dutifully acquiesced in
by the few who were of different opinions. But history
and observation will inform us, that elections of every
kind
H E H
1 oditary kind (in the present state of human nature) are too fre-
ght. quently brought about by influence, partiality, and ar-
^ ~v" tifice 5 and, even Where the ease is otherwise, these
practices will be often suspected, and as constantly
charged upon the successful, by a splenetic disappointed
minority. I his is an evil to which all societies are
liable ; as well as those of a private and domestic kind,
as the great community of the public, which regulates
and includes the rest. But in the former there is this
advantage, I hat such suspicions, if false, proceed no
farther than jealousies and murmurs, which time will
effectually suppress ; and, if true, the injustice may be
remedied by legal means, by an appeal to those tribu¬
nals to which every member of society has (by beco¬
ming such) virtually engaged to submit. Whereas, in
the great and independent society which every nation
composes, there is no superior to resort to but the law
ef nature; no method to redress the infringements of
that law, but the actual exertion of private force. As
therefore between two nations, complaining of mutual
injuries, the quarrel can only be decided by the law of
arms; so in one and the same nation, when the funda¬
mental principles of their common union are supposed
to be invaded, and more especially when the appoint¬
ment of their chief magistrate is alleged to be unduly
made, the only tribunal to which the complainants can
appeal is that of the God of battles, the only process
by which the appeal can be carried on is that of a ci¬
vil and intestine war. An hereditary succession to the
crown is therefore now established, in this and most
other countries, in order to prevent that periodical
bloodshed and misery, which the history of ancient
imperial Rome, and the later experience of modern
times, has shown to be the consequences of elective
kingdoms.
^ 2. But, secondly, as to the particular mode of inhe¬
ritance. It in general corresponds with the feodal path
of descents, chalked out by the common law in the suc¬
cession to landed estates ; yet with one or two material
exceptions. Like them the crown will descend line-
ally to the issue of the reigning monarch ; as it did
from Ring John to Richard II. through a regular pe¬
digree of six lineal generations : As in them the pre¬
ference of males to females, and the right of primoge¬
niture among the males, are strictly adhered to. Thus
Edward V. succeeded to the crown, in preference to
Richard his younger brother, and Elizabeth his eldest
sister. Like them, on failure of the male line it de¬
scends to the issue female ; according to the ancient
British custom remarked by Tacitus, Solent fcemina-
rum ductu bellare, et sexum in imperils non discerncre,
Jhus Mary I. succeeded to Edward VI.; and the line of
Margaret queen of Scots, the daughter of Henry VII.
succeeded, on failure of the line of Henry VIII. his
son. Rut among the females, the crown descends by
Tight of primogeniture to the eldest daughter only and
her issue ; and not, as in common inheritance, to all
the daughters at once ; the evident necessity of a sole
succession to the throne having occasioned the royal
law of descents to depart from the common law in this
respect: and therefore Queen Mary, on the death of
|ier brother, succeeded to the crown alone, and not
in partnership with her sister Elizabeth. Again, the
doctrine of representation prevails in the descent of
the crown, as it Joes in other inheritances : whereby
Vol. X. Part II. f
T 433 ]
HER
the lineal descendants of any person deceased stand in Hereditary
the same place as their ancestor, if living, would have Right.
done. Thus Richard II. succeeded his grandfather ' v™"
Edward III. in right of his father the Black Prince ;
to the exclusion of all his uncles, his grandfather’s
younger children. Tjastlj, on failure of lineal descen¬
dants, the crown goes to the next collateral relations
of the late king ; provided they are lineally descended
from the blood-royal, that is, from that roval stock
which originally acquired the crown. Thus Henry I.
succeeded to William II. John to Richard I. and
James I. to Elizabeth; being all derived from the Con¬
queror, who was then the only regal stock. But herein
there is no objection (as in the case of common de¬
scents) to the succession of a brother, an uncle, or
other collateral relation, of the half-blood; that is,
where the relationship proceeds not from the same
couple of ancestors (which constitutes a kinsman of the
whole blood), hut from a single ancestor only ; as when
two persons are derived from the same father, and not
from the same mother, or vice versa: provided only,
that the one ancestor, from whom both are descended,
be that from whose veins the blood-royal is communi¬
cated to each. Thus Mary I. inherited to Edward VI.
and Elizabeth inherited to Mary; all born of the
same father, King Henry VIII. but all by different
mothers. See the articles Consanguinity, Descent,
and Succession.
3. The doctrine of hereditary right does by no
means imply an indefeasible right to the throne. No
man will assert this, who has considered our law's, con¬
stitution, and history, without prejudice, and with any
degree of attention. It is unquestionably in the breast
of the supreme legislative authority of this kingdom,
the king and both bouses of parliament, to defeat this
hereditary right ; and by particular entails, limita¬
tions, and provisions, to exclude the immediate heir,
and vest the inheritance in any one else. This is strictly
consonant to our laws and constitution ; as may be ga¬
thered from the expression so frequently used in our
statute-book, of “ the king’s majesty, his heirs, and
successors.” In which we may observe, that as the
word heirs necessarily implies an inheritance or here¬
ditary right generally subsisting in the royal person ;
so the word successors, distinctly taken, must imply that
the inheritance may sometimes be broken through ;
or, that there may be a successor, without being the
heir of the king. And this is so extremely reason¬
able, that without such a power, lodged somewhere,
our polity would be very defective. For, let us barely
suppose so melancholy a case, as that the heir-apparent
should be a lunatic, an idiot, or otherwise incapable of
reigning; bow miserable would the condition of the
nation be, if he were also incapable of being set aside;
—It is therefore necessary that this power sbopld be
lodged somewhere ; and yet the inheritance and regal
dignity would be very precarious indeed, if this power
were expressly and avowedly lodged in the hands of
the subject only, to be exerted whenever prejudice, ca¬
price, or discontent, should happen to take the lead.
Consequently it can nowhere be so properly lodged as
in the two houses of parliament, by and with the con¬
sent of the reigning king; who, it is not to be sup¬
posed, will agree to any thing improperly prejudicial to
the rights of his own descendants. And therefore in
3 I the
HER [ 434 ] H E R
Hereditary the king, lords, and commons, and parliament assem-
bled, our laws have expressly lodged it.
li 4. But, fourthly, However the crown may be li-
Ilereionl.^ rajtetj or transferred, it still retains its descendible qua«
lity, and becomes hereditary in the wearer of it. And
hence in our law the king is said never to die in bis
political capacity ; though in common with other
men, he is subject to mortality in his natural : because
immediately upon the natural death of Henry, Wil¬
liam, or Edward, the king survives in his successor.
For the right of the crown vests eo instanti, upon his
heir $ either the hceres natus, if the course of descent
remains unimpeached, or the hceres factus, if the in¬
heritance be under any particular settlement. So that
there can be no interregnum j but, as Sir Matthew
Hale observes, the right of sovereignty is lully invested
in the successor by the very descent of the crown. And
therefore, however acquired, it becomes in him absolute¬
ly hereditary, unless by the rules of the limitation it is
otherwise ordered and determined : In the same manner
as landed estates, to continue our former comparison,
are by the law hereditary, or descendible to the heirs
of the owner; hut still there exists a power, by which
the property of those lands may be transferred to ano¬
ther person. If this transfer be made simply and ab¬
solutely, the lands will be hereditary in the new owner,
and descend to his heir at law : but if the transfer
be clogged with any limitations, conditions, or entails,
the lands must descend in that channel, so limited and
prescribed, and no other. See SUCCESSION.
HEREDITAS jacens, in Scots Law. An estate
is said to be in hcreditnte jciccnte, after the proprietor’s
death, till the heir’s entry.
HEREFORD, which in Saxon signifies the ford of
the army, the capital of Herefordshire in England,
situated in W. Long. 2. 35. N. Eat. 52. 6. It is
supposed to have risen out of the ruins of Kenchester,
in its neighbourhood, which Camden believes to have
been the Ariconium of Antoninus. It is very plea¬
santly situated among meadows and corn fields, and is
almost encompassed with rivers. It seems to have
owed its rise, or at least its increase, to the building
and dedicating a church there to Ethelhert king of
the East Angles, who was murdered in the neigh¬
bourhood, and afterwards taken into the catalogue of
martyrs j soon alter it became a bishop’s see, and in
consequence of that a considerable place. In 1055 it
was sacked, the cathedral destroyed, and its bishop
Leofgar carried away captive by Gryffin prince of
South-Wales, and Algar, an Englishman, who had
rebelled against Edward the Confessor. Harold forti¬
fied it with a broad and high rampart ; and it appears
by Doomsday book, that there were no more than
300 men within and without the wall. A very large
and strong castle was built by the Normans along the
Wye, and the city walled round. The present stately
cathedral was founded in the reign of Henry I. by
Bishop Reinelm, but enlarged and beautified by his
successors. It suffered much in the barons wars ; and
was often taken and retaken in the war between King
Charles I. and the parliament. This city is pretty
large, and had once six churches j but two were de¬
stroyed in the civil wars. It is not very populous nor
well built, many of the houses being old. Its manu¬
factures are gloves and other leathern goods ; and its
corporation consists of a mayor, six aldermen, a high
steward, deputy-steward, and town-cleik j who have a Hercf0l
sword-bearer and four serjeants at mace. Each of Herefol
the companies enjoys distinct laws and privileges by shirel
their charter, and each has its hall. The cathedral,■“"vj
which was built in 1050, and destroyed by the Welsh
in 1060, hut rebuilt in the reign of the Conqueror, or,
as some say, in that of Henry 1. is a beautiful and
magnificent structure, but being greatly decayed, part
of it was destroyed by the fall of the tower in Sep¬
tember 1786, and the spire on another tower was ta¬
ken down to be rebuilt at the same time. Here is an
hospital well endowed for 16 poor people; and two
charity-schools, one for 60 boys, the other for 40 girls.
The chapter-house, which was . once a very elegant
building, built about the year 1079, is now in ruins.
Here were formerly two or three priories. Almost
the only drink here is cyder, which is both cheap and
good, the very hedges in the country being planted
with apple-trees. The city gave the title of earl to
the noble family of the Bohuns ; then of duke to Henry
of Lancaster, afterwards Henry IV. king of England ;
after him, of earl to Stafford earl of Buckingham ;
then of viscount to Devereux earl of Essex, which a
collateral branch of his family still enjoys, and is
thereby the premier viscount of England.
HEREFORDSHIRE, a county of England nearly
of a circular form, hounded on the east by Worcester
and Gloucester, on the south by Monmouthshire, on
the west by Radnorshire and Brecknockshire, and on
the north by Shropshire. Its length from north to
south is 46 miles, its breadth from east to west 40. It
contains 8 market towns, 87 vicarages, 176 parishes,
and 391 villages. This county contains, according to
the returns made to the house of commons, in 1811,
19,296 houses, occupied by 20,081 families ; and the
whole number of inhabitants was 94,073 : of this num¬
ber 46,404 were males, and 47,669 females. The
number of families supported by agriculture was 12,559,
by trade and manufactures 5044, the number of others
2438. The marriages in the preceding year were 663,
the baptisms 2656. It is divided into 11 hundreds, and
sends eight members to parliament, namely, two knights
for the shire, and tw7o for each of the following towns,
Hereford, Lempster or Leominster, and Weobly.
The air of this county is allowed to he as pleasant,
sweet, and wholesome, as that of any other in Eng¬
land, there being nothing either in the soil or situation
to render it otherwise. The soil throughout is excel¬
lent, and inferior to none, either for grain, fruit, or
pasture, supplying the inhabitants plentifully with all
the necessaries of life : but that by which it is distin¬
guished from most others, is its fruit, especially apples,
of which it produces such quantities, that the cyder
made of them is not only sufficient for their own con¬
sumption, though it is their ordinary drink, but also
in a great measure for that of London and other parts.
That in particular which is made from the apple call¬
ed redstreak, is much admired, and lias a body almost
equal to that of white-wine. The county is well sup¬
plied with wood and water; for, besides lesser streams,
there are the rivers Frome, Loden, Lug, Wye, Wade),
Arro, Dare, and Monow; the last of which is large,
and all of them are well stored with fish, particularly
the Wye, which breeds salmon. It lies in the diocese
of Hereford, and Oxford circuit. See HEREFORD¬
SHIRE, Supplement.
HERENAUSEN,
her [ 435 1 HER
HERENAUSEN, a palace of Germany near
Hanover, formerly belonging to the king of Great
Britain. Here are lodgings for all the court; and a
garden of vast extent, in which are fine waterworks, a
labyrinth, and many other curiosities worthy the ob¬
servation of a traveller.
HERENTHALS, a town of Brabant in the Ne¬
therlands, in the quarter of Antwerp ; seated on the
river Nethe, in E. Long. 4. 54. N. Lat. 51. 13.
HERESY, in Law, an ofl’ence against Christianity,
consisting in a denial of some of its essential doctrines,
publicly and obstinately avowed ; being defined, sen-
tentia rerum divinarum humano sensu excogitata, palum
docta et pertitiaciter defensa. And here it must be
acknowledged that particular modes of belief, or un¬
belief, not tending to overturn Christianity itself, or to
sap the foundations of morality, are by no means the
object of coercion by the civil magistrate. What doc¬
trines shall therefore be adjudged heresy, was left by
our old constitution to the determination of the eccle¬
siastical judge ; who had herein a most arbitrary lati¬
tude allowed him. For the general definition of an
heretic given by Lyndewode, extends to the smallest
deviations from the doctrines of the holy church : hce-
reticles est qui dubitat de fide catholica, et qui negligit
servare ca, quee Romano, ecclesia statuit, seu servare de-
crevevat. Or, as the statute 2 Hen. IV. c. 15. ex¬
presses it in English, “ teachers of erroneous opinions
contrary to the faith and blessed determinations of the
holy church.” Very contrary this to the usage of the
first general councils, which defined all heretical doc¬
trines with the utmost precision and exactness. And
what ought to have alleviated the punishment, the un»
certainty of the crime, seems to have enhanced it in
those days of blind zeal and pious cruelty. It is true,
that the sanctimonious hypocrisy of the canonists went
at first no farther than enjoining penance, excommuni¬
cation, and ecclesiastical deprivation, for heresy; though
afterwards they proceeded boldly to imprisonment by
the ordinary, and confiscation of goods in pios usus.
But in the mean time they had prevailed upon the
weakness of bigotted princes to make the civil power
subservient to their purposes, by making heresy not
only a temporal, but even a capital, offence : the Ro¬
mish ecclesiastics determining, without appeal, what¬
ever they pleased to be heresy, and shifting off to the
secular arm the odium and drudgery of executions ;
with which they themselves were too tender and deli¬
cate to intermeddle. Nay, they pretended to intercede
and pray, on behalf of the convicted heretic, ut citra
mortis periculum sententia circa euni moderetur : well
knowing that at the same time they were delivering the
unhappy victim to certain death. Hence the capital
punishments inflicted on the ancient Donatists and Ma-
nichaeans by the emperors Theodosius and Justinian :
hence also the constitution of the emperor Frederic
mentioned by Lyndewode, adjudging all persons with¬
out distinction to be burnt with fire who were convic¬
ted of heresy by the ecclesiastical judge. The same
emperor, in another constitution, ordained, that if any
temporal lord, when admonished by the church, should
neglect to clear his territories of heretics within a year,
it should be lawful for good Catholics to seize and oc¬
cupy the lands, and utterly to exterminate the hereti-
cai possessors. And upon this foundation was built
that arbitrary power, so long claimed and so fatally ex¬
erted by the pope, ol disposing even of the kingdoms
of refractory princes to more dutiful sons of the church.
The immediate event of this constitution was some¬
thing singular, and may serve to illustrate at once the
gratitude of the holy see, and the just punishment of
the royal bigot; for, upon the authority of this very
constitution, the pope afterwards expelled this very em¬
peror Frederic from his kingdom of Sicily, and gave it
to Charles of Anjou.
Christianity being thus deformed by the daemon of
persecution upon the continent, we cannot expect that
our own island should be entirely free from the same
scourge. And therefore we find among our ancient
precedents a writ de hceretico comburcndo, which is
thought by some to be as ancient as the common law
itself. However, it appears from thence, that the con¬
viction of heresy by the common law was not in any
petty ecclesiastical court, but before the archbishop
himself in a provincial synod; and that the delinquent
was delivered over to the king to do as he should please
with him ; so that the crown had a controul over the
spiritual power, and might pardon the convict by is¬
suing no process against him ; the writ de hceretico com-
burendo being not a writ of course, but issuing only by
the special direction of the king in council.
But in the reign of Henry IV. when the eyes of the
Christian world began to open, and the seeds of the
Protestant religion (though under the opprobrious name
of lollardy) took root in this kingdom ; the clergy, tak¬
ing advantage from the king’s dubious title to demand
an increase of their own power, obtained an act of par¬
liament, which sharpened the edge of persecution to its
utmost keenness. For, by that statute, the diocesan
alone, without the intervention of a synod, might con¬
vict of heretical tenets ; and unless the convict abjured
his opinions, or if after abjuration he relapsed, the she¬
riff was bound ex officio, if required by the bishop, to
commit the unhappy victim to the flames, without wait¬
ing for the consent of the crown. By the statute
2 Hen. V. c. 7. lollardy was also made a temporal of¬
fence, and indictable ir the king’s courts; which did
not thereby gain an exclusive, but only a concurrent,
jurisdiction with the bishop’s consistory.
Afterwards, when the final reformation of religion
began to advance, the power of the ecclesiastics was
somewhat moderated ; for though what heresy is, was
not then precisely defined, yet we are told in some
points what it is not: the statute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 14.
declaring, that offences against the see of Rome are not
heresy; and the ordinary being thereby restrained from
proceeding in any case upon mere suspicion; that is,
unless the party be accused by two credible witnesses,
or an indictment of heresy be first previously found in
the king’s courts of common law. And yet the spirit
of persecution was not yet abated, but only diverted
into a lay channel. For in six years afterwards, by
statute 31 Hen. VIII. c. 14. the bloody law of the
six articles was made, which established the six most
contested points of popery, transubstantiation, commu¬
nion in one kind, the celibacy of the clergy, monastic
vows, the sacrifice of the mass, and auricular confession;
which points were “ determined and resolved by the
most godly study, pain, and travil of his majesty: for
which his most humble and obedient subjects, the lords
3 I 2 spirftual
HER [ 436 ] HER
Heresy, spiritual and temporal and the commons, in parliament
—~v~~' ' assembled, did not only render and give unto his high¬
ness their most high and hearty thanks but did also
enact and declare all oppugners of the first to be here¬
tics, and to he burnt with fire \ and of the five last to
be felons, and to suffer death. The same statute esta¬
blished a new and mixed jurisdiction of clergy and laity
for the trial and conviction of heretics $ the reigning
prince being then equally intent on destroying the su¬
premacy of the bishops of Rome, and establishing all
other their corruptions of the Christian religion.
Without perplexing this detail with the various re¬
peals and revivals of these sanguinary laws in the two
succeeding reigns, let us proceed to the reign of
Queen Elizabeth ; when the reformation was finally
established with temper and decency, unsullied with
party-rancour, or personal caprice and resentment.
By statute 1 Eliz. c. I. all former statutes belonging to
heresy are repealed, which leaves the jurisdiction of he¬
resy as it stood at common law 5 viz. as to the infliction
of common censures in the ecclesiastical courts j and in
case of burning the heretic, in the provincial synod only.
Sir Matthew Hale is indeed of a different opinion, and
holds that such power resided in the diocesan also j
though he agrees that in either case the writ r/c hceretico
comburench was not demandable of common right, but
grantable or otherwise merely at the king’s discretion.
But the principal point now gained was, that by this
statute a boundary is for the first time set to what shall
be accounted heresy ; nothing for the future being to
be so determined, but only such tenets as have been
heretofore so declared, l. By the words of the holy
scriptures ; or, 2. By the first four general councils, or
such others as have only used the words of the holy
scriptures •, or, 3. Which shall hereafter be so declared
by the parliament, with the assent of the clergy in con¬
vocation. Thus was heresy reduced to a greater cer¬
tainty than before ; though it might not have been the
Averse to have defined it in terms still more precise and
particular: as a man continued still liable to he burnt,
for what perhaps he did not understand to be heresy,
till the ecclesiastical judge so interpreted the Avords of
the canonical scriptures.
For the Avrit de hceretico comburendo remained still
in force j and we have instances of i{s being put in
execution upon tA\ro Anabaptists in the 17th of Eliza¬
beth, and two Arians in the 9th of James I. But ifr
Avas totally abolished, and heresy again subjected only
to ecclesiastical correction, p7'o salute anmiee, by vir¬
tue ef the statute 29 Car. II. c. 9. • for, in one and the
same reign, our lands were delivered from the slavery
of military tenures j our bodies from arbitrary impri¬
sonment by the habeas corpus wei 5 and our minds from
the tyranny of superstitious bigotry, by demolishing
this last badge of persecution in the English law.
Every thing is now as it should be, with respect to
the spiritual cognizance, and spiritual punishment of
heresy: unless perhaps that the crime ought to be more
strictly defined, and no persecution permitted, even in
the ecclesiastical courts, till the tenets in question are
by proper authority previously declared to be heretical.
Under these restrictions, it seems necessary for the sup¬
port of the national religion, that the officers of the
church should have power to censure heretics ; yet not
to harass them with temporal penalties, much less to
exterminate or destroy them. 1 he legislature hath in- nem b
deed thought it proper, that the civil magistrate should Q ^ !
again interpose, Avith regard to one species of heresy Herissoj P
very prevalent in modern times; for by statute 9 and 10 !
W. III. c. 32. if any person educated in the Christian
religion, or professing the same, shall by writing, print¬
ing, teaching, or advised speaking, deny any one of
the persons in the Holy Trinity to be God, or maintain
that there are more gods than one, he shall undergo
the same penalties and incapacities which were just noiy
mentioned to be inflicted on apostasy by the same statute.
HERETIC, a general name for all such persons
under any religion, but especially the Christian, as pro¬
fess or teach religious opinions contrary to the esta¬
blished faith, or to Avhat is made the standard^of ortho¬
doxy. See Heresy.
HERETOCHS, among our Saxon ancestors, signi¬
fied the same Avith dukes or duces, denoting the com¬
manders or leaders of their armies.
It appears, from Edward the Confessor’s laws, that
the military force of this kingdom was in the hands of
the dukes or heretochs, Avho were constituted through
every province and county in the kingdom, being se¬
lected out of the principal nobility, and such as were
most remarkable {or heu\g sapientes^jideles, et animost.
Their duty Avas to lead and regulate the English armies,
Avith a very unlimited power ; and because of their
great poiver, they Avere elected by the people in their
full assembly, or folkmote, in the same manner as she¬
riffs Avere elected.
HERFORDEN, or Herwarden, a free and im¬
perial town of Germany, in the circle of Westphalia,
and capital of the county of Ravensberg. Here is a fa- .
mous nunnery belonging to the Protestants of the con¬
fession of Augsburg, Avhose abbess is a princess of the
empire, and has a voice and place in the diet. It is
seated on the river Aa. E. Long. 8. 25. N. Lat. 52. 12.
HERGRUNDT, a town of Upper Hungary, re¬
markable for its rich mines of vitriol. Those who Avork
in the mines have built a subterraneous town, Avhich
has a great number of inhabitants. E. Long. 18. 15.
N. Lat. 48. 30.
HERIOT, in Law, a customary tribute of goods
and chattels, payable to the lord of the fee on the de¬
cease of the OAvner of the land. See Tenure.
Heriot is of tAVo sorts—viz. I. Heriot-custom, where
heriots have been paid time out of mind by custom,
after the death of a tenant for life. In some places,
there is a customary composition in money, as 10 or 20
shillings in lieu of a heriot, by which the lord and te¬
nant are both bound, if it be an indisputably ancient
custom; but a neAV composition of this sort will not bind
the representatives of either party. 2. Heriot-serviee,.
when a tenant holds by such service to pay heriot at
the time of his death ; which service is expressed in the
deed of feoffment.—For this latter the lord shall dis¬
train ; and for the other he shall seize, and not distrain.
If the lord purchase part of the tenancy, heriot-service
is extinguished ; but it is not so of heriot-custom.
HERISSON, in Fortification, a beam armed with
a great number of iron spikes Avith their points out-
Avards, and supported by a pivot on which it turns.
These serve as a barrier to block up any passage, and
are frequently placed before the gates, and more espe¬
cially the wicket-doors, of a tOAvn or fortress, to-secure
those
HER
ft' j;: ;sso!1 those passages which must of necessity be often opened
j and shut.
} ma- HERITABLE rights, in Scots Law, signify all
' P dltc‘. rights affecting lands, houses, &c. or any immoveable
subject.
HERITAGE, in ‘Scot.? Law, lands, houses, or any
immoveable subject, in contradistinction to moveables
or moveable subjects. It also sometimes signifies such
immoveable property as a person succeeds to as heir to
another, in contradistinction to that which he himself
purchases or acquires in any other manner, called con¬
quest.
HERMiEA, in antiquity, ancient Greek festivals
in honour of the god Hermes or Mercury. One of
these was celebrated by the Pheneatse in Arcadia j a
second by the Cyllenians in Elis 5 and a third by the
Tanagraeans, where Mercury was represented with a
ram upon his shoulder, because he was said to have
walked through the city in that posture in time of a
plague, and to have cured the sick ; in memory of
which, it was customary at this festival for one of the
most beautiful youths in the city to walk round the
walls with a ram upon his shoulder.—A fourth festival
of the same name was observed in Crete, when it was
usual for the servants to sit down at the table while
their masters waited ; a custom which was also observed
at the Roman Saturnalia.
HERMANN, Paul, a celebrated botanist, was
born at Halle in Saxony, and practised physic in the
island of Ceylon, and the Cape of Good Hope, after
which (in 1679) he was chosen professor of botany at
Leyden, and superintendant of the botanical garden, in
which science he obtained the highest reputation, and
died in the year 1695. His first publication, in 1687,
was a catalogue of plants in the garden of the univer¬
sity,—a garden which, in seven years he had so much
enriched with plants from the East and West Indies,
that it nearly rivalled the very first in Europe. His
method of botanical classification is contained in his
Florce Lugcluno-Batavce Flores, published in 1690. His
Paradisi/s Batavus &c. was published after his decease,
by William Sherard, which contains many rare, and
some entirely new species, delineated in a very elegant
manner. The rest of Plermann’s works are, Muscei
Indict Catalogvs, continens varia exotica animalia, in-
secta, vcgetabilia, ntineralia; Lapis Lydias Materia
Medicce, in which last his new characters of plants are
made use of to illustrate their medical properties. At
his death he left behind him 450 fine drawings, and a
numerous collection of dried plants, which served for
the basis of the Flora Ceylanica of Linnaeus, and also a
catalogue of plants of the Cape of Good Hope. Hr
Hannes addressed to him a beautiful Latin ode, which
is still preserved ; but many of the treasures of his in¬
dustrious life were strangely neglected, and allowed to
be dispersed.
HERMANNIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the monodelphia class, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 37th order, Columniferce.
HERMANSTADT, a handsome, populous, and
strong town of Hungary, capital of Transylvania, with
a bishop’s see. It is the residence of the governor of
the province j and is seated on the river Ceben, in E.
Long. 23. 50. N. Lat. 46. o.
HERMAPHRODITE, is generally understood to,
HER
signify a human creature possessed of both sexes, or Herma
who has the parts of generation both of male and fe- pbiodite.
male. Ihe term however is applied also to other ani- v~
mals, and even to plants.—The word is formed of the
Greek a compound of 'E^s, Mercury,
and Venus; q. d. a mixture of Mercury and
Venus, 1. e, of male and female. For it is to be ob¬
served, Hermaproditus was originally a proper name,
applied by the heathen mythologists to a fabulous dei¬
ty, whom some represent as a son of Hermes, Mercury,
and Aphrodite, Venus : and who, being desperately in
love with the nymph Salmasis, obtained of the god to
have his body and hers united into one. Others say,
tljat the god Hermaphroditus was conceived as a com¬
position of Mercury and Venus; to exhibit the union
between eloquence, or rather commerce, whereof Mer¬
cury was god, with pleasure, whereof Venus was the
proper deity. Lastly, others think this junction in¬
tended to show that Venus (pleasure) was of both
sexes; as, in effect, the poet Calvus calls Venus a
god.
Pollentemque Deum Venerem.
As also Virgil, yEneid, lib. ii.
Thscedo, ac ducente Deo Jlammam inter et hosies
Expeditor— ■ - ■
M. Spon observes, Hesychius calls Venus Aphroditos :
and Theophrastus affirms, that Aphroditos, or Venus,
is Hermaphroditus; and that in the island of Cyprus
she has a statue, which represents her with a beard like
a man.—The Greeks also call hermaphrodites,
androgyni, q. d. men-women. See.the article Andro¬
gynes.
In a treatise by Mr Hunter, in the 69th volume of
the Philosphical Transactions, hermaphrodites are di¬
vided into naturaln\\A unnatural or monstrous. The first
belongs to the more simple orders of animals, of which
there are a much greater number than of the more per¬
fect. The unnatural takes place in every tribe of ani¬
mals having distinct sexes, but is more common in some
than in others. The human species, our author ima¬
gines, has the fewest; never having seen them in that
species, nor in dogs ; but in the horse, sheep, and black
cattle, they are very frequent.
From Mr Hunter’s account, however, it does not ap¬
pear that such a creature as a perfect hermaphrodite
has ever existed. All the hermaphrodites which he
had the opportunity of seeing had the appearance of
females, and were generally saved as such. In the
horse they are very frequent ; and in the most perfect
of this kind he ever saw, the testicles had come down
out of the abdomen into the place where the udder
should have been, and appeared like an udder, not so
pendulous as the scrotum in the male of such animals.
There were also two nipples, of which horses have no
perfect form; being blended in them with the sheath
or prepuce, of which there was none here. The exter¬
nal female parts were exactly similar to those of a per¬
fect female; but instead of a common-sized clitoris,
there was one about five or six inches long : which when
erect, stood almost directly backwards.
A foal ass very similar to the above was killed, and
the following appearances were observed on dissection..
The testicles were not come down as in the former,-
possibly,
[ 437 1
HER [ 43
Hernia- possibly because the creatine was too young. It had
phrodite. also two nipples *, but there was no penis passing round
the pubes to the belly, as in the perfect male ass. Ihe
external female parts were similar to those ot the she-
ass. Within the entrance of the vagina was placed
the clitoris j but much longer than that of a true fe¬
male, being about five inches long. The vagina was
open a little farther than the opening oi the urethra
into it, and then became obliterated: from thence, up
to the fundus of the uterus, there was no canal. At
the fundus of the common uterus it was hollow, or haa
a cavity in it, and then divided into two, viz., a right
;*nd a left, called the horns of the uterus, which were
also pervious. Beyond the termination of the two
horns were placed the ovaria, as in the true female j
but the Fallopian tubes could not be found.—From the
broad ligaments, to the edges of which the horns of
the uterus and ovaria were attached, there passed to¬
wards each groin a part similar to the round ligaments
in the female, which were continued into the rings of
the abdominal muscles j but with this difference, that
there were continued with them a process or theca of
the peritonaeum, similar to the tunica vaginalis com¬
munis in the male ass j and in these theca were found
the testicles, but no vasa deferentia could be observed
passing from them.
In most species of animals, the production of her¬
maphrodites appears to be the effect of chance j but in
the black cattle it seems to be an established principle
of their propagation. It is a well known fact, and, as
far as has yet been discovered, appears to be universal,
that when a cow brings forth two calves, one of them
a bull, and the other a cow to appearance, the cow is
unfit for propagation, but the bull-calf becomes a very
proper bull. They are known not to breed 5 they do
not show the least inclination for the bull, nor does the
bull ever take the least notice of them. Among the
country people in England, this kind of calf is called
^ free martin ; and this singularity is just as well known
among the farmers as either’ cow or bull. When they
are preserved, it is for the purposes of an ox or spayed
heifer $ viz. to yoke with the oxen, or fatten for the
table. They are much larger than either the bull or
the cow, and the horns grow longer and bigger, being
very similar to those of an ox. The bellow of a free-
martin is also similar to that of an ox, and the meat is
similar to that of the ox or spayed heifer, viz. much
finer in the fibre than either the bull or cow j and they
are more susceptible of growing fat with good food.
By some they are supposed to exceed the ox and heifer
in delicacy of taste, and bear a higher price at market;
this, however, does not always hold, and Mr Hunter
gives an instance of the contrary. The Romans, who
called the bull taurusf spoke also of tauras in the femi¬
nine gender different from cows. Stephens observes, that
it was thought they meant by this word barren cows,
who obtained the name because they did not conceive
any more than bulls. He also quotes a passage from
Columella, lib. vi. cap 22. “ And, like the taurce
which occupy the place of fertile cows, should he re¬
jected or sent away.” He likewise quotes Varro, De
re rustica, lib. ii. cap. 5. “ The cow which is barren
is called tavray Irom which we may reasonably con¬
jecture, that the Homans had not the idea of the cir¬
cumstances of their production.
8 ] HER
Of these creatures Mr Hunter dissected three, and
the following appearances were observed in the most
perfect of them.—The external parts were rather small-v-
er than in the cow. The vagina passed on as in the
cow to the opening of the urethra, and then it began
to contract into a small canal, which passed on to the
division of the uterus into the two horns ; each horn
passing along the edge of the broad ligament laterally
towards the ovaria. At the termination of these horns
were placed both the ovaria and testicles, both of which
were nearly about the size of a small nutmeg. No
Fallopian tubes could be found. To the testicles were
vasa deferentia, but imperfect. The left one did not
come near the testicle ; the right only came close to it,
hut did not terminate in the body called epididymis.
They were both pervious, and opened into the vagina
near the opening of the urethra.—On the posterior
surface of the bladder, or between the uterus and blad¬
der, were the two bags called the vesiculce seminales in
the male, but much smaller than what they are in
the bull: the ducts opened along with the vasa dif¬
ferentia.
Concerning hermaphrodites of the human species,
much has been written, and many law's enacted about
them in different nations j but the existence of them is
still disputed. Dr Parsons has given us a treatise on
the subject, in which he endeavours to explode the no¬
tion as a vulgar error. According to him, all the her¬
maphrodites that have appeared, were only women
whose clitoris from some cause or other was overgrown j
and, in particular, that this was the case with an An¬
gola woman shown at London as an hermaphrodite
some time ago.
Among the reptile tribe, indeed, such as worms,
snails, leeches, &c. hermaphrodites are very frequent.
In the memoirs of the French academy, we have an ac¬
count of this very extraordinary kind of hermaphro¬
dites, which not only have both, sexes, but do the office
of both at the same time. Such are earth-worms,
round-tailed worms found in the intestines of men aud
horses, land-snails, and those of fresh-waters, and all the
sorts of leeches. And, as all these are reptiles, and
without bones, M. Poupart concludes it probable, that
all other insects which have these two characters are
also hermaphrodites.
The method of coupling practised in this class of
hermaphrodites, may be illustrated in the instance ot
earth-worms. These little creatures creep, two by
two, out of holes proper to receive them, where they
dispose their bodies in such a manner, as that the head
of the one is turned to the tail of the other. Being
thus stretched lengthwise, a little conical button or pa¬
pilla is thrust forth by each, and received into an aper¬
ture of the other. These animals, being male in one
part of the body, and female in another, and the body
flexible withal, M. Homberg does not think it impos¬
sible but that an earth-worm may couple with itself,
and be both father and mother of its young j an
observation which, to some, appears highly extrava¬
gant.
Among the insects of the soft or boneless kind, there
are great numbers indeed, which are so far from being
hermaphrodites, that they are of no sex at all. Oftlns
kind are all the caterpillars, maggots, and worms, pro¬
duced of the eggs of flies of all kinds ; but the reason
of
Hernia i
phrodit
HER [ 439 1 HER
na. of this is plain ; these are not animals in a perfect state,
^ite but disguises under which animals lurk. I hey have no
business with the propagating of their species, hut are
nes< > to be transformed into animals of another kind, by
the putting off their several coverings, and then only
they are in their perfect state, and therefore then only
shew the differences of Sex, which are always in the
distinct animals, each being only male or female.
These copulate, and their eggs produce these crea¬
tures, which show no sex till they arrive at that per¬
fect state again.
Hermaphrodite Ftoivers, in Botany. These are
so called by the sexualists on account of their contain¬
ing both the antherae and stigma, the supposed organs
of generation, within the same calyx and petals. Of
this kind are the flowers of all the classes in Linneeus’s
sexual method, except the classes »zo«cm'a and ctioecia i
in the former of which, male and female flowers are
produced on the same root •, in the latter, in distinct
plants from the same seed.—Tn the class polyganna,
there are always hermaphrodite flowers mixed with
male or female," or both, either on the same or distinct
roots. In the plantain-tree the flowers are all herma¬
phrodite *, in some, however, the antherse or male or¬
gan, in others the stigma or female organ, proves ab¬
ortive. The flowers in the former class are styled /e-
tnale hermaphrodites; in the latter, male hermaphro¬
dites. —— Hermaphrodites are thus as frequent in the ve¬
getable kingdom as they are rare and scarce in the ani¬
mal one.
HERMASL an ecclesiastical author of the first cen¬
tury , and according to Origen, Eusebius, and Jerome,
the same whom St Paul salutes in the end of his epistle
to the Romans. He wrote a book in Greek some time
before Domitian’s persecution, which happened in the
year 95. This work is entitled The Pastor, from His
representing an angel speaking to him in it under the
form of a shepherd. The Greek text is lost, but a
very ancient Latin version of it is still extant. Some
of the fathers have considered this book as canonical.
The best edition of it is that of 1698, where it is to
be found among the other apostolical fathers, illustra¬
ted with the notes and corrections of Cotelerius and
Le Clerc. With them it was translated into English
by Archbishop Wake, the best edition of which is that
of 171 o.
Hermas, a genus of plants belonging to the polyga-
mia class. See Botany hidex.
HERMES, or HerMA, among antiquaries, a sort
of square or cubical figure of the god Mercury, usually
made of marble, though sometimes of brass or other ma¬
terials, without arms or legs, and planted by the Greeks
or Romans in their cross-ways.
Servius gives us the origin thereof, in his comment
on the eighth book of the AEneid. Some shepherds,
says he, having one day caught Mercury, called by the
Greeks Hermes, asleep on a mountain, cut oil his hands 5
from which he, as well as the mountain where the ac¬
tion was done, became denominated Cyllenius, fiom
maimed: and thence, adds Servius, it is that cer¬
tain statues without arms are denominated Hermeses ov
Hermce. But this etymology of the epithet of Cyllenius
contradicts most of the other ancient authors ; who de¬
rive it hence, that Mercury was born at Cyllene a city
of Elis, or even on ihe mountain Cyllene itself, which
had been thus called before him.
Suidas gives a moral explication of this custom of
making statues of Mercury without arms. The Her-
nieses, says he, were statues of stone placed at the ves¬
tibules or porches of the doors and temples at Athens •,
for this reason, that as Mercury was held the god of
speech and of truth, square and cubical statues were,
peculiarly proper; having this in common with truth,
that on what side soever they are viewed, they always
appear the same.
It must be observed, that Athens abounded more
than any other place in Hermeses : there were abun¬
dance of very signal ones in divers parts of the city, and
they were indeed one of the principal ornaments of the
place. They were also placed in the high-roads and
cross-ways, because Mercury, who was tire courier of
the gods, presided over the high-ways ; whence he had
his surname of Trivius, from trimum ; and that of Via-
cus, from via.
From Suidas’s account, above cited, it appears, that
the termini, used among us in the door-cases, balco¬
nies, &c. of our buildings, take their origin from these
Athenian Hermeses, and that it was more proper to call
them hermetes than termini, because though the Roman
termini were square stones, whereon a hand was fre¬
quently placed, yet they were rather used as land-marks
and mere stones than as ornaments of building, be#
the articles Mercury and Thoth.
HERMETIC, or Hermetical Art, a name given
to chemistry, on a supposition that Hermes Trismegi-
stus w'as the inventor thereof, or that he excelled there¬
in. See Thoth.
Hermetical Philosophy is that which undertakes to
solve and explain all the phenomena of nature, from
the three chemical principles, salt, sulphur, and mer¬
cury.
Hermetical Physic, or Medicine, is that system or
hypothesis in the art of healing, which explains the
causes of diseases, and the operations of medicine, on
the principles of the hermetical philosophy, and parti¬
cularly on the system of alkali and acid.
Hermetical Seal, a manner of stopping or closing
glass vessels, for chemical operations, so very accurately,
that nothing can exhale or escape,- not even the most
subtile spirits. It is performed by heating the neck of
the vessel in the flame of a lamp till it be ready to melt,
and then with a pair of pincers twisting it close toge¬
ther. This they call putting on Hermes's seal. There
are also other ways of sealing vessels hermetically j viz.
by stopping them with a plug or stcppie of glass, well
luted into the neck of the vessel; or by turning another
ovum philosophicum upon that wherein the matter is
contained.
HERMHARPOCRATES, or Hermarpocra-
TES, in antiquity, a deity, or figure of a deity, com¬
posed of Mercury, and Harpocrates the god of Si-
lenc6«
M. Spon gives us a hermbarpocrates in. his Beth.
Cur. de P Anti quit p. 98. fig. 15. having wings on his
feet like Mercury, and laying his finger on his mouth
like Harpocrates. It is probable they might mean,
by this combination, that silence is sometimes elo-
Hc-nne*
II
I lenu har¬
pocrates.
quent.
HERMIANI,
Hermiani
(I
Hermodac-
tyl.
HER f 440 ] HER
HERMIANI, or Hermiatit^, a sect of heretics
in the second century, thus called from their leader
Hermias. They were also denominated Seleucianu
One of their distinguishing tenets was, that God is
corporeal. Another, that Jesus Christ did not ascend
into heaven with his body, but left it in the sun.
HERMIONE, in Ancient Geography, a consider¬
able city of Argolis. It was in ruins (except a few
temples) in the time of Pausanias ; who says that the
new city was at the distance of four stadia from the
promontory on which the temple of Neptune stood. It
gave name to the Sinus Hermionicus, a part of the Si¬
nus Argolicus.
HERMIT, or Eremit, Eremita, a devout person
retired into solitude, to be more at leisure for prayer
and contemplation, and to disencumber himself of the
affairs of this world.—The word is formed from the
Greek desert ox wilderness ; and according to
the etymology, should rather be wrote Eremit.
Paul surnamed the Hermit, is usually reckoned the
first hermit; though St Jerome at the beginning of
the life of that saint says, it is not known who was the
first.—Some go back to John the Baptist, others to
Elias : others make St Anthony the founder of the ere¬
mitical life ; but others think that he only rekindled
and heightened the fervour thereof, and hold that the
disciples of that saint owned St Paul of Thebes for the
first that practised it. The persecutions of Decius and
Valerian are supposed to have been the occasion.—
Several of the ancient hermits, as St Anthony, &c.
though they lived in deserts, had yet numbers of reli¬
gious accompanying them.
J here are also various orders and congregations of
religious distinguished by the title of hermits; as, her¬
mits of St Augustine, of St John Baptist, of St Jerome,
of St Paul, &c.
Hermit, the, Peter Gautier, a French officer of
Amiens in Picardy, who quitted the military profes¬
sion, and commenced hermit and pilgrim. He tra¬
velled to the Holy Land about the year IC93; and
making a melancholy recital of the deplorable situa¬
tion of a tew Christians in that country to Pope Ur¬
ban II. and at the same time enthusiastically lamenting
that Infidels should be in possession of the famous city
where the Author of Christianity first promulgated his
sacred doctrines, Urban gave him a fatal commission
to excite all Christian princes to a general war against
the lurks and Saracens the possessors of the Holy
Land. See Croisade.
HERMITAGE properly signifies a little hut or
habitation, in some desert place, where a hermit
dwells.
Her milage is also popularly attributed to any religi¬
ous cell, built and endowed in a private and recluse
place, and thus annexed to some large abbey, of which
the superior was called hermita.
HERMODAC IYL, in the Materia Medico, a root
brought from Turkey. It is of the shape of a heart
flatted, of a white colour, compact, yet easy to be cut or
powdered ; of a viscous sweetish taste, with a light de¬
gree of acrimony. Hermodactyls were of great repute
among the ancients as a cathartic ; but those we now
meet with in the shops have very little purgative virtue ;
JNeumann declares he never found them to have any
eilect at all.—The hermodactyl is the root of the col-
5
chicum variegatum, according to some ; others suppose
it to be the root of the irisTuberosa.
HERMOGENES, the first and most celebrated
architect of antiquity, was, according to Vitruvius,
born at Alanbada, a city in Caria. He built a tem¬
ple of Diana at Magnesia ; another of Bacchus at
Tros ; and was the inventor of several parts of archi¬
tecture. He composed a book on the subject, which
is lost.
Heumogenes Tarsensis, a rhetorician and orator,
and who was in every respect a prodigy. At 17 years
of age he published his system of rhetoric, and at
20 his philosophic ideas : but at 25 he forgot every
thing he had known. It is said that his body being
opened after his death, his heart was found of an ex¬
traordinary size, and all over hairy. He died about
168 B. C.
HERMOGENIANS, a sect of ancient heretics,
denominated from their leader Hermogenes, who lived
towards the close of the second century. Hermogenes
established matter as his first principle; and regarding
matter as the fountain of all evil, he maintained that
the world, and every thing contained in it, as also the
souls of men and other spirits, were formed by the
Deity from an uncreated and eternal mass of corrupt
matter. The opinions of Hermogenes, with regard to
the origin of the world and the nature of the soul, vvero
warmly opposed by Tertullian.
The Hermogenians were divided into several branches
under their respective chieftains, viz. Hermiani, Seleu-
cians, Materiari, &c.
HERMON, or Aermon, in Ancient Geography, a
mountain of the Amorites, called Senior by the Phoeni*
cians, and Sanir or Senir by the Amorites, on the east
of Jordan. It is also called Sion, (Moses) ; but must
not be confounded with the Sion of Jerusalem. By
the Sidonians it was called Scinon ; in the vulgate, it
is called Sarion. Joshua informs us, that it was the
dominion of Og king of Bashan ; which must be un¬
derstood of its south side. It is never particularly
mentioned by profane writers ; being comprised under
the appellation Libanus, or Antilibanus, with which
mountain it is joined to the east. It is also called Her-
monium pluraliy, Psalm xlii. 6. because it was exten¬
sive, and contained several mountains.
HERM0P0L1S, in Ancient Geography, the name
of several cities in Egypt, dedicated, as the name imports,
to Hermes or Mercury. Near one of these cities, pro¬
bably Hermopolis Magna, was situated a most magni¬
ficent temple, of which the portico only now remains.
It was visited by Denon who accompanied the French
army in their expedition to Egypt, in 1799; and
he describes it as a most beautiful monument of an¬
cient architecture, and a splendid relic of the highest
antiquity. Among the hillocks within 300 or 400
yards of the portico, enormous blocks of stene are seen
buried in sand, and regular architecture beneath them,
which appear to form an edifice containing columns ol
granite, just rising above the present level of the soil.
Every part of this edifice is covered with hieroglyphics.
Connected with the scattered fragments of the great
temple, a mosque has been built, in which is a number
of columns of cipoline marble. Near this is the village
of Achmunin, which contains JCCO inhabitants.
HERMUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Ionia ;
which
Hermod;
Hernm
HER [ 441 ] HER
I 'nun which rising near Dorylseum, a town of Phrygia, in a
H mountain sacred to Dindymene or Cybele, touched
■to- Mysia, and ran through the Regio Combusta, then
“ jhrough the plains of Smyrna down to the sea, carry-
ng along with it the Pactolus, Hyllus, and other less
noble rivers. Its waters were said, by Virgil and other
poets, to roll down gold.
HERNANDRIA, Jack-in-a-box-tree ; a genus
of plants belonging to the moncecia class 5 and in the
natural method ranking under the 38th order, Tricoc-
ca:. See Botany Index.
HERNE, a town of Kent, six miles from Canterbu¬
ry, 12 from Margate, and 14 from Feversham. The
church is a large ancient structure, with a tower of flint,
and has six stalls of the cathedral kind, with divisions
of the choir from the nave by a carved screen of oak.
The church is 113 feet long. The stone front is very
ancient. Here the great Dr Ridley, the English mar¬
tyr, was vicar. Here is a commodious bay, frequented
by colliers, &c.
HERNIA, in Medicine and Surgery, a descent of
the intestines or omentum out of their natural place j
or rather, the tumour formed by that descent, popular¬
ly called a rupture. The word is Latin, hernia, and
originally signifies the same with tumor scroti, called also
ramex. Priscian observes, that the ancient Marsi gave
the appellation hernia to rocks: whence some will have
hernias thus called propter duritiem, on account of their
hardness. Scaliger chooses rather to derive the word
from the Greek igva;, ramus, branch. See Surgery
Index.
HERNIARIA, Rupture-wort, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria class j and in the natural
method ranking under the nth order, Sarmentacece.
See Botany Index.
HERO, in Pagan mythology, a great and illus¬
trious person, of a mortal nature, though supposed by
the populace to partake of immortality, and after his
death to be placed among the number of the gods.
The word is formed of the Latin herns, and that of
the Greek )jg«£, senii-deus, “ demi-god.”—The Greeks
erected columns and other monuments over the tombs
of their heroes, and established a kind of worship in
honour of the manes both of their heroes and heroines.
The Romans also raised statues in honour of their he¬
roes ; but there were six of their heroes of a superior
order, and who were supposed to be admitted into the
community of the twelve great gods : these were Her¬
cules, Bacchus, Esculapius, Romulus, Castor, and
Pollux. Writers have distinguished between the wor¬
ship which the ancients paid to their heroes and that
offered to their gods. The latter, it is said, consisted
of sacrifices and libations ; the former was only a kind
of funeral honour, in which they celebrated their ex¬
ploits, concluding the rehearsal with feasts.
Hero is also used in a more extensive sense, for a
great, illustrious, and extraordinary personage: parti¬
cularly in respect of virtues.
F. Bouhours makes this distinction between a great
man and a hero, that the latter is more daring, fierce,
and enterprising: and the former moreprudent, thought¬
ful, and reserved. In this sense we properly say, Alex¬
ander was a hero, Julius Caesar a great man.
Hero of a poem or romance, is the principal perso¬
nage, or he who has the chief part in it. Thus the
VOL. X. Part II. f
hero of the Iliad is Achilles ; of the Odyssey, Ulysses ; Hero
of the iEneid, iEneas j of Tasso’s Jerusalem, God- Herod!
frey of Boulogne ; of Milton’s Paradise Lost, Adam ; *-■ - v 
though Mr Dryden will have the devil to be Milton’s
hero, because he gets the better of Adam, and drives
him out of Paradise.
^ Hero, in fabulous history, a famous priestess of
^ enus, lived at Abydos, in a tower situated on the
banks of the Hellespont. She being beloved by Lean-
der, who lived at Sestos on the other side of the strait,
he every night swam over to visit her, being directed
by a light fixed on the tower. But the light being put
out in a stormy night, the youth missed his way and
was drowned ; on which Hero threw herself into the
sea, and perished.
Hero, the name of two celebrated Greek mathe¬
maticians ; the one called the old, and the other the
young. Hero. The younger was a disciple of Ctesibius.
They are known by two works translated into Latin
by Barochius; Spin a hum liber, by Hero senior j and
Tvactat. artis etinachin.militar. by Hero junior. They
flourished about 130 and IOO B. C.
HEROD, surnamed the Great, was born about 71
years before the commencement of the Christian era.
When about 25 years of age, his father Antipater made
him governor of Galilee, where he distinguished him-
se If by suppressing a band of robbers, and executing
their ringleader. For this action, as it was performed
by his own authority, and without trial of the crimi¬
nals, he was ordered to appear before the sanhedrim ;
but by the influence of his party and the favour of the
high priest, he escaped judgment. During the civil
war between the republican and Caesarian parties, Fle-
rod joined Cassius, and was made governor of Coele-
syria. He caused Malichus to be assassinated for having
poisoned his father, and ingratiated himself with Mark
Antony. After being an exile for some time in Egypt,
he found means to arrive at Rome, where Antony re¬
ceived him with great kindness, and the senate made
choice of him to the crpwn of Judea, about 40 years
before the birth of Christ. It was in the possession of
Antigonus at that time, and he had consequently to
fight his way to it. He was finally victorious, Anti¬
gonus was taken prisoner, and Herod succeeded to the
regal dignity in the year 37 before Christ. In filling
his empty coffers he was guilty of many cruel extortions,
and it is but justice to add, that he performed many
acts of clemency. He sent for the aged high priest
Hyrcan, who had been deposed, and treated him with
the greatest kindness, and raised Aristobulus, the bro¬
ther of his beloved Mariamne, to the pontifical dignity.
Soon after, indeed, from a fit of jealousy, he caused him
to be drowned in a bath. He was accused to Antony
by his mother-in-law, and he appointed his uncle Jo¬
seph to govern in his absence, charging him to put the
queen to death, if his trial should prove fatal to him, as
he could not support the idea of her falling into the pos¬
session of another.
Herod received a visit from Cleopatra, who is re¬
ported to have had amorous intentions with regard to
him, which he prudently disappointed, for fear of the
vengeance of Antony ; but he fully satisfied her avarice
with the most ample donations. When hostilities com¬
menced between Antony and Octavius, he raised an
army to join the former, but had first to contend with
3 K Malchus,
HER [ 442 ] ■ HER
Malclius, kintr 0f part of Arabia, whom he defeated, act of barbarous cruelty, the massacre of the children Hercdj
and compelled to sue for peace. After the battle of of Bethlehem, instigated by jealousy of this king of the ||
Actium, he resolved to make terms with the victor, to Jews in a spiritual sense, of whose birth he obtained
prepare for which he put the aged Hyrcan to death, information from the magi. It is to be observed that V"
and embarked for Rhodes, where Augustus at that time the account of this deed is no where to be met with but
was. He appeared before the emperor in all the insig- in St Matthew’s gospel, for while Josephus seems to
nia of royalty except his diadem, boldly relating all dwell with studied minuteness on the cruelties of Herod,
the services he had’performed to his benefactor Antony, he gives not a single hint respecting this massacre. As
and observed that he was willing to transfei; the same Antipater was returning from Rome, he was arrested
gratitude to a new patron, from" whom he might hold by his father’s orders, tried and condemned fortreason-
bis crown and kingdom. able practices. These calamities, joined to a shattered
Augustus was struck with the magnanimity of this constitution, threw Herod into a loathsome distemper,
defence, and replaced the diadem on his head. When accompanied with remarkable symptoms, which has
Augustus passed through Syria in his way to and from sometimes been considered as a judgment, from hea-
Egypt, he was magnificently entertained by Herod, for ven. He ordered the sentence against Antipater to oe
which he restored him the whole of his dominions, and put in execution, and appointed his son Archelaus to
even enlarged them. Before his interview with Augustus, succeed him on the throne. According to Josephus, he
Herod had given a second order respecting the mur- collected together at Jericho the chief persons among the
der of Mariamne ; and growing jealous of Sohemus, her Jews, where he ordered them to be shut up in the
last guardian, he soon after had her condemned and ex- circus, giving strict orders to his sister Salome to have
ecuted, in spite of the solemn protestations of her inno- them all massacred as soon as he breathed his last. Ibis
cence. His remorse on this occasion was dreadful, and order was never executed, but we very much doubt
no scenes of riot or debauchery could banish her from the veracity of Josephus whether it was ever given,
his mind. He would frequently call aloud upon her The most bloody monster that ever existed, was chief-
name, and order his attendants to bring her into his ly pleased with such acts of cruelty as he could either
presence, as if unwilling to forget that she was no more, perform in person, witness by the agency of his slaves,
He built a theatre and amphitheatre at Jerusalem, for or know to be done during his lifetime $ but this sup-
the purpose of celebrating games in honour of Augus- posed posthumous cruelty of Herod is wholly unac-
tus, which exasperated the Jews to such a degree, that countable. If it was actually the case, we can account
a conspiracy was formed against him, and on the de- for it upon no principles of human depravity, and it is
tectiou of it, the principal contrivers were punished with wholly unique in the annals of tyranny,
a merciless severity. His remains were interred with great pomp and mag-
He built several strong fortresses in different parts of nificence ; and although his memory has been consign-
Judea, for his own security, one of which, in honour of ed to detestation and abhorrence, his great talents and
the emperor, was denominated Caesarea. To supply in the glories of his reign, conspire to assign him a dis-
same measure the loss of Mariamne, he married another tinguished place in the list of sovereigns. .
lady of the same name, the beautiful daughter of a PIEROI3IAN, an eminent Greek historian, who
priest, whom he raised to the supreme pontificate. He spent the greatest part of his lite at Rome, flourished in
was in sueh favour with Augustus, that he was appoint- the third century, in the reigns of Severus, Cara-
ed imperial procurator of Syria, and obtained a tetrar- calla, Heliogabalus, Alexander, and Maximin. His
chy for his brother. To conciliate the favour of the history begins from the death ol Marcus Aurelius the
Jews, he undertook the vast work of rebuilding the Philosopher j and ends with the death of Balbinus*
temple of Jerusalem, and by constantly employing a and Maximin, and the beginning of the reign of Gor-
whole army of workmen for a year and a half, this mag- dian. It is written in very elegant Greek j and there
nificent edifice was completed. In the course of an- is an excellent translation of it into Latin, by Angelus
other visit to the emperor, Herod obtained new favours, Politianus. Herodian has been published by Henry
particularly a grant of half the produce of the mines Stephens in 410, in 1581 ; by Boeder, at Strasburg,
of Cyprus, and the overseership of the rest. After this in 1662, 8vo j and by Hudson, at Oxford, in 1699,
he dedicated his new city of Csesarea, when he exhibit- 8vo.
ed so much profuse magnificence, that Augustus said, HERODIANS, a sect among the Jews at the
his soul was too great for his kingdom. He procured time of our Saviour: mentioned Matth. xxii. 16.
the condemnation and the death of his two sons by the Mark iii. 6.
first Mariamne, for which he has been bitterly accused ; The critics and commentators are very much divid-
but when we recollect that he took the greatest care of ed with regard to the Herodians. St Jerome, in his
the two sons whom each left behind him, we much con- Dialogue, against the Luciferians, takes the name to
elude that there was more reason for their punishment have been given to such as owned Herod for the Mes-
than some are willing to allow. The charge brought siah ; and Tertullian and Epiphanins are of the same
against them was an unnatural conspiracy against his opinion, But the same Jerome, in his Comment on St
fife and crown, and it seems to have been fairly substan- Matthew, treats his opinion as ridiculous j and main-
tiated. His ungrateful brother Pheroras, and his fa- tains, that the Pharisees gave this appellation by way
voured son Antipater conspired against him. Soon af- of ridicule to Herod’s soldiers who paid tribute to the
ter the discovery of it the former died, and the latter Romans •, agreeable to which the Syrian interpreters
went to Rome. render the word by the domestic's of Herod, i. e. “ his
The birth of Christ happened in the 33d year of his courtiers.” M. Simon, in his notes on the 22d chap-
reign, which is said to have been soon followed by that ter of Matthew, advances a more probable opinion.
1 3 • The
HER , [ 443 ] HER
i(j:ans The name Herodian he imagines to have been given
1 odotus. to such as adhered to Herod’s party and interest j and
-y—' were for preserving the government in his family,
about which were great divisions among the Jews.—F.
Hardouin will have the Herodians and Sadducees to
have been the same.—Dr Prideaux is of opinion
that they derived their name from Herod the Great,
and that they were distinguished from the other Jews
bv their concurrence with Herod’s scheme of subject¬
ing himself and his dominions to the Romans, and
likewise by complying with many of their heathen
usages and customs. This symbolizing with idolatry
upon views of interest and worldly policy, was probably
that leaven of Herod, against which our Saviour cau¬
tioned his disciples. It is farther probable that they
were chiefly of the sect of Sadducees j because the
leaven of Herod is also denominated the leaven of the
Sadducees.
HERODOTUS, an ancient Greek historian of
Halicarnassus in Caria, son of Lyxus and Dryo, was
born in the first year of the 74th Olympiad, that is,
about 484 B. C. The city of Halicarnassus being at
that time under the tyranny of Lygdamis grandson
of Artemisia queen of Caria, Herodotus quitted his
country and retired to Samos ; from whence he tra¬
velled over Egypt, Greece, Italy, &c. and in his tra¬
vels acquired the knowledge of the history and origin
of many nations. He then began to digest the ma¬
terials he had collected into order, and composed that
history which has preserved his name among men ever
since. He wrote it in the isle of Samos, according to
the general opinion.—Lucian informs us, that when
Herodotus left Caria to go into Greece, he began to
consider with himself
What he should do to be for ever known,
And make the age to come his own,
in the most expeditious way, and with as little trouble
as possible. His history, he presumed, would easily
procure him fame, and raise his name among the Gre¬
cians in whose favour it was written *, but then he fore¬
saw that it would be very tedious to go through the
several cities of Greece, and recite it to each respective
city ; to the Athenians, Corinthians, Argives, Lace-
darmonians, &c. He thought it most proper there¬
fore to take the opportunity of their assembling all
together j and accordingly recited his work at the
Olympic games, which rendered him more famous
than even those who had obtained the prizes. None
were ignorant of his name, nor was there a single
person in Greece who had not seen him at the Olym¬
pic games, or heard those speak of him who had seen
him there.
His work is divided into nine books ; which accord¬
ing to the computation of Dionysius Halicarrunssensis,
contain the most remarkable occurrences within a pe¬
riod of 240 years } from the reign of Cyrus the first
king of Persia, to that of Xerxes when the historian
was livinrr. These nine books are called after the
names of the nine muses, each book being distinguish¬
ed by the name of a muse; and this has given birth to
two disquisitions among the learned : 1. Whether they
were so called by Herodotus himself; and, 2. For what
reason they were so called. As to the first, it is ge¬
nerally agreed that Herodotus did not impose these
names himself; but it is not agreed why they were jjerCKjotus
imposed by others. Lucian tells us, that these names ]|
were given them by the Grecians at the Olympic games, Heron,
when they were first recited, as the best compliment
that could be paid the man who had taken pains to do
them so much honour. Others have thought that the
names of the muses have been fixed upon them by wav
of reproach ; and were designed to intimate, that Hero¬
dotus, instead of true history, had written a great deal
of fable. But, be this as it will, it is certain, that
with regard to the truth of his history, he is accused
by several authors; and, on the other band, he has not
wanted persons to defend him. Aldus Manutius, Joa¬
chim Camerarius, and Henry Stepheris, have written
apologies for him ; and, among other things, have very
justly observed, that he seldom relates any thing of
doubtful credit without producing the authority on
which his narration is founded ; and, if he has no cer¬
tain authority to fix it upon, uses always the terms ut
ferunty ut ego audivi, &c.
There is ascribed also to Herodotus, but falsely, a
Life of Homer, which is usually printed at the end of
his work.—He wrote in the Ionic dialect, and his style
and manner have ever been admired by all people of
taste". There have been several editions of the works
of this historian ; two by Henry Stephens, one in
1570, and the other in 1592; one by Gale at Lon¬
don in 1679 ; and one by Gronovius at Leyden
in 17x5, which is the last and best, though not the
best printed.
HEROIC, something belonging to a hero, or he¬
roine. Thus we say, heroic actions, heroic virtues, he¬
roic style, heroic verse, heroic poet, heroic age, &c.
Heroic Age, is that age or period of the world
wherein the heroes, or those called by the poets the
children of the gods, are supposed to have lived.-—The
heroic age coincides with the fabulous age.
Heroic Poem, is that which undertakes to describe
some extraordinary action or enterprise. Homer, Vir¬
gil, Statius, Lucan, Tasso, Camoens, Milton, and Vol¬
taire, have composed heroic poems. In this sense, he¬
roic poem coincides with epic poem.
Heroic Verse, is that wherein heroic poems are
usually composed ; or, it is that proper for such poems.
In the Greek and Latin, hexameter verses are pecu¬
liarly denominated heroic verses, as being alone used by
Homer, Virgil, &c. Alexandrine verses, of 12 sylla¬
bles, were formerly called heroic verses, as being sup¬
posed the only verse proper for heroic poetry ; hut
later writers use verses of ten syllables.
HEROINE, Heroina, or Herds, a woman that
has the qualities and virtues of a hero, or that has done
some heroic action.
HERON. See Ardea, Ornithology Index.
This bird is a very great devourer of fish, and will
do more mischief to a pond than even an otter. Some
say that an heron will destroy more fish in a week than
at otter will in three months ; hut that seems carrying
the matter too far. People who have kept heion-,
have had the curiosity to number out the fish they ted
them with into a tub of water; and counting them
again afterwards, it has been found that a heron will
eat 50 moderate-sized dace and roaches in a day. . It
has been found, that in carp-ponds visited by this bird,
one heron will eat up 1000 store carp in a year, aad
3 K 2 "Will
HER [ 444 ] HER
Heron will hunt them so close that very few can escape. The
|] readiest method of destroying this mischievous bird is
Herring. },y fishing for him in the manner of pike, with a bait-
v" ed hook •, the bait consisting of small roach or dace,
and the hook fastened to one end of a strong line, made
of silk and wire twisted together. To the other end of
the line is fastened a stone of a pound weight; and se¬
veral of these baited lines being sunk by means of the
stone in different parts of the pond, in a night or two
the heron will not fail of being taken by one or other of
them.
HERPES, in Medicine, a bilious pustule, which
breaking out in different manners upon the skin, ac¬
cordingly receives different denominations. See Me¬
dicine Index.
HERRERA tordesillas, Anthony, a Spanish
historian, the son of Roderic de Tordesillas and Agnes
de Herrera, it being the custom of that country to bear
the mother’s name, was born in 1565. He was secre¬
tary to Vespasian de Gonzaga, viceroy of Navarre and
Valentia, and afterwards appointed royal historiogra¬
pher for the Indies by Philip II. to which a liberal pen¬
sion was attached. While he held this office, he wrote
his general history of the Indies in 4 vols folio, com¬
prehending the whole of the Spanish transactions there,
from 1492 to I554' The celebrated Scottish historian
Hr Robertson, says of it, that it “ furnishes the fullest
and most accurate information concerning the conquest
of Mexico, as well as every other transaction of Ame¬
rica. The industry and attention with which he con¬
sulted not only the books, but the original and public
records were so great, and he usually judges of the evi¬
dence before him with so much impartiality and can¬
dour, that his decads may be ranked among the most
judicious and useful historical collections.” Herrera
likewise composed a general history of his own time,
from 155410 1598, which is not so much admired. His
death, which happened in 1625, prevented him from
enjoying the office of secretary of state, which Phi¬
lip I\. designed lor him on the very first vacancy.
Herrera, Ferdinand de, a Spanish poet of the 16th
century, was a native of Seville. In the year 1582, he
published a collection ol poems of the lyric and heroic
species, which were reprinted in 1619. By these he
obtained a considerable reputation as a favourite of the
muses, and made him be regarded as the first lyric
poet belonging to Spain. As to his style, it is gene¬
rally allowed to be neat, elegant, copious, and correct.
He likewise published an edition of Garcilasso de la
Aega, with notes ^ a narrative of the war with Cyprus,
and of the battle of Eepanto.
HERRING, in Ichthyology, a species of Clupea.
1 lie herring is derived from the German heer,
an camy, which expresses their number, when they mi¬
grate into our seas. Herrings are found in great plenty
from the highes.. northern latitudes as low as the north¬
ern coasts of France. They are also met w'ith in vast
shoals on the coast of America, as low as Carolina :
they are found also in the-sea of Kamtschatka, and pos¬
sibly reach Japan : but their winter rendezvous is with¬
in the arctic circle, whither they retire after spawning,
and where they are provided with plenty of insect food.
For an account of the remarkable migration of her¬
rings, and the history of the fishery, &c. see Clupea
and Herring-FisherY,
They are in full roe at the end of June, and continue
in perfection till the beginning of winter, when they
begin to deposit their spawn.
There are different names given to preserved her¬
rings, according to the different manners wherein they
are ordered : as, 1. Sea-sticks; which are such as are
caught all the fishing season, and are but once packed.
A barrel of these bolds six or eight hundred j eight
barrels go to the ton by law *, a hundred of herrings is
to be a hundred and twenty 5 a last is ten thousand,
and they commonly reckon fourteen barrels to the last.
2. There are others, repacked on shore, called repack¬
ed herrings; seventeen barrels of sea-sticks commonly
make from twelve to fourteen of repacked herrings.
The manner of repacking them is, to take out the
herrings, wash them out in their own pickle, and lay
them orderly in a fresh barrel : these have no salt put
to them, but are close packed, and headed up by a
sworn cooper, with pickle, when the barrel is half fub.
The pickle is brine j so strong as that the herring will
swim in it. 3. Summers, are such as the Dutch chasers
or divers catch from June to the 15th of July. These
are sold away in sea-sticks, to be spent presently, in re¬
gard of their fatness j because they will not endure re¬
packing. They go one with another, full and shotten ;
but the repacked herrings are sorted, the full herrings
by themselves. 4. The shotten and sick herrings by
themselves; the barrel whereof is lo be marked distinct¬
ly. 5. Crux herrings; which are such as are caught
after the 14th of September. These are cured with
that kind of salt called salt upon salt, and are carefully
sorted out, all full herrings, and used in the repacking.
6. Carved herrings. These serve to make red herrings,
being such as are taken in the Yarmouth seas, from thg
end of August to the middle of October; provided they
can be carried ashore within a week, more or less, af¬
ter they are taken. These are never gipped but rowed
in salt, for the better preserving of them, till they caa
be brought on shore; and such as are kept to make
red herrings are washed in great vats in fresh water,
before they are hung up in the herring-hangs or red-
herring houses.
As for the manner of salting herrings. The nets be¬
ing haled on board, the fishes are taken out, and put
into the warbacks, which stand on one side of the ves¬
sels. When all the nets are thus unloaded, one fills
the gippers baskets. The gippers cut their throats,
take out their guts, and fling out the full herrings into
one basket, and the shotten into another. One man
takes the full basket when they are gipped, and carries
them to the rower-back, wherein there is salt. One
boy rows and stirs them about in the salt, and another
takes them, thus rowed, and carries them in baskets to
the packers. Four men pack the herrings into one
barrel, and lay them, one by one, straight and even;
and another man, when the barrel is full, takes it from
the packers. It is left to stand a day, or more, open
to settle, that the salt may melt and dissolve to pickle;
after which it is filled up, and the barrel headed. The
pickle is to he strong enough to sustain a herring;
otherwise the fish decay in it.
Herring, Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, me¬
morable for his attachment to civil and religious liber¬
ty, was the son of a clergyman, and born in the year
1693. He received his grammar-school education at
Wisbech
HER L 445 1 HER
Hi Wisbech in the isle of Ely j ami at the ao;e of 17 was
sent to Jesus college in the university of Cambridge, at
which place he was made B. A. in 1714, and the title
or degree of A. M, was confered upon him about three
years afterwards. In the year 1722, he was appointed
chaplain to Dr Fleetwood, bishop of Ely, who gave
him two rectories; and in 1726 he was nominated
preacher to the honourable society of Lincoln’s Inn.
He was chosen chaplain in ordinary to his majesty
about the same period, and obtained from Cambridge
the degree of D. D. in the year 1728. Bishop Fleet-
wood, his worthy patron, declared to his friends, that
he never heard a sermon from Dr Herring which he
would not have been proud to he the author of himself.
In 1731* he was chosen rector of Blechingley in Sur¬
rey; the same year appointed dean of Rochester, and
the king promoted him to the see of Bangor in the
year 1737. He was appointed archbishop of York in
1743 ; and it was peculiarly fortunate for the country
at that critical juncture, that a man of his principles
and public spirit was raised to such an exalted rank.
The rebellion in Scotland was so artfully concealed by
its friends in England, that it was scarcely believed the
Highlanders were in arms, till the royalists were de¬
feated at the battle of Prestonpans. Amidst the uni¬
versal consternation which this event occasioned, Arch¬
bishop Herring roused the people to a sense of their
danger, contributed to remove the panic, and encoura¬
ged them to unite with firmness and vigour in the de¬
fence of their country.
A meeting of the nobility, gentry, and clergy, was
held at York, where the archbishop addressed them in
a very able and animated speech, requesting them to
unite as one man in averting the present danger, to pre¬
serve their happy constitution, and contribute to a sub¬
scription for raising troops in defence of the countiy.
The whole assembly entered warmly into his views,
and immediately subscribed about 40,000!. for the im¬
portant purpose recommended by his grace. On the
death of Archbishop Potter, which happened in 1747,
Dr Herring was translated to the see of Canterbury.
In 1753 he was seized with a violent fever, which
brought him to the verge of the grave; and although
he so far recovered that he languished for a few years,
yet his strength and spirits were very much exhausted,
and he expired in 1756, in the 63d year of his age.
He was buried, according to his own desire, without
any pomp or parade, and no monument was erected to
bis memory.
We are informed by Mr Duncombe, that the arch¬
bishop’s person was tall and comely ; his constitution,
from his tenderest youth, weak and delicate; his ad¬
dress easy, engaging, and polite. He was generous
without prodigality, magnificent without profusion, and
bumble without meanness. In his life-time he could
never be prevailed upon to publish any of his’sermons ;
but after his death Mr Duncombe published seven ser¬
mons on public occasions, in one volume octavo, giv¬
ing in the preface some account of the author’s life.
In the Monthly Review he was termed “ a prelate of
uncommon virtues, a man of extraordinary accomplish¬
ments, a candid divine, a polite scholar, a warm lover
of his country, a true friend to liberty, religious as well
ns civil, and of course, a most sincere hater of persecu¬
tion.”
HERRNHU T, or Herrnhuth, the first and most Herrnhut.
considerable settlement of the United Brethren, com- ' 
monly called Moravians, situated in Upper Lusatia,
upon an estate belonging to the family of Nicholas
Lewis Count Zinzendorf, about 50 miles east of Dres¬
den. See the article United Brethren.
The building of this place was begun in 1727 by
some emigrants from Moravia, who forsook their pos¬
sessions on account of the persecution they suffered as
Protestants from the Roman Catholics; and being well
received by Count Zinzendorf, cleared a spot of
ground allotted to them by him upon the rise of an hill
called the Hutberg, or Watch-hill, from which they
took occasion to call the new settlement Herrnhut, or
the Watch of the Lord. More emigrants taking re¬
fuge with them, and many other persons joining their
congregation, the buildings increased considerably ; and
at present Herrnhut is a regular and well-built village,
containing about. 1300 inhabitants, all members of the
Church of the United Brethren. Besides the minister
and h is assistants, a warden is appointed, who presides
in the vestry, and superintends the temporal concerns
of the settlement. The Brethren distinguish themselves
by a plain and uniform dress, the women having re¬
tained the dress of the countries from avliicb the first
emigrants proceeded, not from any superstitions attach¬
ment to old forms, but from a desire to preclude vani¬
ty and useless expence. As most of the settlements of
this community resemble each other, both in the dispo¬
sition of their buildings and in their internal regula¬
tions, we will give a short sketch of Herrnhut, as the
pattern from which the rest were copied, though there
are others in which the buildings are more regularly
planned. The chapel, which is situated in a large
square, is a spacious and neat building, furnished with
a good organ and moveable forms, but no pews. The
men sit on one side, and the women on the other, en¬
tering at separate doors. Besides the usual Sunday’s
service, the congregation meets here every evening and
the children every morning. The dwelling of the mi¬
nister and warden of the congregation form one, and a
school-house the other, wing to the chapel. From the
chapel an avenue of trees leads to the burying ground,
which is a large square field on the declivity of the
Hutberg, and at some d:stance from the village. Se¬
veral walks bordered by trees, and furnished with seats,
surround and intersect it. The grave-stones and graves
are all of equal size, and placed in regular rows; only
the vault of Count Zinzendorf, as lord of the manor, is
larger than the rest. Burials are performed with great
solemnity, but no mourning dresses used.—On one side
of the square, in which the chapel stands, is a large
building, inhabited by the single men, with workshops,
outhouses, and gardens, exclusive of the dwelling rooms.-
The main building contains a neat chapel, in which a
short morning and evening servic is performed for the
inhabitants ; a dining-hall ; and a dormitory, in which
each has a separate bed. The latter is a lofty room,
furnished with large windows and ventilators, so as to
admit and preserve a pure air. For the sick, apart¬
ments are allotted, and sick waiters appointed. I he
number of inhabitants in one room is proportioned to
its size, but there are many who have rooms to them¬
selves. No one lives here by compulsion. Each in¬
habitant pays lor rent and board a moderate sum, fixed
by.
HER [ 446 ] HER
rierrukut. by a committee of overseers, in which the warden of the
house presides; whose business it is to maintain good
order, attend to the external welfare of the house and
its inhabitants, and by his advice and activity to pre¬
vent every evil arising from external sources. Besides
the warden, an unmarried clergyman resides in the
house, appointed to attend to the moral conduct and
spiritual concerns of all the single men belonging to the
congregation. He hears their complaints, assists them
with good advice, and uses all his influence lor then
benefit, and for the prevention of any evil that would
undermine their spiritual happiness.—On the other side
of the square is another large building, inhabited by
single women ) with a chapel, dining ball, dormitory,
and a large garden. The internal regulations are ex¬
actly the same with those of the house of the single men.
There are likewise houses for widowers and widows,
who find in them an agreeable retreat, with board and
lodging. The poor are cared for and maintained j for
which purpose several charitable institutions exist in the
congregation.—The manor-house, the house of Count
Reuse, the shop and linen warehouse, are the most con¬
siderable buildings in Herrnhut j the family bouses are
built in regular streets opening into the square. Both
the streets and houses are kept clean ; and besides a
watchman at night, an officer is appointed to attend to
good order in the day. All strangers are treated with
civility : but neither drunken nor disorderly visitors nor
beggars are sufiered to infest the streets. The latter
receive an alms, and are then desired to proceed. The
principal trade carried on at Herrnhut is in linen •, be¬
sides which the work done there by tailors, glovers,
shoemakers, cabinet-makers, silversmiths, and other ar¬
tificers, is well known for its good quality. They have
their first prices, and never make any abatement.
Every workman receives his wages $ no community of
goods existing among the brethren, as is falsely suppo¬
sed ; and the contributions towards the support ol the
establishment at large, the missions, and other chari¬
table institutions, are voluntary. The building and in¬
crease of this settlement occasioned no small surprise in
the adjacent country; and both in I732> I73^> ant^
1737, commissioners were appointed to examine into
the doctrines and proceedings of the brethren at Herrn¬
hut. The commissioners made a favourable report; and
ever since both Herrnhut and other settlements of the
United Brethren in Saxony have been protected, and
even several immunities offered them by the court, but
not accepted. Herrnhut was visited in 1766 by the
late emperor Joseph II. after his return from Dresden,
by the present king of Prussia, and by several other
royal personages, who expressed their satisfaction in ex¬
amining its peculiar regulations. The united Brethren
have settlements in Saxony, Silesia, and other parts of
Germany ; in Holland, Denmark, England, Ireland,
and America. In England, their principal settlements
are at Fulnec near Leeds, and Fairfield near Manches¬
ter. In Greenland, North and South America, the
West Indies and Russia, they have missions for the
propagation of Christianity among the heathen ; and
in many parts have had considerable success. See
Busch mg’s Account of the Rise and Progress of the
Church of the Brethren, Halle 1781 j and Crant'z's
History of the Brethren, London 1780.
Herrnhut, frew, the first mission settlement of the Htrn
United Brethren, in the island of St Thomas in the West |]
Indies, under the Danish government, begun in 1739 Keni
tbeir missionaries having endeavoured to propagate '"""Y’'
Christianity among the negro slaves ever since 1731,
and suffered many hardships and persecutions, from
which their converts were not exempted. Many of the
planters finding in process of time that the Christian
slaves were more tractable, moral, and industrious, than
the heathen, not only countenanced hut encouraged
their endeavours. These were also greatly facilitated
by the protection of the king of Denmark. The
settlement consists of a spacious negro church, a dwel¬
ling-house for the missionaries, negro-huts, out-houses,
and gardens. From this place the islands of St Croix
and St Jan were at first supplied with missionaries ;
and the Brethren have now two settlements in each.
The negro converts belonging to their church amount
in those three islands to near eight thousand souls.
Herrnhut, New, is also the name of the oldest mis¬
sion settlement of the United Brethren in Greenland.
It is situated on Balls River, a few miles from the sea,
near Davis’s Straits, on the western coast of Greenland,
not far from the Danish colony Godhaab. The two
first missionaries were sent from Herrnhut in the year
1733, and their laudable intentions were favoured by
the king of Denmark. They had to struggle in this
uncultivated, frozen, and savage country, with incon¬
ceivable hardships, and found at first great difficulty
in acquiring the language of the natives. However,
after six years labour and perseverance, they had the
satisfaction to baptize four persons, all of one family :
and from that time the mission began to prosper, so
that in the succeeding years two other settlements were
begun, called Lichtensels and Lichtenau : All of them
continue in prosperity. About 1300 of the natives have
been christianized since the beginning of this mission.
See Crant'z's History, of Greenland, London, 1777.
HERSCHEL, the name by which the French, and
most other European nations, call the planet discovered
by Dr Herschel in the year 1781. The Italians call
it Uranos, and the British Georgium Sidus.
HERSE, in Fortification, a lattice, or portcullis, in
form of a harrow, beset with iron spikes. The word
herse is French, and literally signifies “ harrow ; being
formed of the Latin herpex or irpex, which denotes the
same. It is usually hung by a rope fastened to a mou-
linet; to be cut, in case of surprise, or when the first
gate is broken with a petard, that the herse may fall,
and stop up the passage of the gate or other entrance
of a fortress.
The herse is otherwise called a. serrasin, or cataract;
and when it consists of straight stakes, without any
cross-pieces, it is called argues.
Herse, is also a harrow, which the besieged, for
want of chevaux de frise, lay in the way, or in breaches,
with the points up, to incommode the march as well oi
the horse as of the infantry.
HERSILLON, in the military art, a sort of plank
or beam, ten or twelve feet long, whose two sides are
driven full of spikes or nails, to incommode the march
of the infantry or cavalry. The word is a diminutive
of herse; the hersillon doing the office of a little herse.
See Herse.
HERTFORD.
HER L 447 ] HER
I . ^ HERTFORD. See Hartford.—In the account
1| P given of this county under the latter name, it was
■H'l ey- omitted to mention that the East India Company had
K' ^ established a college in it, where persons are to be pro¬
perly qualified for filling places of trust and importance
in the government of India. It is composed of a
school, into which boys may be admitted at an early
age, and a school for students, 15 years old, in which
they are to continue till they have completed their 18th
year, or till the directors send them to their particular
destinations. In the school, the chief intention is to
qualify them for public business, and the first depart¬
ments of commercial life. The students of the college
are to hear public lectures, similar to those which are
delivered in the universities. The means of instructing
them in the elements of oriental literature will also be
attended to, for which purpose they will be taught
the rudiments of the Asiatic, Arabic, and Persian lan¬
guages, and the history, customs, and manners of the
eastern nations, as well as the political and commercial
relations subsisting between Great Britain and India.
The college is to be under the authority of a princi¬
pal and seven professors, besides a French master, a
drawing-master, a fencing-master, and other suitable
instructors.
The principal is required to preach in the college
chapel, in rotation with such of the professors as are in
holy orders, and to bear his part in performing the
other functions of religious worship.
The lectures of the professors are to be arranged un¬
der the following heads ; vix. oriental literature j ma¬
thematics and natural philosophy; classical and general
literature; law, history, and political economy.
It is proposed to divide the college year into two
terms of 20 weeks each, and the last week of each
term is to be dedicated to the examination of the stu¬
dents. A list of their names who are found to have
made the greatest proficiency, will be transmitted to
the court of directors, who will reward merit in such a
manner as may be agreed upon by the college commit¬
tee. The utmost attention will be paid to their moral
and religious instruction, comprehending an account of
the evidences, doctrines, and duties of divine revela¬
tion.
The college and school were opened on the 3d of
Feb. 1806, for the reception of students and pupils.
The master of the school is to receive 70 guineas an¬
nually, without any additional charge, and students are
to pay 50 guineas to the company at the commence¬
ment of each term, for which they will receive every
accommodation except a few articles of private conve¬
nience. Every kind of extravagant expence is to be
discouraged.
HERTHA, or Herthus, in Mythology, a deity
worshipped by the ancient Germans. This is mention¬
ed by Tacitus, in his book De Morihus Germanorum,
cap. 40. Vossius conjectures, that this goddess was
Cybele : but she was more probably Terra or the Earth;
because the Germans still use the word hert for the
earth, whence also the English earth.
HERTZBERG, a considerable town of Germany,
in the electorate of Saxony, and on the confines of Eu-
satia. E. Long. 13. 37. N. Lat. 51. 42.
HERVEY, James, a pious and ingenious divine of
the church of England in the 18th century, a writer of
very great popularity among people of the Calvinistic Hcrvey.
persuasion, was born at Hardingstone in the year 1714. —y. 
He was educated at the free grammar-school of North¬
ampton, where he acquired a competent knowledge of
the Greek and Latin languages; and in 1731 he was
sent to the university of Oxford. The first two or three
years of his residence at that seminary were spent, we
are told, without much application to study, and there¬
fore without making much improvement; but after¬
wards becoming acquainted with those who zealously
studied what they called primitive Christianity, after¬
wards termed Methodists, he became strongly attached
both to piety and learning. Independent of his other
studies, he learned anatomy from Dr Keil, and natu¬
ral philosophy from Dr Derham’s Physico and Astro-
theology ; and by the perusal of Mr Spence’s essay on
Pope’s Odyssey he improved his style. Fie attempted
the Hebrew language without a teacher, and after re¬
linquishing the study of it in despair, he resumed his
labours, and became a tolerable proficient in that for¬
bidding language.
In the year 1740 he was curate of Biddeford in De¬
vonshire, where he had only 60I. a-year, including a
stated collection made by his friends. On the death of
the rector he rvas dismissed by the new incumbent, con¬
trary to the earnest expostulation of the parishioners,
who offered to maintain him independent of the rector.
In 1743 he became curate to his father, who held the
living of Weston-Favell in Northamptonshire, and con¬
tinued in that station till 1750, when his health was
rapidly declining, from his intense application to study,
and a constitution naturally delicate. Flaving been art¬
fully decoyed to London for a change of air, he conti¬
nued about two years in that metropolis, and was soon
recalled to Weston-Favell to succeed his father. He
got both the livings of Weston and Collingtree in the
same neighbourhood, and in 175^ was made M. A.
He attended to the duties of both parishes alternately
with a curate, in the discharge of which he was fervent
and indefatigable. He seldom made use of notes in the
pulpit, and constantly catechised the children of his pa¬
rishioners, nor did he neglect his pastoral visitations
at their own houses. So great were his exertions, that
he brought on a decline, accompanied with an incessant
cough and acute pains, all which he supported, not on¬
ly with fortitude, but without a single expression of
peevishness.
He died without a groan on the 25th of December
1758, about 44 years of age. His piety was ardent
and sincere, although in the estimation of good judges
he was rather enthusiastic. He was unquestionably a
man of the most unblemished moral deportment; his
temper was disinterested, and he was truly humble
without affectation. To society he was just and punc¬
tual, and candid to people of every description. The
700I. which he received for his Meditations, were ap¬
plied to the relief of the indigent and distressed. He
was such a rigid Calvinist, that he was almost an An-
tinomian, whenever he spoke of imputed righteousness.
His erudition was respectable, but not such as to place
him among scholars of the first rank, although he seems
to have been master of the classics. Many have ad¬
mired the style of his writings, but a judge must cer¬
tainly pronounce it by far too diffuse to be teimed ele¬
gant, for it is neither chaste, manly, nor nervous.
0 Besides
H E S t 448 ] H E S
Besides bis Meditations, be published remarks on
.Lord Bolingbroke’s letters on the use and study of hi¬
story, so far as they relate to the history ot the Old
Testament; Theron and Aspasio; Aspasio Vindicated,
and Sermons on the Trinity, &c. published from his
own MSS. after his death.
HERi'EY-Island, one of the South Sea islands disco¬
vered by Captain Cook, September 23. 1773* 'v^10
gave it that name in honour of the earl of Bristol. It
is a low island, situated in W. Long. 158* 54' Lat.
19. 8.
HESBON, EsEBON, or Hesebon, in Aticient Geo-
gi'aphyy the royal city of the Amorites, in the tribe of
Keuben, according to Moses: 1 hough in Joshua xxi. 39.
where it is reckoned among the Levitical cities, it is
put in the tribe of Gad ; which argues its situation to
be on the confines of both.
HESIOD, a very ancient Greek poet; but whether
cotemporary with Homer, or a little older or younger
than him, is not yet agreed among the learned ; nor is
there light enough in antiquity to settle the matter ex¬
actly. His father, as he tells us in his Opera et Dies,
was an inhabitant of Cumte, one of the Lolian isles,
now called Taio Nova; and removed from thence to
Ascra, a little village of Boeotia, at the foot of Mount
Helicon, where Hesiod was probably born, and called,
as he often is, Ascrceus, from it. Of what quality his
father was, is nowhere said; but that he was driven by
his misfortunes from Cumae to Ascra, Hesiod himself
informs us. His father seems to have prospered better
at Ascra than he did in his own country ; yet Hesiod
could arrive at no higher fortune than keeping sheep on
the top of Mount Helicon. Here the muses met with
him, and entered him into their service:
Erewhile as they the shepherd swain behold,
Feeding beneath the sacred mount his fold,
With love of charming song his breast they fir’d,
There me the heav’nly muses first inspir’d;
There, when the maids of Jove the silence broke,
To Hesiod thus, the shepherd swain, they spoke, &c.
To this account, which is to be found in the beginning
of his Generatio Deorvm, Ovid alludes in these two
lines :
Nee mihi stint visce Clio, Cliusque sororcs,
Servanti pecudes vallihvs Ascra tuis.
Nor Clio nor her sisters have I seen,
As Hesiod saw them in the Ascreean green.
On the death of the father, an estate was left, which
ought to have been equally divided between the two
brothers Hesiod and Perses; but Perses defrauded him
in the division, by corrupting the judges. Hesiod was
so far from resenting this injustice, that he expresses a
concern for those mistaken mortals who place their hap¬
piness in riches only, even at the expence of their vir¬
tue. He lets us know, that he was not only above
want, but capable of assisting his brother in time of
need ; which he often did though he had been so ill
used by him. The last circumstance he mentions rela¬
ting to himself is his conquest in a poetical contention.
Archidamus, king of Euboea, had instituted funeral
games in honour of his own memory, which his sons
afterwards took care to have performed. Here He¬
siod was a competitor for the prize in poetry; and won
5
a tripod, which he consecrated to the muses. Hesiod H«yod
having entered himself in the service of the muses, left U
off the pastoral life, and applied himself to the study 0f^esPer^
arts and learning. When he was grown old, for it is ^
agreed by all that he lived to a very great age, he re¬
moved to Locris, a town about the same distance from
Mount Parnassus as Ascra was from Helicon. His
death was tragical. The man with whom he lived at
Locris, a Milesian born, ravished a maid in the same
house ; and though Hesiod was entirely ignorant of the
fact, yet being maliciously accused by her brothers as
an accomplice, he was injuriously slain with the ravish-
er, and thrown into the sea. The Theogomj, and
Works and Days, are the only undoubted pieces of this
poet now extant : though it is supposed that these poems
have not descended perfect and finished to the present
time. A good edition of Hesiod’s works was published
by Mr Le Clerc at Amsterdam in 1701.
HESPER, Hesperus, in Astronomy, the evening
star ; an appellation given to Venus when she follows
or sets after the sun. The word is formed of the Greek
'Eff-Trsgoj ; and is supposed to have been originally the
proper name of a man, brother of Atlas, and father of
the Hesperides.
Diodorus, lib. iii. relates, that Hesperus having as¬
cended to the top of Mount Atlas, the better to ob¬
serve and contemplate the stars, never returned more;
and that hence he was fabled to have been changed in¬
to this star.
HESPERIA, an ancient name of Italy ; so called
by the Greeks from its western situation. Hesperia
was also an appellation of Spain ; but with the epithet
ultima (Horace), to distinguish it from Italy, which is
called Hesperia magna (Virgil), from its extent of em¬
pire.
HESPERI CORNU, called the Great Bay by the
author of Hanno’s Periplus ; hut most interpreters,
following Mela, understand a promontory ; some Cape
Verd, others Palmas Cape : Vossius takes it to be the
former, since Hanno did not proceed so far as the latter
cape.
HESPERIDEiE, in Botany (from the Hesperi-
des) ; golden or precious fruit : the name of the 19th
order in Linnaeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method.
See Botany.
HESPERIDES, in the ancient mythology, were
the daughters of Hesper or Hesperus, the brother of
Atlas. According to Diodorus, Hesperus and Atlas were
two brothers who possessed great riches in the western
parts of Africa. Hesperus had a daughter called Hes¬
peria, who married her uncle Atlas, and Irom this mar¬
riage proceeded seven daughters, called Hesperides from
the name of their mother, and Atlantides from that ot
their father. According to the poets, the Hesperides
were three in number, .ZEgle, Arethusa, and Hesper-
thusa. Hesiod, in his Theogony, makes them the
daughters of Nox, Night, and sets them in the same
place with the Gorgons ; viz. at the extremities of the
west, near Mount Atlas: it is on that account he
makes them the daughters of Night, because the sun
sets there. The Hesperides are represented by the an¬
cients as having the keeping of certain golden apples,
on the other side the ocean. And the poets gave them
a dragon to watch the garden where the fruit grows ;
this dragon they tell us Hercules slew, and carried oft
In?
H E S
[ 449 ]
H E S
11, ?ride
the apples.—Pliny and Solinus will have the dragon to
be no other than an arm of the sea, wherewith the gar¬
den was encompassed, and which defended the entrance
thereof. And Varro supposes, that the golden apples
were nothing but sheep. Others, with more probabili¬
ty, say they were oranges.
The Gardens of the Hesperides are placed by some
authors at Larache, a city of Fez j by others at Bernich
a city of Barca, which tallies better with the fable.
Others take the province of Susa in Morocco for
the island wherein the garden was seated. And, last¬
ly, Budbecks places the Fortunate Islands, and the
gardens of the Hesperides, in his own country Swe¬
den.
HESPERIDUM insulae, in Ancient Geography,
islands near the Hesperi Cornu ; but the accounts of
them are so much involved in fable, that nothing cer¬
tain can be affirmed of them.
HESPERIS, Rocket, Dame's Violet, or Queen's
Gilliflower ; a genus of plants belonging to the tetra-
dynamia class j and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 39th order, Siliquosce. See Botany Index.
HESPERUS, in fabulous history, son of Cephalus
bv Aurora, as fair as Venus, was changed into a star,
called Lucifer in the morning, and Hesperus in the
evening. See Hesper.
HESSE, a country of Germany, iu the circle of the
Upper Rhine ; bounded on the south by Baden and Ba¬
varia ; on the east by the principalities of Saxe Mein-
ingen, Saxe Weimar, and the Prussian states; on the
north by Brunswick and the Prussian states; and on
the west by the same states and Nassau. In the
above limits, the county of Katzenellnbogen and some
other territories are not included. The whole coun¬
try, in its utmost length, is near 100 miles, and in
some places about 60 in breadth. The air is cold,
but wholesome ; and the soil fruitful in corn, wine,
wood, and pasture. The country abounds also in cat¬
tle, fish, and game ; salt springs, baths, and mineral
waters. The hills, which are many, yield silver, cop¬
per, lead, iron, alum, vitriol, pit-coal, sulphur, boles, a
porcelain earth, marble, and alabaster. In the Eder,
gold is sometimes found; and at Frankenberg a gold
mine was formerly wrought. Besides many lesser
streams, Hesse is watered by the following rivers,
viz. the Lhan, the Fulda, the Eder or Schwalm, the
Werra or Weser, and Diemel. The Mayne passes
through the county of Katzenellnbogen. This coun¬
try, like most others in Germany, has its states, consist¬
ing of the prelates, as they are called, the nobility, and
the towns. The diets are divided into general and
particular, and the latter into the greater and smaller
committees. The house of Hesse is divided into two
principal branches, viz. Cassel and Darmstadt, of which
Philipsdale, Rhinfeldts, and Homburg, are collateral
branches ; the two first of Hesse-Cassei, and the last
of Hesse-Darmstadt. Their rights and privileges are
very considerable. In particular, they have votes at
the diet of Frankfort. The princes of Hesse-Cassel
are not of age till they are 25, but those of Hesse-
Darmstadt are so at 18. The right of primogeniture
hath been established in both houses. The revenues of
Darmstadt are said to amount to 370,000k a-year,
and those of Hesse-Cassei to near 380,000!. The
small county of Schaumberg alone yields a revenue of
Vol. X. Part II. w " +
lO,oool. and that of Katzenellnbogen, 'with the forests
of Richardswalde, it is said, was farmed near 200 years
ago at 12,000k In 1818 Hesse Darmstadt contained
619,500 inhabitants, and Hesse Cassel 540,000. The
troops that the former hires out have often brought him
in large sums, especially from Great Britain. He keeps
a standing army of 15,000 men. This family is allied
to most if not all of the Protestant princes in Europe.
The branches of Cassel, Homburg, and Philipsdale, are
Calvinists; that of Darmstadt, Lutherans; and that
of Rhinfeldts, Roman Catholics. The prince of Hesse-
Cassei, in the year 1749, embraced the Roman Catho¬
lic religion; but in 1754 drew up, and confirmed by
oath, an instrument, of which all the Protestant princes
are guarantees, declaring that the established religion
of h is dominimons should continue in every respect as
before, and that his children should be brought up and
instructed therein. Here, as in the other Protestant
Lutheran countries of Germany, are consistories, su-
perintendants, and inspectors of the church. In the
whole landgraviate are three universities, besides La¬
tin schools and gymnasia, for the education of youth.
The manufactures of Hesse are linen cloth, hats, stock¬
ings, gloves, paper, goldsmiths wares; and at Cassel a
beautiful porcelain is made. They have also the finest
wool in Germany; but are reproached with want of in¬
dustry, in exporting instead of manufacturing it them¬
selves.—This is supposed to have been the country of
the ancient Catti, mentioned by Tacitus, &c. who in
after-ages, were called Chatti, Chassi, Hassi, and Hessi.
The two chief branches of Cassel and Darmstadt have
many rights and privileges in common, which we have
not room to specify. Both of them have a seat and
vote in the diet of the empire. In 1806, the greater
part of Hesse Cassel was incorporated with the king¬
dom of Westphalia, erected by Bonaparte in favour of
his brother Jerome. But in 18x3 it was restored to
the hereditary prince. Both Hesse Cassel and Hesse
Darmstadt have received considerable additions of ter¬
ritory since the year 1800.
HESSIAN fey, a very mischievous insect which
lately made its appearance in North America ; and
whose depredations threaten in time to destroy the
crops of wheat in that country entirely. It is, in its
perfect state, a small winged insect; but the mischief
it does is while in the form of a caterpillar; and the
difficulty of destroying it is increased by its being as
yet unknown where it deposits its eggs to be hatched,
before the first appearance of the caterpillars. These
mischievous insects begin their depredations in autumn,
as soon as the wheat begins to shoot up through the
ground. They devour the tender leaf and stem with
great voracity, and continue to do so till stopped by the
frost; but no sooner is this obstacle removed by the
warmth of the spring, but the fly appears again, laying
its eggs now', as has been supposed, upon the stems of
the wheat just beginning to spire. The caterpillars,
hatched from these eggs, perforate the stems of the re¬
maining plants at the joints, and lodge themselves in
the hollow w ithin the corn, which shows no sign of dis¬
ease till the ears begin to turn heavy. The stems then
break ; and being no longer able to perform their of¬
fice in supporting and supplying the ears with nourish¬
ment, the corn perishes about the time that it goes into
a milky state. These insects attack also rye, barley,
3 L end
Hesse
0.
Hessian
Fly.
H E S [ 4f
ITesn'an and timotliy-grass, tliough they seem to prefer wheat.
Fly. The destruction occasioned by them is described in the
“-■~v  American Museum (a magazine published at Phila¬
delphia) for February 1787, in the following words:
“ It is well known that all the crops of wheat in all the
land over which it has extended, have fallen before it,
and that the farmers beyond it dread its approach ; the
prospect is, that unless means are discovered to prevent
its progress, the whole continent will be overrun •,—a
calamity more to be dreaded than the ravages of war.”
This terrible insect appeared first in Long Island
during the American war, and was supposed to have
been brought from Germany by the Hessians ; whence
it had the name of the Hessian fly. From thence it has
proceeded inland at the rate of about 15 or 20 miles
annually; and by the year 1789 had reached 200
miles from the place where it was first observed. At
that time it continued to proceed with unabating in¬
crease ; being apparently stopped neither by rivers nor
mountains. In the fly state it is likewise exceedingly
troublesome ; by getting into houses in swarms, falling
into victuals and drink ; filling the windows, and flying
perpetually into the candles. It still continued to infest
Long Island as much as ever; and in many places the
culture of wheat was entirely abandoned.
The American States are likewise infested with ano¬
ther mischievous insect, named the Virginian u'heut-fiy.
This, however, has not yet passed the river Delaware ;
though there is danger of its being gradually inured to
colder climates so as to extend its depredations to the
northern colonies also. Put it is by no means the
same with the Hessian fly. The wheat fly is the same
with that whose ravages in the Angumois in France
are recorded by M. Du Hamel ; it eats the grain, and
is a moth in its perfect state. On the other hand, the
Hessian fly has hitherto been unknown to naturalists ;
it eats only the leaf and stalk ; and, in its perfect state,
is probably a tenthredo, like the black negro-fly of the
turnip.
As of late years great quantities of wheat were im¬
ported from America into Britain, it became an object
xvorthy of the attention of government to consider how
far it was proper to allow of such importation, lest this
destructive insect might be brought along with the
grain. The matter, therefore, was fully canvassed be¬
fore the privy council; and the following is the sub¬
stance of the information relative to it ; and in conse¬
quence of this, the importation of American wheat was
forbid by proclamation.
1. By a letter, dated 22d April 1788, Mr Bond,
consul at Philadelphia, informed the marquis of Caer-
marthen, that there was a design to export wheat from
thence to England; that the fly had made great depre¬
dations ; and that there might be danger of its thus be¬
ing conveyed across the Atlantic. He added, that it
was not known where the eggs of the insect were depo¬
sited, though it was supposed to be in the grain. Steep¬
ing the seed in elder juice he recommended as an effec¬
tual remedy and preservative of the crop.
2. In consequence of this information his Lordship
wrote to Sir Joseph Banks, president of the royal so¬
ciety, desiring him to enquire as much as possible con¬
cerning the insect, both with regard to its natural his¬
tory, and the method of preventing its ravages. In
o ] H E S
this research, however, that learned gentleman mistook Hessian
the insect called the flying weevil for the Hessian fly. Fly.
Of this insect he gives a descriptiorr; but in a little——V’*—
time, being sensible of his mistake, he observed to the
council, that his report to the marquis of Caermar-
then applied not to the Hessian fly, but to a different
insect, viz. the flying weevil; that the danger of im¬
porting this insect was much greater than that of the
Hessian fly. The corn already brought from Ameri¬
ca, he was of opinion, might easily be examined, and
a discovery made whether the fly had been there.
Among other methods which might be used for this
purpose, that of putting the corn among water was one,
when the infected grains would rise to the top, and
might then be opened and examined. Some slight
trials of that kind he had already made ; and found
manifest signs of the fly in some grains which he had
opened.
3. A farther account of the insect was given by Dr
Mitchel, in consequence of the above-mentioned letter
from the marquis of Caermarthen. According to him
it was first discovered in the year 1776, on Staten
Island, and the west end of Long Island ; since that
time it proceeded regularly through the southern dis¬
trict of the state of New York, part of Connecticut;
and at the time of giving the account, July 1788, had
got into New Jersey. As it appeared about the time
that the Hes-ian troops arrived, an opinion had gone
abroad that they brought it along with them ; but the
Doctor was of opinion that it is a native animal, nou¬
rished by some indigenous plant, but which then, for
the first time, came among the wheat, and found it
proper food. He had seen the caterpillar, chrysalis,
and fly, but never could find the egg, or discover where
it is deposited. The caterpillar appears, as has already
been said, in autumn, and, after having devoured the
tender stalk, soon becomes a chrysalis, coloured like a
flax-seed ; which, being fixed between the leaf and the
stalk, injures the plant by its mechanical pressure;
from this proceeds the fly, which is either able of itself
to sustain the intense winter frosts, or lays eggs capa¬
ble of doing it. Early in the spring the caterpillar
appears again, even when the heat is scarce sufficient
to make the wheat grow ; its ravages, therefore, are
at this period particularly destructive ; and it passes
through its metamorphoses with such speed, as to pro¬
duce a third generation while the wheat is yet tender
and juicy ; however, as the corn has by this time grown
considerably, the third generation is not so destructive
as the second. It hurts chiefly by rendering the straw
weak, and liable to break down when loaded after¬
wards by the weight of a full ear ; “ and sometimes
(says the Doctor) it will be infested by the fourth*
swarm before harvest.”
4. In another communication of Sir Joseph Banks,
dated July 24. 1788, he makes some general observa¬
tions on the nature of those caterpillars from which
flying insects proceed ; and to which class both th»
flying weevil and Hessian fly belong. Nature, he ob¬
serves, has provided against the kinds of danger these
tender insects are most likely ta meet with. Thus, in
climates where the winters are severe, the eggs of the
most tender insects resist the force of the usual frost ^
in seasons of remarkable severity, indeed, some are de¬
stroyed ;
5
H E S [ 45i ] H E S
isiaa stroyed ; but a sufficient number always escape for pro-
('Ijr pagating the species. The young caterpillar, if haidi-
* "v  ' ed before its proper food be ready, will survive even
weeks before it perishes for want of nourishment j and
in some few instances where it is hatched in the au¬
tumn, it is directed by instinct to spin a web, in which
it remains torpid and without food during the whole
winter. The chrysalis, though deprived of loco-mo¬
tion, is capable of resisting various dangers, arising from
cold, heat, wet, &c. •, and the length of time which the
animal remains in that state is capable of very consider¬
able extension. The complete animal, tender as it ap¬
pears, and intended to exist no longer than is neces¬
sary to fulfil the business of propagation, which, in
some species, is gone through in a few days, neverthe¬
less is capable, in some instances, of enduring the utmost
variation of climate ; and if by accidental circum¬
stances, the sexes are prevented from meeting, its short
life is extended to many times the amount of its usual
duration.
The observations on the fly made by Sir Joseph in
this paper, are not different from those already related j
only he dissents from the opinion of Mr Bond, that
the eggs are laid on the grain *, thinking it more pro¬
bable from analogy, that they are deposited on the
straw ; and being shaken off from thence by the strokes
of the flail in thrashing, are mixed with the corn j
from whence it must be very difficult to separate them.
He nee he concluded, that there was an apparent and
very great risk of importing the eggs along with the
corn and there was no doubt, that when once they
had got a footing, they would establish themselves in
Britain as well as in America. It must be observed,
however, that none of the grain which was examined
showed any signs of this fly, its eggs, or caterpillars ;
such insects as were found in some diseased specimens
being only the weevils common in England as well as
in other countries-, though some which were inspec¬
ted in the month of August this year contained the
chrysalis of some insects, which Sir Joseph Banks was
of opinion might be the flying weevil •, and as he did not
know whether these would revive or not, he gave it as
his opinion, that the cargo in which they were found
ought not to be suffered to come into the kingdom.
5. In order to procure all the intelligence that could
be had concerning these insects, the duke of Dorset
addressed a letter to the Royal Society of Agriculture in
France, to know whether any of them exists in that
country. The report of the society was accompanied
with a drawing of two insects-, one of which was sup¬
posed to be the caterpillar of the Hessian fly, from its
attacking the wheat only when in the herb ; begin¬
ning its ravages in autumn, reappearing in the spring,
and undergoing the metamorphoses already mentioned.
“ That insect (say the society), whose havock has been
well known in America only since 1776, does not ap¬
pear to difter from it, as well as we can judge from a
very short description of those which have been observed
in the north, and of which the history is contained in
the different volumes of the academy of sciences of
Stockholm. We know that there exist in France ca¬
terpillars whose manner of living resembles that of
those insects 5 but the mischief which they do to corn
having never been considerable enough to attract the
attention of government, and not having been ourselves
engaged in following in detail the history of that spe¬
cies of caterpillar, we regret not being able to say any
thing particular upon that subject.” The rest of the
report contains an account of the flying weevil.
6. Further recourse was now had to America for
information. The marquis of Caermarthen wrote to
Sir John Temple at New York, the British consul ge¬
neral $ and this gentleman applied to Colonel Morgan,
who had been more curious with respect to this insect
than any other person with whom he was acquainted.
His account was, that the Hessian fly was first intro¬
duced into America hy means of some straw made use
of in package, or otherwise landed on Long Island at
an early period of the late war *, and its first appear¬
ance was in the neighbourhood of Sir William How'e’s
debarkation, and at Flat Bush. From thence it
spread in every direction, but at first very slowly j
and it was not till the year 1786 that they reached
Mr Morgan’s farm, situated not quite 50 miles from
New York. No damage was done the first season,
and very little the second j but in 1788 they were
materially damaged, and in some places totally destroy¬
ed all round. “ The name of Hessian fly (says Air
Alorgan) was given to this insect by myself and a
friend early after its appearance on Long Island.”
In a letter to Genera! Washington, dated July 31st
1788, Mr Morgan treats particularly of the insect it¬
self, and mentions several experiments made by himself
to oppose its depredations. The result of these was, that
good culture of strong soil, or well manured lands, may
sometimes produce a crop of wheat or barley, when
that sowed on poor or middling soil, without the other
advantages, will be totally destroyed. “ But (says
lie) as the insect lives in its aurelia state in straw and
litter through the winter, I find that unmixed barn¬
yard manure spread on the land in the spring multi¬
plies the fly to an astonishing degree : hence the farmer
will see the necessity of mixing his yard with earth and
marl in heaps ; adding, where he can do it, a quan¬
tity of lime, and changing the heaps, after they have
undergone the necessary fermentation, that their parts
may be well incorporated, and a new digestion brought
on, which will effectually destroy the insects. Rolling
of wheat just before the first frosts in autumn, and sooa
after the last in spring, or before the wheat begins to
pipe or spindle, has also a good effect. In the first
place, it is a part of good culture; and, secondly, the
roller crushes and destroys a great proportion of the
insects. Top-dressings of lime, or of live ashes, are
useful as manures, and may (when applied about the
times I have mentioned as proper for rolling) be of¬
fensive to the insect; but if used in sufficient quantity to
destroy them, would, I believe, destroy the wheat also.
In the year 1782, a particular species of wheat wTas In¬
troduced on Long Island, which is found to resist the
fly, and to yield a crop when all other wheats in the
same neighbourhood are destroyed by it. But as this
wheat has been incautiously sowed in field with other
kinds, it has generally become so mixed by the far¬
mers, as to suffer in its character in proportion to this
mixture; insomuch, that some farmers, from inatten¬
tion to this circumstance, have condemned it altogether.
Fortunately, however, some crops have been preserved
from this degeneration ; and I was so lucky as to pro¬
cure the whole of my last year’s seed of the purest kind :
3 L 2 the
Hessian
Fly.
H E S [ 452 J H E S
Hessian tlie consequence of which has been a good crop, whilst
Fly. my neighbours Helds, sowed with other kinds of wheat,
have been either totally destroyed or materially injur¬
ed. I have satisfied myself that this species of wheat
was brought to New York in 1782 j that a cargo of
it was then sent to Messrs Underhill’s mill to be ma¬
nufactured into flour ; and that from seed saved out
of this parcel, the yellow-bearded wheat was propaga¬
ted. It is a generally received opinion, that the capa¬
city of the yellow-bearded wheat to resist the attacks
of the fly is owing to the hardness or solidity of the
straw ; but when we reflect that other wheats are some¬
times wholly cut oft’in the fall of the year, and some¬
times early in the spring, before the season of its run¬
ning to straw, we shall be induced to assign some other
cause. I cannot point out more than two distinctions
of this from other wheats. The first is in the ear,
at or after harvest. The obvious difference, then, is in
the colour of the chaff. The second can only be ob¬
served by the miller, who says, “ this grain requires to
be more aired and dried than any other wheat before
grinding, or it will not yield its flour so kindly, as it
is of a more oily nature ; but when thus aired and
dried, the quality and quantity of its flour are equal to
that of the best white wheat.”
7. In a letter to Mr Wadsworth, dated 22d Au¬
gust 1788, we are informed that the experiments
made with elder juice, recommended as a preventive
of this evil by Mr Bond, were fallacious, and had fail¬
ed in every instance in 1785; but the efficacy of the
yellow-bearded wheat in resisting the attacks of the fly
is confirmed. The progress of the fly northward is
likewise confirmed 5 but we are told that it has disap¬
peared in many places near New York, where it form¬
erly abounded.
8. In consequence of the correspondence between
the marquis of Caermarthen and Mr Bond, the latter
made very particular inquiry concerning this mischie¬
vous insect, and has given a better account of it than
any of the above. “ The Hessian fly (says he) is a
small dark fly, with thin, long, black legs 5 clear trans¬
parent wings, extending far beyond the body of the
trunk ; with small, though perceptible, horns or feelers
projecting from the sneut. These I have seen appear
in size and shape like a little fly which attacks cheese
in this country, and which is very closely watched bv
the keepers 01 dairies here, as productive of the worm
or skippers which destroy cheese ; and it is remark¬
able, that the worm produced from the egg of the
Hessian fly, though rather thinner and longer, bears a
strong resemblance to the worm in cheese. The horns
which evidently appear on the Hessian fly may be
provided by nature as feelers to enable them to perfo¬
rate hard grain, as well as grain in a softer state j
though I have not vet seen any person who has perceived
the egg, worm, or fly, in the grain of the wheat, or who
has found any nit, mucus, or even dust, in the drv straw
in ricks or barns, to induce a belief that the* egg is
there deposited after the harvest. One publication
signed a Landholder, goes so far as to favour the idea
that the fly even perforates the seed, and deposits its
eggs therein. His ideas have been condemned, as
tending to mislead others j hut by no means confuted
either by reason or experiment. An observation I
made myself, gave me some cause to apprehend that the
idea mentioned in the paper signed a Landholder was
founded in fact: Upon examining a barn, in a country
wherein the fly had not been known to injure the har¬
vest (though it has now certainly made its appearance
there within a few weeks), I observed in the flaws and
apertures where the wood was decayed, over which
cobwebs were woven, several of these files entangled
in the webs, many of them dead, but some alive, and
struggling to disengage themselves ; from hence I con¬
cluded that there was a propensity in the fly to get in¬
to the mow 5 but whether with a purpose of mere shel¬
ter and nurture, or with a view to deposit its eggs, I
am at a loss to decide.”
9. Mr Bond then refers to some observations by a
Mr Potts and Mr Cleavei*, which, with several other
papers on the subject, he had inclosed in his letter to
the marquis. The former was a farmer in the county
of Chester, who stacked his wheat in autumn 1788, at
a time when the fly had not been seen in or near that
county. About six or seven weeks after the harvest
he had occasion to thresh some of his wheat j and with
a view to prevent its scattering and wasting, he threw
the sheaves from the rick upon a large sheet. On ta¬
king up the sheaves to carry them to the threshing-
floor, he perceived a great number of flies, answering
precisely the description of the Hessian fly, lying upon
the sheet, some dead, and others in a torpid state j
from whence he concluded that the fly had got a
footing in his rick $ but from any examination either
of the straw or grain, no trace of the eggs being de¬
posited was discovered. Mr Cleaver, a farmer in the
same county, apprehending that the fly might ap¬
proach his neighbourhood, sowed some wheat in his
garden, which grew so as to appear above ground in
less than a fortnight, when a violent north-east wind
came on ; and immediately after he perceived small
clouds of flies over and about the wheat he had sown.
He examined the grain in a few days ; and found that
numbers of the flies had deposited their eggs in the
heart of the main stalk, and many of them lay dead
on the ground where the wheat was sown, and near
it. Many of the eggs were found in the stalk ; and
some small ivhite worms produced from other eggs
were lately discovered in the stalk very near the root
of the wheat. Wherever these worms were found,
the whole of the individual stalk wras perceptibly
changed in point of colour, tending to a yellowish
cast j the top hanging down quite shrunk and wither¬
ed. In some of the wheat which was carefully ex¬
amined, the eggs were found within the stalk, of a
very minute size and whitish colour, with something
of a yellow tinge. In those where the worm was
formed, it was carefully wrapped up, surrounded by
different coats of the shoot in which it lay, as if it
had been skilfully and tenderly rolled up for its pre¬
servation j around it the stalk was plainly eaten away,
some nearly through. The worm strongly resembles
the skipper in cheese, somewhat thinner, and rather
longer, of a whitish cast. The ground on which this
wheat was sown was rich garden ground, high and
dry ; the natural soil a strong red clay ; few of the
shoots, of which there were many in one cluster, in
proportion to their number, were hurt by the fly.
This was imputed to the strength of the soil, which
producing a robust powerful growth, resisted, in a
great
H E S C 453 1 H E S
H iaa great degree, the attack of the fly, though the weak
|L shoots suffered generally.
— 10. A similar account of the Hessian fly is given by
Mr Jacobs, an experienced farmer in the county of
Montgomery. From his observations the egg is usual¬
ly deposited in the funnel or sheath, a little above the
first joint. When the eggs are laid in the autumn or
spring, they are utterly destructive of the growth of
the wheat ; but when they are deposited shortly be¬
fore the harvest, the grain or even the stalk is scarcely
affected, especially in rich ground. The egg, he says,
is at first very minute ; it grows rapidly, becomes full
and large, and turns to a brown hue, in size and co¬
lour very like a flax seed. A material difference was
, also perceived between rich and poor ground with re¬
spect to the ravages of the fly ; but none between moist
and dry soils. He is also of opinion that the yellow-
bearded wheat will resist the attacks of the fly; and
that rolling and feeding the wheat will be of great ser¬
vice.
II. A farmer in Jersey, who dates his letter from
Hunterdon, Jan. 30. 1787, observes, that though the
fly is supposed to advance about 15 miles annually,
and neither waters nor mountains obstruct its passage,
yet when disturbed, he never saw them take a flight
of above five or six feet j nevertheless they are so
active, that it is very difficult to catch them. They
first appear towards the end of September j and soon
after their eggs appear hatched, in colour and size like
a flax seed j they are very low at the joints 5 some even
in the ground 5 and here they harbour all winter. On
their first appearance in any district, their numbers be¬
ing small they seldom cut oft' the crop in this state,
which is often the case the second or third year. In
the spring, after warm weather, they again appear as
a small worm, and destroy the crop. The remedies
proposed by this farmer are, sowing upon rich ground,
elder, and rolling. A gentleman whose account was
dated on the first of November 1786, says, that their
eggs resemble what is commonly called t\\e fly-blow on
meat, being very small, and only one in a place. Soon
after, the other blades of wheat proceeding from the
same kernel inclose the first, the egg is covered, and
agreeable to the usual progress of insects arrives at the
state of a worm, and descends towards the root, where
it consumes the tender blade, sometimes destroying the
whole crop in the fall •, but if, by reason of the fer¬
tility of the soil, and other concurrent circumstances,
the vegetation is so rapid as to baffle their efforts, some
of the latter-laid eggs, when at the worm state, en¬
trench themselves in the ground to the depth of an
inch or more, where he had found them after severe
frosts changed from a white to a greenish colour, and
almost transparent *, from this they proceed to the au-
relia state, and thus continue probably in the ground
till the spring, when the fly is again produced, which
again lays its eggs, and finishes the work begun in the
fall, to the total destruction of the crop. Another piece
of intelligence he gives, hut not from his own observa¬
tion, that by feeding the wheat veiy close in the win¬
ter and spring, if the land is rich, it will again spring
up, and the worms do not much injure the second
growth. By another correspondent we are informed,
that maritime places are less liable to be infested with
the fly than the interior parts of the country j and
therefore recommends as an experiment, that fine salt ijlSsiaa
should be sprinkled on the wheat just before, or very Fly.
soon after, the appearance of the fly. By others, elder —■—y*”*-
has been much recommended, as well as rolling, &c.
though the bearded wheat already mentioned seems to
he the only effectual remedy.
12. By another communication from Mr Morgan
to the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture,
he informs ns, that he had made himself acquainted
with the fly by breeding a number of them from the
chrysalis into the perfect state. The fly is at first of
a white body with long black legs and whiskers, so
small and motionless as not to be easily perceived by
the naked eye, though very discernible with a micro¬
scope ; hut they soon become black and very nimble,
both on the wing and feet, being about the size of a
small ant. During the height of the brood in June,
where 50 or 100 of the nits have been deposited on
one stalk of wheat, he has sometimes discovered, even
with the naked eye, some of them to twist and move
on being disturbed : this is while they are white ; but
they do not then travel from one stalk to another, nor
to difl’erent parts of the same stalk. The usual time
of their spring-hatching from the chrysalis is in May.
“ Those (says he) who are doubtful whether the fly
is in their neighbourhood, or cannot find their eggs or
nits in the wheat, may satisfy themselves by opening
their windows at night and burning a candle in the
room. The fly will enter in proportion to their num¬
bers abroad. The first night after the commencement
of wheat hearvest, this season, they filled my dining¬
room in such numbers as to be exceedingly trouble¬
some in the eating and drinking vessels. Without ex¬
aggeration I may say, that a glass tumbler from which
beer had been just drunk at dinner, had 500 flies in it
in a few minutes. The windows are filled with them
when they desire to make their escape. They are very
distinguishable from every other fly by their horns «r
whiskers.” With regard to the cure, it seems to be
confirmed that the sowing of that called the yellow-
bearded wheat can only be depended upon. The fly in¬
deed will reside in fields of this wheat, and lay its eggs
upon the stalks 5 but no injury was ever known to hap¬
pen, except in one single instance, where it was sown
in a field along with the common sort, and that in a
very small proportion to it. By another account, how¬
ever, we are told that the yellow-bearded wheat is
equally liable to be destroyed in the autumn with the
common kind •, so that the only method of securing the
crop is by sowing it late in the season, when the fly is
mostly over.
13. The utmost pains were taken by the British
government to find out whether this destructive insect
exists in Germany or any of the northern countries ot
Europe ; but from the accounts received, it appears
that it has not hitherto been observed, or at least it it
exists, the damage done by it is too inconsiderable to
attract notice.
14. From the whole correspondence on this subject,
which from the abridgement just now given ot it is
evidently somewhat discordant, Sir Joseph Banks drew
up a report for the privy council, dated March 2.1789*
in which he states the following particulars: 1. The
appearance of the fly in Long Island was first obser¬
ved in 1770. We must suppose this to be meant
H E S [ 454 1 H E S
Hessian that its destructive effects became then first percep-
Fly. tiblej for it seems undoubtedly to have been known
  ' in the year 1776. 2. The opinion of Colonel Mor¬
gan, that it was imported by the Hessians, seems to be
-erroneous, as no such insect can be found to exist in
Germany or any other part of Kurope. 3. Since its
first appearance in Long Island it has advanced at the
rate of 15 or 20 miles a year, and neither waters nor
mountains have impeded its progress. It was seen
crossing the Delaware like a cloud, from the Fall’s
Township to Makefield $ had reached Saratoga 200
miles from its first appearance, infesting the counties
of Middlesex, Somerset, Huntington, Morris, Sussex,
the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, all the wheat coun¬
ties of Connecticut, &c. committing the most dreadful
ravages •, attacking wheat, rye, barley, and timothy-
grass. 4. The Americans who have suffered by this
insect, speak of it in terms of the greatest horror. In
Colonel Morgan’s letter to Sir John Temple, he uses
the following expressions. “ Were it to reach Great
Britain, it would be the greatest scourge that island
ever experienced ; as it multiplies from heat and moi¬
sture, and the most intense frosts have no effect on the
egg or aurelia. Were a single straw, containing the
insect, egg, or aurelia, to be carried and safely depo¬
sited in the centre of Norfolk in England, it would
multiply in a few years, so as to destroy all the wheat
and bailey crops of the whole kingdom. There can¬
not exist such an atrocious villain as to commit such
an act intentionally. 5. No satisfactory account of
the mode in which this insect is propagated has hither¬
to been obtained. Those which say that the eggs are
deposited on the stalk from six or eight to 50, and by
their growth compress and hinder the stalk from grow¬
ing, are evidently erroneous, and the authors of them
have plainly mistaken the animal itself for its eggs.
It is sufficient to remember, that eggs do not grow or
increase in hulk, to prove that what they observed
was not eggs. 6. The landholder’s opinion, that the
eggs are deposited on the ripe grains of wheat, though
contradicted by Colonel Morgan, is not disproved, as
the colonel advances no argument against it. 7. A
letter dated New York, September I. 1786, says, that
the eggs are deposited on the young blade, resembling
-what we call a fly-blow in meat ; very small, and but
wre in a place : but this, though the only natural mode
of accounting for the appearance of the insect, had it
been true, must undoubtedly have been confirmed by
numbers of observations. 8. Even though this should
be found hereafter to be the case, there will still re¬
main a danger of the aurelias being beaten off by the
flail from the straw in threshing the wheat, and im¬
ported into Britain along with it ; the presence of these
flies in barns having been fully proved by the observa¬
tions of Messrs Potts and Bond. 9. None of the re¬
medies proposed against this destructive insect have
been in any degree effectual, excepting that of sowing
the yellow-bearded wheat •, the straw of which is suf¬
ficiently strong to resist the impression of the insect,
and even if its eggs are deposited upon it, receives lit¬
tle injury in point of produce in grain : this provides,
however, no remedy for the loss of the barley crop,
nor for that which must be incurred by sowing the
yellow-bearded wheat on lands better suited by nature
for the produce of other kinds : it appears also that
this very kind is liable to degenerate, and probably Hes$i«
from a different cause than that proposed by Colonel Fly.
Morgan, viz. the mixture with common wheat. 9.'t*
Though the Agricultural Society at Philadelphia, as
well as Colouel Morgan, have declared their opinions
decisively, that no danger can arise from wheat import¬
ed into Britain, as the insect has no immediate con¬
nection w'ith the grain *, yet with nearly, if not exactly
the same materials before him which these gentlemen
were furnished with, Sir Joseph Banks could not avoid
drawing a conclusion directly contrary ; and he con¬
cludes his report with the words of Mr Bond in a let¬
ter to the marquis of Caermarthen. “ Satisfactory as
it would be to my feelings to be able to say with pre¬
cision, that I apprehend no danger of extending the
mischief by seed, my duty urges me to declare, that
I have not heard nor seen any conclusive fact by which
I could decide on a matter of such importance j and
till that test occurs, the wisdom of guarding against so
grievous a calamity is obvious.”
On the 27th of April the same year, another pa¬
per, by way of appendix to the foregoing, was given
in by Sir Joseph Banks. In this he again observes,
that none of the descriptions of any European insect
hitherto published answer exactly to the Hessian fly.
In a letter from Mr Bond to the marquis of Caermar-
therr, be mentions another kind of insect in the state of
Maryland, called by way of eminence t/ie fly; and
•which in some things resembles the Hessian fly, though
it cannot be accounted the same. It makes its way in-
>to the mow, and bites the end of the grain percepti¬
bly, and no doubt deposits its eggs in the grain itself}
since it has been observed, that wheat recently thresh¬
ed, and laid in a warm dry place, will soon be covered
with an extreme clammy crust, which binds the
wheat on the surface together in such a way as to ad¬
mit its being lifted in lumps } but the wheat beneath
will not he hurt to any considerable depth. Such is
the quality of this fly, that if the hand be inserted into
the heap affected by it, watery blisters are immedi¬
ately raised } and the farmers and slaves, riding upon
bags of this infected wheat, never fail to be severely
blistered thereby. “ This insect (says he) is called in
Maryland the Revolution fly, by the friends of the
British government } but from all I can learn it is not
the same insect which originated on Long Island, and
is called the Hessian fly (by way of opprobrium) by
those who favoured the revolution. All the papers I
have read on the Hessian fly are very inaccurate, not
to say contradictory } and I am convinced it is by no
means a settled point at this moment, in what manner
and place the eggs of these insects are deposited. The
policy which induced government to open the ports
being founded on an appearance of a scarcity of corn,
that evil may be remedied by the admission of flour
instead of grain } and though the countries from whence
the flour is carried will have the advantage of the
manufacture, still that cannot be reckoned as an ob¬
ject, when opposed in the scale to an evil of such im¬
mense magnitude as the introduction of so destructive
an insect may occasion. The ravages here are beyond
conception ruinous. Many farmers have bad their
crops so completely cut off as to be left without bread-
corn or even seed-corn. If the measure of confining
the importation to flour alone should be adopted, great
attention
do*.
H E T [455
attention should he paid to the quality of the flour ad¬
mitted into the British ports. An infinite deal of the
wheat of the last harvest is of a very wretched qua¬
lity ”, and stratagems will be practised to give an ex¬
tensive vent to so essential a staple of the middle states
of America.”
In another letter to the same nobleman, Mr Bond
expresses himself to the following purpose. “ I have
not been able to collect any decided information which
fixes the essential point, how far the insect may be
communicated by seed. It is a matter at this time
quite undecided here 5 nor have I heard or observed
any very conclusive reason to suppose that the fly makes
its way generally into barns and ricks. A very intel¬
ligent farmer in the county of Bucks, informed me
that it was the prevailing opinion there, and so I found
it, that the flv did not, either in the field or in the
mow, affect the grain of the wheat: a neighbour of
his, in threshing the little wheat he had saved last har¬
vest, observed the fly rise from the straw in great num¬
bers wherever it was struck by the flail ; but though
it was at first presumed that the fly had insinuated it¬
self into the mow for the purpose of depositing its eggs
in the grain or in the straw, no trace of the egg
could be discovered from the appearance of any mucus
or dust, either in the grain or in the straw; hence
it was inferred that all the mischief was done in the
field.”
HESA CHIUS, the most celebrated of all the an¬
cient Greek grammarians whose works are now extant,
■was a Christian j and, according to some, the same
with Hesychius patriarch of Jerusalem, who died in
639. He wrote a Greek lexicon ; which, in the opi¬
nion of Casaubon, is the most learned and useful work
of that kind produced by the ancients. Schrevelius
published a good edition of it in t668, in 4to, with
notes *, but the best is that of John Alberti, printed at
Leyden in 1746, in two vols folio.
HETERJARCH, H^teriarcha, in antiquity,
an officer in tbe Greek empire, whereof there were
two species ; the one called simply heteriarch, and the
other great heteriarch, who had the direction of the
former.
The word is Greek, irui^ix^x, formed of the Greek
srxi^of, socius, “ companion, ally,” and x^r\, imperiutn,
“ command.” Their principal function was to com¬
mand the troops of the allies; besides which, they
had some other duties in the emperor’s court, described
by Codin, De Qfficiis, cap. 5. N° 30, 31, 32, 37.
HETEROCLITE, Heterocliton, in Grammar,
an irregular or anomalous word, which either in de¬
clension, conjugation, or regimen, deviates from the
ordinary rules of grammar. The word is Greek,
; formed of Irsfaj, alter, “ another, different,” and
“ I decline.”
Heteroclite is more peculiarly applied to nouns which
vary or are irregular in point of declension ; having
fewer cases, numbers, &c. than ordinary ; or that are
of one declension in one number, and another in ano¬
ther: as Hoc van, vasts ; hcec vasa, vasorum.
HETERODOX, in Polemical Theology, something
mon.”
divine.
that is contrary to the faith or doctrine established in
the true church. The word is formed of the Greek
a compound of “ alter” and “ opi-
] HEX
Time, we say a heterodox opinion, o. heterodox\\e\ftaior
WOr{1 stantls *n opposition to orthodox.
HETEROGENEITY, in Physics, the quality or
disposition which denominates a thing heterogeneous.'
I he word is. also used for the heterogeneous parts
themselves; in which sense, the heterogeneities of a
body are the same thing with the impurities thereof.
HETEROGENEOUS, or Heterogeneal, liter¬
ally imports something of a different nature, or that con¬
sists of parts of different or dissimilar kinds; in opposi¬
tion to homogeneous. The word is Greek ; formed of
alter, “ different,” and genus, “ kind ;”
q. d. composed of different kinds of parts.
Heterogexeous Light, is by Sir Isaac Newton said
to be that which consists of rays of different degrees of
refrangibility. Thus the common light of the sun or
clouds is heterogeneous, being a mixture of all sorts of
rays.
Heterogeneous Houns, one of the three variations
in 11 icgular nouns; or such as are of one gender in the
singular number, and of another in the plural.—Hete-
rogeneous, under which are comprehended mixed nouns,
are sixfold. I. Those which are of the masculine
gender in the singular number, and neuter in the pleu¬
ral; as, hie tartarus, hcec turtara. 2. Those which are
masculine in the singular number, but masculine and
neuter in the plural ; as, hie locus, hi loci et hcec loca.
3. Such as are feminine in the singular number, but
neuter in the plural ; as, hcec carbasus, et hcec carbasa,
4. Such nouns as are neuter in the singular number,
but masculine in the plural ; as hoc codum, hi cadi.
5. Such as are neuter in the singular, but neuter and
masculine in the plural; as, hoc rostrum, hi rastri, et
hcec rostra. And, 6. Such as are neuter in the singu¬
lar, hut feminine in the plural number; as hoc epulum,
her epulce.
Heterogeneous Quantities, are those which ar&
of such different kind and consideration, as that one of
them, taken any number of times, never equals or exr
ceeds the other.
Heterogeneous Surds, are such as have different
radical signs; as ^aa, and 3x/bb; *^9, and 7\/ip.
HETEROSCII, in Geography, a term of relation,
denoting such inhabitants of the earth as have their
shad ows falling but one way, as those who live between
the tropics and polar circles ; whose shadows at noon
in north latitude are always to the northward, and in
south latitude to the southward.
HETH, the father of the Hittites, was the eldest
son of Canaan (Gen. x. 15.), and dwelt southward of
the promised land, at Hebron or thereabouts. Ephron,
an inhabitant of Hebron, was «f the race of Heth,
and this whole city in Abraham’s time was peopled
by the children of Heth. There are some who main¬
tain that there was a city called Heth, but we find no
footsteps of it in the Scripture.
HETRURIA, or Etruria, a celebrated "country
of Italy, to the west of the Tyber. It originally con¬
tained 12 different nations, which had each their re¬
spective monarch. Their names were Veientes, Clu-
sini, Perusini, Cortonenses, Arretini, Vetuloni, Volater-
rani, Rusellani, Volscinii, Tarquinii, Falisci, and Cie-
retani. The inhabitants were particularly famous for
their superstition and strict confidence in omens, dreams,.
auguries,.
HEW
Hetruria auguries, &c. They all proved powerful and resolute
|] enemies to the rising empire of the Romans, and were
Ilewson. conquered only after much effusion of blood.
' HEV./EI, in Ancient Geographij, one of the seven
tribes who occupied Canaan ; a principal and numerous
people, and the same with the Kadmoncei, dwelling at
the*foot of Hermon and part of Libanus, or between
I/ibanus and Hermon (Judges iii. 3.). Io that Boch-
art refers the fables concerning Cadmus and his wife
Harmonia, or Hermonia, changed to serpents} the
Hevi denoting a wild beast, such as is a serpent. Cad¬
mus, who is said to have carried the use of letters to
Greece, seems to have been a Kadmonaean ; of whom
the Greeks say that he came to their country from
Phoenicia.
HEUCHERA, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria class. See Botany Index.
HEVELIUS, or Hevelke, John, an eminent
astronomer, was born at Dantzic in 1611. He studied
in Germany, England, and Fiance, and every where
obtained the esteem of the learned. He was the first
that discovered a kind of lihration of the moon, and
made several important observations on the other pla¬
nets. He also discovered several fixed stars which he
named the firmament of Sobieski, in honour of John III.
. king of Poland. His wife was also well skilled in
astronomy, and made a part of the observations pub¬
lished by her husband. In 1673 he published a de¬
scription of the instruments with which he made liis
observations, under the title of Machina Codestis; and
in 1679 he published the second part of this work ;
but in September the same year, while he was at a seat
in the country, he had the misfortune to have his house
at Dantzic burnt down. By this calamity he is said
to have sustained a loss of several thousand pounds ;
having not only his observatory and all his valuable in¬
struments and apparatus destroyed, but also a great
number of copies of his Machina Cxlestis; which acci¬
dent has made this second part very scarce, and conse¬
quently very dear. In the year 1690 were published
Firmamentum Sobiescianum and Frodromus astrono¬
mies et novee tabulae solares, una cum caialogo fixa-
rum, in which he lays down the necessary prelimina¬
ries for taking an exact catalogue of the stars. But
both these works are posthumous : for Hevelius died in
1687, on his birth-day, aged 76. He was a man
greatly esteemed by his countrymen, not only on ac¬
count of his great reputation and skill in astronomy,
but as a very excellent and worthy magistrate. He
was made a burgo-master of Dantzic : which office he
is said to have executed with the utmost integrity and
applause. He was also very highly esteemed by fo¬
reigners ; and not only by those skilled in astronomy
and the sciences, but by foreign princes and potentates:
as appears abundantly from a collection of their letters
which was printed at Dantzic in the year 1683.
HEUSDEN, a strong town of the United Pro¬
vinces, in Holland, seated on the river Maese, among
marshes, with a handsome castle, in E. Long. 5. 3.
N. Lat. 51. 47.
HETVSON, William, a very ingenious anatomist,
was born in 1739. Fie became assistant to Dr Hunter,
and was afterwards in partnership with him ; but on
their disagreement, read anatomical lectures at his own
house (in which he was seconded by Mr Falconer).
HEX
He wrote Inquiries into the Properties of the Blood, Hewso
and the Lymphatic System, 2 vols 5 and disputed with ||
Dr Monro the discovery of the lymphatic system of
vessels in oviparous animals. He died in 1774.
HEXACHORD, in ancient music, a concord call¬
ed by the moderns a sixth.
HEXAGON, in Geometry, a figure of six sides and
angles j and if these sides and angles are equal, it is
called a regular hexagon.
HEXAHEDRON, in Geometry, one of the five
platonic bodies, or regular solids, being the same with
a cube.
HEXAMETER, in ancient poetry, a kind of verse
consisting of six feet ; the first four of which may be
indifferently either spondees or dactyles \ the fifth is
generally a dactyl, and the sixth always a spondee.
Such is the following verse of Florace :
123 456
Aut pro\desse vo\lunt, aut\ dcle\ctare po\etce.
HEXAMILION, Hexamili, or Hexamilium, a
celebrated wall, built by the emperor Emanuel in 1413
over the isthmus of Corinth. It took its name from
i|, six, and piXioy, which in the vulgar Greek signifies a
mile, as being six miles long.
The design of the hexamilion was to defend Pelopon¬
nesus from the incursions of the barbarians. Amurath
II. having raised the siege of Constantinople in the year
1424, demolished the hexamilium, though he had before
concluded a peace with the Greek emperor. The Ve¬
netians restored it in the year 1463, by 30,000 work¬
men, employed for 15 days, and covered by an army
commanded by Bertoldo d’Jiste general of the land
forces, and Louis Loredano, commander of the sea.-—
The Infidels made several attempts upon it $ but were
repulsed, and obliged to retire from the neighbourhood
thereof: but Bertoldo being killed at the siege of
Corinth, which was attempted soon after, Bertino Cal-
cinato, who took on him the command of the army,
abandoned, upon the approach of the beglerbeg, both
the siege and the defence of the wall which had cost
them so dear; upon which it was finally demolished.
HEXANDRIA, in Botany, (from 1%, six, and
a man) ; the name of the sixth class in Linnaeus’s
sexual method, consisting of plants with hermaphrodite
flowers, which are furnished with six stamina or male
organs, that are of an equal length. See Botany
Index.
F1EXAPLA (formed of i|, six, and cnrlov, I open, I
unfold), in church-history, a Bible disposed in six co¬
lumns; containing the text, and divers versions there¬
of, compiled and published by Origen, with a view of
securing the sacred text from future corruptions, and
to correct those that had been already introduced.
Eusebius, Flist. Eccl. lib. vi. cap. 16. relates, that
Origen, after his return from Rome under Caracalla,
applied himself to learn Hebrew, and began to collect
the several versions that had been made of the sacred
writings, and of these to compose his Tetrapla and
Hexapla ; others, however, will not allow him to have
begun till the time of Alexander, after he had retired
into Palestine, about the year 231.
To conceive what this Hexapla was, it must be ob¬
served, that, besides the translation of the sacred wri- j
tings, called the Septuagint, made under Ptolemy Phi-
ladelphus,
[ 456 ]
HEX C 457 1 HEY
H apis, ladelphus, above 280 years before Christ, the Scripture
<- r"—' had been since translated into Greek by other interpre¬
ters. The first of those versions, or (reckoning the
Septuagint) the second, was that of Aquila, a pro¬
selyte Jew, the first edition of which he published in the
I2th year of the emperor Adrian, or about the year
of Christ 128 ; the third was that of Symmachus, pub¬
lished, as is commonly supposed, under Marcus Aure¬
lius, but, as some say, under Septimius Severus, about
the year 200 ; the fourth was that of Theodotion,
prior to that of Symmachus, under Commodus, or
about the year 175* These Greek versions, says Dr
Kennicott, were made by the Jews from their corrupt¬
ed copies of the Hebrew, and were designed to stand
in the place of the Seventy, against which they were
prejudiced, because it seemed to favour the Christians.
The fifth was found at Jericho, in the reign of Cara-
calla, about the year 217 ; and the sixth was discover¬
ed at Nicopolis, in the reign of Alexander Severus,
about the year 228 : lastly, Origen himself recovered
part of a seventh, containing only the Psalms.
Now Origen, who had held frequent disputations
with the Jews in Egypt and Palestine, observing that
they always objected against those passages of Scrip¬
ture quoted against them, and appealed to the Hebrew
text ; the better to vindicate those passages, and con¬
found the Jews by showing that the Seventy had given
the sense of the Hebrew, or rather to show by a num¬
ber of different versions what the real sense of the He¬
brew was, undertook to reduce ail those several versions
into a body along with .the Hebrew text, so as they
might be easily confronted, and afford a mutual light
to each other.
He made the Hebrew text his standard : and allow¬
ing that corruptions might have happened, and that the
old Hebrew copies might and did read differently, he
contented himself with marking such words or senten¬
ces as were not in his Hebrew text, nor the later Greek
versions, and adding such words or sentences as were
omitted in the Seventy, prefixing an asterisk to the ad¬
ditions, and an obelisk to the others.
In order to this, he made choice of eight columns :
in the first he gave the Hebrew text in Hebrew cha¬
racters *, in the second the same text in Greek charac¬
ters ; the rest were filled with the several versions above
mentioned ; all the columns answering verse for verse,
and phrase for phrase ; and in the Psalms there was a
ninth column for the seventh version.
This work Origen called 'E^ccttXx, Hexapla, q. d. sex-
tvple, or work of six columns, as only regarding the
first six Greek versions. See Tetrafla.
Indeed, St Epiphanius, taking in likewise the two
columns of the text, calls the work Octopla, as consist¬
ing of eight columns.
This celebrated work, which Montfaucon imagines
consisted of fifty large volumes, perished long ago,
probably with the library at Caesarea, where it was
preserved in the year 653 ; though several of the an¬
cient writers have preserved us pieces thereof: parti¬
cularly St Chrysostom on the Psalms, Philoponus in
his Hexameron, &c. Some modern writers have ear¬
nestly endeavoured to collect fragments of the Hexa-
pla, particularly Flaminius Nobiliiis, Drnsiu-i, and Ft
Montfaucon, in two folio volumes, printed at Paris in
Vob. X. Part II. v t
. HEXASTYLE, in Architecture, a building with tr^nuvi,.
six columns in front. jj y c
HEXHAM, a town of Northumberland, situated Heytin.
near the conflux of the north and south Tyne. It is ’“v-—'
commonly supposed to be the Alexmlunum of the Ro¬
mans, where the first cohort of the Spaniards were in
garrison. ^ It was made a bishop’s see by Etheldreda,
wife of King Egfred, in the year 675. Its first bi¬
shop St Wilfred built here a most magnificent ca¬
thedral and monastery, and it was possessed by seven'
bishops successively j but being very much infested by
the Danes, the see was removed to York. The town
and priory were destroyed by the Scots in 1296, and
pillaged again in 134^' There was a remarkable and
bloody battle fought near this town between the
houses of Lancaster and York, wherein the former
were defeated, chiefly by the extraordinary bravery
and conduct of John Nevil, Lord Montacute, who was
for that reason created earl of Northumberland. The
present town is not populous, and the streets are nar¬
row, with ill built houses. The market-place, near
the centre of the town is a spacious square, and is sup¬
plied by a fountain with water. Among the remains
of ancient structures is a gateway of ancient architec¬
ture, leading to the priory, but of a much older date.
There are two ancient towers in the town, one of
which is used as a sessions-house, and was formerly an
exploratory tower j the other is on the top of a hill
towards the Tyne, of remarkable architecture, which
has been much higher than at present, and has two
dungeons within it, besides several chambers with very
little narrow windows. The town has a charity or gram¬
mar-school. It was in 1571 annexed to the county
of Cumberland: but only in civil matters; for in its
ecclesiastical jurisdiction it is still a peculiar belonging
to the archbishop of York ; and the common people still
call the neighbouring county Hexhamshire. It is a
corporation governed by a bailiff, and contained 3518
inhabitants in 1811.
HEYDON, a small well-built town in the east rid¬
ing of Yorkshire, in that part called Huldernesse, seat¬
ed on a river that falls into the Humber. It has now
but one church, though there are the remains of two
more ; and had formerly a considerable trade, which is
now lost, on account of its being so near Hull. It
sends two members to parliament. Population 780 in
1811. W. Long. o. 55. N. Lat. 53. 46.
PIeydon, John, who sometimes assumed the name
of Eugenius Theodidactus, was a great pretender to skill
in the Rosicrucian philosophy and the celestial signs,
in the reign of King Charles I.; and wrote a consider¬
able number of chemical and astrological works, with
very singular titles. This ridiculous author was much
resorted to by the duke of Buckingham, who was in¬
fatuated with judicial astrology. He employed him
to calculate the king’s and his own nativity, and was
assured that his stars had promised him great things.
The duke also employed Heydon in some treasonable
and seditious practices, for which he was sent to the
Tower. He lost much of his former reputation by tell¬
ing Richard Cromwell and Thurloe, who went to him
disguised like cavaliers, that Oliver would infallibly be
hanged by a certain time; this period, however, he out¬
lived several years.
HELIN, Dr Peter, an eminent English writer,
3 M was
HEY [ 458 ] H I C
Hevlin 'ra9 h°rn Burford, in Oxfordshire, in 1600.. He
Heywood studied at Hart Hall, Oxford j where he took his de-
u~*v—grees in arts and divinity, and became an able geogra¬
pher and historian. He was appointed one ot the chap¬
lains in ordinary to King Charles I.; was presented to
the rectory of Hemingford in Huntingdonshire, made
a prebendary ot Westminster, and obtained several other
livings: but of these he was deprived by the parlia¬
ment, who also sequestrated his estate } by which means
he and his family were reduced to great necessity. How¬
ever, upon the Restoration, he was restored to his spiri¬
tualities ; but never rose higher than to be subdean of
Westminster. He died in 1662*, and was interred in
St Peter’s church in Westminster, where he had a neat
monument erected to his memory. His writings are
very numerous : the principal of which are, 1. M.icro-
cosrnus, or a description of the Great W orld. 2. Cvs-
mographia. 3. The history of St George. 4. Eccle-
sia Vindicala, or the church of England Justified.
5. Historical and Miscellaneous Tracts, &c.
HEYNE, Christian Gotlob, a late eminent Ger¬
man classical scholar. See SUPPLEMENT.
HEYWOOD, John, an English dramatic poet,
was born at North-Minis, near St Alban’s in Hert¬
fordshire, and educated at Oxford. Erom thence he
retired to the place of his nativity *, where he had the
good fortune to become acquainted with Sir Thomas
More, who, it seems, had a seat in that neighbourhood.
This patron of genius introduced our comic poet to the
princess Mary, and afterwards to her father Henry,
who, we are told, was much delighted with his wit and
skill in music, and by whom he was frequently reward¬
ed. When his former patroness. Queen Mary, came
to the crown, Heywood became a favourite at court, and
continued often to entertain her majesty, exercising his
fancy before her, even to the time that she lay languish¬
ing on her deathbed. On the accession of Elizabeth, be¬
ing a zealous Papist, he thought fit to decamp, with other
favourites of her deceased majesty. He settled at Mech¬
lin in Flanders, where he died in the year 1565.-—John
Heywood was a man of no great learning, nor were his
poetical talents by any means extraordinary *, but he
possessed talents of more importance in the times in
which he lived, namely, the talents of a jester. He
wrote several plays ; 500 epigrams 5 A Dialogue in
Verse concerning .English Proverbs; and The Spider
and Fly, a Parable, a thick 410. Before the title of
this last work is a whole length wooden print of the
author; who is also represented at the head of every
chapter in the book, of which there are 77.—He left
two sons, who both became Jesuits and eminent men :
viz. Ellis Heywood, who continued some time at Flo¬
rence under the patronage of Cardinal Polo, and be¬
came so good a master of the Italian tongue, as to write
a treatise in that language, entitled 11 Moro ; he died
at Louvain about the year 1572. His other son was
Jasper Heywood, who was obliged to resign a fellow¬
ship at Oxford on account of his immoralities : he tran¬
slated three tragedies of Seneca, and wrote various
poems and devises. He died at Naples in 1597.
Heywood, Eliza, a voluminous novel writer ; of
whom no more is known than that her father was a
tradesman, and that she was born about the year 1696.
In the early part of her life, her pen, whether to gra¬
tify her own disposition or the prevailing taste, dealt HeywocJ
chiefly in licentious tales, and memoirs of personal scan- [|
dal : the celebrated Atalantis of Mrs Manley served Hiches.
her for a model ; and The Court of Carimania, The
new Utopia, with some other pieces of a like nature,
were the copies her genius produced. She also attempt¬
ed dramatic writing and performance, but did not suc¬
ceed in either. Whatever it was that provoked the re¬
sentment of Pope, he gave full scope to it by distin¬
guishing her as one of the prizes to be gained in the
games introduced in honour of Dullness, in his Dun-
ciad. Nevertheless, it seems undeniable, that there is
much spirit, and much ingenuity, in her manner of
treating subjects, which the friends of virtue may per¬
haps wish she had never meddled with at all. But,
whatever offence she may have given to delicacy or mo¬
rality in her early works, she appears to have been soon
convinced of, and endeavoured to atone for in the latter
part of her life j as no author then appeared a greater
advocate for virtue. Among her riper productions
may be specified. The Female Spectator, 4 vols 5 Th.
History of Miss Petty Thoughtless, 4 vols 5 Jemmy and 1
Jenny Jessamy, 3 vols ; The Invisible Spy, 3 vols j with
a pamphlet, entitled A Present for a Servant Maid.
She died in 1759.
HIAMEN, or Emouy. See Emouy. '
HIATUS, properly signifies an opening, chasm, or
gap ; but it is particularly applied to those verses where
one word ends with a vowel, and the following word
begins -with one, and thereby occasions the mouth to be
more open, and the sound to be very harsh.
The term hiatus is also used in speaking of manu¬
scripts, to denote their defects, or the parts that have
been lost or effaced.
HIBISCUS, Syrian Mallow, a genus of plants
belonging to the monodelphia class, and in the natural
method ranking under the 37th order, Columniferae.
See Botany Index.
HICETAS of Syracuse, an ancient philosopher and
astronomer, who taught that the sun and stars were
motionless, and that the earth moved round them. This
is mentioned by Cicero, and probably gave the first
hint of the true system to Copernicus. He flourished
344 B- c-
HICKES, George, an English divine of exfraordi-
nary parts and learning, was born in 1642. In 1681
he was made king’s chaplain, and two years after dean
of Worcester. The death of Charles II. stopped his
farther preferment j for though his church principles
were very high, he manifested too much zeal against
Popery to be any favourite with James II. On the
revolution, he with many others was deprived for retu-
sing to take the oaths to King William and Queen
Mary ; and soon after, Archbishop Sancroft and his col¬
leagues considering how to maintain episcopal succession
among those who adhered to them, Dr Hickes carried
over a list of the deprived clergy to King James j and
with his sanction a private consecration was performed,
at which it is said Lord Clarendon was present. Among,
others, Dr Hickes was consecrated suffragan bishop ol
Thetford, and died in lytj*—He wrote, 1. Institutiones
Grammaticce Anglo-Saxonicce, et Mocso- Gothicee. 2. An-
tiyua literatura septentrionalis. 3. Two treatises, one
of the Christian priesthood, the other of the dignity of
Hi
(li
li!
HID
ickes ^,e episcopal order. 4. Jovian, or an answer to Julian
pi the apostate. 5. Sermons $ with many temporary con-
] latgo. troversial pieces on politics and religion.
u v--' HICKUP, or Hiccough, a spasmodic affection of
the stomach, oesophagus, and muscles subservient to de¬
glutition, arising sometimes from some particular injury
done to the stomach, oesophagus, diaphragm, &c. and
sometimes from a general affection of the nervous sys¬
tem. See Medicine bidex.
HID AGE (Hidaghim), was an extraordinary tax
payable to the kings of England for every hide of land.
This taxation was levied not only in money, but in pro¬
vision, armour, &c. j and when the Danes landed in
Sandwich in 994, King Ethelred taxed all his lands by
hides ; so that every 310 hides found one ship furnished,
and every eight hides furnished one jack and one saddle,
to arm for the defence of the kingom, &c. Some¬
times the word hidage was used for the being quit of
that tax ; which was also called hide gild; and interpre¬
ted, from the Saxon, “ a price or ransom paid to save
one’s skin or hide from beating.”
HIDALGO, in modern history, a title given in
Spain to all who are of a noble family.
The Hidalgos claim a descent from those valiant sol¬
diers who retired into Castile, and the mountains of
Asturias, and other remote parts of Spain, on the in¬
vasion of the Moors, where having fortified themselves,
they successively descended into the plains, in propor¬
tion to the success of their arms $ from the notoriety
of their persons, or the lands they became possessed of,
they acquired the appellation of Hidalgos notorios, Hi¬
dalgos de solar conocido, or de casa solariega. Of these,
according to Hernando Mexia, there are three sorts ;
the first being lords of places, villages, towns, or
castles, from whence they took their surnames, as the
Guzmans, Mendozas, Laras, Guivras, and others ; the
second, who recovered any fortress from the Moors, as
the Ponces ol Leon, and others; and the third sort from
the places where they resided, or held jurisdiction, as
Rodrigo de Navarez was called of Antequara, from
being alcayde there. But this definition is not
considered as exact or conclusive by Otalora, another
civilian, who says that the true meaning of Hidalgos
de solar conocido is explained by the laws of Castile to
be a well known mansion or possession, the nature of
which is particularly explained in the laws oi Parditas,
lib. v. tit. 35. which describe three sorts of tenures,
called Devisa, Solariega, and Behetria. By the first,
lands are devised by the ancestor ; solar is a tenure
upon another person’s manor, and obliges the owner
to receive the lord of the fee when necessity obliges
him to travel ; and Behetria is in the nature of an allo¬
dium. In proportion as these Aborigines gained ground
on the Moors, and increased in their numbers, many
private persons distinguished themselves by their valour,
and obtained testimonies of their services called cartas
de mcrced, which served them as a foundation of their
birth and good descent, without which documents
their posterity could not make it appear; and if from
a lapse of time, or other unavoidable accidents, such
proof should happen to be lost or destroyed, the law
affords them a remedy under these circumstances, by
a declaration importing, that such persons as are sup¬
posed to have had such certificates, may be relieved
by making it appear that their ancestors, time imme-
H I D
morial, have always been held and reputed as Hidal- Hidalgo,
gos, and enjoyed the privileges of such, form a strong —y—
presumption in their favour; the possession of land
having equal force to any other document; which is
fully set forth in the Pragmatica of Cordova. To these
executory letters are granted, cartas executorias, ex¬
pressive of their privileges; and for the better regu¬
lation of these matters, proper officers are appointed
in the chancery courts, called alcaldes de lor hidalgos,
who ought to be hidalgos themselves, and hold juris¬
diction in these cases, and no others ; but even here
innovations have taken place ; for as these grants flow
irom the sovereign, who is the fountain of honour, some
are declared Hidalgos de sangre, by right of descent,
and others de privilegio, or by office, in which the will
of the sovereigns has made amends for any deficiency
of blood.
There is a set of people near Segovia, at a place
called Zamarramala, who are exempt from tribute on
account of the care they take in sending proper
persons every night to the castle of Segovia to keep
sentinels ; one cries out, Vela, vela, hao, and the other
blows a horn, from whence they have been titled hidal¬
gos by the horn. In Catalonia those gentlemen who
are styled Hombre de Pareja, are considered the same
as hidalgos in Castile, and were so called from the word
parejar, to equip, this name being given as a distinc¬
tion by Borela the fourth count of Barcelona, at the
siege of that city, in 965, who summoning all his vas¬
sals to come to his assistance against the Moors, nine
hundred horsemen well mounted and equipped joined
him, and with their aid he took the city ; and this ap¬
pellation has been given in honourable remembrance of
this loyal action.
These noble hidalgos enjoy many privileges and
distinctions ; of which the following are the prin¬
cipal :
1. The first and greatest privilege which they hold
by law, is to enjoy all posts of dignity and honour in
the church and state, with liberty, when churchmen, of
having a plurality of benefices. They are qualified for
receiving all orders of knighthood, and are to be pre¬
ferred in all embassies, governments, and public com¬
missions.
2. When they are examined as witnesses in civil and
criminal cases, their depositions are to be taken in their
own houses, without being obliged to quit them to go
to those of others.
3. In all churches, processions, and other public act*
or assemblies, they are to have the next place of honour
and precedency after the officers of justice, conforming
themselves to particular customs.
4. They are not obliged to accept of any challenge
for combat, supposing such were allowed of, but from
those who are their equals.
5. Though it is forbidden to guardians to purchase
the estates of minors, this does not extend to Hidalgos,
in whom the law does not suppose any fraud, and they
may purchase them publicly.
6. They are permitted to be seated in courts of
justice in presence of the judges, from the respect and
honour due to them. They have also seats in the
courts of chancery, in consideration of their birth,
which gives them a right to be near the persons of
pr!"CeS- s M 2 7. Their
[ 459 ]
H I D
[
Hidalgo.
Their persons are free from arrest for debt, nor
can any attachment be laid on their dwelling-houses,
furniture, apparel, arms, horses, or mules in immediate
nor can they make a cession of their estates, nor be
distressed in suits of law, farther than their circumstan
ces will admit of, but are to be allowed a reasonable
and decent maintenance for their support.
8. In cases of imprisonment for criminal matters, they
are to be treated differently from others. They are ge¬
nerally confined to their own houses with a safe-guard,
or under arrest upon their honour, or allowed the city
or town they live in, and in particular cases are sent
into castles.
9. When punishments are inflicted for criminal cases,
they are to be less severe to them than to others, as
they are not to suffer ignominious punishments, such
as public shame, whipping, gallies 5 nor are they to be
hanged, but beheaded, excepting in cases of treason or
heresy. In cases that do not imply a corporal punish¬
ment but a pecuniary one, they are treated with more
rigour, and pay a larger fine than others.
10. They are not to be put to the rack or torture,
excepting for such heinous crimes as are particularly
specified by the laws.
11. When there are title-deeds or other writings or
papers in which two or moi’e persons have an equal
right or property, and require a particular charge, they
are to be given up by preference to the custody of an
Hidalgo, if any of the parties are such.
12. The daughter of an Hidalgo enjoys every pri¬
vilege of her birth, though married to a commoner ;
and a woman who is not an Hidalgo enjoys all these
privileges when she is a widow, following the fortune
of her husband.—But if the widow is an Hidalgo, and
the late husband was a commoner, she falls into the state
of her husband after his death, though she had the pri¬
vileges of her birth during his life.
13. They are free from all duties, called Pec/ios,
Pedidos, Monedas, Marteniegns, Contribuciones, as
well royal as civil, and all other levies of whatever kind
they may be, with a reserve for such as are for the pub¬
lic benefit, in which they are equally concerned, such
as the repairing the highways, bridges, fountains,
walls, destruction of locusts, and other vermin.
14. They are free from personal service, and from
going to the wars, excepting when the king attends
in person ; even then they are not to be forced, but
invited, and acquainted that the royal standard is dis¬
played.
15. No persons whatever can be quartered upon, or
lodged in their houses, except when the king, queen,
prince or infantes are on the road, as in such cases even
the houses of the clergy are not exempt.
16. They cannot be compelled to accept of the office
of receiver of the king s rents, or any other employment
which is considered as mean and derogatory to their dig¬
nity and rank.
17. By a particular custom confirmed by royal au¬
thority, in that part of Castile beyond the Ebro, ba¬
stards succeed to their parents, and enjoy their honours
contrary to the royal and common law.
18. If a lady, who marries a commoner, should be
a queen, duchess, marchioness, or countess (for they
have no barons in Castile), she not only does not lose
460 ] HIE
her rank, but conveys her titles to her husband, who Hidalgo
hold then) in right of his wife. y
These are the general privileges which the Hidalgos Hiewpolii
enjoy ; there are some others of less consequence, as well ¥ ^
as particular grants to certain persons and families. An
ancient and ridiculous custom is said to be observed by
noble ladies who are widows of plebeians, in order to
recover their birthright, for which purpose they carry
a pack saddle on their shoulders to their husband’s
grave, then throwing it down and striking it three
times, say, ‘ Villein, take thy villeiny, for I will abide
by my nobility and then they recover their privileges
again.
HIDE, the skin of beasts ; but the word is particu¬
larly applied to those of large cattle, as bullocks, cows,
horses, &c.
Hides are either raw or green, just as taken off the
carcase j salted, or seasoned with salt, alum, and salt¬
petre, to prevent their spoiling j or curried and tanned.
See Tanning.
Hide of Land, was such a quantity of land as might
be ploughed with one plough within the compass of a
year, or as much as would maintain a family ; some call
it 60, some 80, and others 100 acres.
HiDE-Bound, a disease in the skin of horses. See
Farriery.
HIERACIUM, Hawkweed, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the syngenesia class; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 49th order, Compositce. Sea
Botany Index.
HIERACITES, in church-history, Christian he¬
retics in the third century ; so called from their leader
Hierax, a philosopher of Egypt: who taught that
Melchisedeck was the Holy Ghost, denied the resur¬
rection, and condemned marriage.
HIERANOSIS, or Morbus Sacer. See Medi¬
cine Index.
HIERA picra. See Pharmacy Index.
HIERAPOEIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Phrygia, abounding in hot springs ; and having its name
from the number ot its temples. There are coins exhi¬
biting figures of various gods who had temples here.
Of this place was Epictetus the Stoic philosopher.—It
is now called Pambouk ; and is situated near the Scam-
ander, on a portion of Mount Mesogis, distant six miles
from Laodicea.—Its site appears at a distance as a white
lofty cliff; and upon arriving at it, the view which it
presents is so marvellous (says Dr Chandler), that the
description of it, to bear even a faint resemblance, ought
to appear romantic. Dr Chandler’s description is as
follows:
“ The vast slope which at a distance we had taken TwvtUi
for chalk, was now beheld with wonder, it seeming anA,ia*lm
immense frozen cascade, the surface wavy, as of water ^ ^
at once fixed, or in its headlong course suddenly petri¬
fied. Round about us were many high, bare, stony
ridges ; and close by our tent, one with a wide basis,
and a slender rill of water, clear, soft, and warm, run¬
ning in a small channel on the top. A woman was
washing linen in it, with a child at her back ; and, be¬
yond were cabins of the Turcomans, standing distinct,
much neater than any we had seen, each with poultry
feeding, and a fence of reeds in front.
“ It is an old observation, that the country about tbs
Mseauder,
HIE [ 461 ]. HIE
r
tHi
jjie.,0]i?,Maeandcr, the soil being light and friable, and full of
w— . salts generating inflammable matter, was undermined by-
fire and water. Hence it abounded in hot springs,
which, after passing under ground from the reservoirs,
appeared on the mountain, or were found bubbling up
in the plain or in the mud of the river: and hence it
was subject to frequent earthquakes ; the nitrous vapour
compressed in the cavities, and sublimed by heat for fer¬
mentation, bursting its prison with loud explosions, agi¬
tating the atmosphere, and shaking the earth and waters
with a violence as extensive as destructive*, and hence,
moreover, the pestilential grottoes, which had subterra¬
neous communication with each other, derived their
noisome effluvia; and serving as small vents to these
furnaces or hollows, were regarded as apertures of hell,
as passages for deadly fumes rising up from the realms
of Pluto. One or more of the mountains perhaps has
burned. It may be suspected, that the surface of the
country has in some places been formed from its own
bowels : and in particular, it seems probable, that the
hill of Laodicea was originally an eruption.
“ The hot waters of Hierapolis have produced that
most extraordinary phenomenon, the clifl', which is one
entire incrustation. They were anciently renowned for
this species of transformation. It is related, they chan¬
ged so easily, that being conducted about the vineyards
and gardens, the channels became long fences, each a
single stone. They produced the ridges by our tent.
The road up to the ruins, which appears as a wide and
high causeway, is a petrification ; and overlooks many
green spots, once vineyards and gardens, separated by
partitions of the same material. The surface of the flat,
above the cliff, is rough with stone and with channels,
branching out in various directions, a large pool over¬
flowing and feeding the numerous rills, some of which
spread over the slope as they descend, and give to the
white stony bed a humid look, resembling salt or driven
rust snow when melting. This crust, which has no taste or
■«% smell, being an alkaline substance, will ferment with
acids ; and Picerini relates, that trial of it had been
made with spirit of vitriol. The waters, though hot,
W'ere used in agriculture.
“ Tamerlane, when he invaded this country, en¬
camped for the summer at Tanguzlik, where many of
his men were destroyed by drinking of a spring which
stagnated and petrified. The Turkish name Pambouk
signifies cotton; and, it has been said, refers to the white¬
ness of the incrustation.
' “ The shepherd-poet of Smyrna, after mentioning a
cave in Phrygia sacred to the Nymphs, relates, that
there Luna had once descended from the sky to En-
dymion, while he was sleeping by his herds ; that marks
of their bed were then extant under the oaks ; and that
in the thickets around it the milk of cows had been
spilt, which men still beheld with admiration (for such
was the appearance if you saw it very far off) ; but that
from thence flowed clear or warm water, which in a
little while concreted round about the channels, and
formed a stone pavement. The writer describes the
cliff of Hierapolis, if I mistake not, as in his time ; and
has added a local story, current when he lived. It was
the genius of the people to unite fiction with truth ;
and, as in this and other instances, to dignify the
tales of their mythology with fabulous evidence taken
from the natural wonders in which their country abound- Hierapoli?.
“ We ascended in the morning, to the ruins, which
are on a flat, passing by sepulchres with inscriptions, and
entering the city from the east. We had soon the
theatre on our right hand, and the pool between us and
the cliff. Opposite to it, near the margin of the cliff,
are the remains of an amazing structure, once perhaps
baths, or, as we conjectured, a gymnasium ; the huge
vaults of the roof striking horror as we rode underneath.
Beyond it is the mean ruin of a modern fortress ; and
farther on are massive walls of edifices, several of them
leaning from their perpendicular, the stones distorted,
and seeming every moment ready to fall ; the effects
and evidences of violent and repeated earthquakes. In
a recess of the mountain on the right hand is the area
of a stadium. Then again sepulchres succeed, some
nearly buried in the mountain side, and one, a square
building, with an inscription in large letters. All these
remains are plain, and of the stone created by the wa¬
ters. The site has been computed about two hundred
paces wide and a mile in length.
“ After taking a general survey, we returned to the
theatre, intending to copy inscriptions, and examine
more particularly as we changed our station. We found
this a very large and sumptuous structure, and the least
ruined of any we had seen. Part of the front is stand¬
ing. In the heap which lies in confusion, are many
sculptures well executed in basso relievo: with pieces of
architrave inscribed, but disjointed ; or so encumbered
with massive marbles, that we could collect from them
no information. The character is large and bold, with
ligatures. The marble seals are still unremoved. The
numerous ranges are divided by a low semicircular w'all,
near mid way, with inscriptions on the face of it, but
most illegible. I copied a short hut imperfect one, in
which Apollo Archegetes or The Leader is requested
to be propitious. In another compartment, mention is
made of the city by its name Hierapolis; and on a third
is an encomium in verse, which may be thus translated,
‘ Hail, golden city Hierapolis, the spot to be preferred
before any in wide Asia; revered lor the rills of the
Nymphs ; adorned with splendor.’ The Nymphs pre¬
sided over springs and fountains.
“ After attentively viewing them, and considering
their height, width, and manner of arrangement, I am
inclined to believe, that the ancient Asiatics sat at their
plays and public spectacles like the modern, with their
legs crossed or gathered under them; and it is probable
upon carpets.
“ The waters of Hierapolis, were surprisingly attem¬
pered for tinging wool, with a colour from roots rival¬
ling the more costly purples; and were a principal source
of the riches of the place. The company of dyers is
mentioned in the inscription on the square building
among the sepulchres. The heroum or monument was
to be crowned by them with garlands or festoons of
flowers. The springs flowed so copiously, that the city
was full of spontaneous baths ; and Apollo, the tutelar
deity of the Hierapolitans, with iEsculapius and Hy-
giea, on their medals, bear witness to the medicinal vir¬
tues which they possess. The people, in some of their
inscriptions, are styled the most splendid, and the se¬
nate the most powerful.
HierapaUs
II
Hieres.
HIE [ 462 ] HIE
The pool before the theatre has been a bath,
and marble fragments are visible at the bottom of the
water, which is perfectly transparent, and of a briny
taste.
“ Hierapolis was noted, besides its hot waters, for a
plutonium. This was an opening in a small brow of
the adjacent mountain, capable of admitting a man, and
very deep, with a square fence before it, inclosing about
half an acre j which space was filled with black thick
mist, so that the bottom could be scarcely discerned.
The air, to those who approached it, was innocent on
the outside of the fence, being clear of the mist in se¬
rene weather, it remaining then within the boundary ;
but there death abode. Bulls, as at Nysa, dropt down,
and were dragged forth without life j and some spar¬
rows which Strabo let fly instantly fell senseless. But
eunuchs, the priests of Magna Mater, or Cybele, could
go in quite to the aperture, lean forward, or enter it
unharmed ; but they held their breath, as their visages
testified, and sometimes until in danger of suffocation.
Strabo, the relater, was in doubt whether all eunuchs
could do this, or only they of the temple ; and whether
they were preserved by IDivine Providence, as in cases
of enthusiasm, or were possessed of some powerful an¬
tidotes. But it is likely this mist was the condensed
steam of the hot waters, made noxious by the qualities
of the soil; and that the whole secret of the priests con¬
sisted in carrying their faces high in the air, as another
spectator has observed they always did ; and in avoid¬
ing respiration when they stooped. I had hoped the
description of this spot would have enabled me to find
it, but I searched about for it unsuccessfully.
“ We descended to our tent at the approach of even¬
ing by a steep track down the cliff, beginning beyond
the pool, in which we also bathed with pleasure, on the
side next the gymnasium. Our way was often rough
and slippery, resembling ice, and our horses with diffi¬
culty preserved their footing. When arrived at our
tent, I renewed my inquiries for the plutonium ; and
an old Turk, with a beard as white as snow, told me
he knew the place, that it was often fatal to their goats j
and accounting for the effect, said, it was believed to
be the habitation of a daemon or evil spirit. We as¬
cended again early in the morning to the theatre, where
he had promised to join us j and a live fowl was in¬
tended to be the martyr of experiment.” But our au¬
thor was interrupted by some banditti, and obliged to
leave Hierapolis in haste.
HIERARCHY, among divines, denotes the subor¬
dination of angels.
Some of the rabbins reckon four, others ten, orders
or ranks of angels j and give them different names
according to their different degrees of power and
knowledge.
Hierarchy, likewise denotes the subordination of
the clergy, ecclesiastical polity, or the constitution and
government of the Christian church considered as a so¬
ciety.
HIERES, the name of some small islands lying near
the coast of Provence in France, opposite to the towns
of Hieres and Toulon, where the English fleet lay many
months in 1744, and blocked up the French and Spa¬
nish fleets in the harbour of Toulon.
Hieres, a town of Provence in France, seated on the
Mediterranean sea. It is a pretty little town, and was
3
formerly a colony of the Marsilians ; and pilgrims used ji;cie
to embark here for the holy land. But its harbour be- 0
ing now choked up, it is considerable only for its salt- Hier.0Sl
works. E. Long. 6. 13- N. Lat. 43. 7* .
HIERO I. and II. kings of Syracuse. See Syra¬
cuse.
HIEROCLES, a cruel persecutor of the Chri¬
stians and a violent promoter of the persecution under
Hioclesian, flourished in 302. He wrote some books
against the Christian religion ; in which he pretends
some inconsistencies in the Holy Scriptures, and com¬
pares the miracles of Apollonius Tyanseus to those of
our Saviour. He was refuted by Lactantius and Eu¬
sebius. The remains of his works were collected into
one volume octavo, by Bishop Pearson y and published
in 1654, with a learned dissertation prefixed to the
work.
HlEROCLES, a Platonic philosopher of the fifth cen¬
tury, taught at Alexandria, and was admired for his elo¬
quence. He wrote seven books upon Providence and
Fate : and dedicated them to the philosopher Olympio-
dorus, who by his embassies did the Romans great ser¬
vice under the emperors Honorius and Theodosius the
younger. But these books are lost, and we only know
them by the extracts in Photius. He wrote also a Com¬
mentary upon the golden verses of Pythagoras j which
is still extant, and has been several times published
with those verses.
HIEROGLYPHICS, in antiquity, mystical cha¬
racters, or symbols, in use among the Egyptians, and
that as well in their writings as inscriptions; being the
figures of various animals, the parts of human bodies,
and mechanical instruments. The word is composed
of the Greek'«§«?, sacei\ “ holy,” and yXvtpin, sculpcre,
“ to engrave 5” it being the custom to have the walls,
doors, &c. of their temples, obelisks,-&c. engrave*
with such figures.
Hieroglyphics are properly emblems or signs of di¬
vine, sacred, or supernatural things j by which they
are distinguished from common symbols, which are
signs of sensible and natural things.
Hermes Trismegistus is commonly esteemed the in¬
ventor of hieroglyphics : he first introduced them into
the heathen theology, from whence they have been
translated into the Jewish and Christian.
Sacred things, says Hippocrates, should only be
communicated to sacred persons. Hence it was that
the ancient Egyptians communicated to none but their
kings and priests, and those who were to succeed to
the priesthood and the crown, the secrets of nature,
and the secrets of their morality and history j and this
they did by a kind of cabbala, which, at the same
time that it instructed them, only amused the rest of
the people. Hence the use of hieroglyphics, or mystic
figures, to veil their morality, politics, &c. from pro¬
fane eyes. This author, it may be observed, and
many others, do not keep to the precise character of a
hieroglyphic, but apply it to profane as well as divine
things.
Hieroglyphics are a kind of real character, which
do not only denote, but in some measure expre ss, the
things. Thus, according to Clemens Aiexandi inus,
Strom, v. a lion is the hieroglyphic of strength and for¬
titude ; a bullock, of agriculture } a horse, of liberty ",
a sphinx, of subtilitv, &c.
V Such
jw 1
HIE [ 463 1 HIE
flit -ly Sucli is the opinion that has generally been embraced
pH!. both by ancient and modern writers, of the origin and
use of hieroglyphics. It has been almost uniformly
maintained, that they were invented by the Egyptian
priests in order to conceal their wisdom from the know¬
ledge of the vulgar; but the late Bishop Warburton
hath, with much ingenuity and learning, endeavoured
to show that this account is erroneous.
According to this writer, the first kind of hiero¬
glyphics were mere pictures, because the most natural
way of communicating our conceptions by marks or
figures was by tracing out the images of things ; and
this is actually verified in the case of the Mexicans,
whose only method of writing their laws and history
was by this picture-writing. But the hieroglyphics
invented by the Egyptians were an improvement, on
this rude and inconvenient essay towards writing, for
they contrived to make them both pictures and cha¬
racters. In order to effect the improvement, they
were obliged to proceed gradually, by first making
the principal circumstance of the subject stand for the
whole ; as in the hieroglyphics of Horapollo, which
represent a battle of two armies in array by two hands,
one holding a shield and the other a how : then put¬
ting the instrument of the thing, whether real or me¬
taphorical, for the thing itself, as an eye and sceptre to
represent a monarch, a ship and pilot the governor of
the universe, &c.: and finally, by making one thing
stand for or represent another, where their observations
of nature or traditional superstitions led them to discover
or imagine any resemblance : thus, the universe was
designed by a serpent in a circle, whose variegated spots
denoted the stars ; and a man who had nobly surmount¬
ed his misfortune was represented by the skin of the hy¬
aena, because this was supposed to furnish an invulner¬
able defence in battle.
The Chinese writing, he observes, was the next
kind of improvement in the use of hieroglyphics. The
Egyptians joined characteristic marks to images ; the
Chinese threw out the images and retained only the
contracted marks, and from these marks proceeded let¬
ters. The general concurrence of different people in
this method of recording their thoughts can never be
supposed to be the effect of imitation, sinister views, or
chance ; hut must be considered as the uniform voice of
nature speaking to the rude conceptions of mankind :
for not only the Chinese of the East, the Mexicans of
the West, and the Egyptians of the South, but the
Scythians likewise of the North, and the intermediate
inhabitants of the earth, viz. the Indians, Phoenicians,
Ethiopians, &c. used the same way of writing by pic¬
ture and hieroglyphic.
The bishop farther shows, that the several species of
hieroglyphic writing took their rise from nature and
necessity, and not from choice and artifice, by tracing
at large the origin and progress of the art of speech.
He proceeds to show how in process of time the Egyp¬
tian hieroglyphics came to be employed for the vehicle
of mystery. They used their hieroglyphics two ways ;
the one more simple, by putting the part for the whole,
which was the curiologic hieroglyphic ; and the other
niore artificial, by putting one thing of resembling
qualities for another, called the tropical hieroghjpluc ;
thus the moon was sometimes represented by a half
circle and sometimes by a cynocephalus. They em¬
ployed their proper hieroglyphics to record openly and Hierogly*
plainly their laws, policies, public morals, and history, phics,
and all kinds of civil matters: this is evident from theirHier0£rMm"
obelisks, which are full of hieroglyphic characters, de- , mat'sts:*
signed to record singular events, memorable actions, * "V
and new inventions ; and also from the celebrated in¬
scription on the temple of Minerva, at Sais, where an
infant, an old man, a hawk, a fish, and a river-horse,
expressed this moral sentence : “All you who come into
the world and go out of it, know this, that the gods
hate impudence.” However, the tropical hierogly¬
phics, which were employed to divulge, gradually pro¬
duced symbols which were designed to secrete or con¬
ceal : thus Egypt was sometimes expressed by the cro¬
codile, sometimos by a burning censer with a heart
upon it; where the simplicity of the first represen¬
tation and the abstruseness of the latter show, that
the one was a tropical hieroglyphic for communica¬
tion, and the other a tropical symbol invented for
secrecy.
Enigmatic symbols were afterwards formed by the
assemblage of different tilings, or of their properties
that were less known ; and though they might have
been intelligible at first ; yet when the art of writing
was invented, hieroglyphics were more generally dis¬
used, the people forgot the signification of them, and
the priests, x-etaining and cultivating the knowledge of
them because they were the repositories of their learn¬
ing and history, at length applied them to the purpose
of preserving the secrets of their religion.
Symbols were the true original of animal-worship in
Egypt, as Sir John Marsham conjectures, Can. Chroti.
p. 58. because in these hieroglyphics was recorded the
history of their greater deities, their kings, and law¬
givers, represented by animals and other creatures.
The symbol of each god was well known and familiar
to his worshippers, by means of the popular paintings
and engi-avings on their temples and other sacred mo¬
numents ; so that the symbol presenting the idea of
the god, and that idea exciting sentiments of religion,
it was natural for them, in their addresses to any par¬
ticular god, to turn to his representative mark or sym¬
bol ; especially when we consider farthei', that the
Egyptian pi’iests feigned a divine original for hierogly¬
phic characters, in order to increase the veneration of
the people for them. These would of course bring on
a relative devotion to these symbolic figures, which,
when it came to be paid to the living animal, would
soon terminate in an ultimate worship.
Another consequence of the sacredness of the hiero- -
glyphic characters was, that it disposed the more su¬
perstitious to engrave them on gems, and wear them
as amulets or charms. This magical abuse seems not
to have been much earlier than the established worship
of the god Serapis, which happened under the Ptole¬
mies, and was first brought to the general knowledge
of the world by certain Christian heretics and natives
of Egypt, who had mixed a number of Pagan super¬
stitions with their Christianity. These gems, called
abraxas, are frequently to be met with in the cabinets
of the curious, and are engraven with all kinds of
hieroglyphic characters. Jo these abraxas succeed the
talismans.
HIEROGRAMMATISTS, (Hierogramnmtd'),
i. e. holy registers, were an order of priests among the
ancient
Hicrograin-
niatists
n
riieiopUau-
tes.
HIE [ 464 ] H I G
ancient Egyptians, who presided over learning and re¬
ligion. They had the care of the hieroglyphics, and
were the expositors of religious doctrines and opinions*
They were looked upon as a kind of prophets j and It
is pretended, that one of them predicted to an Egyp¬
tian king, that an Israelite (meaning Moses), emi¬
nent for his qualifications and achievements, would
lessen and depress the Egyptian monarchy.—The hie-
rogrammatei were always near the king, to assist him
with their informations and counsels. The better to fit
them for this, they made use of the skill and know¬
ledge they had acquired in the stars and the motions
of the heavenly bodies, and even of the writings of
their predecessors, wherein their functions and duties
were delivered. They were exempted from all civil
employments, were reputed the first persons in dignity
next the king, and bore a kind of sceptre in form of a
ploughshare.——After Egypt became a province of
the Roman empire, the hierogrammatei sunk into
neglect.
HIEROMANCY, in antiquity, that part of divi¬
nation which predicted future events from observing
the various things offered in sacrifice. See DlVINA-
TION and Sacrifice.
HIEROMNEMON, among the ancient Greeks,
signified a delegate chosen by lot, and sent to the
great council of the Amphictyons, where he was to
take care of what concerned religion. The hieromne-
nionies were reckoned more honourable than the other
members of that assembly, the general meetings of
which were always summoned by them, and their
names were prefixed to the decrees made by that
council.
HlEROMNEMON (composed of “ sacred,” and
“ one who advertises or puts in mind of),” an
officer in the ancient Greek church, whose principal
function was to stand behind the patriarch at the sa¬
craments, ceremonies, &c. and show him the prayers,
psalms, &c. which he was to rehearse. He also clo¬
thed the patriarch in his pontifical robes, and assigned
the places of all those who had a right to be around
him when seated on his throne, as the master of the
ceremonies now does to the pope.
HIERONYMUS. See Jerome.
HIEROPHANTES, or Hierophanta, (from
<e£«5, Ao/y, and (pctmojAxi, I appear), in antiquity, a priest
among the Athenians.
The hierophantes was properly the chief person that
officiated in the Eleusinia, that great solemnity sacred
to Ceres.
This office was first executed by Eumolpns, and
continued in his family for 1200 years, though when
any person was appointed to this dignity he was requir¬
ed always to live in celibacy.
St Jerome says, that the hierophantes extinguished
the fire of lust by drinking cicuta or the juice of hem¬
lock, or even by making themselves eunuchs. Apol-
lodorus observes, that it was the hierophantes who in¬
structed persons initiated into their religion in the
mysteries and duties thereof, and that it was hence he
derived his name : for the same reason he was called
prcphetes, “ the prophet.” He had officers under him
to do the same thing, or to assist him therein, who
were also called prophetts and exegcs, i. e. “ explainers
of divine things.” j
To the hierophantes it belonged to dress and adorn Hieroplu
the statues of the gods, and to bear them in processions Ul
and solemn ceremonies. 8
HIEROPHYLAX, an officer in the Greek church
who was guardian or keeper of the holy utensils, vest- ^
ments, &c. answering to our sacrista or vestry-keeper.
HIGH, a term or relation, importing one thing’s
being superior or above another : thus we say, a high
mountain, the high court of parliament, high relievo,
&e.
High, in Music, is sometimes used in the same sense
with /oucf, and sometimes in the same sense with acute.
High Dutch, is the German tongue in its greatest
purity, &c. as spoken in Misnia, &.c.
High Operation, in chirurgery, is a method of ex¬
tracting the stone j thus called, because the stone is
taken out at the upper part of the bladder. See Sur¬
gery.
High Places, were eminences on which the. heathens
used to worship their gods, chosen for that purpose as
being supposed to be nearer heaven their constant resi¬
dence. The Jews are frequently blamed for their at¬
tachment to high places, after the manner of the Gen¬
tiles ; though their proseuchce were frequently upon
mountains with groves planted about them. Where
high-plar.es are reprobated in scripture, therefore, we
should understand them as abused and prostituted to
idolatrous purposes. Before the temple was built,
there was indeed nothing in the high-places very con¬
trary to the law, provided God only was adored there,
and that no incense or victims were offered to idols.
Under the judges they seem to have been tolerated;
and Samuel offered sacrifices in several places besides
the tabernacle, where the ark was not present. Even
in David’s time, they sacrificed to the Lord at Shilo,
Jerusalem, and Gibeon ; but after the temple was
built, and a place prepared for the fixed settlement of
the ark, it was no more allowed of to sacrifice out of
Jerusalem. Solomon, in the beginning of his reign,
went a pilgrimage to Gibeon ; but from that time we
see no lawful sacrifices offered out of the temple.
High Priest. See Pontifex and Priest.
High ftruy, a free passage for the king’s subjects:
on which account it is called the king's high way,
though the freehold of the soil belong to the owner of
the land. Those ways that lead from one town to
another, and such as are drift or cart ways, and are for
ail travellers in great roads, or that communicate with
them, are high ways only ; and as to their reparation,
are under the care of surveyors.
HIGH-WAY-MEN, are robbers on the high way ;
for the apprehending and taking of whom, a reward
of 40I. is given by the statute of 4 and 5 W. and M. to
be paid within a month after conviction by the sheriff
of the county ; to which the statute 8 Geo. II. cap. 6.
superadds 10I. to be paid by the hundred indemnified
bv such taking.
HIGHAM Ferrers, an ancient borough of North¬
amptonshire in England, which has its name from the
family of the Ferrers, to whom it formerly belonged,
and who had a castle in the neighbourhood. It sends
one member to parliament. E. Long. 1. 40. N. Lat.
52. 20.
HIGHGATE, a village five miles north of Lon¬
don. It has its name from its high situation, and from
a
U
fcii
t
}
l
w
H I G [ 465 ] H I G
1}gale a gate set up there about 400 years ago, to receive
hland- toll for the bishop of London, when the old miry road
ers. from Gray’s-Inn lane to Barnet was turned through
V"’"’' the bishop’s park. There was a hermitage where the
chapel now stands ; and one of the hermits caused a
causeway to be made between Highgate and Islington,
with gravel dug out of the top of the hill, where there
is now a pond. Near the chapel, in 1562, lord chief
baron Cholmondely built and endowed a free school,
which was enlarged in 1570 by Edwin Sandys bishop
of London.—This village is a noted and airy retirement
for the gentry and wealthy citizens \ and is a place of
good accommodation, besides its affording a delightful
and pleasant prospect over the city and adjacent coun¬
try.
HIGHLANDERS, a general appellation for the
inhabitants of the mountainous parts of any country.
In Britain, the name is appropriated to the people
who inhabit the mountainous parts of Scotland, to the
north and north-west, including those of the Hebrides
or Western isles.—They are a branch of the ancient
Celtae $ and undoubtedly the descendants of the first
inhabitants of Britain, as appears from the many mo¬
numents of their language still retained in the most an¬
cient names of places in all parts of the island. The
Highlanders, or, as they are often termed by ancient
authors, the Caledonians, were always a brave, warlike,
and hardy race of people ; and, in the remotest times,
seem to have possessed a degree of refinement in senti¬
ment and manners then unknown to the other nations
that surrounded them. This appears not only from
their own traditions and poems, but also from the
testimony of many ancient authors. This civilization
was probably owing in a great measure to the order
of the bards, or Druids, and some other institutions
peculiar to this people.
The ancient Highlanders lived in the hunting state
till some time after the era of Fingal, who was one of
their kings towards the close of the third century. For
some ages after that, they turned their chief attention
to the pastoral life, which afforded a less precarious sub¬
sistence. Till of late, agriculture in most parts of the
Highlands made but little progress.
The Highlanders always enjoyed a king and go¬
vernment of their own, till Kenneth M‘Alpine (anno
845), after having subdued the Pictish kingdom,
transferred thither the seat of royalty. This event
proved very unfavourable to the virtues of the High¬
landers, which from this period began to decline.
The country, no longer awed by the presence of the
sovereign, fell into anarchy and confusion. The chief¬
tains began to extend their authority, to form factions,
and to foment divisions and feuds between contending
clans. The laws were either too feeble to bind them^
or too remote to take notice of them. Hence sprung
all those evils which long disgraced the country, and
disturbed the peace of its inhabitants. Robbery or
plunder, providing it was committed on any one of an
adverse clan or tribe, was countenanced and authorised;
and their reprisals on one another were perpetual.
Thus quarrels were handed down from one generation
to another, and the whole clan were bound in honour
to espouse the cause of every individual that belonged
to it. By this means the genius of the people was
greatly altered ; and the Highlanders of a few ages
Vol. X. Part II. f
back were almost as remarkable for their irregular and
disorderly way of lile as their predecessors were for
their civilization and virtue. It is from not attending
to this distinction between the ancient Highlanders and
their posterity in later times, that many have doubted
the existence of those exalted virtues ascribed by their
poets to the more ancient inhabitants of the country.
But now that the power of the chieftains is again abo¬
lished, law established, and property secured, the genius
of the people (where it is not hindered by some other
extraneous cause) begins again to show itself in its ge¬
nuine colours ; and many of their ancient virtues begin
to shine with conspicuous lustre. Justice, generosity,
honesty, friendship, peace, and love, are perhaps no¬
where more cultivated than among this people. But
one of the strongest features which marked the charac¬
ter of the Highlanders in every age, was their hospita¬
lity and benevolence to strangers. At night the tra¬
veller was always sure to find a hearty welcome in
whatever house he should go to ; and the host thought
himself happier in giving the entertainment than the
guest in receiving it. Even with regard to their ene¬
mies, the laws of hospitality were observed with the
most sacred regard. They who fought against each
other in the day, could in the night feast, and even
sleep together, in the same house. From the same
principle, they were, in most other cases, so faithful
to their trust, that they rarely betrayed any confi¬
dence reposed in them. A promise they thought as
binding as an oath, and held it equally inviolable and
sacred.
The Caledonians in all ages have been much addicted
to poetry and music. The poems of Ossian, so uni¬
versally repeated, and so highly esteemed by every
Highlander, are a strong proof of the early proficiency
of this people in the poetical art. Even to this day,
notwithstanding the many disadvantages they labour
under, the most illiterate of either sex discover fre¬
quently a genius for poetry, which often breaks forth
in the most natural and simple strains, when, love, grief,
joy, or any other subject of song, demands it. Where-
ever their circumstances are so easy as to allow them
any respite from toil, or any cheerfulness of spirits, a
good portion of their time, especially of the winter-
nights, is still devoted to the song and tale. This
last species of composition is chiefly of the novel-kind,
and is handed down by tradition like their poems.
It was the work of the bards $ and proved, while they
existed, no contemptible entertainment. But since
the extinction of that order, both the Gaelic poems and
tales are in a great measure either lost or adulterated.
--The genius and character of the Gaelic poetry is
well known. It is tender, simple, beautiful, and
sublime.
Among the ancient Highlanders, the harp was the
chief instrument of music. It suited the mildness of
their manners, and was well adapted to the peace and
quiet which they enjoyed under their own kings. In
a later period, however, when the constant quarrels of
their chiefs, and the endless feuds of contending clans,
turned all their thoughts to war, it was forced to give
place to the bag-pipe, an instrument altogether of the
martial kind, and therefore well suited to the state of
the country at that time. But ever since the cause
which has brought this instrument in vogue had ceased
3 N to
H I G [ 466 ] H I G
Highland- lo operate, the attention to it has been on the decline*,
ers. so that the harp, with very little encouragement, might
“ 1 * again resume the seat from which it was once expelled.
.—The most, and especially the oldest of the High¬
land music, having been composed to the harp, is of
a soft, tender, and elegiac cast, as best suited to the
genius of that instrument. These pieces are generally
expressive of the passions of love and grief. Other
pieces, which were composed in their state of war,
and adapted to a difl’erent instrument, are altogether
bold and martial. And many are of a sprightly and
cheerful cast, the offspring of mirth, and the sport of
fancy in the season of festivity. Many of these last
are of the chorus kind : and are sung in almost all the
exercises in which a number of people are engaged,
such as rowing, reaping, fulling, &c. The time of
these pieces is adapted to the exercises to which they
are respectively sung. They greatly forward the work,
and alleviate the labour. The particular music which
is generally used by the Highlanders in their dances
is well known by the name of Strathspey reels.
The language of the Highlanders is still the Gaelic j
which, with many of their customs and mariners, has
been secured to them by their mountains and fastnesses,
amidst the many revolutions which the rest of the
island has undergone in so long a course of ages. The
Gaelic seems to be the oldest and purest dialect which
remains of the Celtic, as appears from its approaching
the nearest to the names of places, &c. which that
language left in most countries where it prevailed, and
from its most obvious affinity to those tongues, ancient
or modern, which have been in any measure derived
from the old Celtic. The Gaelic has all the marks of
an original and primitive language. Most of the words
are expressive of some property or quality of the ob¬
jects which they denote. This, together with the
variety of its sounds (many of which, especially of
those that express the soft and mournful passions, are
peculiar to itself), renders it highly adapted for poetry.
It is generally allowed to have been the language of
court, in Scotland, till the reign of Malcom Canmore.
The Gaelic epithet of Can-more^ or “ large head,”
by which this king is distinguished, seems to intimate
so much. In some particular parliaments at least, it
was spoken much later, as in that held by Robert the
Bruce at Ardchattan. That it has been formerly a
good deal cultivated, appears from the style and com¬
plexion of its poems and tales, and from several an¬
cient MSS. that have come down to the present time,
lo strangers the Gaelic has a forbidding aspect, on ac¬
count of the number of its quiescent consonants (which
are retained to mark the derivation of words and their
variation in case and tense), but its sound is abun¬
dantly musical and harmonious } and its genius strong
and masculine. Its alphabet consists of 18 letters, of
which one is an aspirate, 12 are consonants, and five
are vowels.
The Highlanders are beginning of late to apply
to learning, agriculture, and especially to commerce
for which their country, everywhere indented with
arms of the sea, is peculiarly favourable. Cattle is
the chief staple of the country 5 hut it produces more
grain than would supply its inhabitants, if so much
of it were not consumed in whisky. The natives are
beginning to avail themselves of their mines, woods,
wool, and fisheries j and by a vigorous application, with Highland. I?!1
the d ue encouragement of government, may become a evs, H
prosperous and useful people. Highmore.
The Highlanders are of a quick and penetrating ge- ' 'r~~t
nius, strongly tinctured with a curiosity or thirst of
knowledge, which disposes them to learn any thing
very readily. They are active and industrious, where
oppression does not discourage them by secluding even
the hope of thriving. They are remarkably bold and
adventurous, which qualifies them for being excellent
seamen and soldiers. They are generally of a middle
size, rather above it than otherwise 5 their eyes are
brisk and lively, their features distinctly marked, and
their persons tight and well made. Their countenance
is open and ingenuous, and their temper frank and com¬
municative.
HIGHMORE, Jp SEPH, Esq. an eminent painter,
was born in the parish of St James’s, Garlickhithe,
London, June 13. 1692, being the third son of Mr
Edward Highmore, a coal-merchant in Thames-street.
Having such an early and strong inclination to paint¬
ing, that he could think of nothing else with pleasure,
his father endeavoured to gratify him in a proposal to
his uncle, who was serjeant-painter to King William,
and with whom Mr (afterwards Sir James) Thornhill
had served his apprenticeship. But this was afterwards
for good reasons declined, and he was articled as clerk
to an attorney, July 18th 1707; but so much against
his own declared inclination, that in about three years
he began to form resolutions of indulging his natural
disposition to his favourite art, having continually em¬
ployed his leisure hours in designing, and in the study
of geometry, perspective, architecture, and anatomy,
but without any instructors except books. He had
afterwards an opportunity of improving himself in ana¬
tomy, by attending the lectures of Mr Cheselden, be¬
sides entering himself at the painters academy in
Great Queen-street, where he drew 10 years, and
had the honour to be particularly noticed by Sir God¬
frey Kneller, who distinguished him by the name of
“ The Young Lawyer.” On June 13th 1714, his
clerkship expired 5 and on March 26th 17x5, he be¬
gan painting as a profession, and settled in the city.
In the same year Dr Brook Taylor published his “ li¬
near Perspective: or, a new method of representing
justly all manner of objects as they appear to the eye in
all situations.” On this complete and universal theory
our artist grounded his subsequent practice ; and it has
been generally allowed, that few, if any, of the profes¬
sion at that time were so thorough masters of that ex¬
cellent but intricate system. In 1716, he married
Miss Susanna Hiller, daughter and heiress of Mr An¬
thony Hiller of Effingham in Surrey ; a young lady
in every respect worthy of his choice. For Mr Chesel-
den’s “ Anatomy of the Human Body,” published in
1722, he made drawings from the real subjects at the
time of dissection, two of which were engraved for
that work, and appear, but without his name, in tables
xii. and xiii. In the same year, on the exhibition of
“ The Conscious .Lovers,” written by Sir Richard
Steele, Mr Highmore addressed a. letter to the author
on the limits of filial obedience, pointing out a mate¬
rial defect in the character of Bevil, with that clear¬
ness and precision for which, in conversation and wri¬
ting, he was always remarkable, as the pencil by no
mean9
H I G [ 467 ] H I G
e> means engrossed his whole attention. His reputation
and business increasing, he took a more conspicuous
station, by removing to a house in Lincoln’s-Inn-
Fields, in March 1723-4 •, and an opportunity soon of¬
fered of introducing him advantageously to the nobi¬
lity, &c. by his being desired, by Mr Pine the en¬
graver, to make the drawings for his prints of the
knights of the Bath, on the revival of that order in
1725. In consequence, several of the knights had their
portraits also by the same hand, some of them whole
lengths j and the duke of liichmond, in particular,
was attended by his three esquires, with a perspec¬
tive view of King Henry VHth’s chapel. This capi¬
tal picture is now at Godwood. And our artist was
sent for to St James’s by George I. to draw the late
duke of Cumberland, from which Smith scraped a mez-
zotinto.
In 1728, Mr Hawkins Browne, then of Lincoln’s-
Inn, who had ever a just sense of his talents and abili¬
ties, addressed to him a poetical epistle “ On Design
and Beauty and, some years after, an elegant Latin
Ode, both now collected in his poems. In the sum¬
mer of 1732, Mr Highmore visited the continent, in
company with Dr Pemberton, Mr Benjamin Robins,
and two other friends, chiefly with a view of seeing the
gallery of pictures belonging to the elector Palatine at
Dusseldorp, collected by Rubens, and supposed the
best in Europe. At Antwerp also he had peculiar
pleasure in contemplating the works of his favourite
master. In their return they visited the principal
towns in Holland. In 1734, he made a like excursion,
but alone, to Paris, where he received great civilities
from his countrymen then there, particularly the duke
of Kingston, Dr Hickman (his tutor), Robert Knight,
Esq. (the late cashier), &c. Here he had the satis¬
faction of being shown, by Cardinal de Polignac, his
famous group of antique statues, the court of Lyco-
medes, then just brought from Rome, and since pur¬
chased by the king of Prussia, and destroyed at Char-
lottenbourg in 1760 by the Russians. In 1742, he
had the honour to paint the late prince and princess
of Wales for the duke of Saxe Gotha ; as he did some
vears after the late queen of Denmark for that court.
The publication of “ Pamela;” in 1744, gave rise to
a set of paintings by Mr Highmore, which were en¬
graved by two French engravers, and published by
subscription in 1745. In the same year he painted
the only original of the late General Wolfe, then about
18. His Pamela introduced him to the acquaintance
and friendship of the excellent author whose picture
he drew, and for whom he painted the only original
of Dr Young. In 1750 he had the misfortune to lose
his wife. On the first institution of the academy of
painting, sculpture, &c. in 1753, he was elected one
of the professors; an honour which, on account of
his many avocations, he desired to decline. In 1754
he published “ A critical examination of those two
Paintings (by Rubens) on the Ceiling of the Ban-
queting-house at Whitehall, in which Architecture
is introduced, so far as relates to Perspective; to¬
gether with the Discussion of a Question which has
been the Subject of Debate among Painters:” print¬
ed in 410. In the solution of this question, he pro¬
ved that Rubens and several other great painters
were mistaken in the practice, and Mr Kirby and se- H
veral other authors in the theory. And in the 17th
volume oi the “ Monthly Review,” he animadverted
(anonymously) on Mr Kirby’s unwarrantable treat¬
ment of Mr Ware, and detected and exposed his er¬
rors, even when he exults in his own superior science.
Of the many portraits which Mr Highmore painted,
in a large practice of 46 years (of which several have
been engraved), it is impossible and useless to discuss
particulars. Some of the most capital in the historical
branch, which was then much less cultivated than it is
at present, shall only be mentioned, viz. “ Hagar and
Ishmael,” a present to the Foundling-hospital: “ The
good Samaritan,” painted for Mr Shepherd of Campsey
Ash : “ The finding of Moses,” purchased at his sale
by Colonel (now General) Lister : “ The Harlowe fa¬
mily, as described in Clarissa,” now in the possession of
Thomas Watkinson Payler, Esq, at Heden in Kent:
“ Clarissa,” the portrait mentioned in that work:
“ The Graces unveiling Nature,” drawn by memory
from Rubens: The Clementina of Grandison, and
the queen mother of Edward IV. with her younger son,
&c. in Westminster-abbeythe three last in the pos¬
session of his son.
In 1761, on the marriage of his daughter to the
reverend Mr Duncombe, son to one of his oldest
friends, he took a resolution of retiring from business,
and disposing of his collection of pictures, which he did
hy auction, in March 1762, and soon after removed to
his son-in-law’s at Canterbury, where he passed the re¬
mainder of his life without ever revisiting the metro¬
polis. But though he had laid down the pencil, he
never wanted employment: so active and vigorous was
his mind, that, with a constitutional flow of spirits,
and a relish for instructive society, he was never less
“ alone than when alone ;” and besides, his profession¬
al pursuits above mentioned, to philosophy, both na¬
tural and moral, and also to divinity, he laudably dedica¬
ted his time and attention. No man had more clear¬
ness and precision of ideas, or a more ardent desire to
know the truth ; and, when known, conscientiously
to pursue it. With strong passions, ever guided by
the strictest virtue, he had a tender, susceptible heart,
always open to the distress of his fellow-creatures, and
always ready to relieve them. His capital work of
the literary kind was his “ Practice of Perspective, on
the principles of Dr Brook Taylor,” &c. written
many years before, but not published till 1763, when
it was printed for Nonrse, in one vol. 4to. This not
only evinced his scientific knowledge of the subject,
but removed, by its perspicuity, the only objection,
that can be made to the system of Dr Taylor. It ac¬
cordingly received, from his friends and the intelligent
public, the applauses it deserved. In 1765 he pub¬
lished (without his name) Observations on a Pamph¬
let entitled, “ Christianity not founded on Argument;”
in which, after showing that it is a continued irony,
and lamenting that so ample a fitdd should be offered
the author of it for the display of his sophistry; he
gives up creeds, articles, and catechisms, as out-works
raised by fallible men, and, confining himself to the de¬
fence of the gospel, or citadel, shows, that pure primi¬
tive Christianity, though assaulted by infidels, will ever
remain impregnable. His opinion of Rubens may be
3 N 2 seen
H I G
[ 468 ]
H I L
Highmore, seen in the Gentleman’s Magazine for 1766, p. 353.
Highness, under the title of “ Remarks on some passages in Mr
* Webb’s inquiry into the Beauties of Painting,” &c.
In the same year he published, with only his initials,
“ J. H.” two small volumes of “ Essays, moral, religi¬
ous, and miscellaneous j with a Translation in prose of
Mr Browne’s Latin Poem on the Immortality of the
Soul selected from a large number Written at his lei¬
sure, at difierent periods of life. “ As such (says Dr
Hawkesworth) they do the author great credit. They
are not excursions of fancy, but efforts of thought, and
indubitable indications of a vigorous and active mind.”
In the Gentleman’s Magazine for 1769, p. 287. he
communicated “ A natural and obvious Manner of
constructing Sun-dials, deduced from the Situation and
Motion of the Earth with respect to the Sun,” explain¬
ed by a scheme. And in that for 1778, p. 526. his
remarks on colouring, suggested by way of a note on
the “ Epistle to an eminent Painter,” will show that
his talents were by no means impaired at the age of
86. Indeed he retained them to the last, and had even
strength and spirits sufficient to enable him to ride out
daily on horseback the summer before he died. A
strong constitution, habitual temperance, and constant
attention to his health in youth as well as in age, pro¬
longed his life, and preserved his faculties to his 88th
year, when he gradually ceased to breathe, and, as it
were, fell asleep on March 3. 1780. He was interred
in the south aisle of Canterbury cathedral, leaving one
son, Anthony, educated in his own profession j and a
daughter, Susanna, mentioned above.
His abilities as a painter appear in his works, which
will not only be admired by his contemporaries, but
by their posterity ; as his tints, like those of Rubens
and \ andyck, instead of being impaired, are improved
by time, which some of them have now withstood
above 60 years. His idea of beauty, when he indul¬
ged his fancy, was of the highest kind ; and his know¬
ledge of perspective gave him great advantages in fa¬
mily-pieces, of which he painted more than any one of
his time. He could take a likeness by memory as well
as by a sitting, as appears by his picture of the duke of
Lor Pa in (the late emperor), which Faber engraved j
and those of KJng George II. (in York assembly-room),
Queen Caroline, the two Miss Gunnings, &c. Like
many other great painters, he had “ a poet for his
friend,” in the late Mr Browne j to which may be
added a poem addressed to him in 1726, by the reve¬
rend Mr Bunce, at that time of Trinity-hall, Cam¬
bridge, who succeeded Mr Highmore, and in 1780 was
vicar of St Stephen’s near Canterbury.
HIGHNESS, a quality or title of honour given to
princes.—I he kings of England and Spain had former¬
ly no other title but that of highness ; the first till the
time of James I. and the second till that of Charles V.
The petty princes of Italy began first to be compli¬
mented with the title of highness in the year 1630.—
The duke of Orleans assumed the title oi royal high¬
ness in the year 1631, to distinguish himself from the
other princes of France.
The duke of Savoy, afterwards king of Sardinia,
bore the title of royal highness, on account of his pre¬
tensions to the kingdom of Cyprus.—It is said that
duke only took the title of royal highness, to put him¬
self above the duke of Florence, who was called great HMjness
duke ; but the great duke afterwards assumed the title
of royal highness, to put himself on a level with the
duke of Savoy.
The prince of Conde first took the title of most se¬
rene highness, leaving that of simple highness to the
natural princes.
HILARIA, in antiquity, feasts celebrated every
year by the Romans on the 8th of the kalends of April,
or the 25th of March, in honour of Cybele the mother
of the gods.
The hilaria were solemnized with great pomp and
rejoicing. Every person dressed himself as he pleased,
and took the marks or badges of whatever dignity or
quality he had a fancy for. The statue of the goddess
was carried in procession through the streets of the
city, accompanied by multitudes in the most splendid
attire. The day before the festival was spent in tears
and mourning. Cybele represented the earth, which
at this time of the year begins to feel the kindly warmth
of the spring j so that this sudden transition from sor¬
row to joy was an emblem of the vicissitude of the sea¬
sons, which succeed one another.
The Romans took this feast originally from the
Greeks, who called it u,yu%ci<ri?, q. d. ascensus ,* the eve
of that day they spent in tears and lamentations, and
thence denominated it Kccrx^scns, descensus.
Afterwards, the Greeks took the name tXx^ix from
the Romans j as appears from Photius, in his extract
of the life of the philosopher Isidore.
Casaubon maintains, that beside this particular sig¬
nification, the word hilaria was also a general name for
any joyful or festival day, whether public or private and
domestic. But Salmasius does not allow of this.
Tristan, tom. i. p. 482. distinguishes between hilaria
and hilarise. The former, according to him, were pub¬
lic rejoicings; and the latter, prayers made in conse¬
quence thereof 5 or even of any private feast or rejoic¬
ing, as a marriage, &c. The public lasted several
days ; during which, all mourning and funeral ceremo¬
nies were suspended.
HILARIES, an ancient father of the Christian
church, who flourished in the 4th century. He was
born, as St Jerome informs us, at Poictiers, of a good
family ; who gave him a liberal education in the Pa¬
gan religion, and which he did not forsake till be was
arrived at maturity. He was advanced to the bishop¬
ric of Poictiers in the year 355, according to Baronius :
and became a most zealous champion for the orthodox
faith, particularly against the Arians, who were at that
time gaining ground in France. He assembled seve¬
ral councils there, in which the determinations of the
synods of Rimini and Seleucia were condemned. He
wrote a treatise concerning synods j and a famous work
in 12 books on the Trinity, which is much admired by
the orthodox believers. He died in the latter end of
the year 367. His works have been many times pub¬
lished y but the last and best edition of them wras given
by the Benedictines at Paris in 1693.
HILARODI, in the ancient music and poetry, a
sort of poets among the Greeks, who went about sing¬
ing little gay poems or songs, somewhat graver than
the Ionic pieces, accompanied with some instrument.
From the streets they were at last introduced into
tragedy,
2
Hilo
I
Hi
H I L [ 469 ] H I L
<jj tragedy, as the magodi were into comedy. They
appeared dressed in white, and were crowned with
gold. At first they wore shoes $ but afterwards they
—' assumed the crepida, being only a sole tied over with a
strap.
HILARY-term. See Term.
HILDESHEIM, a small district of Germany, in
the circle of Lower Saxony. It lies between the du¬
chies of Lunenburg and Brunswick ; and may be about
25 miles from east to west, and 36 from north to south.
It is watered by the rivers Leine and Innersty. The
soil is fertile $ and its principal places are Peine, Sar-
sted, Bruggen, and Alveld. Hildesheim, from whence
it takes its name, was formerly an imperial city. It is
now subject to Hanover.
Hildesheim, a strong city of Germany, in Lower
Saxony, with a Roman Catholic bishop’s see. It was
a free imperial city, though in some things dependent
on the bishop, but is now stript of its privileges. It
is a large town, well built and fortified. It is divided
into the Old Town and the New, which have each their
separate council. It is seated on the river Irnest, in
E. Long. 10. o. N. Lat. 52. 17-
HILL, a term denoting any considerable eminence
on the earth’s surface. It is sometimes synonymous
with the word mountain; though generally it denotes
only the lesser eminences, the word mountain being
particularly applied to the very largest. See Moun-
’tain, Geology Index.
Hill, Aaron, a poet of considerable eminence,
the son of a gentleman of Malmesbury-abbey in Wilt¬
shire, was born in 1685. His father’s imprudence having
cut off his paternal inheritance, he left Westminster
school at 14 years of age j and embarked for Constan¬
tinople, to visit Lord Paget the English ambassador
there, who was his distant relation. Lord Paget recei¬
ved him with surprise and pleasure, provided him a tu¬
tor, and sent him to travel : by which opportunity he
saw Egypt, Palestine, and a great part of the east; and
returning home with his noble patron, visited most of
the courts of Europe. About the year 1709, he pub¬
lished his first poem entitled Camillus, in honour of the
earl of Peterborough who had been general in Spain j
and being the same year made master of Drury-lane
theatre, he wrote his first tragedy Elfred, or the Fair
Inconstant. In 1710, he became master of the opera-
house in the Hay-market $ when he wrote an opera
called Rinaldo, which met with great success, being
the first that Mr Handel set to music after he came to
England. Unfortunately for Mr Hill, he was a pro¬
jector as well as poet, and in 17*5 obtained a patent
for extracting oil from bcech-nuts ; which underta¬
king, whether good or bad, miscarried after engaging
three years of his attention. He was also concerned in
the first attempt to settle the colony of Georgia ; from
which he never reaped any advantage ; and in 1728 he
made a journey into the Highlands of Scotland, on a
scheme of applying the woods there to ship-building 5
in which he also lost his labour. Mr Hill seems to have
lived in perfect harmony with all the writers of his
time, except Mr Pope, with whom he had a short pa¬
per-war, occasioned by that gentleman’s introducing
him in the Dunciad, as one of the competitors for the
prize offered by the goddess of Hulness, in the follow¬
ing lines:
“ Then Hill essay’d $ scarce vanished out of sight,
“ He buoys up instant, and returns to light ;
“ He bears no token of the sabler streams,
“ And mounts far off among the Swans of Thames.’,
This, though far the gentlest piece of satire in the whole
poem, and conveying at the same time an oblique
complimeat, roused Mr Hill to take some notice of it ;
which he did by a poem written during his peregrina¬
tion in the north, entitled, “ The Progress of Wit, a
Caveat for the use of an eminent writer which he
begins with the following eight lines, in which Mr
Pope’s too well known disposition is elegantly, yet very
severely characterized :
** Tuneful Alexis on the Thames’ fair side,
“ The Ladies play-thing, and the Muses pride j
“ With merit popular, with wit polite,
“ Easy tho’ vain, and elegant tho’ light}
“ Desiring and deserving others praise,
“ Poorly accepts a Fame he ne’er repays :
“ Unborn to cherish, sneakingly approves j
“ And wants the soul to spread the worth he loves.”
The sneakingly approves, in the last couplet, Mr Pope
was much affected by; and indeed through their whole
controversy afterwards, in which it was generally
thought that Mr Hill had much the advantage, Mr
Pope seems rather to express his repentance by denying
the offence, than to vindicate himself supposing it to
have been given. Besides the above poems, Mr Hill,
among many others, wrote one, called The northern star,
upon the actions of Czar Peter the Great; for which
he was several years afterwards complimented with a
gold medal from the empress Catharine, according to
the Czar’s desire before his death. He likewise alter¬
ed some of Shakespeare’s plays, and translated some of
Voltaire’s. His last production was Merope ; which
was brought upon the stage in Drury-lane by Mr Gar¬
rick. He died on the 8th of February 1749, as it
is said, in the very minute of the earthquake $ and af¬
ter his decease four volumes of his works in prose and
verse were published in octavo, and bis dramatic works
in two volumes.
Hill, Sir John, a voluminous writer, was originally
bred an apothecary j but his marrying early, and without
a fortune, made him very soon look around for other re¬
sources than his profession. Having, therefore, in his
apprenticeship, attended the botanical lectures of the
company, and being possessed of quick natural parts, he
soon made himself acquainted with the theoretical as
well as practical parts of botany : from whence be¬
ing recommended to the late duke of Richmond and
Lord Petre, he was by them employed in the inspec¬
tion and arrangement of their botanic gardens. Assist¬
ed by the liberality of these noblemen, he executed a
scheme of travelling over the kingdom, to collect
the most rare and uncommon plants $ which he after¬
ward published by subscription : but after great re¬
searches and uncommon industry, this undertaking turn¬
ed out by no means adequate to his expectation. The
stage next presented itself, as a soil in which genius
might stand a chance of flourishing : but after two or
three unsuccessful attempts, it was found he had no
pretensions either to the sock or buskin t which once
more reduced him to 1ms botanical pursuits, and his
business •
H I
Mill,
IliUd.
L [ 470 ]
business as an apothecary. At length, about the year tors of the Gamara.
1746, he translated from the Greek, a small tract writ¬
ten by Theophrastus, on Gems, which he published by
subscription j and which, being well executed, procured
him friends, reputation, and money. Encouraged by
this, he engaged in works of greater extent and import¬
ance. The first he undertook was a General Natural
History, in 3 vols. folio. He next engaged, in conjunc¬
tion with George Lewis Scott, Esq. in furnishing a
Supplement to Chambers’s Dictionary. He at the
same time started the British Magazine j and while he
was engaged in a great number of these and other
works, some of which seemed to claim the continued
attention of a whole life, he carried on a daily essay,
under the title of Inspector. Amidst this hurry of
business, Mr Hill was so laborious and ready in all
his undertakings, and was withal so exact an econo¬
mist of his time, that he scarcely ever missed a public
amusement for many years : where, while he relaxed
from the severer pursuits of study, he gleaned up arti¬
cles of information for his periodical works. It would
not be easy to trace Mr Hill, now Dr Hill (for he
procured a diploma from the college of St Andrew’s),
through all his various pursuits in life. A quarrel he
had with the Boyal Society, for being refused as a
member, which provoked him to ridicule that learned
body, in A Review of the Works of the Royal Society
of London, qto, 1751*, together with his over-writing
himself upon all subjects without reserve ; made him
sink in the estimation of the public nearly in the same
pace as he had ascended. He found as usual, however,
resources in his own invention. He applied himself to
the preparation of certain simple medicines : such as
the essence of water-dock, tincture of valerian, bal¬
sam of honey, &c. The well-known simplicity of
H I N
The greatest number of the Hill*
Jewish writers attribute to him the correct edition of 11
the Hebrew text which bears the name of Hil/el, which
we have already mentioned in the preceding article. ^
There have been several other Jewish writers of the
these medicines made the public judge favourably of
their effects, insomuch that they had a rapid sale, and
once more enabled the doctor to figure in that style
of life ever so congenial to his inclination. Soon
after the publication of the first of these medicines,
be obtained the patronage of the earl of Bute, through
whose interest lie acquired the management of the
royal gardens at Kew, with an handsome salary : and
to wind up the whole of an extraordinary life, having,
a little before his death, seized an opportunity to intro¬
duce himself to the knowledge of the king of Sweden,
that monarch invested him with one of the orders of
bis court, which title he had not the happiness of en¬
joying above two years. He died toward the close of
the year 1775.
HILLEL, senior, of Babylon, president of the san¬
hedrim of Jerusalem. He formed a celebrated school
there, in which he maintained the oral traditions of the
Jews against Shamai,his colleague, whose disciples ad¬
hered only to the written law •, and this controversy
gave rise to the sects of Pharisees and Scribes. He was
likewise one of the compilers of the Talmud. He also
laboured much at giving a correct edition of the sa¬
cred text •, and there is attributed to him an ancient
manuscript bible, which bears his name. He flourished
about 30 years B. C. and died in a very advanced age.
Hillel, the nasi, or prince, another learned Jew,
the grandson of Judas Hakkodesb, or the Saint, the
author of the Mishna, lived in the fourth century. He
composed a cycle j and was one of the principal doc-
same name.
HILLIA, a genus of plants belonging to the hex-
andria class ; and in the natural method ranking with
those of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Index.
HILLSBOROUGH, a borough, fair, and post-
town, in the county of Down, and provir.ee of Ulster,
69 miles from Dublin. Here is a fine seat of the carl
of Hillsborough. The town is pleasantly situated and
almost new built, in view of Lisburn, Belfast, and Car-
rickfergus bay} the church is magnificent, having an
elegant spire, as lofty as that of St Patrick’s in Dublin,
and seven painted windows. This place gives title of
earl to the family of Hillsborough. N. Lat. 54. 30.
W. Long. 5. 56.
HILUM, among botanists, denotes the eye of a
bean.
HIMALEH, a very high chain of mountains in
Asia. See Supplement.
HIMERA, in Ancient Geography, the name of two
rivers in Sicily } one running northwards into the Tus¬
can sea, now called Fiume de Termini: and the other
southwards into the Libyan } dividing Sicily into two
parts, being the boundary between the Syracusans to
the east and Carthaginians to the west} not rising from
the same, but from different springs.
Himera, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicily,
at the mouth of the Himera, which ran northwards,
on its left or west side : A colony of Zancle : af¬
terwards destroyed by the Carthaginians (Diodorus
Siculus).
HIMERENSES THERM.®, in Ancient Geography,
a town of Sicily, on the east side of that Himera which
runs to the north. After the destruction of the town
of Himera by the Carthaginians, such of the inhabi¬
tants as remained, settled in the same territory, not far
from the ancient town. Now Termini. Made a Ro¬
man colony by Augustus.
HIN, a Hebrew measure ef capacity for things
liquid, containing the sixth part of an ephah, or one
gallon two pints English measure.
HINCKLEY, a market-towm of Leicestershire,
built on a rising ground, nearly on the borders of Lei¬
cestershire, from which it is separated by the Roman
Watling-street road. It is distant from Coventry and
Leicester 15 miles each, and 102 from London. It
has been much larger than it is at present, the back
lanes between the orchards having evidently been streets
originally, and the traces of the town-wall and ditch
are in many places yet visible. Jhere are vestiges ot
two Roman works, viz. the mount near the river, and
the ruins of a bath near St Nicholas church, where
tesselated pavements have been dug up. The Jewry
wall is said to have been the temple of Janus. The
castle was inhabited by John of Gaunt} but is now no
more, the scite being converted into garden-ground,
the castle-hill considerably lowered, and a gentleman s
house erected on the spot in 1770. The steeple of the
present church was built with some of the stones ot
the castle. The town is now divided into the borough,
and
3
H I N [471
Hi» ey ani^ ^ie without the liberties. It has a good mar¬
ket on Mondays, and a,fair in August. The chief ma-
Hin t>s* nufacture is stockings and fine ale. The town con-
u""" tained 6058 inhabitants in 1811. There are two
churches, one chapel, and a place of worship for the
Homan Catholics, besides four meeting-houses. The
church is a neat large old structure with a modern
tower and a spire, the body of it was built in the 13th
century, and near it are three mineral springs. This
town is said to be the middle and highest ground in
England *, and from it 50 churches may be seen, be¬
sides gentlemen’s seats. It received great damage by
a fire September 5. 1728.
HIND, a female stag in the third year of its age.
See Cervus, Mammalia Index.
HINDON, a small town of Wiltshire in England,
which sends two members to parliament. It is situated
in E. Long. 2. 14. N. Lat. 51. 12.
HINDOOS, or Gentoos, the inhabitants of that
part of India known by the name of Hindostan or the
Mogul's empire, who profess the religion of the Bra-
mins, supposed to be the same with that of the ancient
Gymnosophists of Ethiopia.
From the earliest period of history these people seem
to have maintained the same religion, laws, and cus¬
toms, which they do at this day : and indeed they and
the Chinese are examples of perseverance in these re-
T!u ivi. spects altogether unknown in the western world. In
siou ita the time of Diodorus Siculus they are said to have
^ r been divided into seven casts or tribes : but the inter-
1 course betwixt Europe and India was in his time so
small, that we may well suppose the historian to have
been mistaken, and that the same tenacity for which
they are so remarkable in other respects has manifested
itself also in this. At present they are divided only
into four tribes; 1. The Bramin ; 2. The Khatry ;
3. The Bhyse ; and, 4. The Soodera. All these have
distinct and separate offices, and cannot, according to
their laws, intermingle with each other ; but for cer¬
tain offences they are subject to the loss of their cast,
which is reckoned the highest punishment they can
suffer ; and hence is formed a kind of fifth cast named
Pariars on the coast of Coromandel, but in the Shan-
scrit or sacred language Chitndalas. Ihese are esteem¬
ed the dregs of the people, and are never employed
but in the meanest offices. There is besides a general
division which pervades the four casts indiscriminately,
and which is taken from the worship of their gods
Vishsnou and Sheevah; the worshippers of the former
being named Vishnou-bukht; of the latter Sheevah-
hufc/it.
Of these four casts the Bramins are accounted the
foremost in every respect ; and all the laws have such
an evident partiality towards them, as cannot but in¬
duce us to suppose that they have had the principal
hand in framing them. They are not, however, al¬
lowed to assume the sovereignty ; the religious cere¬
monies and the instruction of the people being their
peculiar province. They alone are allowed to read the
f^eda or sacred books; the Khatries, or cast next in
dignity, being only allowed to hear them read ; while
the other two can only read the Sastras or commenta¬
ries upon them. As for the poor Chandalas, they
dare not enter a temple, or be present at any religious
ceremony.
] H I N
In point of precedency the Bramins claim a supe- Hindoos.
riority even to the princes ; the latter being chosen ' v—1 J
out of the Khatry or second cast. A rajah will receive
with respect the food that is prepared by a Bramin,
but the latter will eat nothing that has been prepared
by any member of an inferior cast. The punishment
of a Bramin for any crime is much milder than if he
had belonged to another tribe ; and the greatest crime
that can be committed is the murder of a Bramin.
No magistrate must desire the death of one of these sa¬
cred persons, or cut off one of their limbs. They must
be readily admitted into the presence even of princes
whenever they please : when passengers in a boat, they
must be the first to enter and to go out ; and the wa¬
terman must besides carry them for nothing ; every one
who meets them on the road being likewise obliged to
give place to them.
All the priests are chosen from among this order,
such as are not admitted to the sacerdotal function be¬
ing employed as secretaries and accountants. These
can never afterwards become priests, but continue to
be greatly reverenced by the other casts.
The Khatry or second cast are those from among
whom the sovereigns are chosen.—-The Bhyse or Ba¬
nians, w'ho constitute the third cast, have the charge of
commercial affairs ; and the Soodera, or fourth cast,
the most numerous of all, comprehend the labourers
and artisans. These last are divided into as many
classes as there are followers of different arts ; all the
children being invariably brought up to the profession
of their fathers, and it being absolutely unlawful lor
them ever to alter it afterwards.
No Hindoo is allowed to quit the cast in which he
was born upon any account. All of them are very
scrupulous with regard to their diet ; but the Bra¬
mins much more so than any of the rest. They eat
no flesh, nor shed blood ; which we are informed by
Porphyry and Clemens Alexandrinus was the case in
their time. Their ordinary food is rice and other
vegetables, dressed with ghee (a kind of butter melted
and refined so as to be capable of being kept for a,
long time), and seasoned with ginger and other spices.
The food which they most esteem, however, is milk,
as coming from the cow ; an animal for which they
have the most extravagant veneration, insomuch that
it is enacted in the code of Gentoo laws, that any one
who exacts labour from a bullock that is hungry or
thirsty, or that shall oblige him to labour when fa-,
tigued or out of season, is liable to be fined by the ma¬
gistrates. The other casts, though less rigid, abstain
very religiously from what is forbidden them ; nor will
they eat any thing provided by a person of an inferior
cast, or by one of a different religion. Though they
may eat some kinds of flesh and fish, yet it is counted,
a virtue to abstain from them all. None of them aie al¬
lowed to taste intoxicating liquor of any kind. Quin-l
tus Curtins indeed mentions a sort of wine made use of
by the Indians in his time ; but this is supposed to have
been no other than toddy, or the unfermented juice, of
the cocoa nut. This when fermented, affords a spirit
of a very unwholesome quality ; but it is drunk only by
the Cliandalas and the lower class of Europeans m the
country. So exceedingly bigotted and superstitious
are they in their absurd maxims with regard to meat
and drink, that some seapoys in a British ship having
expended
H I N [ 472 ] H I N
Hindoos, expended all the water appropriated to their use,
'•y—..i1 would have suffered themselves to perish for thirst rather
than taste a drop of that which was used by the ship’s
, company.
Of the reli- The religion of the Hindoos, by which these maxims
gion of the are inculcated, and by which they are made to tlifler so
Hindoos. inuci5 from other nations, is contained in certain books
named Veda, Vedams, or Beds, written in a language
called Shanscrit, which is now known only to the learn¬
ed among them. The books are supposed to have
been the work not of the supreme God himself, but ot
an inferior deity named Brimha. They inform us, that
Brama, or Brahma, the supreme God, having created the
world by the word of his mouth, formed a female deity
named Baivaney, who in the enthusiasm of joy and
praise brought forth three eggs. From these were
produced three male deities, named Brimha, VisJmou,
and Sheevah. Brimha was endowed with the power
of creating the things of this world, Vishnou with
that of cherishing them, and Sheevah with that of re¬
straining and correcting them. Thus Brimha became
the creator of man j and in this character he formed
the four casts from different parts of his own body,
the Bramins from his mouth, the Khatry from his
arms, the Banians from his belly and thighs, and the
Soodera from his feet. Hence, say they, these four
different casts derive the different offices assigned them }
the Brahmins to teach ; the Khatry to defend and go¬
vern j the Banians to enrich by commerce and agricul¬
ture j and the Soodera to labour, serve, and obey.
Brama himself endowed mankind with passions, and un¬
derstanding to regulate them ; while Brimha, having
created the inferior beings, proceeded to write the
Vedams, and delivered them to be read and explained
by the Bramins.
The religion of the Hindoos, though involved in su¬
perstition and idolatry, seems to be originally pure 5
inculcating the belief of an eternal and omnipotent Be¬
ing ; their subordinate deities Brimha, Vishnou, and
Sheevah, being only representatives of the wisdom,
goodness, and power, of the supreme God Brama.
All created things they suppose to be types of the at¬
tributes of Brama, whom they call the principle of truth,
the spirit of wisdom, and the supreme being; so that it
is probable that all their idols were at first only design-
■5 ed to represent these attributes.
Different There are a variety of sects among the Hindoos :
sects. {_wo great classes we have mentioned already, viz. the
worshippers of Vishnou, and those of Sheevah $ and
these distinguish themselves, the former by painting
their faces with an horizontal line, the latter by a per¬
pendicular one. There is, however, very little differ¬
ence in point of religion between these or any other
Hindoo sects. All of them believe in the immortality
of the soul, a state of future rewards and punishments,
and transmigration. Charity and hospitality are in¬
culcated in the strongest manner, and exist among them
not only in theory but in practice. “ Hospitality
(say they) is commanded to he exercised even towards
an enemy, when he cometh into thine house; the tree
doth not withdraw its shade even from the wood-cut¬
ter. Good men extend their charity even to the vilest
animals. The moon doth not withhold her light even
from the Chandala.” These pure doctrines, however,
are intermixed with some of the vilest and most absurd
superstitions $ and along with the true God they wor- Hj,1(iQi ^
ship a number of inferior ones, of whom the principal ^ *y
are :
1. Bawaney, the mother of the gods, already men¬
tioned, and superior to all but Brama himself’, but all
the other goddesses are reckoned inferior to their gods
or lords. ^
2. Brimha, in the Shanscrit language said to mean Account
“ the wisdom of God j” and who is supposed to fly onl!?e*rPrii
the wings of the hanse or flamingo j an image of whichc-^a* ^ei
is constantly kept near that of the god in the temple
where he is worshipped. He has a crown on his head,
and is represented with four hands. In one of these
he holds a sceptre, in another the sacred books or Ve-
dam, in the third a ring or circle as the emblem of
eternity, supposed to be employed in assisting and pro¬
tecting his works.
3. Seraswatej, the goddess or wife of Brimha, pre¬
sides over music, harmony, eloquence, and invention.
She is also said to be the inventress of the letters called
Devanagry, by which the divine vvill was first promul¬
gated among mankind. In the argument of an hymn
addressed to this goddess, she is supposed to have a
number of inferior deities acting in subordination to
her. These are called Bags, and preside over each
mode, and likewise over each of the seasons. These
seasons in Hindostan are six in number; viz. 1. The
Seesar, or dewy season. 2. Heemat, or the cold season.
3. Vasant, the mild season or spring. 4. Gresshma,ox
the hot season. 5. Varsa, the rainy season. 6. Sarat,
the breaking up or end of the rains.
The Bags, in their musical capacity, are accompa¬
nied each with five Bagnies, akindnf female deities or
nymphs of harmony. Each of these has eight sons or
genii ; and a distinct season is appointed for the music
of each rag, (hiring which only it can be sung or play¬
ed ; and this at distinct or stated hours of the day
or night. A seventh mode of music belonging to
Deipec, or Cupid the injlamer, is said once to have ex¬
isted, but now to be lost; and a musician, who attempt¬
ed to restore it, to have been consumed with fire from
heaven.
4. Vishnou, the most celebrated of all the Indian
deities, is supposed to fly or ride on the garoora, a
kind of large brown kite, which is found in plenty in
the neighbourhood ; and on which Vishnou is some¬
times represented as sitting; though at others he is
represented on a serpent with a great number of differ¬
ent heads. At some of his temples the Bramins
accustom all the birds they can find, of the species
above mentioned, to come and be fed ; calling them
by striking upon a brass plate. This deity is said to
have had ten different incarnations to destroy the giants
with which the earth was infested ; and in these he is
represented in as many different figures, all of which
are to the last degree fantastic and monstrous. His
common form is that of a man with four hands, and a
number of heads set round in a circle, supposed to be
emblems of omniscience and omnipotence. In his first
incarnation he is represented as coming out of the
mouth of a fish, with several hands containing swords,
&c. In another he has the head of a boar with mon¬
strous tusks, bearing a city in the air, and stands upon
a vanquished giant with horns on his head. In others
of his incarnations, he has the head of a horse or other
animals, j
f 32
H I N T 473 ] H I N
[oos, animals, with a great number of arms brandishing
r—' swords, &c.
In some parts of his character this deity is repre¬
sented not as a destroyer, but a preserver of mankind ;
and he is then distinguished by the name of Hary.
Bishop Wilkins describes an image of him in this cha¬
racter at a place named Jehan-query, a small rocky
island of the Ganges in the province of Bahar. This
image is of a gigantic size, recumbent on a coiled ser¬
pent, whose numerous heads are twisted by the artist
into a kind of canopy over the sleeping god, and from
each of its mouths issues a forked tongue, as threaten¬
ing destruction to those who should dare to approach.
5. Sheevah is represented under a human form, though
frequently varied, as is also his name; but he is most fre¬
quently called Shcevah and Mahadeg. In his destroy¬
ing character he is represented as a man with a fierce
look, and with a snake twisted round his neck. He is
thought to preside over good and evil fortune, in token
of which he is represented with a crescent on his head.
He rides upon an ox.
6. Vikrama, the god of victory, is said to have had a
particular kind of sacrifice offered to him, somewhat like
the scape-goat of the Jews, viz. hy letting a horse loose
in the forest, and not employing him again.
7. Yam Rajah, or Durham Rajah, is represented as
the judge of the dead, and ruler of the infernal regions,
in a manner similar to the Minos and Pluto of the an¬
cient Greeks. He is the son of Sovr, “ the sun,” by
Risookama daughter of the great architect of the hea¬
venly mansions, and patron of artificers. He rides
upon a buffalo, with a sceptre in his hand, having two
assistants, Chiter and Gopt; the former of whom re¬
ports the good, and the latter the bad actions of men.
These are attended by two genu, who watch every in¬
dividual of the human race ; Chiter’s spy being on
the right, and Gopt’s on the left. The souls of de-
ceased persons are carried by the Jambouts or mes¬
sengers of death into the presence of Durham, where
their actions are instantly proclaimed, and sentence pas¬
sed accordingly. The infernal mansions are named by
the Hindoos Narekha, and are divided into a great
number of places, according to the degrees of punish¬
ment to be endured by the criminal ; hut eternal pu¬
nishment for any offence is supposed to be inconsistent
with the goodness of God. Instead of this, the Hin¬
doos suppose that after the souls of the wicked have
been punished long enough in Narekha, they are sent
back into the world to animate other bodies either of
men or beasts, according to circumstances. Those who
have lived a life partly goodjand partly bad, are likewise
sent back to this world ; and these trials and transmi¬
grations are repeated till they be thoroughly purged of
all inclination to sin. But as for those holy men who
have spent their lives in piety and devotion, they are
instantly conveyed by the genii to the mansions of ce¬
lestial bliss, where they are absorbed into the universal
spirit; a state, according to every idea we can form,
equivalent to annihilation !
8. Krishen and the nine Gopia, among the Hindoos,
correspond with Apollo and the nine muses of the
Greeks. This deity is represented as a young man
sometimes playing on a flute. He has a variety of
names, and is supposed to be of a very amorous com¬
plexion, having once resided in a district named Birge.
Vol. X. Part II. +
where he embraced almost all the women in the coun- Hindoos,
try. From his residence here, or from these amorous
exploits, he is sometimes called Birge-put.
9. Kamce-deva, the god of love, is said to be the son
of Maya, or the general attractive power ; married to
Retty, or Affection. He is represented as a beautiful
youth, sometimes conversing with his mother or con¬
sort in his temples or gardens ; at other times riding
on a parrot by moonlight: And Mr Forster informs us,
that on the taking of Tanjore by the English, a cu¬
rious picture was found, representing him riding on
an elephant, the body of which was composed of seven
young women twisted together in such a manner as to
represent that enormous animal. This is supposed to
be a device of a similar nature with that of the Greeks,
who placed their Eros upon a lion ; thus intimating,
that love is capable of taming the fiercest of animals.
The bow of this deity is said to be of sugar-cane, or
0^flowers, and the string of bees: he has five arrows,
each of them tipped with an Indian blossom of an
heating nature. His ensign is a fish on a red ground,
carried by the foremost of his attendant nymphs or
dancing girls.
10. Lingam, corresponding to the Priapus or Phal¬
lus of the ancients, is worshipped by the Hindoos in
order to obtain fecundity. This deity is adored the
more fervently, as they depend on their children for
performing certain ceremonies to their manes, which
they imagine will mitigate their punishment in the
next world. The devotees of the god go naked, but
are supposed to be such sanctified persons, that women
may approach them without any danger. They vow
perpetual chastity ; and death is the consequence of a
breach ol their vow. Husbands whose wives are bar¬
ren invite them to their houses, where certain cere¬
monies, generally thought to be effectual, are per¬
formed.
Besides these, there is a number of other gods whose
character is less eminent ; though it seems not to be
ascertained distinctly, even by the Hindoos themselves,
what particular rank each deity holds with respect
to another. Some of these deities are, 11. Nared,
the son ot Brimha, and inventor of a fretted instru¬
ment named Vene. 12. Lechmy, the goddess of plen¬
ty, and wife of Vishnou. 13. Gowry, Kaly, from
Kala, “ time the wife of Sheevah, and goddess of
destruction. 14. Varoona, the god of the seas and
waters, riding on a crocodile. 15. Vayoo, the god
of the winds, riding on an antelope with a sabre .in
his hand. 16. Agree, the god of fire, riding on
a ram. 17. Vasoodka, a goddess representing the
earth. 18. Pakreety, or nature, represented by a beau¬
tiful young woman. 19. Sour or Shan, the sun call¬
ed also the king of the stars and planets, represented
as sitting in a chariot drawn by one horse, sometimes
with seven and sometimes with twelve heads. 20.
Sangia, the mother of the river Jumna, and wife of the
sun. 21. Chandava, the moon, in a chariot drawn by
antelopes, and holding a rabbit in her right hand.
22. Vreekaspaty, the god of learning, attended by beau¬
tiful young nymphs, named Veedyadhares, or professors
of science. 23. Ganes, the god of prudence and poli¬
cy, worshipped before the undertaking of any thing of
consequence. 24. Fame, represented by a serpent with
a great number of tongues ; and known by several
3 Q names.
Hindoos.
5
Their de-
WliJ'ods.
6
Maiiner of
worship.
Their da-
*otee?.
HIN [ 474 ] HIN
names. 25. Darma-(leva, the god of virtue, some-
tinges represented by a white bull. 26. Virsavana or
Cobhair, the god of riches, represented by a man riding
on a white horse. 27. Dhan-wantary, the god of me¬
dicine.
Besides the supreme deities the Hindoos have a
number of demigods, who are supposed to inhabit the
air, the earth, and the waters, and in short the whole
world 5 so that every mountain, river, wood, town,
village, &c. has one of these tutelar deities, as was the
case among the western heathens. By nature these
demigods are subject to death, but are supposed to
obtain immortality by the use of a certain drink named
Amrut. Their exploits in many instances resemble those
of Bacchus, Hercules, Theseus, &c. and in a beautiful
epic poem named Rancyan, we have an account of the
wars of Ram, one of the demigods, with Ravana tyrant
of Ceylon.
All these deities are worshipped, as in other coun¬
tries, by going to their temples, fasting, prayers, and
the performance of ceremonies to their honour. They
pray thrice a day, at morning, noon, and evening,
turning their faces towards the east. They use many
ablutions, and, like the Pharisees of old, they always
wash before meals. Running water is always preferred
for this purpose to such as stagnates. Fruits, flowers,
incense, and money, are offered in sacrifice to their
idols } but for the dead they offer a kind of cake
named Peenda; and offerings of this kind always take
place on the day of the full moon. Nothing sanguinary
is known in the worship of the Hindoos at present,
though there is a tradition that it was formerly of this
kind •, nay, that even human sacrifices were made use
of: but if such a custom ever did exist, it must have
been at a very distant period. Their sacred writings in¬
deed make mention of bloody sacrifices of various kinds,
not excepting even those of the human race : but so
many peculiarities are mentioned with regard to the pro¬
per victims, that it is almost impossible to find them.
The only instance of bloody sacrifices we find on record
among the Hindoos is that of the buffalo to Bawaney,
the mother of the gods.
Among the Hindoos there are two kinds of wor¬
ship, distinguished by the name of the worship of the
invisible God and of idols. The worshippers of the in¬
visible God are, strictly speaking, deists: the idolaters
perform many absurd and unmeaning ceremonies, too
tedious to mention, all of which are conducted by a
bramin •, and during the performance of these rites,
the dancing women occasionally perform in the court,
singing the praises of the deity in concert with various
instruments. All the Hindoos seem to worship the
fire $ at least they certainly pay a great veneration to
it. Bishop Wilkins informs us, that they are enjoined
to light up a fire at certain times, which must be pro¬
duced by the friction of two pieces of wood of a parti¬
cular kind j and the fire thus produced is made use of
for consuming their sacrifices, burning the dead, and in
the ceremonies of marriage.
Great numbers of devotees are to be met with every
where through Hindostan. Every cast is allowed to
assume this way of life excepting the Chandalahs, who
are excluded. Those held most in esteem are named
Seniasses and Jogeys.. The former are allowed no other
clothing but what suffices for covering their nakedness, Hindu
nor have they any worldly goods besides a pitcher and v
staff -, but though they are strictly enjoined to medi¬
tate on the truths contained in the sacred writings,
they are expressly forbidden to argue about them. They
must eat but once a day, and that very sparingly, of
rice or other vegetables j they must also show the most
perfect indifference about hunger, thirst, heat, cold,
or any thing whatever relative to this world j looking
forward with continual desire to the separation of the
soul from the body. Should any of them fail in this
extravagant self-denial, he is rendered so much more
criminal by the attempt, as he neglected the duties of
ordinary life for those of another which he was not
able to accomplish. The Jogeys are bound to much
the same rules, and both subject themselves to the
most extravagant penances. Some will keep their
arms constantly stretched over their heads till they
become quite withered and incapable of motion j
others keep them crossed over their breast during life;
while others, by keeping their hands constantly shut,
have them quite pierced through by the growth of
their nails. Some chain themselves to trees or parti¬
cular spots of ground, which they never quit; othera
resolve never to lie down, but sleep leaning against a
tree : but the most curious penance perhaps on record
is that of a Jogey, who measured the distance between
Benares and Jaggernaut with the length of his body,
lying down and rising alternately. Many of these en¬
thusiasts will throw themselves in the way of the cha¬
riots of Vishnou or Sheevah, which are sometimes
brought forth in procession to celebrate the feast of a
temple and drawn by several hundreds of men. Thus
the wretched devotees are in an instant crushed to
pieces. Others devote themselves to the flames, in
order to show their regard to some of their idols, or
to appease the wrath of one whom they suppose to be
offended.
A certain set of devotees are named Pandarams; and
another on the coast of Coromandel are named Cary-
Patra Pandarams. The former rub themselves all oyer
with cow-dung, running about the country singing
the praises of the god Sheevah whom they worship.
The latter go about asking charity at doors by striking
their hands together, for they never speak. They
accept of nothing but rice; and when they have got as
much as will satisfy their hunger, never give them¬
selves any trouble about more, but pass the rest of the
day in the shade, in a state of such supine indolence as
scarcely to look at any object whatever. I he l adinums
are another set of mendicants, who sing the incarna¬
tions of Vishnou. They have hollow brass rings round
their ancles, which they fill with pebbles; so that they
make a considerable noise as they walk ; they beat like¬
wise a kind of tabor. _ * _
The greatest singularity in the Hindoo religion jHidn of
however, is, that so far from persecuting those of atfie H1
contrary persuasion, which is too often the case withrelig^
other professors, they absolutely refuse even to admit
of a proselyte. They believe all religions to be equally
acceptable to the Supreme Being; assigning as a rea¬
son, that if the Author of the universe preferred one
to another, it would have been impossible for any other
to have prevailed than that whish he approved. Every
religion,
H I N
[ 475 3
H- I N
doo?
religion, therefore, they conclude to be adapted to the
country where it is established ; and that all in their
original purity are equally acceptable,
r mar- Among the Hindoos, marriage is considered as a re-
s. ligious duty ; and parents are strictly commanded to
marry their children by the time they arrive at eleven
years of age at farthest. Polygamy is allowed ; but
this licence is seldom made use of unless there should
be no children by the first wife. In case the second
wife also proves barren, they commonly adopt a son
from among their relations.
The Hindoos receive no dower with their wives ;
but, on the contrary, the intended husband makes a
present to the father of his bride. Nevertheless, in many
cases, a rich man will choose a poor relation for his
daughter ; in which case the bride’s father is at the ex¬
pence of the wedding, receives his son-in-law into his
house, or gives him a part of his fortune. The bride¬
groom then quits the dwelling of his parents with cer¬
tain ceremonies, and lives with his father-in-law. Many
formalities take place between the parties even after the
match is fully agreed upon j and the celebration of the
marriage is attended with much expence ; magnificent
processions are made, the bride and bridegroom sitting
in the same palankeen, attended by their friends and re¬
lations ; some riding in palankeens, some on horses, and
others on elephants. So great is their vanity indeed
on this occasion, that they will borrow or hire numbers
of these expensive animals to do honour to the cere¬
mony. The rejoicings last several days ; during the
evenings of which, fire-works and illuminations are dis¬
played, and dancing-women perform their feats ; the
whole concluding with alms to the poor, and presents
to the bramins and principal guests, generally consist¬
ing of shawls, pieces of muslin, and other cloths. A
number of other ceremonies are performed when the
parties come of age, and are allowed to cohabit toge¬
ther. The same are repeated when the young wife be¬
comes pregnant $ when she passes the seventh month
without any accident; and when she is delivered of her
child. The relations assemble on the tenth day after
the birth, to assist at the ceremony of naming the child ;
but if the bramins be of opinion that the aspect of
the planets is at that time unfavourable, the ceremony
is delayed, and prayers offered up to avert the misfor¬
tune. When the lucky moment is discovered, they fill
as many pots with water as there are planets, and offer
a sacrifice to them ; afterwards they sprinkle the head
of the child with water, and the bramin gives it such
a name as he thinks best adapted to the time and cir¬
cumstances j and the ceremony concludes with prayers,
presents to the bramins, and alms to the poor. Mo¬
thers are obliged to suckle their own children ; nor
can this duty be dispensed with except in case of
sickness. New ceremonies, with presents to the bra-
inins, take place, when a boy comes of age to receive
the string which the three first casts wear round their
o waist.
»tion Boys are taught to read and write by the bramins,
le,,,who keep schools for that purpose throughout the coun¬
try. They use leaves instead of books, and write with
a pointed iron instrument. The leaves are generally
chosen of the palm-tree, which being smooth and bal’d,
and having a thick substance, may be kept for almost
any length of time, and the letters are not subject to
grow faint or be effaced. The leaves are cut into slips Hindoo?,
about an inch broad, and their books consist of a num- 1 -v—.. *
ber of these tied together by means of a hole in one
end. Sometimes the letters are rubbed over with a
black powder, to render them more legible. When
they write upon paper, they make use of a small reed.
Sometimes they are initiated in writing by making
letters upon sand strewed on the floor j and they are
taught arithmetic by means of a number of small peb¬
bles. The education of the girls is much more limited $
seldom extending farther than the articles of their re¬
ligion. „
Among these people the custom of burning the dead Barbarotu
prevails universally ; and the horrid practice of wivescustDm oi
burning themselves along with their deceased husbands.wom.cn
was formerly very common, though now much less so. themselves.
At present it is totally prohibited in the British domi¬
nions j and even the Mohammedans endeavour to dis¬
countenance a practice so barbarous, though many of
their governors are accused of conniving at it through
motives of avarice. At present it is most common in
the country of the Rajahs, and among women of high
rank.
This piece of barbarity is not enjoined by any law
existing among the Hindoos j it is only said to bejoro-
per, and rewards are promised in the next world to those
who do so. But though a wife chooses to outlive her
husband, she is in no case whatever permitted to marry
again, even though the marriage with the former had
never been completed. It is unlawful for a woman to
burn herself if she be with child at the time of her hus¬
band’s decease, or if he died at a distance from her. In
the latter case, however, she may do so if she can pro¬
cure his girdle or turban to be put on the funeral pile
along with her. These miserable enthusiasts, who de¬
vote themselves to this dreadful death, suffer with the
greatest constancy j and Mr Holwel gives an account
of one who, being told of the pain she must suffer (with
a view to dissuade her), put her finger into the fire
and kept it there for a considerable time j after which
she put fire on the palm of her hand, with incense up¬
on it, and fumigated the bramins who were present.
Sometimes a chapel is erected on the place where one
of those sacrifices has been performed ; sometimes it is
inclosed, flowers planted upon it, and images set up.—-
In some few places the Hindoos bury their dead $ and
some women have been known to suffer themselves to
be buried alive with their deceased husbands : but the
instances of this are still more rare than those of burn¬
ing.—No woman is allowed any inheritance among
the Hindoos ; so that if a man dies without male issue,
his estate goes to his adopted son or to his nearest re¬
lation. *■ I2
The Hindoos, though naturally mild and timid, will Instances
on many occasions meet death with the most heroic in-0^^ero’s<,t
trepidity. An Hindoo who lies at the point °f
will talk of his decease with the utmost composure j
and if near the river Ganges, will desire to be carried
out, that he may expire on its banks. Such is the ex¬
cessive veneration they have for their religion and cu¬
stoms, that no person will infringe them even to pre¬
serve his own life. An Hindoo, we are told, being ill
of a putrid fever, was prevailed upon to send for an Eu¬
ropean physician, who prescribed him the bark in wine ;
but this was refused with the greatest obstinacy even
3 0 2 'to
H I N [ 476 ] H I h
Hindoo?, to the very last, though the governor himself joined in
' ' liis solicitations, and in other matters had a considerable
influence over him. In many instances these people,
both in ancient and modern times, have been known,
when closely besieged by an enemy whom they could
not resist, to kill their wives and children, set fire to
their houses, and then violently rush upon their adver¬
saries till every one was destroyed. Some seapoys,
in the British service, having been concerned in a mu¬
tiny, were condemned to be blown away from the mouths
of cannon. Of these some were grenadiers, who cried
out, that as they had all along had the post of honour,
they saw no reason why they should be denied it now 5
and therefore desired that they might be blown away
first. This being granted, they walked forward to the
guns with composure, begged that they might be spa¬
red the indignity of being tied, and, placing their breasts
close to the muzzles, were shot away. The command¬
ing officer was so much affected with this instance of
T, heroism, that he pardoned all the rest.
Their gene- In ordinary life the Hindoos are cheerful and lively ;
ral charac-fond of conversation and amusements, particularly dan-
teri cing. They do not, however, learn or practise dancing
themselves, but have women taught for the purpose*, and
in beholding these they will spend whole nights. They
disapprove of many parts of the education of European
ladies, as supposing that they engage the attention too
much, and draw away a woman’s affection from her
husband and children. Hence there are few women in
Hindustan who can either read or write. In general
they are finely shaped, gentle in their manners, and have
soft and even musical voices. The women of Kashmere,
according to Mr Forster, have a bright olive com¬
plexion, fine features, and delicate shape } a pleasing
freedom in their manners, without any tendency to im-
11 modesty.
Biessofthe The dress of the modest women in Hindostan con-
v,-Qiiien. sists of a close jacket, which covers their breasts, but
perfectly shows their form. The sleeves are tight, and
reach half way to the elbows, with a narrow border
painted or embroidered all round the edges. Instead
of a petticoat, they have a piece of white cotton cloth
wrapped round the loins, and reaching near the ancle
on the one side, but not quite so low on the other. A
wide piece of muslin is thrown over the right shoulder 5
which, passing under the left arm, is crossed round the
middle, and hangs down to the feet. The hair is usu¬
ally rolled up into a knot or bunch towards the hack
part of the head j and some have curls hanging before
and behind the ears. They wear bracelets on their
arms, rings in their ears, and on their fingers, toes,
and ancles; with sometimes a small one in their no¬
stril.
The dress of the dancing women, who are likewise
votaries of Venus, is very various. Sometimes they
wear a jama, or long robe of wrought muslin, or gold
and silver tissue *, the hair plaited and hanging down be¬
hind, with spiral curls on each side of the face. They
are taught every accomplishment which can be suppo¬
sed to captivate the other sex ; form a class entirely dif¬
ferent from the rest of the people, and live by their own
rules. Their clothes, jewels, and lodgings, are consider-’
ed as implements of their trade, and must be allowed
them in cases of confiscation for debt : They may drink
spirituous liquors, and eat any kind of meat except
beef: Their dances are said to resemble pretty exactly
those of the ancient Bacchanalians represented in some -y—
of the ancient paintings and has reliefs. In some of
their dances they attach gold and silver hells to the
rings of the same metals they wear on their ancles.
The men generally shave their heads and beards,
leaving only a pair of small whiskers and a lock on the the mta.
back part of their head, which they take great care to
preserve. In Kashmere and some other places, they let
their beards grow to the length of two inches. They
wear turbans on their heads ; but the Bramins who
officiate in the temples commonly go with their heads
uncovered, and the upper part of the body naked:
round their shoulder they hang the sacred string called
Zemiar, made of a kind of perennial cotton, and com¬
posed of a certain number of threads of a determined
length. The Khatries wear also a string of this kind,
but composed of fewer threads; the Bhyse have one
with still fewer threads, but the Sooderas are not al¬
lowed to wear any string. The other dress of the Bra¬
mins consists of a piece of white cotton cloth wrapped
about the loins, descending below the knee, but lower
cn the left than on the right side. In cold weather
they sometimes put a red cap on their heads, and wrap
a shawl round their bodies.—The Khatries, and most
other of the inhabitants of this country, wear also pie¬
ces of cotton cloth wrapped round them, but which co¬
ver the upper as well as the lower part of the body.
Ear-rings and bracelets are worn by the men as well as
women : and they are fond of ornamenting themselves
with diamonds, rubies, and other precious stones, when
they can procure them. They wear slippers on their
feet of fine woollen cloth or velvet, frequently embroi¬
dered with gold and silver; those of princes being some¬
times adorned with precious stones. The lower classes
wear sandals or slippers of coarse woollen cloth, or lea¬
ther. These slippers are always put off on going into
any apartment, being left.at the door, or given to an
attendant ; nevertheless the Hindoos make no com¬
plaints of the Europeans for not putting off their shoes
when they come into their houses, which must certainly
appear very uncouth to them.
Hindoo families are always governed by the eldest
male, to whom great respect is shewn. Filial venera¬
tion is carried to such a height among them, that A
son will not sit down in the presence of his father until
ordered to do so : and Mr Forster observes, that during
the whole time of his residence in India, he never saw
a direct instance of undutifulness to parents ; and the
same is related by other writers. 16
The houses of the Hindoos make a worse appearance Their
than could be supposed from their ingenuity in otherIiohs*1*
respects. In the southern parts of the country, the
houses are only of one story. On each side of the door,
towards the street, is a narrow gallery covered by the
slope of the roof which projects over it, and which, a*
far as the gallery extends, is supported by pillars ot
brick or wood. The floor of this gallery is raised about
20 inches above the level of the street; and the porters,
or bearers of palankeens, with the foot soldiers named
Peons, who commonly hire themselves to noblemen, of¬
ten lie down in this place. This entrance leads into a
court, which is also surrounded by a gallery like the for¬
mer. On one side of the court is a large room, on a
level with the floor of the gallery; open in front, and
H I N
E 477 ]
H I N
uloo*.
17
rninjj
ic Bra
iS
taphy-
'9
ir a-
loftiy.
spread with mats and carpets covered with white cotton
cloth, where the master of the house receives visits and
transacts business. From this court there are entrances
bv very small doors to the private apartments. In the
northern parts, houses of two or three stories are com¬
monly met with. Over all the country also we meet
with the ruins of palaces, which evidently show the
magnificence of former times.
The Bramins of India were anciently much cele¬
brated for their learning, though they now make a very
inconsiderable figure in comparison with the Europeans.
According to Philostratns, the Gymnosophists of Ethi¬
opia, were a colony of Bramins, who being obliged to
leave India on account of the murder of their king near
the banks of the Ganges, migrated into that country.
The ancient Bramins, however, may justly he suppo¬
sed to have cultivated science with much greater suc-
ces than their descendants can boast of, considering the
ruinous wars and revolutions to which the country has
been subjected. Metaphyics, as well as moral and na¬
tural philosophy, appear to have been well understood
among them ; but at present all the Hindoo knowledge
is confined to those whom they call Pundits, “ doctors
or learned men.” These only understand the language
called Shanscrit or Sanscrit, (from two words signify¬
ing perfection) •, in which the ancient books were writ¬
ten.
The metaphysics of the Bramins is much the same
with that of some ancient Greek philosophers. I hey
believe the human soul to be an emanation from the
Deity, as light and heat from the sun. Gowtama, an
ancient metaphysial), distinguishes two kinds of sculs,
the divine and vital. The former resembles the eternal
spirit from which it came, is immaterial, indivisible, and
without passions $ the vital soul is a subtile element
which pervades all things, distinct from organized mat¬
ter, and which is the origin of all our desires. i he
external senses, according to this author, are represen¬
tations of external things to the mind, by which it is
furnished with materials for its various operations 5 but
unless the mind act in conjunction with the senses, the
operation is lost, as in that absence of mind which takes
place in deep contemplation. He treats likewise of
reason, memory, perception, and other abstract subjects.
He is of opinion, that the world could not exist without
•a first cause 5 chance being nothing but the efiect of an
unknown cause : he is of opinion, however, that it is
folly to make any conjectures concerning the beginning
or duration of the world. In treating of providence,
he denies any immediate interposition of the Deity j
maintaining, that the Supreme Being having created
the system of nature, allowed it to proceed according to
the laws originally impressed upon it, and man to follow
the impulse of his own desires, restrained and conducted
by his reason. His doctrine concerning a future state
is not different from what we have already stated as the
belief of the Hindoos in general. According to Bishop
Wilkins, many of them believe that this world is a state
of rewards and punishments as well as of probation j
and that good or bad fortune are the effects of good or
evil actions committed in a former state.
The science for which the Bramins, however, were
most remarkable, is that of astronomy j and in this their
progress was so great, as even yet to furnish matter of
admiration to the moderns.—The Europeans first be¬
came acquainted with the Indian astronomy in 1687, Hi„a0o«,
from a Siamese MS. containing rules for calculating the ■ ^ <
places of the sun and moon, brought home by M. Lou-
bere the French ambassador at Siam. The principles
on which the tables in this MS. were founded, however,
proved to be so obscure, that it required the genius of
Cassini to investigate them. The missionaries after¬
wards sent over two other sets of tables from Plindo-
stan ; but no attention was paid to them till M. le Gen-
til returned from observing the transit of Venus in
1769. During the time of his stay in Hindostan, the
Bramins had been much more familiar with him on ac¬
count of his astronomical knowledge, than they usually
were with Europeans; and he thus had an opportunity
ol obtaining considerable insight into their methods of
calculation. In consequence of this instruction he pub-ITrfm. IViil.
lished tables and rules, according to the Indian method, Trans,
in the academy of sciences for 1772 ; and in the expla¬
nation of these M. Bailly has employed a whole vo¬
lume. The objects of this astronomy, according to Mr
Playfair, are, 1. Tables and rules for calculating the
places of the sun and moon. 2. Of the planets. 3. For
determining the phases of eclipses. They divide the
zodiac into 27 constellations, probably from the motion
of the moon through it in 27 clays ; and to this lunar
motion the Professor ascribes the general division of
time into weeks, which has prevailed so universally
throughout the world. The clays of the week were de¬
dicated to the planets, as by the ancient heathens of
the west,, and in precisely the same order. The eclip¬
tic is divided into signs, degrees, and minutes, as with
us : and indeed their calculations are entirely sexage¬
simal, the day and night being divided into 60. hours ;
so that each of their hours is only 24 of our minutes,
and each of their minutes 24 of our second'-.
The requisites for calculating by the Indian tables
are, 1. An observation of the celestial body, in some
past moment of time, which is commonly called the
Epoch of the tables. 2. The mean rate of the pla¬
net’s motion. 3. The correction on account of the
irregular motion of the body, to be added or subtract¬
ed from the mean place, according to circumstances.
They calculate the places of the sun and moon, not
from the time of their entrance into Aries, but into the
moveable Zodiac. Thus the beginning of the year is
continually advancing with regard to the seasons; and
in 24,000 years will have made the complete round.
The mean place of the sun for any time is deduced on
the supposition that 800 years contain 292,207 days ;
from whence, by various calculations, the length of the
year comes out only 1' 53" greater than that of De la
Caille ; which is more accurate than any of our ancient
astronomical tables. In the equation of the sun’s
centre, however, they commit an error of no less than
16': But Mr Playfair is of opinion that this cannot be
ascribed wholly to their inaccuracy, as there was a
time when their calculation approached very near the
truth ; and even at present the error is less than it ap¬
pears to he.
The motions of the moon are deduced from a cycle
of 19 years; during which she makes nearly 235 revo¬
lutions; and which period constitutes the famous cycle
supposed to have been invented by Meton the Athe¬
nian astronomer, and from him called the Metonic Cy¬
cle. They are likewise surprisingly exact in calcula¬
ting
H I N
[ 478 ]
H I N
Hindoos, ting the moon’s apogee and some of the inequalities of
jier motion j they know the apparent motion of the
fixed stars eastward, and the Siamese tables make it
only four seconds too quick j which still shows a great
accuracy of calculation, as Ptolemny the celebrated
astronomer made an error of no less than 14 seconds in
calculating the same thing. M. Cassini, however, in¬
forms us, that these tables are not calculated lor the me¬
ridian of Siam, but for a place 180 ^ to the west¬
ward of it, which brings us very near the meridian^ of
Benares, the ancient seat of Indian learning. . rLhis
likewise agrees with what the Hindoos call their first
meridian, which passes through Ceylon, and the banks
of the river Remananur. It must be observed, how¬
ever, that the geography of the Hindoos is much more
inaccurate than their astronomy.
The date of the Siamese tables is not very ancient;
and that of the table above mentioned sent from Hin¬
dustan by the missionaries is still more modern. Ihese,
however, are written in such an enigmatical manner,
that the missionary who sent them was unable to tell
their meaning ; and Mr Playfair supposes that even the
Bramins themselves were ignorant of it. Nevertheless
they were deciphered by M. le Gentil; who thinks
that they have the appearance of being copied from in¬
scriptions on stones. The minutes and seconds are not
ranged in vertical columns, but in rows under one ano¬
ther, and without any title to point out their meaning
or connexion.
The tables of Trivalore are among the most remark¬
able of all we are yet acquainted with. Their date,
according to Mr Playfair, corresponds with the year
3102 B. C. thus running up to the year of the world
902, when Adam was still in life. This era is famous
in Hindostan, under the name of Calyougham: and as
this extraordinary antiquity cannot but create some sus¬
picion, Mr Playfair has been at some pains to determine
whether it is real or fictitious, i. e. whether it has been
determined by actual observation, or derived by calcu¬
lation from tables of more modern date. The result of
his labours is, that we are to account the Calyoughani
as determined by observation; and that had it been
otherwise, we must have been furnished with infallible
methods of detecting the fallacy. His reasons for this
opinion are,
1. The task would have been too difficult, even for
modern astronomers, to make the necessary calculations
without taking into account the disturbances arising
from the action of the heavenly bodies upon one an¬
other, and with which we cannot suppose the ancient
astronomers to have been equally well acquainted with
the moderns. By reason of these variations, as well
as from the small errors unavoidable in every calcula¬
tion, any set of astronomical tables will be found pro¬
digiously inaccurate when applied to any period very
far distant from the time of observation. Hence, says
our author, “ it may be established as a maxim, that if
there be given a system of astronomical tables, founded
on observations of an unknown date, that date may be
found by taking the time when the tables represent the
celestial motions most exactly.” This indeed might be
done, provided we were furnished with any set of per¬
fectly accurate tables v/ith which we could compare
the suspected ones ; and Mr Playfair thinks it “ a very
reasonable postulatum,” that our modern astronomical
3
tables, though not perfectly accurate, are yet capable Hjtldl0J
of determining the places of the celestial bodies with-'—y—.
out any sensible error for a longer period than that of
the Calyougham.
2. By calculation from our modern tables, it appears
that the place of the star Aldebaran, at the commence¬
ment of the Calyougham, differs only 53' from what
the Indian tables make it. He thinks this coincidence
the more remarkable, as the Bramins, by reason of
the inaccuracy of their own date, would have erred by
four or five degrees, had they calculated from their most
modern tables dated in 1491*
3. At the commencement of this epoch (which ac¬
cording to M. Bailly, happened at midnight between
the 17th and 18th of February 3102 B. C.) the sun
was in 10s 30 38' 13" by the Indian tables. But
the mean longitude of the sun, according to the tables
of M. de la Caille, for the same time, comes out to
be only 10s l° 5' 57", supposing the precession of
the equinoxes to have been the same at that time as
now. M. de la Grange, however, has demonstrated,
that, in former ages, the precession of the equinoxes
was less than at present: whence there arises an equa¬
tion of l° 45' 22" to be added to the sun’s place al¬
ready mentioned : and thus it will differ only 47 from
the radical place in the tables of Trivalore. Notwith¬
standing this reasoning, however, Mr Playfair thinks
that no stress is to be laid upon this argument, as it de¬
pends on the truth of a conjecture of M. Bailly that the
place of the sun above mentioned was not the mean but
the true one.
4. The mean place of the moon at Benares, calcula¬
ted from Mr Mayer’s tables, for the 18th of February
3102 B. C. will be 10s o° 51' 16", provided her mo¬
tion had all that time been equable : but the same astro¬
nomer informs us, that the motion of the moon is sub¬
ject to a small but uniform acceleration, about 9" in
100 years ; which, in an interval of 4801 years, must
have amounted to 50 45' 44"; which added to the
preceding, gives 10s 6° 37' for the true place of the
moon at the commencement of the Calyougham. Now
the place of this luminary, at that time, by the tables
of Trivalore, is 108 6® ; the difference is less than two-
thirds of a degree, which, for so remote a period, and
considering the acceleration of the moon’s motion, for
which no allowance could be made in an Indian calcu¬
lation, is a degree of accuracy that nothing but actual
observation could have produced.—This conclusion is
confirmed by a computation of the moon’s place from
all the tables to which the Indians could have any ac¬
cess, and of which the enormous errors would instantly
show the deception. Thus, by the tables of Ptolemy,
the place of the sun would be 10° 2l' 15" greater; and
that of the moon 11° 52' 7" greater than has just been
found from the Indian tables. By those of Ulug Beg,
the place of the sun would be 1° 30', and that of the
moon 6°, different from what it is by the Indian tables;
and in like manner our author shows that the Indian
calculations could not be derived from any other set of
tables extant. In like manner, he shows that, with re¬
gard to the mean place of the moon, there is a coinci¬
dence for a period of more than 4000 years between
the tables of Mayer and those of India named Chnsnu-
bouram ; which, though they bear a more modern date
than those ofTrivalorej are thus probably more ancient.
“ From
idoos.
H I N [ 479 ] HI
“ From this remarkable coincidence (says Mr Playfair), termined by actual observation.
N
we may conclude, with the highest probability, that at
least one set of these observations on which the tables
are founded, is not less ancient than the era of the Ca-
lyougham : and though the possibility of tbeir being
some ages later than that epoch is not absolutely ex¬
cluded, yet it may, by strict mathematical reasoning,
be inferred, that they cannot have been later than 2000
years before the Christian era.
5. Since the time that M. Bailly wrote, every argu¬
ment respecting the acceleration of the moon’s motion
has become more worthy of attention, and more con¬
clusive. For that acceleration is no longer a mere em¬
pirical equation introduced to reconcile the ancient ob¬
servations with the modern, nor a fact that can only be
accounted for by hypothetical causes, such as the resist¬
ance of the ether, or the time necessary for the trans¬
mission of gravity ; but a phenomenon which M. de la
Place has with great ability deduced from the principle
of universal gravitation, and shown to be necessarily
connected with the changes of eccentricity in the earth’s
orbit discovered by M. de la Grange : so that the ac¬
tion of the moon is indirectly produced by the action
of the planets, which alternately increasing and dimi¬
nishing this eccentricity, subjects the moon to different
degrees of that force by which the sun disturbs the
time of her revolution round the earth. It is there¬
fore a periodical inequality, by which the moon’s mo¬
tion, in the course of ages, will be as much retarded
as accelerated j but its changes are so slow, that her
motion has been constantly accelerated, even for a much
longer period than that to which the observations of
India extend. To M. de la Grange also we are in¬
debted for one of the most beautiful of the discoveries
in physical astronomy, viz. That all the variations in
our system are periodical; so that, though every thing,
almost without exception, be subject to change, it will,
after a certain interval, return to the same state in
which it is at present, and leave no room for the intro¬
duction of disorder, or of any irregularity that might
constantly increase. Many of these periods, however,
are of vast duration. A great number of ages, for in¬
stance, must elapse, before the year be exactly of the
same length, or the sun’s equation be of the same mag¬
nitude, as at present. An astronomy, therefore, which
professes to be so ancient as the Indian, ought to differ
considerably from ours in many of its elements. If, in¬
deed, these diflerences are irregular, they arc the ef¬
fects of chance, and must be accounted errors j but if
they observe the laws which theory informs us they do,
they must be held as the most undoubted marks of au¬
thenticity.
6. Neither these tables of Trivalore, nor the more
ancient ones of Chrisnabouram, are those of the greatest
antiquity in India. The Bramins constantly refer to
an astronomy at Benares, which they emphatically style
the ancient; and which, they say, is not now understood
by them, though they believe it to be much more accu-
^ rate than that by which they calculate,
lay. From these and other similar arguments, Mr PIp.yfair
•on- draws the following conclusions with respect to Indian
''S die astronomy. 1. The observations on which it is founded,
10m Were ma,^e more tlian 3000 years before the Christian
’ era j and, in particular, the places of the sun and
moon, at the beginning of the Calyougham, were de-
2. Though the astro- Hindoo^,
nomy now in the hands of the Bramins is so ancient in
its origin, yet it contains many rules and tables that are
of later construction. 3. The basis of their four systems
of astronomical tables is evidently the same. 4. T he
construction of these tables implies a great knowledge
of geometry, arithmetic, and even the theoretical part 21
of astronomy. All this, however, we find controvert-conU'°Te,t*
ed, or at least rendered somewhat doubtful, by William
Marsden, Eeq. who has written a paper on the chrono-‘
logy of the Hindoos, in the Philosophical Transactions
for 1790. “ The Kalee Yoog (says he), or principal
chronological era, began in the year 3x02 B. C. ac¬
cording to the common method of computation, or in
3101 according to the astronomical method, on the
18th of February, at sunrise j or at midnight, accord¬
ing to different accounts, under their first meridian of
Lanka. At that period it is said to be asserted by their
astronomers, that the sun, moon, and all the planets,
were in conjunction according to their mean places.
The reality of this fact, but with considerable modifica¬
tion, has received a respectable sanction from the writ¬
ings of an ingenious and celebrated member of the
French academy of sciences, who concludes that the
actual observation of this rare phenomenon, by the Hin¬
doos of that day, was the occasion of its establishment
as an astronomical epoch. Although M. Bailly has
supported this opinion with his usual powers of reason¬
ing, and although abundant circumstances tend to prove
their early skill in this science, and some parts of the
mathematics connected with it; yet we are constrained to
question the verity or possibility of the observation, and
to conclude rather that the supposed conjunction was, at
a later period, sought for as an epoch, and calculated
retrospectively. That it was widely miscalculated too,
is sufficiently evident from the computation which M.
Bailly himself has given of the longitudes of the pla¬
nets at that time, when there was a difference of no
less than 730 between the places of Mercury and Ve¬
nus. But fifteen days after, when the sun and moon
were in opposition, and the planets far enough from
the sun to be visible, he computes that all, except Ve¬
nus, were comprehended within a space of 170; and
on this he grounds his supposition of an actual observa¬
tion.
“ In their current transactions the inhabitants of the
peninsula employ a mode of computation of a different
nature, which, though not unknown in other parts of
the world, is confined to these people among the Hin¬
doos. This is a cycle, or revolving period, of 60 solar
years, which has no farther correspondence with their
other eras than that of their years respectively commen¬
cing on the same day. Those that constitute the cycle,
instead of being numerically counted, are distinguished
from each other by appropriate names, which in their
epistles, bills, and the like, are inserted as dates, with
the months, and perhaps the age of the moon annexed ;
hut in their writings of importance and record, the
year of Salaban (often called the Saka year) is super-
added ; and this is the more essential, as I do not find
it customary to number the cycles by any progressive
reckoning. In their astronomical calculations we ob¬
serve, that they sometimes compute the year of their
era by multiplying the number of cycles elapsed, and
adding the complement of the cycle in which it com¬
menced,
H I N
[ 480 ]
H I N
Hindoos, menced, as well as the years of the current cycle j but
>v—from hence we are led to no satisfactory conclusion con¬
cerning this popular mode of estimating time. The
presumption is in favour of its being more ancient than
their historical epochs. The present cycle, of which
43 complete years expired in April I79°> began in
1747, with the year of Salaban 1669, and of the grand
era 4848. M. le Gentil, to whom Europe is chiefly
indebted for what is known of Hindoo astronomy, has
fallen into an unaccountable error with regard to the
years of this cycle, and their correspondence with those
of the Kalee Yoog, as appears by the comparative ta¬
ble he has given of them, and other passages of his
work. He seems to have taken it for granted, without
due examination, that the years 3600 of the latter must
have been produced by the multiplication of the cycle
of 60 into itself; and consequently that the first year of
this grand era must likewise have been the first of the
cycle. But this is totally inconsistent with the fact;
the Kalee Yoog began the 13th year of the cycle of
60 ; and all the reasoning founded on the self-produc¬
tion and harmony of these periods must fall to the
ground.”
From what Mr Marsden here sets forth, it is plain
that we must make very considerable abatements in our
confidence of the extreme antiquity of the Hindoos
■observations. Indeed we can scarce conceive a possibi¬
lity of reconciling such extravagant antiquity with the
authentic histories of which we are possessed, or with
those of Scripture. The want of an ancient history of
Hindostan leaves us indeed in the dark, and gives room
for ingenious and speculative men to indulge themselves
in marvellous reveries concerning their antiquity. But
the flood, we know, which if it existed at all, could
* See the not be but general over the whole earth *, must have
destroyed every monument of art and science ; and it is
surely more reasonable to believe, that M. le Gentil,
or the most learned man in the present age, has been
mistaken (even though we should not be able to deter¬
mine the particular manner), than at once to deny the
authenticity of all history both sacred and profane, and
attempt to evade evidence which no power of reasoning
si can ever set aside.
of tf1 h'11 ^ ’S’ k°wever’ un^en>ahle, that the progress of the
Los in m'Hindoos in geometry as well as astronomy has been
geometry. very great ‘n ancient times. Of this a most remarkable
instance is given by Mr Playfair, in their finding out
the proportion of the circumference of a circle to its
diameter to a great degree of accuracy. This is deter¬
mined, in the Ayeen Akbery, to be as 3927 to 1250,
and which, to do it arithmetically in the simplest man¬
ner possible, would require the inscription of a polygon
of 768 sides ; an operation which cannot be performed
without the knowledge ol some very curious properties
of the circle, and at least nine extractions of the square
root, each as far as ten places of decimals. This pro¬
portion of 1250 to 3927 is the same with that of 1 to
3.1416; and differs very little from that of 113 to 355
discovered by Metrus. He and Vieta were the first
who surpassed the accuracy of Archimedes in the so¬
lution of this problem ; and it is remarkable that these
two mathematicians flourished at the very time that the
Ayeen Akbery was composed among the Hindoos. In
geography,^ however, they are much deficient; and it
is very difficult to find out the true situation of the me-
article
Deluge.
ridians mentioned by their authors from what they have
said concerning them. v
The art of painting among the Hindoos is in an im- 23I
perfect state ; nor are there any remains of antiquity Paintir
which evince its ever being more perfect than it is just^c 1)111
Their principal defect is in drawing, and they
seem to be almost totally ignorant of the rules of per¬
spective. They are much better skilled in colouring,
and some of their pictures are finished with great
nicety. Their sculptures are likewise rude, and greatly
resemble those of the Egyptians. They seem to follow
no regular rules in architecture : their temples indeed
are filled with innumerable columns, but most of them
without any just shape or proportion. They are princi¬
pally remarkable for their immense size, which gives
them an air of majesty and grandeur. I
The music of the Hindoo? is but little known to Musk.
Europeans ; and the art seems to have made but little
progress among them in comparison with what it has
done in the western countries ; though some of the In¬
dian airs are said to be very melodious. Their musical
instruments are very numerous : in war they use a kind
of great kettle-drum named nagar, carried by a camel,
and sometimes by an elephant. The dole is a long
nay-row drum slung round the neck ; and the tam-tam
is a flat kind of drum resembling a tabor, but larger
and louder. They use also the cymbal, which they
name talan ; and they have various sorts of trumpets,
particularly a great one named tai'y, which emits a
most doleful sound, and is always used at funerals, and
sometimes to announce the death of persons of distinc-
tion. _ > ,s
The jugglers among the Hindoos are so expert, that Juggler
many of the missionaries have ascribed their tricks toand *»-
supernatural power; and even so late a traveller asc^anler
Mr Grose seems to be not of a very different opinion !
Like the Egyptians, they seem to have the power ofjefl/,
disarming serpents of their poison, and there are many
strollers who go about with numbers of these animals
in bags, having along with them a small bagpipe call¬
ed magouty, which they pretend is useful to bring them
from their lurking places. They take the serpents,
though of the most poisonous kinds, out of the bags
with their naked hands, and throw them on the ground,
where they are taught to rear and move about to the
sound of their music. They say that this is accomplish¬
ed by means of certain incantatiens. ^ ,
The use of fire-arms appears to have been of great Antiqu
antiquity in India. They are prohibited by the code()^iC : f
of Gentoo laws, which is certainly of a vefy ancientamon'’
date. The phrase by which they are denominated is
agneeaster, or weapons of fire ; and there is also men¬
tion mode of shet-agnee, or the weapon that kills an
hundred men at once. It is impossible to guess at the
time when those weapons were invented among the
Hindoos ; but we are certain, that in many places ol
the east, which have neither been frequented by Mo¬
hammedans nor Europeans, rockets are almost univer¬
sally made use of as weapons of war. The Plindoo
book's themselves ascribe the invention of fire-arms to
JSaeshkookerma, who formed all the weapons made use
of in a war betwixt the good and evil spirits. Fire¬
balls, or blue lights, employed in besieged places in
the night-time, to observe the motions of the besiegers,
are met with everywhere through Hindostan, and are
constructed
Huuio1
H I N [ 481 ] H I N
n
1 nuitjr
it iitioue
( are of
constructed in full as great perfection as in Europe.
Fireworks also are met with in great perfection $ and,
from the earliest ages, have constituted a principal
article of amusement among the Hindoos. Gunpowder,
or a composition somewhat resembling it, has been
found in many other places of the east, particularly
China, Pegu, and Siam j but there is reason to be¬
lieve that the invention came originally from Hindo-
stan. Poisoned weapons of all kinds are forbidden in
this country. _
The Hindoos are remarkable for their ingenuity in
all kinds of handicraft j but their utensils are simple,
and in many respects inconvenient, so that incredible
labour and patience are necessary for the accomplish¬
ment of any piece of work ; and for this the Hindoos
are very remarkable. Lacquering and gilding are used
all over the country, and must have been used in very
early ages ; though in some places the lacquering is
brought to much greater perfection than in others.
The principal article of food throughout all Hindo-
stan is rice, and of consequence the cultivation of it
forms the principal object of agriculture. In this the
most important requisite is plenty of water ; and when
there happens to be a scarcity in this respect, a famine
must be the consequence. To prevent this as far as
possible, a vast number of tanks and water-courses are
to be met with throughout the country, though in
some places these are too much neglected, and gra¬
dually going to decay. After the rice is grown to a
certain length, it is pulled up, and transplanted into
fields of about IOO yards square, separated from each
other by ridges of earth $ which are daily supplied with
water let in upon them from the neighbouring tanks.
When the water happens to fall below the level of the
channels made to receive it, it is raised by a simple ma¬
chine named picoti, the construction of which is as fol¬
lows. A piece of timber is fixed upright in the ground,
and forked so as to admit another piece to move trans¬
versely in it by means of a strong pin. The transverse
timber is flat on one side, and has pieces of wood across
it in the manner of steps. At one end of this timber
there is a large bucket, at the other a weight. A
man walking down the steps throws the bucket into
the well or tank j by going up, and by means of the
Weight, he raises it j and another person standing be¬
low empties it into a channel made to convey the water
into the fields. The man who moves the machine may
support himself by long bamboos that are fixed in the
way of a railing from the top of the piece of upright
timber towards the wall.
A number of other kinds of grain are to be met with
in Hind ostan, but wheat is not cultivated farther south
^ l9 than 18° latitude. It is imported, however, to every
ti part of the country by the Banjaries. These are a set
n n*a' of people belonging to no particular cast, who live in
tents, and travel in separate bodies, each of which is
governed by its own particular regulations. They fre¬
quently visit towns on the sea-coast, with bullocks load¬
ed witii wheat and other articles 5 carrying away in
exchange spices, cloths, but especially salt, which they
carry into the inland parts of the country. Some of
their parties have several thousands of oxen belonging
to them. They are rarely molested, even in time of
War, otherwise than by being sometimes pressed into the
service of an army to carry baggage or provisions j but
Vol. X, Part II. +
for this they are paid, and dismissed as soon as the ser- Hindoo*,
vice is over. The Hindoos themselves are prohibited Hindustan,
from going out of the country, under the severest of all 1 v
penalties, that of losing their cast.—Notwithstanding
this, however, it is certain that they do settle in foreign
parts in the character of merchants and bankers. Per¬
haps these may have a toleration from the principal
Bramin, or there may be an exemption for people of
their profession ; but this is not known. At any rate,
wherever they go, they appear inviolably attached to
their religious ceremonies, and refuse to eat what is pro- 3a
bibited to them in their own country. The Ryots, or Miserable
people who cultivate the ground, are in many places in state of tfee
the most miserable situation; their only food beinghusbaud"
some coarse rice and pepper, for which they are obliged
to endure all the inclemencies of a burning sun, and the
inconveniencies which attend alternately wading in
water and walking with their bare feet on the ground
heated intensely by the solar rays; by which they
are frequently blistered in a miserable manner. All
this, however, they submit to with the utmost patience,
and without making any complaint, expecting to be
released from their suflerings by death ; though even
then their religion teaches them to hop® for nothing
more than what they call absorption into the essence of
the Deity ; a state almost synonymous with what we
call annihilation.
HINDUSTAN, a celebrated and extensive coun¬
try of Asia, hounded on the north by Great and Little
Thibet; on the south, by the hither peninsula of In¬
dia, part of the Indian sea, and bay of Bengal; on
the west, by Persia ; and on the east, by Thibet, and
the farther peninsula. It is situated between 84° and
102° of east longitude, and between 21° and 36° of
north latitude ; being in length about 1204 miles,
and in breadth 560; though in some places much
less. i
This country was in early times distinguished among Derivatioa
the Greeks by the name of India, the most probableof lhe
derivation of which is from Hind the Persian name.Darae‘
We are assured by Mr Wilkins, that no such words
as Hindoo or Hindostan exist in the Sanscrit or learned
language of the country ; in which it is named Bharata,
a word totally unknown to Europeans. The first ac¬
counts we have of Hindostan are from Herodotus,
who lived 113 years before the expedition of Alexan- z
der the Great. His accounts, however, convey veryHerodo-
little information, as he appears only to have heard oflHS’s ac-
the western part of the country, and that on accountof
of its being tributary to Persia. He informs us, that
Darius Hystaspes, about 508 B. C. had sent Scylax
of Caryandra to explore the river Indus. He set sail
from Caspatyrus, a town near the source of the Indus,
and the territories of Pactya (which Major Rennel sup¬
poses to be the modern Pchkely}, and continued his
course eastward to the sea ; then altering his course to
the west, he arrived at that place where the Phoenicians
had formerly sailed round the continent of Africa; af¬
ter which Darius subdued the Indians, and became ma¬
ster of that sea. The northern inhabitants of India, he
says, resembled the Bactrians in their manners, and
were more valiant than the rest; those far to the south¬
ward were as black as the Ethiopians, killed no ani¬
mals, but lived chiefly upon rice ; and clothed them¬
selves with cotton. By the expedition of Alexander,
S tlie
Hin<Io«tan.
H I N [48
the Greeks acquired a little more knowledge of the
1
H I N
3
The Know¬
ledge of
the Greeks
augmented
by Alex¬
ander’s ex¬
pedition.
4
History
from the
lime of
Alexander
to that of
the Mogul
Moham¬
medans.
country of Hindostan, though he did little else than
march over the tracts described by Herodotus. He
was informed of the existence of the river Ganges,
whicli had not been known to Herodotus 5 and the
story of his supposing that he had discovered the source
of the Nile, when near the head of the Indus, is well
known, as well as his surprise and consternation when
he arrived at the mouth of that river, on account of
the high tides. Major Rennel is of opinion that both
these stories are falsehoods. He thinks it is impossible
that Alexander could have been ignorant of the writ¬
ings of Herodotus, who gave an account of the disco¬
veries of Scylax and with regard to the other circum¬
stance he expresses himself as follows. “ The story of
Alexander’s surprise at seeing the tides in the Indus,
appears to me equally improbable j seeing that the same
Herodotus, book iii. speaks very particularly of the
tides in the Red sea, and describes them as being not
only strong, but ebbing and flowing every day. (That
most intelligent and ingenious traveller M. Volney in¬
forms us, that the tide ebbs and flows three feet and a
half at Suez). Arrian takes no notice of the tides un¬
til Alexander’s fleet had arrived near the mouth of the
river. It is true, the tide of the Indus does not go up
so high as in other rivers of equal bulk, and that run
on so small a descent j but nevertheless, as the tide is
perceptible at 50 or 60 miles above the river’s mouth,
we may conclude, that it could hardly escape the no¬
tice of Alexander and his people in their voyage from
Pattala to the sea, supposing they had not been apprised
of the circumstance. Besides, Arrian’s account of the
tide which did so much mischief to the fleet, is descrip¬
tive of the bore, or sudden influx of the tide, in a body
of water elevated above the common surface of the seaj
such as occurs in the Ganges, &c. Pie says, those
ships which lay upon the sand were swept away by the
fury of the tide •, while those that stuck in the mud
were set afloat again without any damage. To the ge¬
nerality of readers no reason Will appear why the cir¬
cumstances of the ships should be dillerent in the mud
and on the sand : the fact is, that the bottoms of chan¬
nels in great rivers are muddy, while their shallows are
formed of sand •, and it is the nature of the bore to
take the shortest cut up a river, instead of following
the windings of the channel; consequently it must cross
the sand banks it meets in its way, and will also prove
more destructive to whatever it meets with aground
than what is afloat.” For an account of the exploits
of Alexander in Hindostan, see the article Mace-
DON.
The Grecian expedition into India soon excited
a general curiosity in the Europeans to become ac¬
quainted with a country so wealthy and so remote. Me-
gasthenes, the ambassador of Seleucus, resided long at
Palihothra the capital of an Indian nation, and from
him the ancient writers learned most of what they knew
concerning that part of the world. He lived about 300
years before the Christian era, and kept a journal during
the time he resided in India.
For some short time the western provinces of India
continued subject to the Syrian empire founded by Se¬
leucus ; but he quickly ceded these distant countries
to one Sandrocottus, who gave him only 500 elephants
in exchange. Soon after this the province of Bac-
tria likewise became independent; and thus the con->
nection betwixt India and the western parts of the world y—
was entirely dissolved, and we are almost entirely igno¬
rant of the transactions of that country till the time of
the Mohammedan conquest. That the extensive country
we now c&\\Hindostan was divided among many different
nations, we have no reason to doubt ; hut Major Ren¬
nel is of opinion, that however this might be the case,
there was generally a large empire or kingdom, which
occupied the principal part of that immense valley
through which the Ganges takes its course ; the capi¬
tal of which has fluctuated between Delhi and Patna,
as the limits of the empire have varied. This was
named the kingdom of the Prasij or Gangaridce in the
times of Alexander and Megasthenes. Major Rennel
is of opinion that it extended westward to the Panjab
country ; and he also thinks it probable that the capi¬
tal named Palibothra stood on the same spot which is
now occupied by the city of Patna. The kingdom,
according to this supposition, would occupy part of
Bengal ; and he thinks that it could not be less than
that of France. It was on the borders of this king¬
dom that Alexander’s army mutinied and refused to
proceed any farther. Arrian informs us, that the people
were rich, excellent soldiers, and good husbandmen ;
that they were governed by nobility, and that their
rulers imposed nothing harsh upon them. ^
The Hindoos themselves pretend to an extravagant No ancle
antiquity ; but we are informed by Major Rennel, that®IB^00J
“ there is no known history of Hindostan (that rests
on the foundation of Hindoo materials or records) ex¬
tant before the period of the Mohammedan conquests ;
for either the Hindoos kept no regular histories, or
they were all destroyed, or secluded from common eyes
by the Pundits. We may judge of their traditions by
that existing concerning Alexander’s expedition ; which
is, that he fought a great battle with the emperor of
H indostan near Delhi, and though victorious, retired
to Persia across the northern mountains ; so that the
remarkable circumstance of his sailing down the Indus,
in which he employed many months, is sunk altoge¬
ther. And yet, perhaps, few events of ancient times
rest on better foundations than this part of the history
of Alexander, as appears by its being so highly cele¬
brated, not oidy by contemporaries, but by several ot
the most eminent authors for some centuries following.
The only traces of Indian history we meet with are in
the Persian historians. In the beginning of the 17th
century, Mohammed Ferishta composed a history of
Hindostan, most of which was given in that of Colonel
Dow, published upwards of 30 years ago ; hut with
regard to the early part of it, Major Rennel is of opinion
that it cannot at all he depended upon. ®_
The authentic history of Hindostan commences with Expfd'11
the conquests of Mahmud or Mahmood Gazni, a^0U^u(jG»‘
the year loco. His kingdom had arisen out of that.nMjnj
of the Saracens, who under the caliph A1 Walid had
extended their conquests immensely both to the east
and west. Mahmud was the third from Abistagi, »
governor of Khorasan, who had revolted from the king
of Buckharia. He possessed great part cf that coun¬
try formerly known by the name of Bactria. Gazni,
Gazua, or Ghizni, was the capital ; a city which stood
near the source of the Indus, though Balkh likewise
claimed this honour. Subactagi, the father of Mah¬
mud,
■
H I N [4«3] H I N
t
0
a
t
ii
tf
fe
Tf
jostan. mud, had projected the conquest of the western part
-v——' of India ; but dying before he could put his designs
in execution, Mahmud took, upon himself the conduct
of the expedition ; but previous to his invasion of In¬
dia, he strengthened himself by the conquest of the
whole of the ancient Bactria. His first invasion took
place in the year 1000 j during which he made no
farther progress than the province of Moultan. That
part of the country was inhabited by the Kuttry and
Rajpoot tribe, the Malli and Gather! of Alexander,
who still retained their ancient spirit, and made a very
stout resistance to the armies of that furious enthusiast.
As he was prompted to this undertaking no less by a
desire of exterminating the Hindoo religion than by
that of conquest, a league was at last formed against
him among all the Indian princes from the banks of
the Ganges to the Nerbudda. Their allied forces,
however, were defeated, and the year 1008 was mark¬
ed by the destruction of the famous temple of Nagra-
cut in the Panjab country. Having satiated himself
with plunder on this occasion, Mahmud returned to
his own country $ but in ion invaded Hindostan once
more, destroying Tanafar a city on the west of Delhi,
and a more celebrated place of worship than Nagracut
itself. Delhi was reduced on this occasion ; and in
seven years after Canoge was taken ; the temples of
Matra or Methura, the Methora of Pliny, a city of
great antiquity, and remarkable for a place of worship
near Agra, were likewise demolished ; but he failed in
his attempts on the Rajpoots of Agimere, either through
their own valour or the strength of their country. His
twelfth expedition took place in the year 1024, when
he destroyed the celebrated temple of Sumnaut in the
peninsula of Guzerat, adjoining to the city of Puttan
on the sea-coast, and not far from the island of Diu,
now in the hands of the Portuguese. In this expedi¬
tion he proved very successful, reducing the whole
peninsula of Guzerat, with many cities, the temples of
which he constantly destroyed j and indeed seemed no
less pleased with the overthrow of the Hindoo religion
than with the conquest of the country. At his death,
which happened in 1028, he was possessed of the east¬
ern and by far the largest part of Persia, and nominal¬
ly of all the provinces from the western part of the
Ganges to the peninsula of Guzerat ; as well as those
lying between the Indus and the mountains of Agi¬
mere j but the Rajpoots in that country still preserved
their independency, which they have done all along,
7 even to the present time.
non of In the year 1158 the empire of Gazna fell to pieces
empire from jjie same causes by which other large and un-
vario’uiW‘e^y states i,ave been destroyed. The western and
ueits largest part, which still retained the name of Gazna,
indos- Was seized upon by the family of Gaurides, so ha-
Ud** mef* ^r°™ ^aur or Ghor, a province beyond the Irt-
ireri" ^ian Caucasus ; while those contiguous to both shores
of the Indus were allowed to remain in the possession
of Chusero or Cusroe, whose capital was fixed at La¬
hore. In 1184 the posterity of this prince were dri¬
ven out of their territories by the Gaurides ; by which
means the Mohammedans became neighbours to the
Hindoos, and in a short time began to extend their
dominions to the eastward. In 1194 Mohammed Go-
n penetrated into Hindostan as far as Benares, and
repeated the same scenes of devastation which had for¬
merly taken place under Mahmud Gazni. At this pe-Hindostan.
riod Major Rennel is of opinion, that the purity of the » '
language of Hindostan began to decline, and conti¬
nued to do so till it became what it is at present $ the
original dialect being what is called the Sanscrit, and
which is now a dead language. Mohammed Gori al¬
so reduced the southern part of the province of Agi¬
mere, and the territory to the south of the river Jum¬
na, taking possession of the strong fortress of Gualior.
After his death in 1205, the empire of Gazna was
again divided ; and the Patan or Afghan empire was
founded by Cuttub, who had the Indian part, the Per¬
sian remaining to Eldoze. Cuttub fixed his imperial
residence at Delhi j and in 1210 the greatest part of
Hindostan Proper was conquered bv the emperor Al-
tumish, the successor of Cuttub. After his time the
government of Bengal was always bestowed upon one
of the reigning emperor’s sons j and during his reign
the bloody conqueror Jenghiz Khan put an end to the
other branch of the Gaznian empire, known by the
name of IC/iarasm ; of which revolution an account is
given under the article Gazna ; but Hindostan was at S
that time left undisturbed. In 1242 the Moguls began inTa-
to make irruptions into Hindostan, but did not at thissioB of the
time make any permanent conquest. The country
was now in much the same state in which it had been
before the invasion of the Mohammedans, viz. divided
into a great number of states tributary to the empe¬
ror, but in a great measure independent ; and which
did not fail to revolt whenever a favourable opportu¬
nity offered. The kingdom of Malwa, which had
been reduced by Cuttub in 1205, shook off the yoke
in the year 1265, and the Rajpoots were on every oc¬
casion ready to revolt, notwithstanding that their coun¬
try lay in the neighbourhood of the capital. The
most dreadful massacres, rebellions, and confusion^ now
took place, which, from that period almost to the time
that the British government commenced, made up the
history of Hindostan. I he empire being parcelled
out among a set of rapacious governors, the people
were reduced to the last degree of misery, and were at
last so far misled as to imagine that it was their interest
to take up arms, in order to render tliese governors in¬
dependent. Had the emperors of Hindostan consulted
their true interest, they would have given up the pro¬
vinces which lay beyond the upper part of the Indus
and the deserts of Agimere ; as these formed a bar¬
rier which could not easily be passed by any invader.
By neglecting this precaution, however, they at last
gave an opportunity to the Moguls to penetrate into
their country ; and these, after several invasions, be¬
came at last so formidable, that they were permitted by
the emperors, in the year 1292, to settle in . the coun¬
try. At this time the reigning emperor was Ferose II.
of the tribe of Chilhgi or Kiiligi, so named from Kil-
lige near the mountains of Gaur ; and in 1293 this The conn-
emperor projected the conquest of the Deccan; by which try of Dec-
was meant at that time all the territory lying to theca^ con'
southward of the Nerbudda and Mahanada and Caf>Aueret*‘
tack rivers ; an extent of dominion almost equal to aH .>
that he already possessed in Hindostan. Ferose was ■ *
incited to attempt this .by the riches of one of ;the
princes of Deccan ; and the person who proposed it
was one Alla, governor of Gurrah, a country nearly
bordering upon that which he was about to invade.
3 P 2 Alla,
H I N [ 484 ] H I N
MmdoUan. Alla, having accomplished his undertaking, during
f which he amassed an incredible quantity of treasure,
deposed and murdered the emperor, assuming to him¬
self the sovereignty of Hindostan. He then began a
new plan of conquest; and the first instance of his suc¬
cess was the reduction of Guzerat, a strong fortress,
which had hitherto remained independent, and, while
it continued so, was a strong obstacle to his designs
upon the Deccan. He next reduced Rantanpour and
Cheitore, two of the strongest forts in the Rajpoot
country. In 1303 the city of Warangole, capital of
a kingdom of the Deccan named Tellingana, was re¬
duced $ but in the midst of these conquests the Moguls
invaded the country from an opposite quarter, and plun¬
dered the suburbs of Delhi. Notwithstanding this
check the emperor resumed his plan of conquest j the
remainder of Malwa was subdued } and in 1306 the
conquest of the Deccan was again undertaken. The
conduct of the war was now committed to Cafoor j
who not only carried his army into Dowlatabad, but,
in 1310, penetrated into the Carnatic also. Ihe ex¬
tent of his conquests in that country is not known ; and
indeed his expeditions seem to have been made with a
view rather to plunder than to achieve any permanent
conquest. The quantity of riches he amassed was so
great, that the soldiers are said to have carried away
only the gold, leaving silver behind them as too cum¬
bersome. As the treasure carried off on this occasion
had been accumulating for a number of ages, it is pro¬
bable that the country had long remained in a state of
tranquillity.
Cafoor still proceeding in his conquests, ravaged a
second time the northern part of the Deccan, and
obliged the inhabitants of Tellingana and the Carnatic
to become tributary to him. Rebellions took place
in 1322; but the country was again reduced in 1326,
and the whole Carnatic ravaged from one sea to the
other. This year Alla died, and his successors, not
IO being possessed of his abilities, were unable to retain
ilevolts and the dominions he had left. Under the emperor Mo-
eonfusion hammed III. the people of the Deccan again revolt-
^hout an(j drove the Mohammedans so completely out of
empire these countries, that nothing remained to them but
the fortress of Dowlatabad. In 1344 the city of Bis-
nagar, properly Bijinagur^ was founded by Belaldeo
the king of Deccan, who had headed the inhabitants
in their late revolt. Mohammed in the mean time at¬
tempted to extend his dominions towards the east j but
while he employed himself in this, many provinces were
lost by rebellions in Bengal, Guzerat, and the Panjab.
His successor Ferose III. who ascended the throne in
1351, seemed more desirous of improving the remains
of his empire than of extending it j and, during his
reign, which continued for 37 years, agriculture and
the arts were the favourite objects of his pursuit. Af¬
ter his death, in 1388, a rebellion and civil war took
place, and continued for several years ; and matters
were brought to a crisis in the time of Mahmud III.
who succeeded to the throne in 1393 ; and, during
this time, the empire of Hindostan exhibited the sin-
it gular circumstance of two emperors residing in the
Conquest* same capital, and in arms against each other. While
tulcres'of maf^ers remained in this situation, Tamerlane, after
Tjiuierlaue.^ay'BS subdued all the western part of Tartary and
Asia, turned his arms against Hindostan ia the year
1398. His conquest was easy, and his behaviour such
as rendered him worthy of the name by which he is —-y^.
yet known in Hindostan, “ the destroying prince.”
After having brought into captiyity a vast number of
the poor inhabitants, he caused a general massacre to
be commenced lest they should join the enemy in case
of any sudden emergency $ and in consequence of this
cruel order, upwards of 100,000 were put to death in
one hour. In the beginning of the year 1399 he was
met by the Indian army, whom he defeated with great
slaughter, and soon after made himself master of the
imperial city of Delhi. At this time the capital con¬
sisted of three cities, named Old Delhi, Seyri, and Je-
han Denali. Seyri was surrounded with a wall in the
form of a circle j and Old Delhi was the same, but
much larger, lying to the south-west of the other.
These two were joined on each side by a wall: and the
third, which was larger than the other two, lay be¬
tween them. As the city made no resistance, there
could not be a pretence for using the inhabitants with
any cruelty: and thus matters passed on quietly till
the 12th of January, when the Tartar soldiers insulted
some of the inhabitants at one of the gates. The Emirs
were ordered to put a stop to these disorders, but found
it impossible. The Sultanas, having a curiosity to see
the rarities of Delhi, and particularly a famous palace
adorned with 1000 pillars built by an ancient Indian
king, went in with all the court $ and the gate being
thus left open for every body, above 15,000 soldiers
got in unperceived. But there was a far larger number
of troops in a place between the cities above mention¬
ed, who committed such disorders, that an insurrection
commenced j some of the inhabitants attacking them,
while others, in despair, set fire to their houses, and
burnt themselves with their wives and children. The
soldiers, taking advantage of this confusion, pillaged
the houses j while the disorder was augmented by the
admission of more troops, who seized the inhabitants
of the neighbouring cities that had fled to Delhi for
shelter. The Emirs caused the gates to be shut j but
they were quickly opened by the soldiers, who rose in
arms against their officers j so that, by the morning of
the next day, the whole army had entered, and the
city was totally destroyed. Some soldiers carried off
no fewer than 150 slaves, men, women, and children 5
nay, some of their boys had 20 slaves a-piece to their
share. The other spoils in jewels, plate, and manufac¬
tures, were immense j for the Indian women and girls
were all adorned with precious stones, and had brace¬
lets and rings on their hands, feet, and even toes, so
that the soldiers were loaded with them. On the 15th
the Indians attempted to defend themselves in the great
mosque of Old Delhi; but being attacked by the Tar¬
tars, they were all slaughtered, and towers erected.
A dreadful carnage now ensued throughout the whole
city, though several days elapsed before the inhabitants
could be forced to quit it entirely ; and as they went,
the Emirs took many of them into their service. 'Ih*
artisans were also distributed among the princes and
commanders, all but the masons, who were reserved
for the emperor, in order to build him a large stone
mosque at Samarcand.
After this terrible devastation, Tamerlane marched
into the different provinces of Hindostan, everywhere
defeating the Indians who opposed him, and slaughter¬
ing
H I N
nitas. *nS ^ie Gliebrs or worshippers of fire.
y-—/ March he retired, and thus set the miserable inhabU
tants free from the most bloody conqueror that had
ever invaded them. He did not, however, disturb the
succession to the throne, but left Mahmud in quiet
possession of it, reserving to himself only that of the
Panjab country. The death of Mahmud, which hap¬
pened in 1413, put an end to what is called the Patan
dynasty, founded by Cuttub in 1205. He was suc¬
ceeded by Chizer, who derived hi§ pedigree from the
impostor Mohammed, and his posterity continued to
enjoy it till the year 1450 $ when Belloli, an Afghan
of the tribe of Lodi, took possession of it, the reigning
prince Alla H. having abdicated the government. Un¬
der him all Hindostan was divided into separate states;
and a prince, whose title was the king of the east, who
resided at Jionpour in the province of Allahabad,
became so formidable, that the king of Delhi had only
a shadow of authority remaining to him. A consi¬
derable part of the empire, however, was recovered by
the son of Belloli ; who, in the year 1501, fixed his
royal residence at Agra. During his reign the Portu¬
guese first accomplished the passage to India by the
Cape of Good Hope, but they had no connection with
any other part of Hindostan than some maritime places
in the Deccan which had always been independent of
the court of Delhi. In 1561, during the reign of
Ibrahim II. matters fell into such confusion that Sul¬
tan Baber, a descendant of Tamerlane, found means
to conquer a very considerable part of the empire.
His first expedition took place in the year 1518; and
the year 1525 he made himself master of Delhi. In his
last invasion he is said to have brought with him only
10,000 horse ; having been furnished with the rest
by the disaffected subjects of the emperor. During
the five years that he reigned, his chief employment
was the reduction of some of the eastern provinces ;
but he had not time to compose the disturbances which
took place throughout the whole of his dominions.
On his death the seeds of rebellion, which Baber had
not been able to exterminate, produced so many re¬
volts and insurrections, that his son Humaioon, though
a prince of great abilities and virtue, was driven from
the throne, and obliged to take shelter among the Raj¬
poot princes of Agimere, where he lived in great
distress. During the time of his exile his son Ack-
bar was born, whom Mr Rennel looks upon to be
one of the greatest princes that ever sat on the throne
of Hindostan. The sovereignty was held in the mean
time by an usurper, named Sheerkhan, who in 1545
was killed at the siege of Cheitore, and buried in
i Re
Af
h *
m .
[ 485 1 H I N
On the 25th of merely that there was no actual rebellion. The first Hindostan.
years of his reign were spent in reducing the provinces ' 11 r
which had revolted from Agimere to Bengal ; and the
obedience of these he took care to secure as well as
possible by a careful choice of governors ; particularly
by an unlimited toleration in religious matters, and an
attention to the rights and privileges of the people. In
1585, he resolved to invade the Deccan, which had
hitherto resisted the power of the Mogul princes. The
war continued for 20 years ; during all which time no
farther progress was made than the reduction of the
western part of Berar, Candeish, Tellingana (a division
of Golconda), and the northern part of Amednagur ;
the capital of which, named also Amednagur, was taken
in l6oi, after a long and bloody siege, and an unsuccess¬
ful attempt of the princes of the Deccan to relieve it. M
Under his successor Jehan Guire, the project was but Bad eon-
faintly carried on ; the empire was disturbed by the re-duet of hi*
hellion of Shah Jehan the emperor’s son; and the jnflu-s,,cce®*®,,*
ence of Noor Jehan his mistress perplexed the councils
of the nation. In this prince’s reign Sir Thomas Roe,
the first English ambassador, arrived at the court of Hin¬
dostan. The Portuguese had now acquired considerable
possessions in Guzerat and Bengal, but only those in the
former provinces attracted the attention of the court;
so that the Persian historian takes no notice of those in
Bengal. In the reign of Shah Jehan, who succeeded
his father Jehan Guire in 1627, the conquest of the
Deccan was more vigorously pushed than before ; and
the war was carried on in such a destructive manner,
that most of the princes in those parts were fain to make
submission to the emperor. During this reign a war
took place with the Portuguese, which ended in the ex¬
pulsion of the latter from Hoogly on the Ganges. In
his private character Shah Jehan was a very debauched
and wicked prince, which gave occasion to one of his
sons nzmeft Aureng-z,ib,or Aui'eng-zebe, toAeihrone him.
This prince attained his end by a train of deep hypo-Tha empire
crisy and dissimulation ; covering his ambition with a1-^®*^0*18
pretence of religion, and under that pretence commit-j’r?a£est
ting the greatest crimes. He engaged in a war with 7^,1 ^
two of his brothers, both of whom he defeated by un- Z€'be
foreseen accidents, when he himself seemed to be on
the brink of destruction. Having at last got them in¬
to his power, he put them both to death, and then la¬
mented their misfortunes. One of his brothers who as¬
sisted him, was rewarded first with imprisonment, and
then with death. By the year 1660, he had attained
full possession of the sovereignty, and from that time
to the year 1678 there reigned a profound tranquil¬
lity throughout the whole empire. In the latter part
a magnificent mausoleum, of which Mr Hodges has of his reign he undertook the conquest of the Deccan,
fa 111 1 \ if/, rl r. * I .. rrn. ww* ■ A- I . „ A ^ am T 7* ~ n 4 _     1-   -   — a. —  1*1 I 1. 1 * • . V * 1
uf
exhibited a drawing in this country. His territories,
*t the time of his death, extended from the Indus to
Bengal ; but so unsettled was the government, that
after his decease no fewer than five sovereigns appeared
in the space of nine years. This induced a strong party
in Hindostan to recal Humaioon ; but he lived only
one year after his return.
In 1555, Humaioon was succeeded by his son Ack-
bar, at that time only 14 years of age. During his
long reign of 51 years, he established the empire on a
more sure foundation than it had probably ever been
before; though even at this time Mr Rennel is of opi¬
nion, that all the tranquillity enjoyed by the people was
to which he was supposed to be incited by the resolu¬
tion and growing power of Sevagee, the founder of the
Mahratta state ; and who, in that character, appeared
almost as a rival to Aureng-zebe himself. Having
quelled a rebellion of the Patans, who lived beyond the
Indus, he persecuted the Hindoos to such a degree,
that the Rajpoot tribes in Agimere commenced a war
against him. On this occasion he headed his armies
also in person ; but having the misfortune to be hem¬
med in among the mountains, he would certainly have
been taken prisoner, had not the enemy thought pro¬
per to allow him to escape. They allowed also the
empress to make her escape, after she had been actually
taken.
H I N
lli»d»,um. taken. In 16S1, he renewed Ilia
 country, took and destroyed Checture, committing
other devastations, and everywhere destroying the Hin-
bnt notwithstand-
15
Its qaick
decline un
d«e his sue
cessors.
doo temples and objects of worship ,
ing all his efforts, he was at last obliged to abandon his
enterprise, and allow them to remain in peace. From
the year idyS to the time of his death in lyoy, he
is said to have been chiefly employed in the Deccan,
the greatest part of which be reduced, and for the last
five years of his life is said to have been actually em*
ployed in the field. This long absence from his capi-
taf could not but be productive of bad consequences.
Rebellions broke out in various parts of the empire ;
and during this period, the Jats or Jauts first made
their appearance in the province of Agra. They were
at first only a set of banditti; but have since grown to
be a very considerable state, and once were of some
consequence in Upper Hindostan. After the 10th
year of Aureng-zebe’s reign, however, we know very
little of his transactions, as he would not allow any hi¬
story of it to be written. At the time of his death the
empire extended from the 10th to the 35th degree of
latitude, and almost as many degrees in longitude.
“ His revenue (says Major Rennel) exceeded 35 mil¬
lions of pounds sterling, in a country where the pro¬
ducts of the earth are about four times as cheap as in
England. But so weighty a sceptre could be wielded
only by a hand like Aureng-zebe’s ; and we accordingly
find, that in the course of 50 years after his death, a suc¬
cession of weak princes and wicked ministers reduced
this astonishing empire to nothing.”
Aureng-zebe left four sons ; Mausum, afterwards em¬
peror, under the title of Bahader Shah ; Azem, Kaum
Bush, and Acbar, who had been obliged to fly to Per¬
sia 30 years before, on account of his having engaged
in rebellion against his father. A civil war instantly
commenced between Azem and Mausum ; the event of
which was decided in a great battle, where 300,000
combatants were brought into the field on each side.
In this battle Azem was defeated and killed $ after
which Mausum ascended the throne by the title of Ba¬
hader Shah. He was a prince of considerable abili¬
ties ; but the disorders of the empire were already risen
to such an height, that during his short reign of five
years, he found it impossible to compose them. He
was first engaged in war with his brother Kaum Bush,
whom he also defeated and killed j. after which his at¬
tention was engaged by the Seiks, a new set of religion¬
ists, who, during the reign of Shah Jehan, had silent¬
ly established themselves along the foot of the eastern
mountains. They now appeared in arms in the pro¬
vince of Lahore, and ravaged the whole country from
thence to the banks of the Jumna. The emperor march¬
ed against these adversaries in person, and with great
difficulty brought them under subjection. He then
took up his residence at Lahore, where he died after
a short illness, without having ever visited the imperial
cities of Agra or Delhi.
After the death of Bahader Shah the empire was
again contested among his four sons. Of these the se¬
cond, named Azem Ooshaun, took possession of the
treasures j but was opposed by his three brothers, who
agreed to divide the empire among them. Azem was
defeated and killed in a battle, gained chiefly by the
valour and conduct of the youngest named Shah Jehan ;
J
[ 486 , ] H I N
incursions into that who seemed resolved to abide by the agreement, and as Hindoiua
a proof of his sincerity, ordered the treasures to be di- 1—v  
vided. This was prevented by the intrigues of Zool-
fecar-khan, an omrah in high trust. A new civil war
commenced, in which Jehan Shah was killed. The
two remaining brothers tried their fortune in a third
battle, which left Jehauder, the eldest, in possession of
the throne. In nine months he was dethroned by Fe-
raksere, or Furroksere, son to the deceased Azem Oo¬
shaun ; having, during his short reign, displayed almost
unparalleled meanness of spirit.
This revolution was accomplished by the assistance
of two brothers, Houssein Ali Khan and Abdoolla
Khan, who had extensive governments in the eastern
provinces. The calamities of the empire were not at
all abated during this reign. In I7I3 Seiks ap¬
peared again in arms j and in 1716 were grown so
formidable, that the emperor himself was obliged to
march against them } but we are totally ignorant of the
particulars of this campaign. About this time
the Firman
English East India Company obtained the famous F/r-j^an^t0
man or grant, by which their goods of export and im- ^
port were exempted from duties or customs; which
was regarded as the company’s commercial charter in
India, while they stood in need of protection from the
princes of that country.
Feroksere was deposed, and his eyes put out, by the
two brothers who had raised him to the throne ; and in
the course of the same year two other emperors, whom
they afterwards set up, were deposed and murdered;
and thus, in eleven years after the death of Aureng-
zebe, II princes of his line, who had either mounted
the throne, or been competitors for it, were extermi¬
nated, while the government declined with such rapi¬
dity, that the empire seemed ready to be dismembered
to a greater degree than it had even been before the
invasion of Tamerlane. In 1718 the two brothers
raised to the throne Mohammed Shah, the grandson
of Bahader Shah ; but this prince having got sufficient
warning by the fate of his predecessors, took care to
rid himself of these powerful subjects, though this could
not be accomplished without a civil war. New ene¬
mies, however, started up. Nizam-al-Mulk, viceroy
of the Deccan, had been for some time augmenting
his power by every possible method, and was evidently
aspiring at independence. Having received some af¬
fronts from the two brothers, who for some time had
ruled every thing with an absolute, sivay, he thought
proper to retire to his government. In 1722 he was
invited to court, and offered the place of vizier or prime
minister, but declined accepting it, while the growing
and formidable power of the Mahrattas furnished him
with a pretence for augmenting his army. At last,
having by the year 1738 attained a sufficient degree
of strength to accomplish his purposes, and confident
of his having a large party at court, he came thither
attended by a great body of armed followers. Find¬
ing, however, that the interest of the emperor was still
too powerful for him, he invited the celebrated Persian 17
usurper Nadir Shah, commonly known by the narneinvasior
of Kouli Khan, to invade Hindostan. The invitation of
was accepted, and Nadir entered the country without
opposition. The imperial general Douran being killed
in a skirmish, no decisive engagement took place ; and
the Persian chief, though far advanced into Hindostan,
yet
H I N [ 487 ]
ostan. looked upon matters to be so uncertain, that he be fast approaching.
iter
offered to evacuate the country and retire for 50 lacks
of rupees, about half a million sterling. The intrigues
of the Nizam and his party hindered the emperor from
complying with this moderate demand; instead of
which he absurdly threw himself upon the usurper’s
mercy, who then took possession of Delhi, demanding
a ransom of 30 millions sterling. At an interview with
the emperor, he severely reprimanded him for his mis¬
conduct ; however, he told him, that as he was of the
race of Timur (Tamerlane), who had not offended the
reigning family of Persia, he would not take the em¬
pire from him j only as he had put him to the trouble
of coming so far to settle his affairs, he insisted that his
expences should be paid. The unfortunate emperor
made no answer to this speech ) hut Nadir took care
to enforce the latter part of it. Some time after the
departure of the emperor, Nadir went to the camp to
pay him a visit; where he seized upon 200 cannon,
with some treasure and valuable effects, sending them
off immediately to Candahar. He then marched back
to Delhi, where a mob arose about the price of corn.
As Nadir Shah was endeavouring to quell it, a musket
was designedly fired at him, by which he narrowly es-
ii5tantsCape<1 ^emg k.'lled' Exasperated at this, he command-
!jh- “ed an indiscriminate massacre to be made, which his
cruel soldiers instantly put in execution with the greatest
alacrity, and 120,000, or, according to others, 150,000,
of the miserable inhabitants were slaughtered without
mercy. This was followed by a seizure of all the
jewels, plate, and valuable articles which could be
found, besides the exaction of the 30 millions, which
was done with the utmost rigour j insomuch that many
of the inhabitants chose rather to put an end to their
own lives than to bear the torments to which they
were subjected in case of inability to pay the sum im¬
posed upon them. During these horrid scenes, Nadir
caused the marriage ot his son to be celebrated with a
grand-daughter of Aureng-zebe ; and alter having ex¬
torted every thing which he demanded, at last took
leave of the emperor with every mark of friendship.
He put the crown upon his head with his own hands j
and alter having given him some salutary advice rela¬
tive to the government of his empire, he set out from
Delhi on the 6th of May 1739.
By this invasion the empire sustained prodigious loss,
stan Since the arrival of Nadir in Hindostan, about 200,000
’<s peop.e had been destroyed, and goods and treasure car-
Ult' r‘e(i oft to the amount of 125 millions sterling. Mo¬
hammed had ceded to the usurper all the provinces of
Hindostan situated to the west of the Indus. His de¬
parture left the Nizam in possession of all the remain-
mg power of the empire, which he instantly made use
of to establish himself in the sovereignty of the Deccan.
Hie province of Bengal had already become indepen¬
dent under Aliverdy Cawn, in the year 1738 ; and not
long after, it was invaded by a vast army of Mahrattas
under sanction of the emperor’s name ; who being un¬
able to satisfy them in the arrears of tribute he had
been obliged to consent to pay, sent them into Bengal
to collect for themselves. About the same time, the
Bobillas, a tribe from the mountains which lie between
India and Persia, erected an independent state on the
east ot the Ganges, within 80 miles of Delhi.
The total dissolution of the empire seemed now to
9
able
of
MIN
In the confusion which took Hindostan
place after the murder of Nadir Shah, Abdallah, one ' J
of his generals, seized upon the eastern part of Persia,
and the adjoining provinces of India, which had been
ceded to Nadir by Mohammed Shah ; which he formed
into a kingdom still known by the name of Canda¬
har or Abdalli; of which a more particular account is
given in the subsequent part of this article.
This year Mohammed Shah died, after a reign of
29 years ; which, considering the fate of his immediate
predecessors, and the anarchy universally prevalent
throughout Hindostan, must be accounted very won¬
derful. He was succeeded by his son Ahmed Shah ;
during whose reign, which lasted about six years, the
total division of the remainder of the empire took
place. Nothing now remained to the family of Ta¬
merlane but a small tract of territory round the city of
Delhi, now no longer a capital, and exposed to the re¬
peated depredations of invaders, with consequent mas¬
sacres and famines. The last army which could with
propriety be termed imperial, was defeated by the Ro-
hillas in 1749 > ^7 vvhich their independence was fully
established in the eastern parts of the province of Del¬
hi. The Jauts, or Jats, a Hindoo tribe, established
themselves in the province of Agra ; the Deccan and
Bengal were seized upon by their viceroys, Nizam and
Aliverdy. Oude was seized on by Seifdar Jang (fa¬
ther to the late Sujah Dowlah) ; Allahabad by Moham¬
med Kooli. Malwa was divided between the Poonah
Mabrattas and several native princes and zemindars :
Agimere reverted of course to its ancient lords, the Raj¬
poot princes j and the Mahrattas, in addition to their
proper share of Malwa, possessed the greatest part of
Guzerat, Berar, and Orissa ; besides their ancient do¬
minions in the Deccan. These people were now be¬
come so powerful, that they were alternately courted
and employed by the contending parties, like the Swiss
in Europe j with this difference, that the Swiss are paid
by those who employ them, whereas the Mabrattas al¬
ways take care to pay themselves. Abdallah having
established his empire in the manner above related, en¬
tered Lahore and Moultan, or the Panjab, with a view
to conquest. “ The whole country of Hindustan was
in commotion (says Major Rennel) from one entrance
to the other, each party fearing the machinations or
attacks of the other ; so that all regular government
W'as at an end, and villany was practised in every form.
Perhaps in the annals of the world it has seldom hap¬
pened that the bonds of government were so suddenly
dissolved, over a portion of country containing at least
60 millions of inhabitants.”
In 1748 the Nizam died at the age of 104, and was fim ja{€r_
succeeded by his son Nazirjung, to the prejudice of hisference of
eldest brother Gazi, vizier to the nominal emperor.terrene]*
Hie contest that followed on this occasion for the
throne of the Deccan, and nabobship of Arcot, first *«■. j1*' t!'t
engaged the Trench and English as auxiliaries on op-
posite sides. This was followed by a long series of ho¬
stilities, which terminated in the total expulsion of the
French from Hindostan, the entire humiliation of the
Mogul, and his being reduced to the state of depen¬
dence on the English East India Company j together with
the subjection of a vast tract of country to the latter.
These transactions have occasioned very considerable
revolutions, not only in the country properly called
Hindostariy
H I N
[ 488 ]
H I N
Hindustan, Hindostan, but in other places : for an account of which,
« .--v—„.r an(] 0f some later revolutions, see the articles India in
this work, and in the SUPPLEMENT.
The vast country of Hindostan, before the revolution,
alluded to, was divided among the following powers.
divided.
11
Different
powers
which*Hin- I. Timur Shah, son of Ahmed Shah, or Abdallah,
dostan is possessed an extent of territory to the north-westward
before we come to the river Indus. Ibis country, ex¬
tending all the way betwixt India and Persia, is known
by the name of Duran, or Turan ; and was possessed
by the Afghans, of whom Abdallah became the sove¬
reign. He was descended from an illustrious family ;
and having the misfortune of being taken prisoner by
Hussein Khan, then chief of Candahar, along with
bis brother Zulfecur Khan, they were released by
the celebrated Nadir Shah in his passage through that
country to Hindostan j but as that conqueror still
looked upon them with a jealous eye on account of
their great influence with their countrymen, both were
sent to Mazandaran in Persia. Here Zulfecur Khan,
the brother of Ahmed, died ; and, some time after,
we find the latter promoted to the command of a body
of Afghan cavalry in the Persian army. He continued
attached to the interests of Nadir while that conqueror
lived; and even attempted, though ineffectually, to
revenge his death. Proving unsuccessful in this at¬
tempt, he returned to his own country *, and, arriving
at Candahar, was saluted chief of the Afghans. In
the course of a few months he became master of all
the countries which the Mogul had been obliged to
cede to Nadir Shah ; and, encouraged by the distracted
state of the affairs of Hindostan at that time, he crossed
the Indus, and plundered the country to the south¬
east. An indecisive battle fought with the Indian
army under the command of the prince royal and
vizier, in which the latter was killed, obliged Ahmed
to return to his own territories j but he soon undertook
another expedition, in which he conquered the pro¬
vince of Lahore. In 1755 he returned j and after
staying some time at Lahore, marched to Delhi the
capital, having been invited thither, as was supposed,
by the.Mogul himself, in order to get rid of the ty¬
ranny of his vizier. The latter was accordingly de¬
serted in a battle by orders of the emperor, and obli¬
ged to surrender himself prisoner 5 but instead of be¬
ing put to death, he had the address to ingratiate
himself with the conqueror j and the unfortunate Al-
lumghire, the Mogul, was obliged to submit to be
ruled by him as before^ Ahmed took care to indem¬
nify himself for his trouble, by laying the city of Delhi
under a heavy contribution j and having staid for about
a month, during which time he concluded a marriage
betwixt his son Timur and the emperor’s niece, he
marched against a tribe of Hindoos named the Jauts,
and conquered the greatest part of the province of
Agra. In this expedition he surprised the city of
Matra, famous for being the birth-place of Krishen,
the Apollo of the Hindoos j and sacrificed to the Gopia,
the muses of the country. He failed in his attempt to
surprise Agra through the resolution of Fazil Cawn the
governor •, after which he led back his troops to Delhi,
where he married the daughter of Mohammed Shah the
late emperor, whom Allumghire had in vain solicited
for himself.
Having settled his sou Timur in the government of
3
Lahore, Ahmed quitted Hindustan, and returned to Hiadoiu
his dominions, where he found every thing in confu- '—vi¬
sion. Timur, who during his father’s absence had
been frequently disturbed by the Seiks, a tribe of Hin¬
doos who profess deism, was in 1760 driven out by a
vast army of Mahrattas commanded by Ilagonaut Row
the Peishwa’s brother, of whom so much mention has
already been made. Next year, however, Ahmed
crossed the Indus, and easily recovered his former ter¬
ritories j soon after which he became head of a league
formed among some of the Indian princes, in order to
oppose the overgrown power of the Mahrattas. In
this enterprise he proved successful j and overthrew the
Mahrattas in a decisive and very bloody battle, in
which more than 50,000 of them were killed on the
spot. The pursuit lasted several days, and their vast
army was totally dispersed j Ahmed being every¬
where received with acclamations as the deliverer of
the faithful. In 1762 he again crossed the Indus, with
a view to conquer, or rather to exterminate, the Seiks,
whose incursions had become very troublesome, and
even dangerous to his kingdom. Having defeated
their army, and forced them to take refuge in the
woods and strong holds, he set a price on the heads of
all those who professed their tenets ; and that with
such success, that heaps of them are said to have been
piled up in all the principal towns in these parts. At
last, hearing that they had assembled in great numbers
to celebrate an annual festival, he marched with an
army to surprise them. The Seiks, however, were
well provided for his reception, and an obstinate battle
ensued. During the time of the engagement an eclipse
of the sun happened, which, though disregarded by
the Seiks, greatly dismayed the superstitious Moham¬
medans. Ahmed was therefore defeated ; and though
he frequently returned, was never able thoroughly to
subdue that people. At last, having been long afflict¬
ed with an ulcer in his face, he died on the 15th of
July 1773, at a place named Kohtoba, among the
mountains of Candahar, to which he had retired for
the sake of coolness, and was succeeded by his son
Timur, who still continues to enjoy the sovereignty.
The dominions of this prince extend a very consider¬
able way to the northward of the Indus, but he pos¬
sesses nothing in Hindostan besides the province of
Kashmire.
2. The Seiks inhabit a country on the other side of
the Indus, and making part of Hindostan propej iy so
called. They derive their origin from a Hindoo named
Nanuck of the cast of Khatry. His father, named
Baba Caloo, possessed a small district in the province of
Lahore named Telvandi, where Nanuck was born m
the year 1470. Like other founders of new sects or
nations, he is said during his infancy to have given
many indications of his future superiority to the rest
of mankind. He seems, however, to have received
no farther education than what was common to young
men of his cast, viz. reading, writing, and arithmetic,
and hearing the sastras or commentaries on the sacred
books. In his early youth he was married to a woman
of his own cast, by whom he had two sons. Being *
eonvert to the worship of the Invisible, or deism, he
accustomed himself to declaim against the folly of wor¬
shipping idols, and the impiety of paying adoration to
any but the Supreme Being. At the age of 25 he left
1ms
H I N C 489 ] H I N
lostan. his family to visit Bengal, and the eastern parts of Hin-
Y—> dostan ; in a second journey he visited the southern, and
in a third he went as far as Persia and Arabia. On
his return from this last journey, he expressed a desire
of remaining in his native country ; and was furnished,
according to his wish, with a piece of ground on the
hanks of the river Bavy, about 80 miles north-eastward
from the city of Lahore. Here he took up his resi¬
dence for the rest of his days ; and choosing to be free
from the cares of this world, he dwelt at a distance
from his wife and children, who came occasionally to
visit him. Having acquired great reputation for his
piety, wisdom, and learning, he died at the age of *70;
and since his death the place of his abode has obtained
the name of Dihra Daira, or “ the place of worship.”
His eldest son founded a sect of devotees named Nanuck
Shoiy ; but his second employed himself in the usual oc¬
cupations of mankind. On account of the oppression
of the Mohammedan governors, however, he removed
from Telvandi, the estate of his ancestors, and settled at
Kartarpour, which his descendants still possess. They
are respected by the Seiks on account of their being the
posterity of Nanuck, but are not held in any veneration
on a religious account.
The doctrines of Nanuck were taught by a favourite
disciple of his named Lhina, but on whom he bestowed
on his deathbed the appellation of Angud. By him
the doctrines of the sect were collected in a work
named Pothy, or “ the book 5” and an history of tiie
life of Nanuck himself was given in another named
Jenum Sakky. Both these were written in a particular
kind of character called Gour Mouekty, and said to have
been invented by Nanuck himself. Angud named for
his successor another disciple cnWeA Amerdoss; and this
method of continuing the succession seems to have been
practised as long as the disciples continued to own one
supreme chief.
For many years the Seiks lived in peace, and gained
the good-will of the Mohammedan governors by their
quiet and inoffensive behaviour. By degrees their
numbers and their power greatly increased, but in
proportion to their good fortune, they seem to have
lost their virtue j so that their gourous, or chiefs, who
had hitherto borne the character of apostles, at last
stood forth as military leaders. The first of these was
named Taigh, whose successor, named Govand Sing,
was the tenth and last of the gourous. He engaged in
a rebellion against the government 3 but was at last
obliged to submit, and even attended the emperor
Bahader Shah in person. At last he was assassinated
by a Petan soldier, not without a suspicion of the
emperor himself being concerned. As he did not
name a successor, his followers chose a chief for them¬
selves named Banda, who soon began to make depre¬
dations on his neighbours 3 but being at last taken pri¬
soner, and sent to Delhi with his family and many of
his countrymen, they were all put to an ignominious
death. By this execution the Seiks were so much ex¬
asperated, that they swore eternal vengeance against
the Mohammedans, and have ever since manifested a
most implacable hatred against them. Taking advan¬
tage of the distraction of the Mogul empire by the
invasion of Nadir Shah, they conquered several pro¬
vinces. Wherever they came they threw down the
mosques, and obliged every one to quit the country
Vol. X. Part II. ' f
who refused to embrace their tenets. The war with
Ahmed Shah has been already mentioned. Since his
death they have recovered all the territories they lost
during their contest with him 5 and now possess the
greatest part of Moultan, as well as several districts in
the province of Delhi 3 including in their territories
the whole of that rich country named the Panjab, on ac¬
count of five rivers which descend from the northern
mountains, and inclose or intersect it, running after¬
wards into the Indus.
The Seiks, as has already been mentioned, worship
one God ; but without image, or believing in any me¬
diator. They eat all kinds of meat except beef 3 spa¬
ring the black cattle, in all probability, on account of
their utility. Pork is very generally eaten, probably
on account of its being forbidden by the Mohamme¬
dans. They are commonly dressed in blue, a colour
reckoned unlucky by the other Hindoos. Their dress
consists of blue trowsers of cotton, a sort of plaid ge7
nerally chequered with blue and thrown over the right
shoulder, with a blue turban. Their government is
lodged in an assembly of different chiefs, but who as
individuals, are independent of one ar other, and have
separate territories. They meet annually, or oftener
if occasion requires, at a place called Anlberser, which
is held in a kind of religious veneration ; where there
is a large tank lined with granite, and surrounded with
buildings, and beautifully ornamented. Their force is
very considerable, amounting to no fewer than 200,000
cavalry. However, they can seldom be brought to
act in concert, unless the whole-nation be threatened
with some imminent danger. They are a strong hardy
race of men, and capable of bearing much fatigue ;
and so expert in war, that of late almost all the neigh¬
bouring countries have been laid under contribution
by them, several petty chiefs having consented to pay
them a small annual tribute in order to avoid their in¬
cursions. When in the field, none but the principal
officers have tents, and those extremely small, so that
they may be struck and transported with the greater
quickness and facility. In cold weather the soldiers
wrap themselves during the night in a coarse blanket,
which in the time of marching is folded and carried
on their horse. Their country is well cultivated, po¬
pulous, and abounding in cattle, particularly horses,
which are reckoned the best in all Hindostan. This
may probably be owing to the studs which were for¬
merly established in different places of the province of
Lahore on account of the Mogul himself. Stallions
were sent thither from Persia and Arabia, and there
was a fixed order to send to the studs in Lahore all
such Arabian and Persian horses as by any accident
should be rendered unfit for mounting. Notwithstand¬
ing their deism, the Seiks are said to have a supersti¬
tious veneration for their sword ; insomuch, that before
one of them will eat with a person of another religion,
he draws his sword, and passing it over the victuals,
repeats some words of prayer, after which he will
freely partake of them. Contrary to the practice
of all the other Hindoos, they dislike the smoking
of tobacco 3 but many of them smoke and chew
bang, which sometimes produces a degree of intoxi¬
cation.
3. The provinces of Delhi have, in the course of a
few years, frequently changed their masters, but have .
3 Q scarce
HIM [ 490 3 H I N
Hindustan, scarce at any period during that time been under the
authority of the sovereign. Their last governor was
named Nadjiff Khan, under the title of generalissimo
of the emperor. He was involved in the ruin of Mo¬
hammed Kouly Khan, cousin to Soujah al Dowlah :
after which he went to Cassim Aly Khan nabob of
Bengal ; after whose expulsion he retired with a party
of horse to Bundelcund into the service of Rajah Coman
Sing. He next joined the English 5 and at last became
the general of Shah Allum. With a body of English
seapoys who had been put under his command, and
some other troops whom he had taken into his service,
he subdued the countries near Delhi, conquered almost
all the territories of the Jauts, reducing the cities of
Agra, Dieg, and other principal towns. These con¬
quests were indeed effected in the name of the Mogul,
but he derived little benefit from them j Nadjiff being
the real master, and keeping possession of them till his
death, which happened in 1782: and since that time
the countries we speak of have been involved in a scene
of continual anarchy and bloodshed.
4. Next to the provinces of Delhi are the dominions
of the independent rajahs, whose dominions lie conti¬
guous to one another. The principal are those of
Joinagar, or Jaypour, Joadpour, orMarwar, Oudiapour
or Chitore, and Jesalmire. These countries are under
a kind of feudal constitution, and every village is ob¬
liged to furnish a certain number of horseman at the
shortest warning. The people are brave, hardy, and
very much attached to their respective chiefs j and their
army is very formidable, amounting when collected to
about 150,000 horsemen.
5. The Jauts were a tribe who followed the occu¬
pation of agriculture in the northern part of Hindos-
tan. About 40 years ago they were formed into a
nation by Tackou Souragemul, proprietor of an in¬
considerable district. After making himself master of
all the countries dependant on Agra, of the town it¬
self, and many other important places, he was killed
in battle with Nadjib ul Dowlah, the Rohilla chief, in
1763. Since that time the power of this people has
been so much reduced by domestic contentions and
foreign wars, that the present rajah possesses only a
strong town named Bartpoor, with a small district
around it. The Jauts, however, it is said, are now
manifesting a martial disposition, and thus may possibly
be soon in a condition to recover their former extent
of territory.
6. The most considerable of all the Hindoo powers
are the Mahrattas, with whom the Europeans first
became acquainted in their original territories of Ma¬
labar. The first of their chiefs was named Seevct, or
Secva-jee; who is said to have been descended from the
ancient Hindoo emperors, and whose father was lord of
a small district, for which he paid tribute to the Mo¬
hammedan king of Viziapour. For some reason, un¬
known to us, he was at last arrested by order of that
king, and died in confinement j but his son Seeva-jee
took up arms in defence of his country, and made him¬
self master of several important places, with a consider¬
able tract of territory, which were afterwards ceded to
him by the queen regent, the king of Viziapour having
died soon after the commencement of the war.
Seeva-jee having thusestablished himself, soon became
formidable to his neighbours. Many of the Hindoo
princes put themselves under his protection, and he atHinciostat
length ventured to make war upon the emperor Aureng- w-
zebe. In this he proved unsuccessful, was taken prisoner,
and carried to Delhi. Having found means, however, to
make his escape, he quickly recommenced hostilities j
and the emperor, who was now far advanced in life,
thought proper to come to an accommodation with so
troublesome an enemy. On this occasion the Mahrat¬
tas pretend that their prince obtained a grant of 10 per
cent, on all the revenues of the Deccan j which has
often served as a pretence to invade that country, and
levy contributions on the southern nabobs. Since that
time the Mahrattas have become so powerful, that all
the princes of Hindostan are alarmed when they put
themselves in motion. Their territories extend about
1000 miles in length and 700 in breadth j and they
are governed by a number of separate chiefs, all of
whom acknowledge the Ram Rajah as their sovereign,
and all except Moodajee Booslah acknowledge the
Paishwa as his vicegerent. The capital of the sovereign
was Sattarah ; but the Paishwa generally resides at
Poonah, one degree to the southward, and about too
miles distant from Bombay. The country extends along
the coast nearly from Goa to Cambay. On the south it
borders on the territories of Tippoo Saib ; on the east
it has those of the Nizam and the rajah of Berar j
and on the north those of the Mahratta chiefs Sin-
dia and Holkar.
7. The rajah of Berar, besides that country, has
the greatest part of Orixa. His dominions extend
about 600 miles in length from east to west, and 250
from north to south. The eastern part of Orixa ex¬
tends along the sea-coast for about 150 English miles,
and divides the British possessions in Bengal from those
commonly called the Northern Circars. On the west
his territories border upon those of the Paishwa; on
the south, upon those of the Nizam, Mahomet Hyat a
Patan chief, Nizam Shah, and Ajid-Sing. The rajah
himself resides at Nagarpour, about midway betwixt
Calcutta and Bombay.
8. Madajee Sindia, has the greatest part of the govern¬
ment of Malva, together with the province of Can-
deish. The remainder is under the government of Hol¬
kar ; who, as well as Sindia, pretends to be descended
from the ancient kings of Malva. The principal resi¬
dence of Sindia is at Ugein near the city of Mundu,
which was once the capital of these kings. Holkar re¬
sides at Indoor, a town little more than 30 miles to the
westward of the former. The dominions of these, and
some other princes of smaller note, extend as far as the
river Jumna.
The two last-mentioned princes, though properly
Mahrattas, own no allegiance to the Ram Rajah, or
great chief to whom the main body are nominally sub¬
ject. Some time ago the Mahrattas aimed at the con¬
quest of all Hindostan, and even avowed a design of
expelling all the Mohammedan princes; but their power
was effectually checked by the British, and their dissen¬
sions among themselves put an end to all schemes ol that
kind. Still, however, they were ready to watch every
opportunity of invading the territories of their neigh¬
bours ; and their resources being so considerable, they
were deservedly accounted a very formidable enemy.
The strength of their army consists chiefly in cavalry;
and both men and horse are capable of enduring a great
H I N [ 491 ] H I N
‘ l dostan. deal of fatigue. Bodies of 50 or 60,000 cavalrj' have
' ~i been known to travel 50 miles a day for many days
together; which, considering the excessive heat of the
country, must certainly appear very surprising. The
country abounds very much in horses, and there is one
kind named the Rheemerteddy horse, which is greatly
esteemed, and sold at a very high price. The com¬
mon horse of these parts is lean and looks ill, but is
abundantly fit for the purposes of war. The only
weapon used by the horsemen is a sabre ; in the use of
which they are so dexterous, that it is supposed the best
European hussar would not be more than a match for
a Mahratta horseman. There are considerable studs
in every province belonging to the Paishwa and dif¬
ferent chiefs; and there are likewise many jundis or
great herds of horses belonging to particular persons,
who turn those they have no occasion for loose in the
open plains.
The Mahratta horsemen are dressed in a quilted
jacket of cotton, which is supposed to be one of the
best defences against a sword that can easily be con¬
trived of equal lightness; but the heat of the climate
frequently renders it necessary to be taken oft’. The
rest of their dress consists of a pair of trowsers, and a
kind of broad turban which descends low enough to
cover the neck and shoulders. In cases of emergency
the horsemen carry provision both for themselves and
their horses in small bags tied upon the saddles : the
food of the rider consists only of a few small cakes with
a little flour or rice, and some salt and spices; the
horse is fed with a kind of pease named gram, or with
balls made of the flour of these pease mixed with but¬
ter, prepared after a certain manner, and named ghee,
together with some garlic and hot spices. These balls
are given by way of cordial, and have the property of
invigorating the animal after extraordinary fatigue.
Sometimes it it is said that they add a small quantity
dibang; a kind of drug which possesses an exhilarating
virtue, and produces some degree of intoxication.
The Mahratta cavalry seldom make any use of tents ;
even the officers frequently have no other accommoda¬
tion than a small carpet to sit and lie on ; and a single
camel is able to carry the whole baggage of the general.
The officers, however, are generally well mounted, and
have spare horses in the field.
All the subjects and vassals of the Mahratta princes
are generally ready to follow them into the field ; and
in any case in which the honour or interest of the na¬
tion appears to be concerned, they generally unite in
the common cause. Before they invade any country,
the general is at great pains to inform himself of the
nature and situation of it: and they have now made
incursions into so many different parts of Hindo-
stan, that there are very few countries there with
which they are not very well acquainted. Their great
sobriety, and the fatigue they are capable of undergo¬
ing, render them very dangerous enemies. In all their
expeditions the soldier first provides for his horse, and
then goes to his own meal; after which he lies down
contented by the side of the animal, and is ready to
mount him at the first sound of the nagar or great
drum. They have their horses under the most excel¬
lent management; and by perpetually caressing and
conversing with them, the animals acquire a degree of
docility and sagacity unknown in other countries.
When on an expedition, the horses are accustomed to Hindostan.
eat grass pulled up by the roots, which is said to be * —y- .i*
very nutritive, and to be destitute of that purgative
quality which belongs to the blade alone. When they
make an invasion, the devastation is terrible; the cattle
are driven off, the harvest destroyed, the villages burn¬
ed, and every human creature destroyed who comes
in their way. Notwithstanding this barbarity in time
of war, however, they are very humane in time of
peace, living in great harmony among themselves, and
being always ready to entertain and assist strangers.
Many of the cruelties they commit may be justly reck¬
oned the effects of retaliation for other cruelties exer¬
cised upon them by their adversaries. Thus, in 1771,
after having given Hyder Ally a great defeat, they cut
off the ears and noses of a whole regiment of prisoners,
and in that condition sent them back to their comman¬
der, in return for his having done the same to a few
prisoners he had taken some time before.
The revenue of the Paishwa is very considerable;
being not less than ten millions sterling; but after de¬
ducting the expence of collection, and the expence of
troops kept in readiness for the service of the state, it
is supposed that he cannot receive more than four
millions. From this again we must deduct the ex-
pences of the troops immediately belonging to the
Paishwa himself, and which may amount to about three
millions sterling; so that there remains a surplus only
of one million after paying all the necessary expences
of government. This nevertheless has been managed
with such economy, that though long and expensive
wars were carried on after the death of Narrain Row,
the state was not only clear of debt, but there was a
surplus of two millions in the treasury, which Rogobah
dissipated.
9. The Deccan, as left in 1748 by Nizam al Mulek,
was by far the most important and extensive soubadary
or viceroyship in the empire. It then surpassed in size
the largest kingdom in Europe ; but since that time
many provinces have been conquered by the Mahrattas,
and the northern Circars by the British. The posses¬
sions of the Nizam are also diminished by the cession
of the Carnatic to the nabob of Arcot; great part of
the territories of TippooSaib; and many other pro¬
vinces of less note. Still, however, the Nizam possesses
very considerable territories ; but his finances are in such
a wretched condition, and his provinces so ill govern¬
ed, that he is accounted a prince of no consequence,
though otherwise he might be reckoned one of the most
considerable powers of Hindostan.
10. The dominions of Tippoo Saib, the son and suc¬
cessor of Hyder Ally, are bounded on the north by the
territories of the Paishwa ; on the south by Travancore,
the territory of an independent Hindoo prince ; on the
west by the sea ; and on the east by a great ridge of
mountains, which separate them from the territories of
the nabob of Arcot. The country lying to the eastward
of these mountains is called the Carnatic Payen Ghat,
and to the westward the Carnatic Phalla Ghat. The
latter belongs to Tippoo Saib; and the two toge¬
ther make up the country formerly named the Carnatic,
though the name is now restricted to the Payen Ghat.
—The situation of the Bhalla Ghat is considerably
more elevated than the other; by which means the
temperature of the air is much cooler. On the
3 Q 2 coast
H I N
[ 492 ] H I N
Hindostah. coast of Coromandel there is a pile of ruins called by
1—--y—the natives Malavipatam, and by the British the seven
pagodas. Concerning this there is a tradition, that it
once stood at a considerable distance from the sea,
though most of the ruins are now covered with water •,
and there is likewise a tradition, that the mountains
we speak of once formed the boundary of the ocean.
The revenue and strength of Hyder Ally are said to
have been greatly exaggerated : the former amounting
to no more than four millions annually, though by his
economy and good management he made it answer
every purpose both in time of war and peace. He
was at great pains to introduce the European disci¬
pline among his troops ; but notwithstanding all his
endeavours, he was far from being able to make them
cope with the British. The advantages he gained were
owing to his vast superiority in cavalry, and the cele¬
rity of his marches $ which would have been counter¬
acted had his adversaries been possessed of a good body
of cavalry ; and it is probable that the event of the war
would have been decided in a single campaign. His
son Tippoo Saib is said to have been a man of less abi¬
lities than his father, though more violent in his dispo¬
sition. Against this prince hostilities commenced by
the British in conjunction with the Mahrattas, between
whom an alliance had been formed. Tippoo Saib him¬
self fell a victim to his own misguided bravery at the
siege of Seringapatam, which surrendered to the Bri-
22 tish on the 4th of May 1799.
Govern- With regard to the present government of Hindostan,
mem of our ]jmits will not allow us to enter particularly upon
Hindostan. nor jnt|eec| ;3 Jt perhaps of any importance, as the
country is divided into so many difi’erent kingdoms, the
sovereigns of which, however they may differ in other
respects, seem all to agree in despotism and oppression
of their subjects. As a very considerable part is now
under the dominion of Britain, it may be necessary to
take some notice of the behaviour of our countrymen in
that part of the world, especially as an idea of their
excessive despotism and oppression of the natives has of
late prevailed so much, that the national character has
suffered considerably by it. This has arisen partly from
the great pains taken to propagate it, and partly from
the ignorance of those among whom the report was
circulated $ and the exaggerated accounts and conten¬
tions of the members of the government themselves, have
contributed no less to confirm and heighten the preju-
„ ^ dices of the public.
Defence of The British territories in the East Indies were ori-
theBritish ginally under the jurisdiction of a governor and 13
govern- members ; but this number has fluctuated occasionally
east.11” t C *'rom J4 t0 4’ at was fixed by act of parlia¬
ment. In this council all matters, whether relating to
peace or war, government or commerce, were debated,
the governor having no other superiority than that of
giving the casting vote. In other respects the whole
executive power was lodged in his hands, and all the
correspondence with the native princes of India was
carried on by bis means, the dispatches to them be¬
ing signed by him singly •, and all the princes and great
men who visited the presidency were first received by
him, and then introduced to the counsellors. He was
military governor of Fort William, and commander in
chief of the presidency j whence, as by his office he
was invested with a considerable degree of power, he
became an object of some envy and jealousy to the Hi
members of the council and other considerable people
in that part of the world. In consequence of this, the
government was divided into two parties, one siding
with the governor, and the other opposing him j in
consequence of which, the debates were frequently car¬
ried on with such heat and violence, that the records
of the company were frequently stufted with nothing but
accounts of the contentions of these jarring parties.
This indeed may he looked upon as one of the prin¬
cipal causes by which the reputation of the British go¬
vernment in the eastern parts of the world has suflered',
for as there were very frequently opinions diametrically
opposite to one another recorded upon the same subject,
the contending parties in the British parliament had
always sufficient authority for what they said, let them
take which side they would : and thus the characters
of all concerned in the East India government were,
by one person or other, set forth in the most opprobri¬
ous light.
Another source of reproach to the British govern¬
ment in India was, that the court of directors in Eng¬
land became infested with the same spirit ot party and
contention which pervaded all other departments ot
the state. Lord Clive and Mr Sullivan were the two
great leaders of these party disputes ; and as the in¬
terest of the one or the other prevailed, different per¬
sons were appointed to the administration, and differ¬
ent measures adopted. The event of all this was,
that whenever a new administration was formed, the
first object was to condemn the measures of those who
had gone before him. Thus, in the year 1764* when
Lord Clive was made governor of Bengal, the new di¬
rectors represented the affairs of the company as in the
worst situation imaginable, from which they could on¬
ly be extricated by the abilities of Clive. On the ar¬
rival of the latter in the east, he took care to write
home reports to the same purpose, and to condemn in
the most violent manner every thing that had been
done} the whole body of the company’s servants were
censured indiscriminately without being allowed any
means of defence, as they were in truth ignorant of
the charges brought against them. When the affairs
of the company were brought under a parliamentary
review in the year 1774* ^ie governmen'' was brought
under a new regulation. It now consisted of a gover¬
nor-general and four counsellors j three of whom were
sent from England j two being military gentlemen of
high rank, and the third a gentleman employed in the
war-office. On their arrival they proceeded in the
same manner that Lord Clive had done before them :
they pronounced in the most decisive manner, that the
company’s affairs were in a ruinous state j and that
every species of corruption had been practised by the
former government. This general accusation, unsup¬
ported by any kind of evidence, was the constant
theme of the dispatches sent by them to England j
and thus has the reputation of the British government
suffered exceedingly through the unwarrantable liber¬
ties which its own servants have been allowed to take
with one another. It must also be considered, that
from the remote situation of India, and the unavoid¬
able ignorance of its affairs on that account, it was
easy for any person, whose malicious purposes it might
suit, to prejudice the public against the servants of the
company
Hi istan
H I N
company to as great a degree as he pleased.
j some persons, soured by disappointment, or envious of
the supposed emoluments of others, represented matters
in such an unfair light to their correspondents in Eng¬
land, that the most unjust and shameful charges were
frequently brought against innocent persons, which they
could neither prevent nor defend themselves against.
The dreadful famine which took place in Bengal in the
vear 1769, offered to these malevolent persons a most
fruitful source of calamity j and many individuals were
accused of having brought on this dreadful calamity,
which arose entirely from a natural cause, viz. the fail¬
ure of the rains, and which no human power could have
prevented or removed.
Opinions of this kind have not only been circulated
through the island of Britain in the most open man¬
ner, but have even appeared in some very respectable
publications. Thus, in Dr Smith’s Treatise on the
Wealth of Nations, when speaking of the oppression
arising from monopolies, and comparing their effects
in different states : “ The English company (says he),
have not yet had time to establish in Bengal so per¬
fectly destructive a system. The plan of the govern¬
ment, however, has had exactly the same tendency.
It has not been uncommon, I am well assured, for the
chief, that is, the first clerk of a factory, to order a
peasant to plough up a rich field of poppies, and sow it
with rice or some other grain. The pretence was to
prevent a scarcity of provisions j but the real reason,
to give the chief an opportunity of selling at a better
price a large quantity of opium he had on hand. Upon
other occasions the order has been reversed, and a rich
field of rice or other grain has been ploughed up to make
room for a plantation of poppies, when the chief saw
that extraordinary profit was to be made by opium.”
To this, however, the following answer has appeared
in a late publication, entitled A short Review of the
British government in India. “ The poppy is a plant
which requires a peculiar soil, and particular care in
the culture of it. The medium price of the land on
which it is cultivated is about xi or 12 rupees abegah,
or one-third of an English acre. It is sowed at the
beginning of October, when the season of the perio¬
dical rain expires. The plant begins to be fit for in¬
cision, in order to extract its juice, of which opium is
made, about the end of December, and continues so
till March. It requires a dry soil, and can be brought
to maturity only in the dry season, when the periodical
rains have ceased. Paddy or rice lands let on a me¬
dium at three rupees a begah. Rice is sowed about
the end of May, just before the periodical rains com¬
mence. One crop is raised about the end of Septem¬
ber j and another, which is the last, and by far the
greatest, about the end of December. It requires a
soil saturated with water, and lies soaked in it for a
considerable time. On this account it is sowed just
before the periodical rains commence; and nine-tenths
of the quantity of rice produced in the company’s pro¬
vinces grow in the kingdom of Bengal, which is so low
and flat, that the grounds are either overflowed by the
rivers Ganges and Burrampooter, with their tributary
streams, or soaked with the rain which falls and stag¬
nates upon them. It is therefore evident, that the soil
and the season, which alone can fructify the paddy or
rice, would rot and destroy the poppy j and it is there-
C 493 1 H I N
Hence fore as evident, that it is utterly impossible, from the Himlostan*
nature of the two plants, that the one can be ploughed v——y——a
up to sow the other.”
With regard to the administration of the British af¬
fairs in the East Indies, it must also be remarked, that
the company now act in a very different capacity from
wh^t they originally did. From a society of mer¬
chants, they are now become sovereigns of the coun¬
try to which they trade. The latter character was
quite foreign to them ; and they have accordingly look¬
ed upon that of merchants to be the principal one,
while that of sovereigns was to be only a kind of ap¬
pendage to it. Thus, instead of acting for the interest
of the country they govern, and which as sovereigns
they naturally ought to do, they have acted in many
cases directly opposite to it, which, as merchants, is
also their natural interest. Hence also, when the ad¬
ministration in India did any thing in obedience to the
orders of the directors, which orders being dictated by
merchants, were prejudicial to the interests of the coun¬
try, that injury has been sometimes unjustly attributed
to their servants, who acted merely in obedience to the
orders they received. On the other hand, when the
India administration acted with the generous spirit of
sovereigns, they were sometimes blamed by the direc¬
tors, who judged as merchants, and sometimes by the
ministry, who were always ready upon the smallest pre¬
tence to interfere in their affairs.
At the time when the British administration first
commenced in Hindostan, the Hindoo governors were
universally named rajahs; but though many of the
Hindoo families yet bear that title, it does not appear
to resemble, in any manner of way, our titles of nobi¬
lity, or to be a dignity which can he conferred by any
of the princes, or even by the Mogul himself. Hence,
in that part of the world there are no ancient nobility,
the titles being conferred merely by usurpers, who
have neither right nor title derived from any thing but
violence.
In this country we find the title of ’zemindar very
common; a word compounded of two others, signi¬
fying, in the Persic language, a landholder. It ap¬
pears to have been introduced by the Mohammedans,
and to have been a kind of temporary office, prescri¬
bing the performance of certain duties, and requiring
security for the personal appearance of the zemindar.
He is obliged to attend the exchequer of the king’s’
chief collector, at the commencement of every new
year, to settle his revenues; and he is not allowed to
enter upon the duties of his office for the year with¬
out a special order for that purpose. On the death of
a zemindar, the candidate for succession must petition
the sovereign, engaging himself to perform all the sti¬
pulated duties, and to pay the customary fees; nor
can he enter upon his office without a special investi¬
ture. As the zemindars were by virtue of their office
invested with considerable power, they soon became
not only very despotic in their own dominions, but by
degrees began to encroach on the power ot the sove¬
reign himself. After the irruption of Nadir Shah
every thing was thrown into confusion : the viceroys
threw off obedience to the emperor, the nabobs threw
off all obedience to them, and usurped their power; at
which time it is probable that the zemindars likewise
assumed powers to which they were by no means in-
titled
H I N [ 494 ] H I N
Hindostan. titled from their office. Notwithstanding this, how-
v1 ever, they were sometimes treated by the Mohammedan
governors as mere revenue-officers, and used very harsh¬
ly. At some times there were a set of people bound
for the zemindars under the title of woodedars ; and
these had either a joint power with the former, or
were superior to them in the collection of the reve¬
nues 5 and sometimes they were superseded by officers
appointed immediately by government itself, under
the various names of auttiils, tahsildcrs, or se'zawruls.
—The zemindaries are not limited in extent or value;
there being some in Bengal which yield a revenue as
high as 350,000!. sterling, while others scarcely amount
to 350I.; but all the great zemindars, and many of
these in middling circumstances, having procured for
themselves the title of rajah, affect much pomp and
state in their different districts, and keep their inferiors
in as great subjection as the Mohammedan governors
keep them. Some of them also have their power aug¬
mented by being of the Bramin cast; and by the
reverence supposed to be due to religion on that ac¬
count, joined with the power conferred upon them by
the sovereign, they are in general rendered exceedingly
despotic, with an almost unlimited authority to plunder
their tenants ; in which they were indulged by the
nabobs, from the motive of plundering them again.
From the consultations of the select committee in
1769, we are informed that the zemindars have a
power of levying fines at pleasure; that they raise
large sums from duties collected in the market; and
that they frequently oblige the ryots or husbandmen
to work for nothing. In short, the same claims made
by the European barons on their vassals in the times
of the feudal system, are now made by the zemindars
on the common people of Hindostan. If one of them
is to be married, if he has a child born, if honours are
to be conferred upon him ; nay, if he is even to be
fined for his own misconduct, the poor ryot must
always contribute his share. Air Scrofton, in his hi¬
story of Hindostan, sets forth the situation of the in¬
habitants in the following words :—“ Unhappily for
the Gentoos, themselves are made the ministers of op¬
pression over each other ; the Moor-men, haughty,
lazy, and voluptuous, make them, of whom they have
no jealousy, the ministers of their oppression, which
further answers the end of dividing them, and prevents
their uniting to fling off the yoke ; and by the strange
intoxication of power, they are found still more rapa¬
cious and cruel than their foreign masters; and what
is more extraordinary, the Bramins still exceed the
rest in every abuse of power, and seem to think, if
they bribe God by bestowing a part of their plun¬
der on cows and faquirs, their iniquities will be par¬
doned.”
From this account of the situation of the people of
■Hindostan under their native rulers, it is by no means
probable that they could make a worse exchange by
falling under the jurisdiction either of the Mohammedans
or Europeans. A notion indeed hath been industriously
propagated, that the British government has behaved
with the greatest cruelty in collecting the revenues
and that they have even invented tortures to make the
rich people discover their treasures; but on examining
the matter impartially, the reverse of this is found to
be true. At the time that the British government in-
S
terfered in the affairs of Hindostan, the provinces were Hindc
found to be in a ruinous state, in consequence of thev
wars which had taken place in the country. Even in
the most settled state, and when the administration was
most regular, the government was altogether despotic,
and the mode of collecting its revenues extremely ar¬
bitrary ; the punishments inflicted very cruel ; and the
whole system of government such as would be reckon¬
ed quite shocking in Europe. It is only within these
few years that the British could effectually interpose in
behalf of the natives; and in that short time it has
produced a very considerable reformation. It is cer¬
tain, that the British government has discouraged op¬
pressive measures as much as possible ; abolished the
cruel modes of punishment used by the Alohammedans;
and by instituting a more regular plan of justice, has
procured ease and security to the natives, and preserved
them in a state of tranquillity altogether unknown to
them before its commencement. Many instances of
the greatest cruelty exercised upon the zemindars and
other collectors are to be met with in the history of
Bengal, written by a native historian, and translated by
Gladwin : yet the person who exercised these cruel¬
ties w'as dignified with the titles of the faithful servant
of the Empire, and the Glory of the State; which shows
that the people were absolutely familiarised with cruel¬
ty, and did not know what it was to be under a lenient
government. Since the British had the dominion,
matters have been totally reversed, and the Hindoos,
instead of being treated with cruelty, persecuted on
account of their religion, and compelled to renounce
it, have been used with at least comparative lenity, and
great indulgence has been shown to them even in their
most absurd practices and superstitions. When the Bri¬
tish government first accepted of the office of dewanny,
or collector of the revenues, it was not in their power
to interpose with any kind of efficacy for the relief of
the inhabitants ; because it was at first thought pro¬
per to allow the taxes to be collected by natives, who
would undoubtedly follow their ancient modes of col¬
lection. Even at that time, however, the mildness of
the British governors had some effect upon the Asia¬
tics ; so that the people in general were treated with
more lenity than formerly: and in the year 1772,
when the council of Bengal openly assumed the office
of dewan themselves, an immediate stop was put to
all those arbitrary and oppressive methods which had
been formerly in use. Formerly some zemindars had
been flogged even to death, by an instrument called a
korah : but from the moment that the British coun¬
cil took the collection into their own hands, not only
this instrument was laid aside, but all kind of corpora!
punishment; by which means the severity of tire
Alohammedan government has been entirely abolish¬
ed, and no other punishments inflicted in cases of in¬
solvency than such as are in use in our own country.
Still, however, in such extensive dominions, where a
great share of power must be one way or other com¬
mitted to the natives, it is impossible but some arbitrary
acts must be committed, as the natives are always prone
to acts of despotism whenever they can commit them
with impunity; but examples of this kind cannot with
any degree of candour be brought as a general charge
against the British government in India.—Mr Scrofton
gives the following account of the wretched state of
H I N C 495 ] H I N
istan. the provinces now under the British jurisdiction at the
——1 time they were ceded to them by the Mogul. “ When
the governors of the provinces found the weakness of
the Mogul, and each set up as sovereign in his own
province, although they could not break through these
immutable laws, they invented new taxes under new
names, which doubled or trebled the value of the ori¬
ginal ones, and which the landholder was obliged to
levy upon his tenants. The old stock of wealth for
some time supported this; but when that failed, and
the tenants were still pressed for more, they borrowed
money of usurers at an exorbitant interest j and the go¬
vernment still continuing these demands, the lords of
the lands were obliged to do the same : but as all this
while the value ot lands did not increase, the con¬
sequence was, that at last, unable to pay the interest
ot the mortgages, the rents were seized by rapacious
usurers. The government finding the revenues fall
shorter every year, at last sent collectors and farmers
of the revenues into the provinces. Thus the lord of
the land was divested of power over his country, and
the tenants exposed to merciless plunderers j till the
farmer and manufacturer, finding that the more they
laboured the more they paid, the manufacturer would
work no more, and the farmer would cultivate no more
than was just sufficient for the subsistence of his family.
Thus this once flourishing and plentiful country has,
in the course of a few years, been reduced to such mi¬
sery, that many thousands are continually perishing
through want. T-he crown lands are still worse off,
let out to the highest bidder; and the Jagheer lands
alone remain unplundered. Hence that equal distri¬
bution of wealth that makes the happiness of a people,
and spreads a face of cheerfulness and plenty through
all ranks, has now ceased ; and the riches of the coun¬
try are settled partly in the hands of a few usurers and
greedy courtiers, and the rest is carried out of the
country by the foreign troops taken into pay to maintain
the governors in their usurpations. This unhappy decay
the India company has already experienced in the de¬
cay of their trade, and the rise and price of their manu¬
factures ; and will, I fear, experience more and more
annually.”
With regard to the depositions of the nabobs by the
British, which has been used as a great argument
against the general spirit of British government in those
parts, it must be remembered, in the first place,
that these nabobs were mere usurpers, who had not
the least title to their dominions, and consequently
could not, in point of right, complain more reasonably
of being deprived of their dominions, tliian the persons
from whom they had taken them might do of their in¬
justice in driving them out. Their behaviour in
government also was such, that it was impossible it
could have subsisted for any length of time without
the absolute ruin of the countries they possessed. Thus,
in the case of Jaffier Ally Cawn, Mr Vansittart de¬
clared the country to be in so confused and im¬
poverished a state, that in all human appearance an¬
other month could not have been run through before
he would have been cut off by his own seapoys for
want of pay, and the city become a scene of plunder
and disorder. On this account he was degraded,
though without any of those circumstances of cruelty
which generally characterise the revolutions in this part
of the world. The administration was transferred tOHindostan.
his son-in-law Meer Cossim ; who being an enemy to v 1 *
the British government altogether, a war followed,
terminating in his expulsion. This was followed by
the invasion of Sujah Dowlah, and by scenes of horrid
barbarity and devastation; when in 1765 Lord Clive
took upon him the office of dewan, or minister who su¬
perintends the lands and collections of the revenue.
An account of his proceedings has already been given ;
but whatever applause he might gain, and in some
respects deservedly at the time, it is now said with
some probability, that he raised the expectations of
the people of England by far too high. The seeds of
the succeeding evils were already sown. Many sources
of wealth were dried up. Raw silk, cloths, and other
manufactures, had formerly been exported to Guzerat,
Lahore, and even Ispahan. This had ceased on the
invasion of Nadir Shah ; and the influx of wealth from
the European nations had ceased before the British
government in Bengal had an existence. It was com¬
puted that Cossim Aly Cawn robbed the country of
near five millions sterling in jewels and specie. China,
Madras, and Bombay, were supplied from Bengal to
the amount of more than two millions ; and several
other circumstances besides these contributed to dimi¬
nish the riches and opulence of the country. In the
mean time the internal administration of the country
had been extremely defective. The zemindars being
under very little restraint, acted in a very arbitrary
manner within their own districts; and the tenants had
no redress against the impositions and exactions which
were laid upon them. Meer Cossim appointed annuls
to the collection of the revenues rather than zemindars.
The aumils derive their authority directly from the
person who has the command of the country for the
present time, and consequently are more easily called
to an account than the zemindars. At last, how¬
ever, these aumils, having obtained too great an in¬
fluence in the country, Lord Clive thought proper to
change the plan of collection. Three natives were
now appointed, in the nabob’s name, to superintend
this department; and one English gentleman, through
whom the business was transacted, had his residence at
the nabob’s court, and communicated the intelligence
to Calcutta. The principal acting minister in this
plan, however, thought proper to change the mode of
collection once more, and to re-appoint the aumils; ,
in consequence of which the revenne became greatly
diminished, and they were besides complained of as
greatly oppressing the people. To remedy these evils,
it was first proposed by Mr Verelst, to send some of
the company’s servants into the internal parts of the
country with the title of supervisors: but the defects
of administration were now beyond their power to re¬
medy; the revenue was not only greatly diminished,
but the expence of government exceedingly augmented ;
and in the year 1771 ^le company were alarmed by
accounts that bills had been drawn upon them to the
amount of 1,200,000!. At this time Mr Hastings
was appointed to be governor of Bengal; and the con¬
fused state in which matters were at the commencement
of bis administration will easily appear from the following
extract of a letter from the government of Bengal, dated
in the month of November 1772.—“Every zemindary
was left to its own particular customs* The articles
which ,
H IN [ 495 ] H I N
Hindustan which composed the revenue, the form of keeping the ed a disposition to oppress, rather than to relieve, the Hindustan ^
»—ly!—i accounts, the computation of time, even the techni- oppressed inhabitants oi Hindostan. But in answer to ~v—- „
cal terms, which ever form the greatest obscurity in that it is said, that the difference betwixt the two coun-
every science, differed as much as the soil and produc- tries is so great, that there can be no comparison be-
tions of the province. The nabobs exacted what they twixt the one and the other, nor can the constitution
could from the zemindars and great farmers of the re- of England he in any degree adapted to that of the
venue, whom they left at liberty to plunder all below, other. The religion, laws, manners, and customs, of
reserving to themselves the liberty of plundering them both Hindoos and Mohammedans, are so essentially dif-
in their turn, when they were supposed to have en- ferent from those of this country, that it is impossible
riched themse’lves with the spoils of the country. The to assimilate them, should ever any thing of the kind
musaddies, who stood between the nabob and zemin- be attempted. The only true method therefore of
dars, and between them and the people, had each judging whether the present state of Hindostan is pre-
their shares of the public wealth. These profits W’ere ferable to what it formerly was, is to compare it with
considered as illegal embezzlements, and therefore were what it was under the best Mogul emperors 5 and in
taken with every precaution which could ensure secre- this comparison it must certainly appear that the pre-
cy and being, consequently, fixed by no rule, de- ference is greatly in favour of the British administra-
pended on the temper, abilities, or power, of each in- tion. In Major Kennel’s work we are informed, that
dividual for the amount. It therefore became a duty during the reign of Ackbar, whom he styles “ the glo-
to every man to take the most effectual measures to ry of the house of Timur,” the country had never en-
conceal the value of his property, and evade every in- joyed so much tranquillity ; “ but this tranquillity
quiry into his conduct j while the zemindars and would hardly be deemed such in any other quarter of
other landholders, who had the advantage of long pos- the world, and must therefore he understood to mean
session, availed themselves of it by complex divisions of a state short of actual rebellion, or at least commotion.”
the lands, and intricate modes of collection, to per- The same author, speaking of the state of the British
plex the officers of government, and confine the know- empire there, uses the following words : “ i he Ben-
ledge of the rents to themselves. The internal ma- gal provinces which have been in our actual possession
nagement of each district varied no less than that of near 23 years, have, during that whole period, enjoyed
the whole province. The lands subject to the same a greater share of tranquillity than any other part of
collection, and intermixed with each other, were some India, or indeed than those provinces had ever expe-
held by farm, some superintended by shickdors or rienced since the days of Aureng-zehe.” To this we
agents on the part of the collector, and were left to may add, that the provinces have not only experienced
the zemindars themselves, under various degrees of a perfect freedom from external invasions, but likewise
controul.” For some political reasons the company, enjoy a degree of internal tranquillity altogether un-
though they had acquired the dewanny, had not yet known before, by the subjection and civilization of a
chosen to assume the executive part of the office them- set of banditti who inhabited the hills of Rajemabl, and
selves, but committed it to the management of natives, infested the travellers who passed that way j a wan-
as has already been mentioned, and their plans had been dering tribe of religious mendicants, who were wont to
found extremely defective. By the time that Mr Has- commit the greatest enormities.
tings had been invested with the government, the court Another advantage which the inhabitants of this coun-
of directors had resolved to change their plan, and open- try reap from the British government, is the security
ly assume the office of the dewanny ; and the rules esta- from violence and oppression either by their Mohamme-
blished by that gentleman for the collection of the reve- dan superiors or by one another. Under the article HiN-
nues, his mode of administering justice, and his police doo we have already mentioned the particular circum-
for the government of the country, are still observed stance that these people are liable to the punishment of
with very little variation. losing their cast from a variety of causes, and that this
The plan for collecting the revenues consisted, in is looked upon by them to be the most grievous cala-
the first place, in rendering the accounts as simple and mity they can suffer. The Mohammedan governors
intelligible as possible in the next, in establishing frequently took advantage of their superstition in this
fixed rules for the collection ; and in the third, ma- respect to oppress them j and this circumstance alone
king the mode of them uniform in all parts of the pro- frequently produced the most horrid confusion. In
vinces j and in the fourth, providing for the equal ad- the instructions given to the supervisors, Mr Verelst
ministration of justice. The power of the zemindars informs them, that “ it is difficult to determine wbe-
was now circumscribed, and their extortions thoroughly ther the original customs, or the degenerate manners
put a stop to } many vexatious taxes and tolls were of the Mussulmans, have most contributed to confound
abolished, and a new mode of collecting the customs the principles of right and wrong of these provinces,
was established, to the great relief of the merchants : Certain it is (adds he), that almost every decision oi
and so well were all the parts of this plan found to-be theirs is a corrupt bargain with the highest bidder,
adapted to the purposes they were designed to answer, Compensation was frequently accepted of even for ca-
that it has hitherto been made the model of all subse- pital crimes, and fines became at last an intolerable
quent regulations. . grievance j nay so venal were the judges at that time,
One great objection to the India government is, that that it became at last a settled rule to allow each oi
the English law, which undoubtedly is better calcu- them a fourth part of any property in dispute as a
lated than any other for securing the liberties of the compensation for his trouble.—-It is impossible to sup-
people, has not yet been adopted in India 5 whence it pose that such monstrous abuses continue under the
is thought that the company’s servants have still show- British government: on the contrary we must readily
s 3 ' believe>
H I N [ 497 ] H I N
Is .j believe, what the governors themselves assert, that im*
* y—^ mediately after the provinces fell under British juris¬
diction, both Hindoos and Mohammedans have been
left to the free exercise of their religion, laws, and
customs. The Hindoos themselves acknowledge this,
and are as well pleased with the mildness of the British
government, as they are displeased with the superstition
and cruelty of the Mohammedans. Under the British
government we cannot suppose but that commerce, to
which the inhabitants of this country are so much ad¬
dicted, will be much more encouraged than by the ava¬
ricious and barbarous Mohammedans. The latter had
imposed so many restraints upon trade of all kinds, by
the multitude of taxes collected at the landing-places,
watch-houses, markets, &c. that it was almost impos¬
sible to carry it on with any advantage. Among other
salutary regulations, however, enacted by the British
government in 1772, many of those taxes upon com¬
merce were abolished, and a plan laid for efFectually li¬
berating the inhabitants from those shackles by which
their commerce had been so long fettered.—Regard
has also been paid to the instruction of the people in
useful knowledge •, and the seminary established at Cal¬
cutta by Sir William Jones, certainly does much ho¬
nour to the founder. Some regard had indeed been
paid to this by the Mohammedan emperors ; but at the
time that the British government commenced, these
had been entirely neglected, their endowments re¬
sumed by government, and even the buildings fallen
into ruin.”
From-a comparison of any government to which the
Hindoos have hitherto been subject, with that of Bri¬
tain, indeed, it is evident that the preference must be
given greatly in favour of the latter. At the time when
the British first visited that country, they were not
under the jurisdiction of their native sovereigns, nor
had they been so for a long time before. The Moguls
were not only foreigners, but a most cruel and detest¬
able race of men ; and it was by usurpations of their
own rebellious subjects that the anarchy and confusion
was introduced, in which the country was involved for
so long a time. The British are foreigners as well as
the Moguls; but the latter, who profess the intolerant
superstition of Mohammed, suffer their conduct to be
influenced by it in such a manner as to treat the natives
with the utmost cruelty. The greatest evil perhaps
which results from the British government is, the ex¬
portation of great sums of money to a foreign country $
hut this evil, with respect to the provinces possessed by
the British, existed also under theMohammedan govern¬
ment. The Mogul emperors resided at Delhi, which
is far distant from the provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and
Orissa, the territories now possessed by Britain j so that
the greatest part of the treasure sent to that capital
was totally lost to them. In the time of Aureng-zebe,
the emperor’s ti’ibute amounted to three millions ster¬
ling ; and of this a considerable part was specie 5 but
since that time the tribute was fixed at only 1,250,000!.
and even this was a vast sum ; to which if we add that
carried out of the country by commanders of mercenary
troops, who were all foreigners, it is not unreasonable
to suppose that under the Mogul government matters
were still worse, even in this respect, than under that
of Britain.
Me shall conclude this apology for the British go-
Vol. X. Part II. f
vernment, with the following extract from the treatise Hindustan,
lately quoted, A short Review of the British Govern- ' " v 1
ment in India. “ A more detestable or detested race
of people never appeared than the Mohammedan con¬
querors of India j whether we consider the brutality of
their passions, the bigotry of their religion, the corrup¬
tion of their manners, the barbarity of their education,
or the tyranny of their government: In all these respects
they were the terror and abhorrence of the Hindoos
whose country they invaded, and whose dominion they
usurped.
“ The fanatic ignorance of the savage caliph, which
dictated his barbarous reason for destroying the Alex¬
andrian library, had neither been tutored nor refined by
the Tartar education of Timur and his predecessors.
The same superstitious bigotry which incited the Ara¬
bian caliphs to destroy the monuments of western learn¬
ing, likewise impelled the Tartar khans to overthrow
the religious temples of the eastern worship. At the
commencement of the nth century Mahmood entered
Hindustan, and in the course of 12 expeditions he de¬
stroyed the famous temples of Nagracut, Tannasar,
Matra, and Sumnaut. In the latter end of the next
century, Mahmood Gori penetrated as far as the city of
Benares, and committed outrages as Mahmood had done
before at Nagracut and Sumnaut. Tamerlane possessed
as much of this furious zeal as any of his savage prede¬
cessors; and if the enthusiasm of this destructive reli¬
gion had not occasionally abated among some of his suc¬
cessors, they would scarce have left a Hindoo temple or
priest in the country they subdued.
“ Enough, however, had been done to fix an indeli¬
ble stain on the memory of those intolerant tyrants,
and to make a lasting impression on the minds of the
Hindoos, who, to the latest period of the Mogul go¬
vernment, were kept in constant dread of doctrines,
which, to their apprehensions, seemed to inspire the
Mohammedans with sacrilegious cruelty. Idolatry is
as great an abomination to a Mussulman as it was to
the Jews when they most strictly revered the divine
command which prohibits it ; and most of the Hindoo
ceremonies being considered by the Mohammedans as
acts of idolatry, and all their pagodas as temples of
idols, a religious principle excited mutual sentiments of
abhorrence and antipathy between the conquerors and
their subjects. The rest of the character of the Mo¬
hammedans may be summed up in the concise and em¬
phatic words of Mr Scrafton, who says, ‘ their distin¬
guishing qualities are perfidy and sensuality.’
“ But notwithstanding these facts, and that the his¬
tory of their government is a disgusting repetition of
oppression, massacres, and rebellion, the fashion of the
times has been to praise it, and to represent the situa¬
tion of the Hindoos as easy and happy under it, till
they were disturbed in this peaceful state of repose and
security by the English ; who have been described
(with unparalleled injustice) as a set of rapacious task¬
masters. It surely requires a very small degree of re¬
flection to perceive, that such representations of the two
governments must, from the very nature of things, be
false.
“ The Mohammedan conquerors came into India
from a barbarous region, with minds and manners as
uncultivated as the wilds from which they issued. The
only notion they had of government was absolute power
3 R in
H I N [ 498 ] H I N
in the sovereign, and absolute submission in the subject, are the Afghans, or Patans, and the Baluches, who Hindostan. [
The tenets of their religion, so far from softening the have extended themselves on the side of India, as well *
ferocity of their nature, served only to whet the edge as Persia. The mountains on the north are called Net-
of their persecution towards the suffering Hindoos, grakut, Hima, or Mus Tag, which has an affinity with
whom they harassed without mercy, and destroyed with- Imaiis, and by other names, which are given also in
out remorse. The British conquerors came from a common to the mountains on each side, separating Hin-
country famed for arts and sciences-, the generous prin- dostan from Thibet. The very prospect of these moun-
ciples of public liberty had been instilled into their tains is frightful, being nothing but hideous precipices,
minds from their earliest infancy : the mild tenets of perpetually covered with snow, and not to be crossed
Christianity cherished and commanded every charitable without the greatest danger and difficulty.
duty : and they had been taught, by precept and ex- The most remarkable rivers of Hindostan are the In-
ample, to rule with equity, and to obey with freedom, dus and Ganges. The former is called by the orien-
Can it be supposed that under these circumstances, the tals, Send, Sind, or Sindi. It rises in the mountains to
two nations should have totally changed characters on the north or north-east of Hindostan ; whence, after a
their coming into India ? That the barbarous and fero- long course, first to the south and then to the south-
cious Tartar should become, mild and enlightened *, that west, it falls into the Persian sea, below Lower Ban-
the cultivated and generous Briton should have degene¬
rated into a cruel tryant and that the British gover¬
nors should have rendered the situation of their Hindoo
subjects worse than it was under the Mogul emperors ?
Reason revolts at the idea } and nothing but the rankest
prejudice could ever suggest or adopt it.”
With regard to the geography of this country, Mr
Rennel observes, that though by the modern Euro¬
peans, Hindostan has been understood to mean the tract
situated between the rivers Indus and Ganges on the
east and west, the mountains of Thibet and Tartary on
the north, and the ocean on the south, the extent of
HindostaB, properly so called, is much more circum¬
scribed ", and the name ought only to be applied to that
part which lies to the northward of 21° or 22° latitude.
The reputed southern boundary of Hindostan is the
Nerbudda river as far as it goes, and the northern fron¬
tiers of Bengal and Bahar compose the remainder.
The countries to the south of this line are called Deccan
by the Indian geographers, and comprehend about one
half of the territory generally known by the name of
the Mogul Empire. Our author therefore chooses to
distinguish the northern part by the name of Hindostan
Proper ; which has indeed the Indus and mountains of
Thibet and Tartary for its western and northern boun¬
daries but the Burrampooter river is rather to be con¬
sidered as the eastern boundary than the Ganges ; the
latter intersecting some of the, richest provinces in the
empire. According to this supposition, Hindostan
Proper will equal in size the countries of France, Ger¬
many, Bohemia, Hungary, Switzerland, Italy, and the
Low Countries j the Deccan and peninsula being about
equal to the British islands, Spain, and Turkey In Eu¬
rope.
Towards the north, Hindostan is very cold and bar¬
ren but towards the south, very hot, and fertile in corn,
rice, fruits, and other vegetables. The northern pro¬
vinces are very mountainous and sandy 5 while the
southern are for the most part level, and well watered
with several rivers.
The most remarkable mountains are those which
surround it on three sides. Those on the west, separat¬
ing it from Persia, called, in general, Soleyman Kity,
or the mountains of Soleyman, are of a vast height as
well as breadth, and are only passable in certain places,
through which roads have been made for the sake of
commerce. The chief are those which lead to Cabul,
Gazna, and Candahar. This great chain of mountains
is inhabited by different nations, the principal of which
der, by several mouths. In its course it receives seve¬
ral other large rivers, as the Nilah, Jamal, Behat, and
Lak k a.
The Ganges, called in the Indies Ganga, rises in the
kingdom of Thibet : entering Hindostan about the
30th degree of latitude, it runs first south-eastward by
the cities of Bek&ner, Minapor, Halabas, Benares, and
Patna, to Rajah Mahl, where it divides into two
branches. The eastern having passed by Dakka, the
capital of Bengal, enters the gulf of that name about
Chatigan. The western, descending by Kossum-Bazar
and Hughly, falls into the gulf below Chandernagor
towards Pipeli.
Many of the Jews and ancient Christians believed
this river to be the Pison, one of the four mentioned in
Scripture as the boundaries of the terrestrial paradise.
The Indians retain the greatest reverence for its waters,
going in crowds from the remotest parts of the country
to wash in them, from a persuasion that they deface
from all the spots of sin. The reason of this is, be¬
cause they imagine this river does not take its source
from the bosom of the earth, but descends from heaven
into the paradise of Devendre, and from thence into
Hindostan. Nothing is more childish than the fables
of the Bramins on this subject, yet the people swallow
them all. The Mogul and prince of Golconda drink
no other water than that of the Ganges : foreigners, on
the contrary, pretend that it is very unwholesome, and
that it cannot be safely drank till it is first boiled.
There is a great number of superb pagodas on the
banks of the Ganges, which are immensely rich. At
certain festivals, there has been sometimes a concourse
of 100,000 people who came to bathe in it. But what
principally distinguishes this river, besides its greatness
and rapidity, is the gold it brings down in its sands and
throws on its banks $ and the precious stones and pearls
it produces, not only in itself, but in the gulf of Ben¬
gal, into which it discharges its waters, and which
abounds therewith. The Chun or Jemma, the Gutle-
rasu, the Persilis, Lakia, and several other rivers, dis¬
charge themselves into it during its course.
The weather and seasons are, for the general, very
regular in this spacious country 5 the winds blowing
constantly for six months from the south, and six froin
the north, with very little variation. The months of
April, May, and the beginning of June, till the rains
fall, are so extremely hot, that the reflection from the
ground is apt to blister one’s face; and but for the
breeze or small gale of wind which blows every day,
there
r
H I L [ 499 ] H I N
Hijostan. there would be no living in that country for people
'*■ ^ bred in northern climates ; for excepting in the rainy
season, the coldest day is hotter there at noon than the
hottest day in England. However, very surprising
changes of heat and cold sometimes happen within a
few hours ; so that a stifling hot day is succeeded by a
night cold enough to produce a thin ice on the water,
and that night by a noon as scorching as the preceding.
Sometimes, in the dry season, before the rains, the
winds blow with such extreme violence, that they carry
vast quantities of dust and sand into the air, which ap¬
pear black like clouds charged with rain j but fall
down in dry showers, filling the eyes, ears, and nostrils
of those among whom they descend, and penetrate every
chest, cabinet, or cupboard, in the houses or tents, by
the key-hole or crevices.
From Surat to Agra, and beyond, it seldom Or never
rains, excepting in one season of the year: that is, from
the middle of June to the middle of September. These
rains generally begin and end with most furious storms
of thunder and lightning. During these three months
it rains usually every day, and sometimes for a week
together without intermission : by these means the land
is enriched, like Egypt by the Nile. Although the
land looks before like the barren sands of the Arabian
deserts ; yet, in a few days after those showers begin to
fall, the surface appears covered with verdure. When
the rainy season is over, the sky becomes perfectly serene
again, and scarce one cloud appears all the other nine
mouths : however, a refreshing dew falls every night
during that dry interval, which cools the air, and che¬
rishes the earth.
The produce of Hindustan is very rich in every kind,
whether it be fossil, vegetable, or animal. Besides
other precious stones found in it, there is a diamond-
mine at the town of Soumelpdr in Bengal. Quarries
of Uieban stone are so plentiful in the Mogul’s empire,
that there are both mosques and pagods built entirely
of it. Some travellers tell us, there are mines of lead,
iron, and copper, and even silver*, but those of the last,
if there be any, need not be opened, since the bullion
of all nations is sunk in this empire, which will take
nothing else in exchange for her commodities, and pro¬
hibits the exporting it again. They till the ground
with oxen and foot-ploughs, sowing in May and the
beginning of June, that all may be over before the
rains, and reaping in November and December, which
with them are the most temperate months in the year.
The land is nowhere inclosed, excepting a little near
towns and villages. The grass is never mowed to make
hay, but cut oft the ground, either green or withered,
as they have occasion to use it. Wheat, rice, barley,
and other grain, grow here in plenty, and are very
good. The country abounds no less in fruits, as pome¬
granates, citrons, dates, grapes, almonds, and cocoa-
nuts j plums, those especially called rnirabolans; plan¬
tains, which in shape resemble a slender cucumber, and
in taste excel a Norwich pear j mangos, an excellent
fruit, resembling an apricot, but larger; ananas or pine¬
apples ; lemons and oranges, but not so good as in
other countries ; variety of pears and apples in the
northern parts; and the tamarind-tree, the fruit of
which is contained in a pod resembling those of beans.
There are many other kinds of fruit-trees peculiar to
riie country. But the valuable trees are the cotton and
mulberry, on account of the wealth they bring the na¬
tives from the manufactures of callicoes and silks. They
plant abundance of sugar-canes here, as well as tobacco ;
but the latter is not so rich and strong as that of America,
for want of knowing how to cure and order it.
Hindostan affords also plenty of ginger, together
with carrots, potatoes, onions, garlic, and other"roots
known to us, besides small roots and Iierbs for sa¬
lads ; but their flowers, though beautiful to look at,
have no scent, excepting roses, and some few other
kinds.
Fhere is a great variety of animals in this country,
both wild and tame ; of the former are elephants, rhi¬
noceroses, lions, tygers, leopards, wolves, jackals, and
the like. I lie jackals dig up and eat dead bodies,
and make a hideous noise in the night. The rhi¬
noceros is not common in the Mogul’s empire; but
elephants are very numerous, some 12, 14, or 15 feet
high. I here is plenty of venison and game of several
kinds; as red-deer, fallow-deer, elks, antelopes, kids,
hares, and such like. None of these are imparked, but
all in common, and may be any body’s who will be at
the pains to take them. Among the wild animals al¬
so may be reckoned the musk-animal, apes, and mon¬
keys.
Hindostan affords variety of beasts for carriage, as
camels, dromedaries, mules, asses, horses, oxen, and
buffaloes. Most of the horses are white, and many
curiously dappled, pied, and spotted all over. The
flesh of the oxen is very sweet and tender. Being very
tame, many use them as they do horses to ride on.
Instead of a bit, they put one or two small strings
through the gristle of the nostrils, and fastening the
ends to a rope, use it instead of a bridle, which is held
up by a bunch of gristly flesh which he lias on the fore¬
part of bis back. They saddle him as they do a horse;
and, if spurred a little, he will go as fast. These are
generally made use of all over the Indies; and with
them only are drawn waggons, coaches, and chariots.
Some of these oxen will travel 15 leagues in a day-
They are of two sorts ; one six feet high, which are
rare; another called dwarfs, which are only three. In
some places, where the roads are stony, they shoe their
oxen when they have to travel far. The buffalo’s skin
makes excellent buff, and the female yields very good
milk ; but their flesh is neither so palatable nor whole¬
some as beef. The sheep of Hindostan have large hea¬
vy tails, and their flesh is good, but their wool coarse.
This country is much infested with reptiles and in¬
sects ; some of a noxious kind, as scorpions, snakes,
and rats ; but the lizards, which are of a green colour,
are not hurtful. Snakes and serpents, we are told, are
sometimes employed to despatch criminals, especially
such as have been guilty of some atrocious crime, that
kind of death being attended with the most grievous
torture. The most troublesome insects in this hot coun¬
try are flies, musketoes, and chinches, or bugs, the first
by day, and the others in the night; when they offend
no less by their stench than their bite. See India,
Supplement.
HINE, or Hind, a husbandman’s servant. Thus
the person who oversees the rest, is called the master’s
hine.
HINNOM, or the Valley of Hinnom, in Ancient
Geography, a place that lay to the south of Jerusalem.
3 K 2 It
HinioMan
fl
Hinnom.
H I N [5
Himiom It was also calletl the valley of Tophet, ami svas re-
Uiiizuaii. markable for the cruel and barbarous worship ot the
— v ood Moloch, where parents made their children pass
through the fire in honour of that idol.
HLNZUAN, one of the Comora islands, lying be-
tween Madagascar and the continent of Africa, other¬
wise called Anzuame, Anjuan, Juanny, and Johanna.
As the accounts given of it by the abbe Raynal and
Major Rooke seem to contradict each other, we shall
lay before our readers the substance of Sir William
Jones’s description of it, by whom the island was visited,
and whose regard to veracity will not be controverted.
It resembles a vast amphitheatre, of which a general
notion may be formed, by conceiving in the mind a
multitude of hills infinitely diversified in figure and in
magnitude, thrown together with artless symmetry in
all conceivable positions. A series of mountains forms
the back ground, one of which is pointed, almost half
a mile above the level of the sea, and not more than
three miles from the shore. Jhe whole of them are
richly clothed with fruit trees of exquisite verdure. Be¬
yond this range is another tier, partly barren and partly
verdant. Nearer the shore there is a vast multitude of
cliffs, which bring their verdure almost to the water¬
side. The rows of palm trees with which it abounds,
which give an enchanting beauty and variety to the
scene, almost appear to have been planted by design.
The north side of the island shoots out into two
points, which are 26 miles distant from each other,
with a large bay between them. It is justly considered
as a proper place of refreshment for vessels bound to
and from the East Indies, as it yields limes, lemons,
oranges, and many other valuable antiscorbutics. The
town which is the king’s residence, is on the east side
of the island, which contains no more than about 200
houses, notwithstanding it is three-fourths of a mile in
length.
The cattle of this island are a sort of buffaloes, with
a large hump on their shoulders, which is reported to be
most delicious eating; but there are no horses, asses, or
mules in the island. The original natives may be about
7000, who occupy the hills, and carry on desultory
wars with the Arabian interlopers living on the sea
coast, and about 300c in number. The expences of
government are defrayed by a tax on 200 villages, but
the three principal towns are exempted. The kingly
power is considered as elective by the principles of the
constitution } but the line of succession has not been al¬
tered since the first election of a sultan.
The price of every article is under proper regula¬
tions, and ships who touch here can be plentifully sup¬
plied with bullocks, goats, and fowls. The people seem
to be extravagantly fond of titles, and therefore lords,
dukes, and princes, are common among them. A duke
will dispose, in person, of the product of his own estate,
which men of a similar rank in Europe will only do by
the intervention of agents. The natives are said to be
indolent, as is the case in most tropical countries, and
neglect the cultivation of that exuberant soil which Pro¬
vidence has bestowed upon them.
There is a sacred lake, about half a mile in circum¬
ference, in the interior parts of the island, about fifteen
miles from the town of Johanna. The wild ducks fre¬
quenting this sequestered spot are said to be worshipped
by the natives, and consulted as oracles in all affair? of
5
do ] HIP
importance. These people countenance polygamy, and Hinmn *
the keeping of concubines. The men are extremely H L
iealous, and never admit strangers of their own sex to Hippoeas
J tatium. i
see the women. . _ . ; 1
The chewing the betel nut prevails greatly in Hin- ^
zuan, as in most eastern countries, and corresponds to
the European custom of smoking tobacco or taking
snuff, only with this difference, that the practice is still
more general. They are very abstemious as to the use
of wine, that article being prohibited by the religion of
Mahomet, and perform the duty of prayer three or four
times a-day. E. Eong. 44* I5< Bat. I 2. 3'3»
HIP, in the Materia Medico, the fruit of the dog-
rose or wild brier. See Rosa, Botan'Y Index.—This
fruit contains a sourish sweetish pulp ; with a rough
prickly matter inclosing the seeds, from which the pulp
ought to be carefully separated before it be taken in¬
ternally : the Wirtemberg college observes, that from
a neglect of this caution, the pulp of hips sometimes
occasions a pruritus and uneasiness about the anus ;
and the conserve of it has been known to excite violent
vomiting. The conserve is the only officinal prepara¬
tion of this fruit.
HIPPARCHUS, a great astronomer, born at Nice
in Bithynia, flourished between the 154th and 163d
Olympiads. His commentary upon Aratus’s Pheno¬
mena is still extant. Rohault was very much mistaken
when he asserted, that this astronomer was not ac¬
quainted with the particular motion of the fixed stars
from west to east, by which their longitude changes.
By foretelling eclipses, he taught mankind not to be
frightened at them, and that even the gods were bound
bylaws. Pliny, who tells this, admires him for mak¬
ing a review of all the stars j by which his descendants
would be enabled to discover whether they are born and
die, whether they change their place, and whether they
increase and decrease.
HIPPIA, a genus of plants belonging to the synge-
nesia class. See Botany Index.
HIPPOBOSCA, or Horse-fly, a genus of in¬
sects, belonging to the order of diptera. See Ento¬
mology Index.
HIPPOCAMPUS, or Sea-hor.se, a species offish
belonging to the genus syngnathus. See SYNGNATHUS,
Ichthyology Index.
HIPPOCASTANUM, or Common Horse-ches-
NUT. See TEsculus, Botany Index.—It may be here
added, that from several experiments in the French
Memoires d'Agriculture, it appears that the fruit of the
horse-chesnut affords a wholesome nourishment for cat¬
tle, and may even be employed with success for fatten¬
ing them. It is said to render the tallow of those fat¬
tened with it particularly firm. The milk yielded by
cows fed upon it, is also said to be thicker and richer
than that produced from any other kind of food.-—The
fruit of this tree lias been likewise used as food for sheep
and poultry, and as soap for washing. It was much
employed in powder as a sternutatory by an itinerant
oculist, and has been recommended by some others in
certain states of ophthalmia, headach, &c. in which
errhines are indicated. Its effects as a sternutatory may
also be obtained by using it under the form of infusion
or decoction drawn up into the nostrils. And it is en¬
tirely with a view to its errhine power that it is now in¬
troduced into the pharmacopoeia of the Edinburgh col-
—
H >ocas-
uiiin
HIP [501
lege. But besides this, the bark has also been repre¬
sented by some as a cure for intermittent fevers $ and
it is probably with this intention that this part of the
j] ioera- hjppocastanum is introduced as an officinal article in the
's‘ . Pharmacopoeia Rossica.
v HIPPOCENTAUR, (formed of rWoj, “ horse,”
Kirvi», pungo, “ I spur,” and r«v{8f, “ bull”), in anti-
quity, a fabulous monster, supposed to be half horse
and half man.
What gave occasion to the fable was, that a people
of Thessaly, inhabiting near Mount Pelion, became
thus denominated, because they were the first that
taught the art of mounting on horseback j which occa¬
sioned some of their neighbours to imagine, that the
horse and man made but one animal.
The hippocentaurs should seem to have differed from
the centaurs, in this, that the latter only rode on bul¬
locks, and the former on horses, as the names them¬
selves intimate.
HIPPOCRAS, a medicinal drink, composed of
wine, with spices and other ingredients infused there¬
in ; much used among the French by way of a cordial
dram after meals.
There are various kinds of hippocras, according to
the kind of wine and the other additional ingredients
made use of*, as white hippocras, red hippocras, claret-
hippocras, strawberry hippocras, hippocras without wine,
cyder hippocras, &c.
That directed in the late London Dispensary, is to
be made of cloves, ginger, cinnamon, and nutmegs,
beat and infused in canary with sugar j to the infusion,
milk, a lemon, and some slips of rosemary, are to be
put, and the whole strained through a flannel. It is re¬
commended as a cordial, and as good in paralytic and
all nervous cases.
HIPPOCRATIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the triandria class ; and in the natural method ranking
with those of which the order is doubtful. See Bota¬
ny Index.
HIPPOCRATES, the greatest physician of anti¬
quity, was born in the island of Cos in the 80th Olym¬
piad, and flourished at the time of the Peloponnesian
war. He rvas the first that we know of who laid down
precepts concerning physic ; and, if we may believe the
author of his life, who goes under the name of Soranus,
drew his original from Hercules and iFAculapius. He
was first a pupil of his own father Heraclides, then of
Herodicns, then of Gorgias of Leontinum the orator,
and, according to some, of Democritus of Abdera.
After being instructed in physic, and in the liberal arts,
and losing his parents, he left his own country, and
practised physic all over Greece $ where he was so
much admired for his skill, that he was publicly sent
for with Euryphon, a man superior to him in years, to
Perdiccas king of Macedonia, who was then thought
to be consumptive. But Hippocrates, as soon as he ar¬
rived, pronounced the disease to be entirely mental, as
in truth it was. For upon the death of his father A-
lexander, Perdiccas fell in love with Philas, his father’s
mistress: and this Hippocrates discerning by the great
change her presence always wrought upon him, a cure
was soon effected.
Being intreated by the people of Abdera to come and
cure Democritus of a supposed madness, he went; but,
upon his arrival, instead of finding Democritus mad,
]
H I P
tes
y
Hippo¬
drome.
he found all his fellow citizens so, and Demociitus the jji]>po«ra-
only wise man among them. He heard many lectures, 1
and learned much philosophy from him $ which has
made Cornelius Celsus and some others imagine, that
Hippocrates was the disciple of Democritus, though it
is probable they never saw each other till this interview
which was occasioned by the Abderites. Hippocrates
had also public invitations to other countries. Thus,
when a plague invaded the Illyrians and Paeonians, the
kings of those countries begged him to come to their
relief: he did not go ; but learning from the messen¬
gers the course of the winds there, he concluded that
the distemper would come to Athens; and foretelling
what would happen, applied himself to take care of the
city and the students. He was indeed such a lover of
Greece, that when his fame had reached as far as Per¬
sia, and upon that account Artaxerxes had intreattd
him by his governor of the Hellespont, with a pro¬
mise of great rewards, to come to him, he refused to
go. He also delivered his own country from a war
with the Athenians, that was just ready to break out,
by prevailing with the Thessalians to come to their as¬
sistance, for which he received very great honours
from the Coans. The Athenians also conferred great
honours upon him : they admitted him next to Her¬
cules in the Eleusinian ceremonies ; gave him the free¬
dom of the city ; and voted a public maintenance for
him and his family in the prytaneum or council-house
at Athens, where none were maintained at the public
charge, but such as had done public service to the state.
He died among the Larissaeans, some say in his pcth
year, some in his 85th, others in his 104th, and some
in his 109th. The best edition of his works is that
of Foesius in Greek and Latin. Hippocrates wrote in
the Ionian dialect. His aphorisms, prognostics, and all
that he has written on the symptoms of diseases, justly
pass for masterpieces. See Histori/ of Medicine.
HIPPOCRENE, in Ancient Geography, a foun¬
tain of Mount Helicon, on the borders of Bceotia, sa¬
cred to the muses. Some, as Ovid, make Hippocrene
and Aganippe the same. See Aganippe.
HIPPOCREPIS, Common Horse-shoe Vetch, a
genus of plants belonging to the diadelphia class ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 32d order,
Papilionacea1. See Botany Index.
HIPPODROME, Hippodromus (composed of
“ horse” and “ course,” of the verb
curro, “ I run”), in antiquity, a list or course
wherein chariot and horse races were performed, and
horses exercised.
The Olympian hippodrome or horse-course was a
space of ground of 600 paces long, surrounded with a
wall, near the city Elis, and on the banks of the ri¬
ver Alpheus. It was uneven, and in some degree ir¬
regular, on account of the situation; in one part was
a hill of a moderate height, and the circuit was adorn¬
ed with temples, altars, and other embellishments. See
Stadium. There is a very famous hippodrome at
Constantinople, which was begun by Alexander Seve-
rus, and finished by Constantine. This circus, called
by the Turks atmeican, is 400 paces long, and above
100 paces wide. At the entrance of the hippodrome
there is a pyramidal obelisk of granite in one piece,
about 50 feet high, terminating in a point, and charged
with hieroglyphics. The Greek and Latin inscrip¬
tions
HIP [ 502 ] HIE
p;,0. lions on Its base show, that it was erected by Theodo-
otue sius the machines that were employed to raise it are
11 represented upon it In basso-relievo. w e have some
pdma* vestiges in England of the hippodromus, in which the
- I'- ancient inhabitants of this country performed their
races ; the most remarkable is that near Stonehenge,
which is a long tract of ground, about 350 feet or
200 druid cubits wide, and more than a mile and three
quarters, or 6000 druid cubits, in length, inclosed quite
round with a bank of earth, extending directly east
and west. The goal and career are at the east end.
The goal is a high bank of earth, raised with a slope
inwards, on which the judges are supposed to have
sat. The metae are two tumuli, or small barrows, at
the west end of the course. These hippodromes were
called in the language of the country rhedagua, the
racer rhedagtur, and the carriage r/ieda, from the Bri¬
tish word rhe deg, “ to run.” One of these hippo¬
dromes, about half a mile to the southward of Leices¬
ter, retains evident traces of the old name rhedagua, in
the corrupted one of rawdikes. There is another of
these, says Dr Stukeley, near Dorchester ; another on
the banks of the river Lowther, near Penrith in Cum¬
berland ; and another in the valley, just without the
town of Royston.
HIPPOGLOSSUS, a species of fish belonging to
the genus Pleuronectes, which see in Ichthyology
Index.
HIPPOLYTUS, a son of Theseus and Hippolyte,
famous in fabulous history for his virtue and his misfor¬
tunes. His stepmother Phaedra fell in love with him,
and when he refused to pollute his father’s bed, she ac¬
cused him to Theseus of offering violence to her per¬
son. Her accusation was readily believed, and The¬
seus intreated Neptune to punish the incontinence of
his son. Hippolitus fled from the resentment of his
father j and as he pursued his way along the sea shores,
his horses were so frightened at the noise of sea calves
which Neptune had purposely sent there, that they ran
among the rocks till his chariot was broken and his
body torn to pieces. Temples were raised to his me¬
mory, particularly at Troezene, where he received di¬
vine honours. According to some accounts, Diana
restored him life.
HIPPOMANE, the Manchineel-tree j a genus
of plants belonging to the moncecia class ; and in the
natural method ranking under the 38th order, Tru
cocccb. See Botany Index.
HIPPOMANES, a sort of poison, famous among
4:he ancients as an ingredient in amorous philters or
love-charms. The word is Greek irirtfutnt, composed
of “ a horse,” and fixnct, “ fury or madness.”
Authors are not agreed about the nature of the
hippomanes. Pliny describes it as a blackish caruncle
found on the head of a new-born colt; which the dam
bites off and eats as soon as she is delivered. He adds
that if she be prevented herein by any one’s cutting it
off before, she will not take to, nor bring up the
young. Virgil, and after him Servius and Columella,
describe it as a poisonous matter trickling from the pu¬
dendum of a mare when proud, or longing for the
horse. At the end of Mr Bayle’s dictionary is a very
learned dissertation on the hippomanes, and all its vir¬
tues both real and pretended.
HIPPONAX, a Greek poet, born at Ephesus 540 Hipponax
years before the Christian era. He cultivated the ||
same satirical poetry as Archilochus, and was not in-
ferior to him in the beauty or vigour of his lines. His ' " ' ^
satirical raillery obliged him to fly from Ephesus. As
he was naturally deformed, two brothers, Buphalus
and Anthermus, made a statue of him ; which, by the
ugliness of its features, exposed the poet to universal
ridicule. Hipponax resolved to revenge the injury j
and he wrote such bitter invectives and satirical lam¬
poons against them, that they hanged themselves in
despair. (CVc. ad Famil. vii. ep. 24.).
HIPPOPHAE,Sea-Buckthorn j a genus of plants
belonging to the dioecia class 5 and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 16th order, CahjcifLorce. See
Botany Index.
HI.PPOPHAGI, in Ancient Geography, a people
of Scythia, so called from their living on horse-flesh ;
the fare at this day of the Tartars their descendants.
Also a people of Persia (Ptolemy).
HIPPOPODES, Hippopedes, or Hippopodix,
composed of ijrjrcj, horse, and wss, foot, in the ancient
geography, an appellation given to a certain people
situated on the banks of the Scythian sea, as being
supposed to have had horses feet. The hippopodes are
mentioned by Dionysius, Geogr. v. 310. Mela, lib. iii.
cap. 6. Pliny, lib. iv. cap. 13. and St Augustine, Ds
Civit. lib. xvi. cap. 8. But it is conjectured, that they
had this appellation given them on account of their
swiftness or lightness of foot. Mr Pennant supposes
them to have been the inhabitants of the Bothnian
gulf, and that they were the same sort of people as the
Finni Lignipedes of Olaus. They wore snow-shoes
which he thinks might fairly give the idea of their be¬
ing, like horses, hoofed and shod.
HIPPOPOTAMUS, the River-horse •, a genus
of quadrupeds belonging to the order of belluse. See
Mammalia Index.
HIPPURIS, Mare’s tail, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the monandria class j and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 15th order, Inundate?. See Bo¬
tany Index.
HIRiTtA, a genus of plants belonging to the decan-
dria class. See Botany Index.
HIRAM, a king of Tyre, contemporary with Solo¬
mon, whom he supplied with cedar, gold, silver, and
other materials for building the temple. He died 1000
years B. C.
Hiram of Tyre, an artist who assisted in the con¬
struction of Solomon’s temple, and other public build¬
ings at Jerusalem, flourished 1015 B. C.
HIRCANIA, in Ancient Geography. See Hyr-
CANIA.
HIRCH-horn, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the Lower Rhine, with a strong castle. It is seated
on the side of a hill on the river Neckar, and belongs
to Bavaria. E. Long. 9. O. N. Lat. 49. 28.
HIRCUS, in Astronomy, a fixed star of the first
magnitude, the same with Capella. It is also made use
of by some writers for a comet, encompassed as it were
with a mane, apparently rough and hairy.
HIRE, Philip de la, a French mathematician and
astronomer of eminence, was born at Paris in the year
1640. His father, who was painter to his majesty, de¬
signing
H I R [S03] HIS
ire signing to bring him up to the same occupation, taught
11 him drawing and such parts of the mathematics as are
i'llfeia; intimately connected with it. At the age of 20 he took
a journey into Italy, to enlarge his knowledge of his
favourite art, in which country he resided for about four
years. The study of the mathematics afterwards occu¬
pied all his attention, which he continued to prosecute
on his return to his native city ; and the publication of
some works having procured him so high a reputation,
he was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences in
the year 1678.
When the celebrated minister Colbert conceived the
design of constructing a better map of France than any
at that time to be met with, De la Hire was nominated
in conjunction with Picard, to make the necessary ob¬
servations, which engaged his attention for some years
in different provinces. But besides the chief object of
his journeys, he philosophized upon every thing that oc¬
curred to him, in a particular manner on the variations
of the magnetic needle, on refractions, and the height
of mountains as ascertained by the barometer.
In the year 1683 he was employed in continuing the
meridian line which had been begun by Picard in 1669.
He continued it from Paris towards the north, and Cas¬
sini carried it on towards the south j but on the death of
Colbert, which happened the same year, the work was
laid aside in an unfinished state. He was afterwards
employed, in conjunction with other eminent philoso¬
phers, in taking the necessary levels for the grand aque¬
ducts which Louis XIV was about to make.
The works which have been published by De la Hire
are very numerous •, and as he was professor of the Royal
College and Academy of Architecture, he must have
been constantly employed. He had the politeness, cir¬
cumspection, and prudence of Italy, which made him
appear too reserved in the estimation of his versatile
countrymen, yet he was regarded by all as an honest,
disinterested man. He died in the year 1718, at the
great age of 78.
He published Traiie de Mechanique; Nouvelle Me-
thode en Geometrie pour les Sections des Superficies Co-
niques et Cylindriques; Tie Cycloide; JSfouveaux Ele-
mens des Sections Coniques ; les Lieux Geometriques ;
la Construction ou Ejfection des Equations; La Gno-
monique, and several others of less importance. That
which gained him the greatest reputation all over Eu¬
rope, was his Selectiones Co nicer in novem libros distri¬
butee, considered by the best judges as an original
work.
HIRING, in Law. See Borrowing and Hiring.
HIRPINI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Italy,
next to the Samnites, to the south-east, and descendants
from them j situated to the north of the Picentini, and
to the west of the Apuli, having on the north the
Apennine and a part of Samnium. Their name is from
Hirpus, a term denoting a wolf in their language 5 ei¬
ther because under the conduct of this animal the colo¬
ny was led and settled, according to Strabo; or because,
like that prowling animal, they lived on plunder, accord¬
ing to Servius.
H1RSBERG, a town of Silesia, in the territory
of Jauer, famous for its mineral baths. It is seated
on the river Bosar, in E. Eong. .15. 50. N. Lat. 50.
43'
HIRSCHFELD, a town of Germany, in the circle
ot the Upper Rhine, and capital of a principality of Hirscl
the same name, depending on a famous abbey which H
was secularized in favour of the house of Cassel. It is Hispan;
seated on the river Fulda, in E. Long. 9. 52. N. Lat.
51. 46.
HIRTELLA, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria class ; and in the natural method ranking
with those of which the order is doubtful, See Botany
Index.
HIRUDO, the Leech ; a genus of insects belonging
to the order of vermes intestina. See Helmintholo¬
gy Index.
HIRUNDO, a genus of plants belonging to the order
of passeres. See Ornithology Index.
HIS PA, in Zoology, a genus of insects belonging to
the order coleoptera. See Entomology Index.
HISPALIS, a town of Bsetica, in the Farther
Spain ; an ancient mart or trading town on the Bsetis,
navigable quite up to it for ships of burthen, and thence
to Corduba for river barges. Called Colonia Eomulcn-
sis. It had also a conventus juridicus, a court of justice
or assizes, (Pliny). Now called Seville. W. Long. 6.
N. Lat. 37.
HISPANIA, called Hesperia Ultima, (Horace),
because the westmost part of Europe; also Ibei'ia, from
the river Iberus. Its name Hispania, or Spania, (Greek)
is of Phceuician original, from its great number of
rabbits : the Phoenicians, who settled several colonies
on the coast, calling it Spanjah from these animals.
It has the sea on every side, except on that next to
Gaul, from which it is separated by the Pyrenees.
The Romans at first divided it into the Farther and
Hither Spain, under two praetors. In that state it
continued down to Augustus ; who divided the Farther
Spain into Boetica, which he left to the people to be
governed by a proconsul ; and into Lusitania, which he
added to his own provinces ; calling the Hither Spain
I'arraconensis. Plispania was a country celebrated for
its fertility, of which it has greatly fallen short in mo¬
dern times. The people were of a warlike turn, (Stra-
bo) ; and tbeir bodies being formed for hardships and
labour, they ever preferred war to peace, and were re¬
markably prodigal of life (Justin, Sil. Italicus). Spain
has produced several great men, both in a literary and'a
political capacity. $ee Spain.
HISPANIOLA, called also St Domingo, the
largest of the Antilles or Caribbee islands, extending
about 420 miles from east to west, and 120 in breadth
from north to south ; lying between 17* 37' and 20° of
N. Lat. and between 67° 35' and 740 15' W. Long.
The climate is hot, but not reckoned unwholesome ;
and some of the inhabitants are said to arrive at the
age of 120. It is sometimes refreshed by breezes and
rains ; and its salubrity is likewise in a great measure
owing to the beautiful variety of hills and valleys,
woods and rivers, which everywhere present them¬
selves. It is indeed reckoned by far the finest and
most pleasant island of the Antilles, as being the best
accommodated to all the purposes of life when duly cul¬
tivated.
This island, famous for being the earliest settlement
of the Spaniards in the New world, was at first in high
estimation for the quantity of gold it supplied: this
wealth diminished with the inhabitants of the country,
whom they obliged to dig it out of the bowels of the
earth 3,
H I S
[ 504 ]
H I S
earth ; and the source of it was entirely dried up, when
' they were exterminated, which was quickly done by a
series of the most shocking barbarities that ever dis¬
graced the history of any nation. Benzoni relates, that
of two millions of inhabitants, contained in the island
when discovered by Columbus in 1493* scaice *,-53
were alive in 1545. A vehement desire of opening
again this source of wealth inspired the thought of get¬
ting slaves from Africa ; but, besides that these were
found unfit for the labours they were destined to, the
multitude of mines, which then began, to be wrought
on the continent, made those of Hispaniola no longer of
any importance. An idea now suggested itself, that
their negroes, which were healthy, strong, and patient,
might be usefully employed in husbandry j and they
adopted, through necessity, a wise resolution, which,
had they known their own interest, they would have
embraced by choice.
The produce of their industry was at first extreme¬
ly small, because the labourers were few. Charles V.
who, like most sovereigns, preferred his favourites to
e%'erv thing, had granted an exclusive right of the
slave-trade to a Flemish nobleman, who made over his
privilege to the Genoese. Those avaricious republi¬
cans conducted this infamous commerce as all mono¬
polies are conducted ; they resolved to sell dear, and
they sold but few. "When time and competition had
fixed the natural and necessary price of slaves, the
number of them increased. It may easily be imagin¬
ed, that the Spaniards, who had been accustomed to
treat the Indians as beasts, did not entertain a higher
opinion of these negro Africans, whom they substitu¬
ted in their place. Degraded still farther in their
eves by the price they had paid for them, even reli¬
gion could not restrain them from aggravating the
weight of their servitude. It became intolerable, and
these wretched slaves made an effort to recover the un¬
alienable rights of mankind. Their attempt proved
unsuccessful j but they reaped this benefit from their
despair, that they were afterwards treated with less in¬
humanity.
Th is moderation (if tyranny cramped by the ap¬
prehension of revolt can deserve that name) was attend¬
ed with good consequences. Cultivation was pursued
w'ith some degree of success. Soon after the middle of
the 16th century, the mother country drew annually
from this colony ten millions weight of sugar, a large
quantity of wood for dyeing, with tobacco, cocoa, cassia,
ginger, and cotton, in abundance. One might ima¬
gine, that such favourable beginnings would give both
the desire and the means of carrying them further j but
a train of events, more fatal each than the other, ruined
these hopes.
The first misfortune arose from the depopulation of
the island. The Spanish conquests on the continent
should naturally have contributed to promote the suc¬
cess of an island, which nature seemed to have formed
to be the centre of that vast dominion arising around
it, to be the staple of the different colonies. But it
fell out quite otherwise : on a view of the immense
fortunes raising in Mexico, and other parts, the richest
inhabitants of Hispaniola began to despise their set¬
tlements, and quitted the true source of riches, which
is on the surface of the earth, to go and ransack the
bowels of it for veins of gold, which are quickly ex-Hlspaniok
hausted. The government endeavoured in vain to put —r—
a stop to this emigration j the laws were always either
artfully eluded, or openly violated.
The weakness, which was a necessary consequence
of such a conduct, leaving the coasts without defence,
encouraged the enemies of Spain to ravage them. Even
the capital of this island was taken and pillaged by that
celebrated English sailor, Sir Francis Drake. The
cruizers of less consequence contented themselves with
intercepting vessels in their passage through those lati¬
tudes, the best known at that time of any in the new
world. To complete these misfortunes, the Castilians
themselves commenced pirates. They attacked no ships
but those of their own nation ; which were more rich,
worse provided, and worse defended, than any others.
The custom they had of fitting out ships clandestinely,
in order to procure slaves, prevented them from being
known ; and the assistance they purchased from the
ships of war, commissioned to protect the trade, insured
to them impunity.
The foreign trade of the colony was its only resource
in this distress ; and that was illicit: but as it conti¬
nued to be carried on, notwithstanding the vigilance
of the governors, or, perhaps, by their connivance,
the policy of an exasperated and short-sighted court
exerted itself in demolishing most of the sea-ports,
and driving the miserable inhabitants into the inland
country. This act of violence threw them into a state
of dejection j which the incursions and settlement of
the French on the island afterwards carried to the ut¬
most pitchi. The latter, after having made some un¬
successful attempts to settle on the island, had part of
it yielded to them in 1697, and afterwards enjoyed by
far the best share.
Spain, totally taken up with that vast empire which
she had formed on the continent, used no pains to dis¬
sipate this lethargy. She even refused to listen to the
solicitations of her Flemish subjects, who earnestly press¬
ed that they might have permission to clear those fertile
lands. Rather than run the risk of seeing them carry
on a contraband trade on tlife coasts, she chose to buiy
in oblivion a settlement which had been of consequence,
and was likely to become so again.
This colony, which had no longer any intercourse
with the mother country but by a single ship of no
great burthen, that arrived from thence every third year,
consisted, in of 18,410 inhabitants, including
Spaniards, mestees, negroes, or mulattoes. The com¬
plexion and character of these people differed according
to the different proportions of American, European,
and African blood they had received from that natural
and transient union which restores all races and condi¬
tions to the same level. These demi-savages, plunged
in the extreme of sloth, lived upon fruits and roots,
dwelt in cottages without furniture, and most of them
without clothes. The few among them, in whom in¬
dolence had not totally suppressed the sense of decency
and taste for the conveniencies of life, purchased clothes
of their neighbours the French in return for their cattle,
and the money sent to them for the maintenance of two
hundred soldiers, the priests, and the government.
In the year 1788, the revolutionary principles which
began to agitate Europe, made their way to the West
HIS [ 505 ] HIS
laiola. Indies. The French association for abolishing the slave
z—w trade, called Amis desNoirs, kept up a correspondence
ivith such rich Mulattoes as had come to France for
their education, and its members laboured to convince
them that there was neither civil nor political distinc¬
tion between them and the white people. These ideas
were strengthened by the celebrated declaration of the
national assembly, that all men are born and continue
free, possessing equal rights. The consequence was,
that the Mulattoes of Hispaniola broke out into open
rebellion, but for want of unity of design they were soon
overpowered.
This spirit, however, still continued to exert itself,
and the assembly of France having avowed its design
not to interfere with the internal affairs of the colony,
discontent and remonstrances were exhibited by the
factious friends of the negroes. They considered this
as countenancing the African trade, and an acknow¬
ledgment that the planters were not colonists, but in¬
dependent people. This idea struck the colonists them¬
selves, for by a decree they debarred the king’s dele¬
gate from having a negative on any of their future
acts. The Amis des Noirs, in the mean time, exerted
all their influence to kindle and cherish a spirit of re¬
bellion in the minds of the people of colour; for which
purpose they carefully taught one James Oge, then re¬
siding at Paris, the doctrines of equality and the rights
of man, urged him to return to St Domingo, place him¬
self at the head of his people, and rescue them from
the oppression of the whites, pledging themselves to
procure arms and ammunition for him in America, that
the affair might be kept as profound a secret as possi¬
ble. He accordingly set sail for New England in July
1790; but all the vigilance of the parties concerned
could not deceive the government of France, and his
portrait w'as sent to St Domingo before him. He made
the island in October, and declared soon after by vir¬
tue of a manifesto, that if the privileges of the whites
were not conferred on all without discrimination, he
would instantly take up arms to obtain them by force.
With a small detachment of 200 men he massacred all
the white people that came in his way, as well as all
those of his own colour who refused to join him. This
little army was very soon subdued, and their misguided
leader wTas punished as a traitor.
The French national assembly decreed that every
person 25 years old and upwards, if he possessed proper¬
ty, and had lived two years in the colony, and paid
taxes, should be permitted to elect the members of the
colonial assembly, on which account the people of colour
inferred, that this privilege was bestowed upon them. It
is uncharitable to believe that this was the intention of
the national assembly ; but Gregoire and others carried
their favourite point, that Mulattoes born of free pa¬
rents might not only elect their own representatives,
but also sit as members in the colonial assemblies. In
consequence of this measure, all the white people fell
victims to the indignation of the people of colour. The
negroes were now fully determined to recover their li¬
berty. On the 23d of August 1791, the people in the
town of the Cape w'ere informed that the slaves in the
adjacent parishes had revolted, a report which was too
soon confirmed by the arrival of those who had escaped
the massacre. Hostilities commenced between the two
parties, and terminated with the loss of 2000 white peo ■
Vol. X. Part II. i
pie, while not fewer than 10,000 Mulattoes and Ne-Hispaniola,
groes perished by famine and the sword, and several ’■——v'*"
hundreds by the hands of the executioner.
The news of these transactions having reached Paris,
the members of the assembly were persuaded that they
had carried their principles of equality by much too
far, and they repealed their celebrated decree which
had placed the people of colour on a footing with the
whites. Commissioners (three in number) were sent
to restore peace between the whites and Mulattoes, but
as two of them were men of infamous characters, and
incapable of extinguishing the flames of rebellion, they
returned to France without being able to accomplish the
object of their mission.
The Amis des Noirs having again acquired the supe¬
riority in the national assembly, Santhonax, Polverei,
and Ailhaud, with 6000 men from the national guards,
were ordered for St Domingo. The governor of the
island perceiving that these commissioners took all th.e
authority on themselves, and resolved to reduce him to
a cypher, he remonstrated against their proceedings, in
consequence of which he was immediately arrested, and
sent a state prisoner to France. The commissioners
afterwards disagreeing among themselves, Ailhaud was
dismissed from their councils.
Unsuccessful attempts were made by the British go¬
vernment to subdue the commissioners and their adhe¬
rents ; but after performing prodigies of valour, the
troops of Britain were compelled to relinquish the island,
more perhaps by disease than the sword of the enemy.
The chief government of it then fell into the hands of
Toussaint L'Ouverture, by whom it was converted into
an independent republic, the supreme authority over
which he continued to hold till the signing the prelimi¬
naries of peace in 1801.
When this event took place, Bonaparte, with the
consent of the British government, sent a fleet from
Brest, with a considerable army under the command of
General Le Clerc, who, after various actions, at length
subdued Toussaint; and, notwithstanding that French
general pledged himself for his safety, he was in a short
time sent prisoner to France, where he soon after died,
or, according to conjectures not very improbable, was ,
put to death by order, or with the connivance, of the
ruler of that kingdom.
The French troops under General Rochambeau be- .
ing obliged to evacuate Hispaniola, the freedom and
independence of the island were proclaimed by the con¬
quering chief, Dessalines, who assured all those who
were willing to remain in it, of his cordial protection,
and allowing such as were so inclined freely to depart
with the trench army. The successes which attended
the arms of this black chief, and the goodness of the
cause in which he fought, were very much tarnished by
the horrid massacres of the white people, which he not
only countenanced, but attended in person. Attempts
to negotiate with Dessalines were made by the British
government, but without effect, his demands were so ex¬
travagant which he held out as the basis; but his army
was in such a forlorn condition, as to create no appre¬
hensions of danger from such an enemy. After this,
however, Dessalines experienced a signal defeat on the
plain of St Charles from Genera! Ferrand, when 1200
of his men were found dead on the field, and himself
obliged to retire towards the Cape.
St
HIS [ 506 ] HIS
Hispaniola. St Domingo was afterwards denominated Hayti, of
  » ■" 1 which Jacques Dessalines was chosen the first emperor.
It was declared a free, sovereign, and independent state,
and slavery was abolished. The citizens were pro¬
nounced brothers at home, equal in the eye of the law ;
and it was declared that one roan could enjoy no advan¬
tage over another, but such as might originate from ser¬
vices done to the cause of liberty and independence.
Such as emigrate are to forfeit ever after the title of
citizen of Hayti, and also if they are found deserving
of disgraceful punishments. Every citizen must have
some mechanic art, and no white man is to be permit¬
ted to set a foot upon the island with the title of a pro¬
prietor. All distinction of colour was ordered to cease,
and the people of Hayti to be ever after known by the
generic title of Blacks.
The emperor is commander in chief of the army, and
the empress is to have a fixed annual allowance after the
decease of the emperor, as princess dowager. Laws are
made, sealed, and promulgated by the emperor; and he
appoints at his pleasure all counsellors of state, generals,
and other agents of the empire, sea officers, judges, and
HIST
other public functionaries. The house of every citizen His anio] f
is by the law declared to be his asylum; marriage is B (
declared a civil rite, divorce is allowed, all religious opi- Histwlo. !
nions tolerated, and good faith in commercial transac-
tions is to be religiously maintained. 1
Dessalines was put to death for his cruelties, and
was succeeded by two rival chiefs, Petion and Chris-
tophe. Both these chiefs applied with laudable ardour
to the domestic improvement of their dominions. Much
attention was bestowed on agriculture; and schools, on
tlje Lancasterian plan have been established in difierent
parts. Petion was succeeded by Boyer; and Chris-
tophe having since been destroyed, the two districts
have again been united under the former (1821).
HISTER, a genus of the coleoptera order of insects.
See Entomology Index.
HISTORIOGRAPHER, a professed historian, or
writer of history. See the next article.
The historiographer to his majesty is an officer un¬
der the lord chamberlain ; his salary 200I. per annum.
There is an office of the same kind in Scotland, with
the same salary.
O R Y.
HISTORY, in general, signifies an account of
some remarkable facts which have happened
in the world, arranged in the true order in which they
actually took place, together with the causes to which
they were owing, and the different effects they have
produced as far as can be discovered.—The word is
Greek, ; and literally denotes a search of curi¬
ous things, or a desire of knowing, or even a rehear¬
sal of things we have seen; being formed from the verb
,rr«ge>>, which properly signifies to know a thing by
having seen it. But the idea is now much more ex¬
tensive, and is applied to the knowledge of things ta¬
ken from the report of others. The origin is from
the verb iVnun, “ I know;” and hence it is, that
among the ancients several of their great men were
called /Hj/y/fo’s/ores, i. e. persons of various and general
knowledge.
Sometimes, however, the word history is used to
signify a description of things, as well as an account
of facts. Thus Theophrastus calls his work in which
he has treated of the nature and properties of plants,
an history of plants ; and we have a treatise of Aristotle,
intitled an history of animals; and to this day the de¬
scriptions of plants, animals, and minerals, are called
1 by the general name of natural history.
hovadfvi- ^Ut w!lat cllIefl>r nier‘t3 name of history, and
^ere cons>dered as such, is an account of the
principal transactions of mankind since the beginning
of the world ; and which naturally divides itself into
two parts, namely civil and ecclesiastical. The first
contains the history of mankind in their various rela-
tioas to one another, and their behaviour, for their own
emolument, or that of others, in common life ; the se¬
cond considers them as acting, or pretending to act,
in obedience to what they believe to be the will of the
Supreme Being.—.Civil history, therefore, includes an
account of all the different states that have existed in
the world, and likewise of those men who in differ¬
ent ages of the world have most eminently disr
tinguished themselves either for their good or evil ac¬
tions. This last part of civil history is usually termed
Biography.
History is now considered as a very considerable
branch of polite literature : few accomplishments are
more valued than an accurate knowledge of the histo¬
ries of different nations ; and scarce any literary pro¬
duction is more regarded than a well-written history of
any nation.
With regard to the study of history, we must con-Of the it*
sider, that all the revolutions which have happened in^I0^'
the world have been owing to two causes. 1. The£t0,3r'
connexions between the different states existing toge¬
ther in the world at the same time, or their different
situations with regard to one another; and, 2. The
different characters of the people who in all ages
constituted these states, their different geniuses and
dispositions, &c. by which they were either prompted
to undertake such and such actions of themselves, or
were easily induced to it by others. The person who
would study history, therefore, ought in the first place
to make himself acquainted with the state of the world
in general in all different ages; what nations inhabited
the different parts of it; what their extent of territory
was; at what particular time they arose, and when
they declined. He is then to inform himself 0!
the various events which have happened to each par¬
ticular nation; and, in so doing, he will discover
many of the causes of those revolutions, which before
he only knew as facts. Thus, for instance, a per¬
son may know the Roman history from the time of
Romulus, without knowing in the least why the city
ot Rome happened to be built at that time. This
cannot be understood without a particular knowledge
of the former state of Italy, and even of Greece and
Asia;
$ zt. I.
H I S
V 1
:ivil Asia j seeing the origin of the Romans is com-
aorr. monly traced as high as iEneas, one of the heroes
Y-—' of Troy. Rut when all this is done, which indeed
requires no small labour, the historian hath yet to
study the genius and dispositions of the different na¬
tions, the characters of those who were the principal
directors of their actions, whether kings, ministers,
generals or priests •, and when this is accomplished,
he will discover the causes of those transactions in the
different nations which have given rise to the great
revolutions above mentioned : after which, he may
assume the character of one who is perfectly versed in
history.
The first outline of history, as it may be called, is
most easily obtained by the inspection of an historical
chart j and that subjoined to the present treatise will
answer the purpose as well as any. Along with this
it will be proper to peruse a short abridgement of ge¬
neral history, from the creation of the world to the pre¬
sent time; but in this way there have been but very
few attempts attended with any tolerable success. The
following is collected from respectable authorities,
and may serve to help the ideas of the reader on this
subject.
Sect. I. Civil History.
History, though seemingly incapable of any natu¬
ral division, will yet be found, on a nearer inspection,
to resolve itself into the following periods, at each of
which a great revolution took place, either with re-
5 gard to the whole world, or a very considerable p^rt
luito- of it. I. The creation of man. 2. The flood. 3. The
'wdi- beginning of profane history, i. e. when all the fabu¬
lous relations of heroes, demi-gods, &c. were ex¬
pelled from historical narrations, and men began to
relate facts with some regard to truth and credibility.
4. The conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, and the de¬
struction of the Babylonian empire. 5. The reign of
Alexander the Great, and the overthrow of the Persian
empire. 6. The destruction of Carthage by the Ro¬
mans, when the latter had no longer any rival capable
of opposing their designs. 7. The reign of the emperor
Trajan, when the Roman empire was brought to its
utmost extent. 8. The division of the empire under
Constantine. 9. The destruction of the western empire
by the Heruli, and the settlement of the different Euro¬
pean nations. 10. The rise of Mahomet, and the con¬
quests of the Saracens and Turks. 11. The crusades,
and ail the space intervening between that time and the
present.
Concerning the number of years which have elapsed
since the creation of the world, there have been many
disputes. The compilers of the Universal History de¬
termine it to have taken place in the year 4305 B. C. so
that, according to them, the world is now (1806) in the
611 ith year of its age. Others think it was created
only 4000 years B. C. so that it hath not yet attained
ic ac- its 6000th year. Be this as it will, however, the
°f whole account of the creation rests on the truth of the
Mosaic history ; and this we must of necessity ac¬
cept, because we can find no other which does not
cither abound with the grossest absurdities, or lead us
into absolute darkness. The Chinese and Egyptian
pretensions to antiquity are so absurd and ridiculous,
%
TORY.
that the bare reading must be a sufficient confutation
of them to every reasonable person. See the articles
China and Egypt. Some historians and philosophers
are inclined to discredit the Mosaic accounts, from the
appearances of volcanoes, and other natural pheno¬
mena : but their objections are by no means sufficient
to invalidate the authority of the sacred writings ; not
to mention that every one of their own systems is
liable to insuperable objections. See Geology. It
is therefore reasonable for every person to accept of
the Mosaic account of the creation as truth : hut an
historian is under an absolute necessity of doing it, be¬
cause, without it, he is quite destitute of any standard
or scale by which he might reduce the chronology of
different nations to any agreement; and, in short, with¬
out receiving this account as true, it would be in a man¬
ner impossible at this day to write a general history of
the world. _
1. The transactions during the first period, viz. from History
the creation to the flood, are very much unknown, no-^rom
thing indeed being recorded of them but what is to be^^°ojt0
found in the first six chapters of Genesis. In general,
we know, that men were not at that time in a savage
state; they had made some progress in the arts, had
invented music, and found out the method of working
metals. They seem also to have lived in one vast com¬
munity, without any of those divisions into different na¬
tions which have since taken place, and which evident¬
ly proceeded from the confusion of languages. The
most material part of their history, however, is, that
having once begun to transgress the divine commands,
they proceeded to greater and greater lengths of wick¬
edness, till at last the Deity thought proper to send
a flood on the earth, which destroyed the whole human
race except eight persons, viz. Noah and his family.
This terrible catastrophe happened, according to the
Hebrew copy of the Bible, 1656 years after the crea¬
tion ; according to the Samaritan copy 1307. For the
different conjectures concerning the natural causes of
the flood, see the article Deluge.
2. For the history of the second period we must again F»on! the
have recourse to the Scriptures, almost as much as flood to the
for that of the first. We now find the human race re-bef?inniug
duced to eight persons, possessed of nothing but what^Prafa,e
they had saved in the ark, and the whole world to be*1181017'
stored with animals from those which had been preser¬
ved along with these eight persons. In what country
their original settlement was, no mention is made. The
ark is supposed to have rested on Mount Ararat in Ar¬
menia * ; but it is impossible to know whether Noah * Se(.
and his sons made any stay in the neighbourhood olArarat
this mountain or not. Certain it is, that some time
after, the whole or the greatest part of the human
race were assembled in Babylonia, where they engaged
in building a tower. This gave offence to the Deity ;
so that he punished them by confounding their lan¬
guage ; whence the division of mankind into different
nations.
According to a common opinion, Noah when dying
left the whole world to his sons, giving Asia to Shem,
Africa to Ham, and Europe to Japhet. But this hath Nations
not the least foundation in Scripture. By the most descended
probable accounts, Gomer the son of Japhet was the fa-from Ja-
ther of the Gomerians or Celtes ; that is, all the bar-l>*iet*
barous nations who inhabited the northern parts of
3 S 2 Europe,
HIS'
Enrope, under the various names of Gauls, Cimbrians,
Goths, &c. and who also migrated to Spain, where they
were called Celtibzrians. From Magog, Meshech, and
Tubal, three of Comer’s brethren, proceeded the Scy¬
thians, Sarmatians, Tartars, and Moguls. The three
other sons of Japhet, Madai, Javan, and liras, are said
to have been the fathers of the Medes, the lonians,
S Greeks and Thracians.
From Shem The children of Shem were Elam, Ashur, Arphaxad,
Lud and Aram. The first settled in Persia, where
he was the father of that mighty nation : The descen¬
dants of Ashur peopled Assyria (now Curdestaii) : Ar¬
phaxad settled in Chaldea. Lud is supposed by Jo¬
sephus to have taken up his residence in Lydia j
though this is much controverted. Aram, with more
certainty, is thought to have settled in Mesopotamia
9 and Syria.
From Ham. The children of Ham were Cush, Mizraim, Phut,
and Canaan. The first is thought to have remain¬
ed in Babylonia, and to have been king of the south¬
eastern parts of it, afterwards called Khwzestan. His
descendants are supposed to have removed into the
eastern parts of Arabia ; from whence they by degrees
migrated into the corresponding parts of Africa. The
second peopled Egypt, Ethiopia, Cyrenaica, Libya,
and the rest of the northern parts of the same conti¬
nent. The place where Phut settled is not known :
hut Canaan is universally allowed to have settled in
Phoenicia $ and to have founded those nations who in¬
habited Judea, and were afterwards exterminated by the
Jews.
Almost all the countries of the world, at least of the
eastern continent, being thus furnished with inhabi¬
tants, it is probable that for many years there would
be few or no quarrels between the different nations.
The paucity of their numbers, their distance from one
another, and their diversity of language, would contri¬
bute to keep them from having much. communication
with each other. Hence according to the different cir¬
cumstances in which the different tribes were placed,
some would be more civilized and others more barba¬
rous. In this interval also the different nations proba¬
bly acquired different characters, which afterwards they
obstinately retained, and manifested on all occasions $
hence the propensity of some nations to monarchy, as
the Asiatics, and the enthusiastic desire of the Greeks
j for liberty and republicanism, &c.
Foundation ^ l’e beginning of monarchical government was very
of the kinff-early ; Nimrod the son of Cush having found means to
doms of make himself king of Babylonia. In a short time A-
abjlonia, 3|iur emjgrat;eJ from the new kingdom j built Nineveh,
afterwards capital of the Assyrian empire j and two
other cities, called Rexen and Rehoboth, concerning
the situation of which we are now much in the dark.
"Whether Ashur at this time set up as a king for him¬
self, or whether he held these cities as vassal to Nim¬
rod, is now unknown It is probable, however, that
about the same time various kingdoms were founded in
different parts of the world $ and which were great or
small according to diflerent circumstances. Thus the
Scripture mentions the kings of Egypt, Gerar, Sodom,
Goraorrha, &c. in the time of Abraham j and we
may reasonably suppose, that these kings reigned over
nations which had existed for some considerable time
before.
Assyria,
&c.
U
’ History of
f O R Sect.
The first considerable revolution we read of is the civil
migration of the Israelites out of Egypt, and their
establishment in the land of Canaan. For the history of —-v'-'
these transactions we must refer to the Old Testament, II.
where the reader will see that it was attended with of the it"
the most terrible catastrophe to the Egyptians, andraelites
with the utter extermination of some nations, the de-fl'011|H-
scendants of Ham, who inhabited Judaea. WhethergN),‘
the overthrow of Pharaoh in the Red sea could af¬
fect the Egyptian nation in such a manner as to de¬
prive them of the greatest part of their former learning,
and to keep them for some ages after in a barbarous
state, is not easily determined ; but unless this was the
case, it seems exceedingly difficult to account for the
total silence of their records concerning such a re¬
markable event, and indeed for the general confusion
and uncertainty in which the early history of Egypt is
involved. The settlement of the Jews in the promised
land of Canaan, is supposed to have happened about
1491 B. C.
For near 200 years after this period, we find no
accounts of any other nation than those mentioned in the Gretki
Scripture. About 1280 B. C. the Greeks began to
make other nations feel the effects of that enterprising
and martial spirit for which they were so remarkable,
and which they had undoubtedly exercised upon one
another long before. Their first enterprise was an in¬
vasion of Colchis (now Mingrelia), for the sake of the
golden fleece. Whatever was the nature of this ex¬
pedition, it is probable they succeeded in it; and it
is likewise probable, that it was this specimen of the
riches of Asia which inclined them so much to Asiatic
expeditions ever after. All this time we are totally
in the dark about the state of Asia and Africa, except
in so far as can be conjectured from Scripture. The
ancient empires of Babylon, Assyria, and Persia, pro¬
bably still continued in the former continent, and Egypt
and Ethiopia seem to have been considerable kingdoms
in the latter.
About 1184 years B. C. the Greeks again distin¬
guished themselves by their expedition against Troy, a
city of Phrygia Minor 5 which they plundered and
burnt, massacring the inhabitants with the most unre¬
lenting cruelty. ./Eneas, a Trojan prince, escaped with
some followers into Italy, where he became the remote
founder of the Roman empire. At this time Greece
was divided into a number of small principalities, most
of which seem to have been in subjection to Agamem¬
non king of Mycenae. In the reign of Atreus, the
father of this Agamemnon, the Heraclidae, or descen¬
dants of Hercules, who had been formerly banished by
Eurystheus, were again obliged to leave this country.
Under their champion Hyllus they claimed the king¬
dom of Mycenae as their right, pretending that it be¬
longed to their great ancestor Hercules, who was un¬
justly deprived of it by Eurystheus*. The contro-* gee/jfr
versy was decided by single combat j but Hyllus being
killed, they departed, as had been before agreed, under
a promise of not making any attempt to return for 50
years. About the time of the Trojan war, also, we find
the Lydians, Mysians, and some other nations of Asia
Minor, first mentioned in history. The names of the
Greek states mentioned during this uncertain period
are, 1. Sicyon. 2. Leleg. 3. Messina. 4. Athens.
5. Crete. 6. Argos. 7. Sparta. 8. Pelasgia.
9. Thessaly.
Se . I.
HI S
( il 9. Thessaly. 10. Attica, ir. Phocis. 12. Locris.
H n'y. 13. 0/.ela. 14. Corintli. 15. Eleusina. 16. Elis.
»— ' 17. Pilus. 18. Arcadia. 19. Egina. 20. Ithaca.
21. Cephalone. 22. Phthia. 23. Phocidia. 24.
Ephvra. 25. Eolia. 26. Tliehes. 27. Calista. 28.
Etolia. 29. Doloppa. 30. Oechalia. 31. Mycenae.
32. Euboea. 33. Mynia. 34. Doris. 35. Phera.
36. lola. 37. Trachina. 38. Thrasprocia. 39. Myr-
midonia. 40. Salamine. 41. Scyros. 42. Hype-
ria or Melite. 43. The Vulcanian isles. 44. Megara.
45. Epirus. 46. Achaia. 47. The isles of the Egean
sea. Concerning many of these we know nothing
besides their names : the most remarkable particulars
concerning the rest may be found under their respec¬
tive articles.
of( ' About 1048 B. C. the kingdom of Judea under
jtw King David approached its utmost extent of power. In
its most flourishing condition, however, it never was
remarkable for the largeness of its territory. In this
respect it scarce exceeded the kingdom of Scotland j
though, according to the accounts given in scripture,
the magnificence of Solomon was superior to that of
the most potent monarchs on earth. This extraordina¬
ry wealth, was owing partly to the spoils amassed by
King David in his conquests over his various enemies,
and partly to the commerce with the East Indies
which Solomon had established. Of this commerce he
owed his share to the friendship of Hiram king of
Tyre, a city of Phoenicia, whose inhabitants were now
the most famed for commerce and skill in maritime af¬
fairs of any in the whole world.
After the death of Solomon, which happened about
975 B. C. the Jewish empire began to decline ; and
soon after many powerful states arose in different parts
of the world. The disposition of mankind in general
seems now to have taken a new turn, not easily ac¬
counted for. In former times, whatever wars might
have taken place between neighbouring nations, we
have no account of any extensive empire in the whole
world, or that any prince undertook to reduce far di¬
stant nations to his subjection. The empire of Egypt
indeed is said to have been extended immensely to the
east, even before the days of Sesostris. Of this coun¬
try, however, our accounts are so imperfect, that
scarce any thing can be concluded from them. But
now, as it were all at once, we find almost every nation
aiming at universal monarchy, and refusing to set any
hounds whatever to its ambition. The first shock
given to the Jewish grandeur ivas the division of the
kingdom into two, through the imprudence of Reho-
boam. This rendered it more easily a prey to Shishak
king of Egypt ; who five years after came and pillaged
Jerusalem, and all the fortified cities of the kingdom
of Judah. The commerce to the East Indies was now
discontinued, and consequently the sources of wealth
in a great measure stopped ; and this, added to the
perpetual wars between the kings of Israel and Judah,
contributed to that remarkable and speedy decline
which is now so easily to be observed in the Jewish
affairs.
Whether this king Shishak was the Sesostris of pro¬
fane writers or not, his expedition against Jerusalem as
recorded in scripture seems very much to resemble the
desultory conquests ascribed to Sesostris. His infan¬
try is said to have been innumerable, composed of
509
TORY.
different African nitions ; and his cavalry 60,000, with
1200 chariots; which agrees pretty well with the
mighty armament ascribed to Sesostris, and of which
an account is given under the article Egypt, N° 2.
There indeed his cavalry are said to have been only
24,000 ; bat the number of bis chariots is increased
to 27,000; which last may not unreasonably be rec¬
koned an exaggeration, and these supernumerary cha¬
riots may have been only cavalry ; but unless we allow
Sesostris to be the same with Shishak, it seems impos¬
sible to fix on any other king of Egypt that can be
supposed to have undertaken this expedition in the
days of Solomon.
Though the Jews obtained a temporary deliverance
from Shishak, they were quicklv after attacked by new
enemies. In 941 B. C. one Zerah an Ethiopian in¬
vaded Judaea with an army of a million of infantry
and 300 chariots; but was defeated with great slaugh¬
ter by Asa king of Judah, who engaged him with i4
an army of 580,000 men. About this time also we Of the Sy-
find the Syrians grown a considerable people, and118*1®"
bitter enemies both to the kings of Israel and Judah ;
aiming in fact at the conquest of both nations. Their
kingdom commenced in the days of David, under Ha-
dadezer, whose capital was Zobah, and who probably
was at last obliged to become David’s tributary, after
having been defeated by him in several engagements.
Before the death of David, however, one Rezon, who
it seems bad rebelled against Hadadezer, having found
means to make himself master of Damascus, erected
there a new kingdom, which soon became very power¬
ful. The Syrian princes being thus in the neighbour¬
hood of the two rival states of Israel and Judah (whose
capitals were Samaria and Jerusalem), found it an
easy matter to weaken them both, by pretending to
assist the one against the other ; but a detail of the
transactions between the Jews and Syrians is only to
be found in the Old Testament, to which we refer.
In 740 B. C. however, the Syrian empire was totally
destroyed by Tiglath Pileser king of Assyria ; as was
also the kingdom of Samaria by Shalmaneser his suc¬
cessor in 721 B. C. The people were either massacred,
or carried into captivity into Media, Persia, and the
countries about the Caspian sea. 15
While the nations of the east were thus destroying Of the
each other, the foundations of very formidable em- Western
pires were laid in the west, which in process of timeIlallons'
were to swallow up almost all the eastern ones. In
Africa, Carthage was founded by a Tyrian colony,
about 869 B. C. according to those who ascribe the
highest antiquity to that city ; but, according to others,
it was founded only in 769 or 770 B. C. In Europe
a very considerable revolution took place about 900
B. C. The Heraclidae, whom we have formerly seen
expelled from Greece by Atreus the father of Aga¬
memnon, after several unsuccessful attempts, at last
conquered the whole Peloponnesus. From this time the
Grecian states became more civilized, and their hi¬
story becomes less obscure. The institution, or rather
the revival and continuance, of the Olympic games, in
776 B. C. also greatly facilitated the writing not only
of their history, but that of other nations ; for as each
Olympiad consisted of four years, the chronology of
every important event became indubitably fixed by re¬
ferring it to such and such an Olympiad. In 74^
or 1-
510 HIST
Civil or the last year of the seventh Olympiad, the foun-
Hutory. dations of the city of Rome were laid by Romulus j
v" ■ ' an(t} years after, the Spartan state was new model¬
led, and received from Lycurgus those laws, by obser¬
ving of which it afterwards arrived at such a pitch of
j5 splendor.
State of the g. With the beginning of the 28th Olympiad, or
world at y(j8 B. C. commences the third general period above-
the begin- mentioned, when profane history becomes somewhat
t"ene- more clear* an(l tl)e relations concerning the different
ra! ptriod. nations may be depended upon with some degree ot
certainty. The general state of the world was at that
time as follows.—The northern parts of Europe were
either thinly inhabited, or filled with unknown and
barbarous nations, the ancestors of those who after¬
wards destroyed the Roman empire. France and
Spain were inhabited by the Gomerians or Celtes.
Italy was divided into a number of petty states, ari¬
sing partly from Gaulish and partly from Grecian co¬
lonies ; among whom the Romans had already become
formidable. They were governed by their king Ser-
vius Tullius $ had increased their city by the demoli¬
tion of Alba Longa, and the removal of its inhabitants
to Rome 5 and had enlarged their dominions by seve¬
ral cities taken from their neighbours. Greece was al¬
so divided into a number of small states, among which
the Athenians and Spartans, being the most remark¬
able, were rivals to each other. The former had,
about 599 B. C. received an excellent legislation from
Solon, and were enriching themselves by navigation
and commerce : the latter were become formidable by
the martial institutions of Lycurgus j and having con¬
quered Messina, and added its territory to their own,
were justly esteemed the most powerful people in Greece.
The other states of most consideration were Corinth,
Thebes, Argos, and Arcadia. In Asia great revolu¬
tions had taken place. The ancient kingdom of As¬
syria was destroyed by the Medes and Babylonians, its
capital city Nineveh utterly ruined, and the greatest
part of its inhabitants carried to Babylon. Nay, the
very materials ot which it was built were carried ofi,
to adorn and give strength to that stately metropolis,
which was then undoubtedly the first city in the world.
Nebuchadnezzar, a wise and valiant prince, now sat
on the throne of Babylon. By him the kingdom of
Judaea was totally overthrown in 587 B. C. Three
years before this he had taken and razed the city of
Tyre, and overrun all the kingdom of Egypt. 'He
is even said by Josephus to have conquered Spain, and
reigned there nine years, after which he abandoned it
to the Carthaginians; hut this seems by no means pro¬
bable. I he extent of the Babylonian empire is not
certainly known : but from what is recorded of it we
may conclude, that it was not at all inferior even in
this respect to any that ever existed ; as the scripture
tolls us it was superior in wealth to any of the succeed¬
ing ones. We know that it comprehended Phoenicia,
Palestine, Syria, Babylonia, Media, and Persia, and
Hot improbably India also ; and from a consideration
of this vast extent of territory, and the riches with
which every one of these countries abounded, we may
form some idea of the wealth and power of this mo¬
narch. When we consider also, that the whole strength
of this mighty empire was employed in beautifying
the metropolis, we cannot look upon the wonders of
3
O R Y. , Sect. ] I
that city as related by Herodotus to he at all incredi- chi!
hie. See Babylon ; and Architecture, N° 13. As History,
to what passed in the republic of Carthage about this
time, we are quite in the dark ; there being a chasm
in its history for no less than 300 years.
4. The fourth general period of history, namely,p-onn[ ^
from the end of the fabulous times to the conquest ofriod. Hi
Babylon by Cyrus, is very short, including no morest°7 oitl
t han 31 years. This sudden revolution was occasioned
by the misconduct of Evil-merodach, Nebuchadnezzar’s™^'
son, even in his father’s life-time. For having, in a
great hunting match on occasion of his marriage, en¬
tered the country of the Medes, and some of his troops
coming up at the same time to relieve the garrisons in
those places, he joined them to those already with him,
and without the least provocation began to plunder
and lay waste the neighbouring country. This pro¬
duced an immediate revolt, which quickly extended
over all Media and Persia. The Medes, headed by
Astyages and his son Cyaxares, drove hack Evil-
merodach and his party with great slaughter; nor doth
it appear that they were afterwards reduced even by
Nebuchadnezzar himself. The new empire continued
daily to gather strength ; and at last Cyrus, Astyages’s
grandson, a prince of great prudence and valour, being
made generalissimo of the Median and Persian forces,
took Babylon itself in the year 538 B. C. as related
under the article Babylon. ^
During this period the Romans increased in power
under the wise administration of their king ServiusRomans,
Tullius, who, though a pacific prince, rendered hisGreeks,
people more formidable by a peace of 20 years thanl^1™'
his predecessors had done by all their victories. The^^
Greeks, even at this early period, began to interfere
with the Persians, on account of the lonians or Gre¬
cian colonies in Asia Minor. These had been sub¬
dued by Croesus king of Lydia about the year 562,
the time of Nebuchadnezzar’s death. Whether the
Lydians had been subdued by the Babylonish monarch
or not, is not now to be ascertained ; though it is
very probable that they were either in subjection to
him, or greatly awed by his power, as before his death
nothing considerable was undertaken by them. It
is indeed probable, that during the insanity of Nebu¬
chadnezzar, spoken of by Daniel, the affairs of his king¬
dom would fall into confusion ; and many of those prin¬
ces whom he formerly retained in subjection would set
up for themselves. Certain it is, however, that if the
Babylonians did not regard Croesus as their subject,
they looked upon him to be a very faithful ally j inso¬
much that they celebrated an annual feast in comme¬
moration of a victory obtained by him over the Scy¬
thians. After the death of Nebuchadnezzar, Croesus
subdued many nations in Asia Minor, and among the
rest the lonians, as already related. They were, how¬
ever, greatly attached to his government ; for though
they paid in tribute, and were obliged to furnish him
with some forces in time of war, they were yet free from
all kind of oppression. When Cyrus therefore was
proceeding in his conquests of different parts of the
Babylonish empire, before he proceeded to attack the
capital, the lonians refused to submit to him, though
lie offered them very advantageous terms. But soon
after, Croesus himself being defeated and taken pri¬
soner, the lonians sent ambassadors to Cyrus, offering
to
Ci'f
(,1!
r<
El
till
1:111
*
l!?|
*St
Sell. I.
( [j to submit on the terms which had formerly been pro-
H sry. posed. These terms were now refused ; and the lo-
' nians, being determined to resist, applied to the Spar¬
tans for aid. Though the Spartans at that time
could not be prevailed upon to give their countrymen
any assistance, they sent ambassadors to Cyrus with a
threatening message ; to which he returned a contemp¬
tuous answer, and then forced the lonians to submit
at discretion, five years before the taking of Babylon.
Thus commenced the hatred between the Greeks and
Persians ; and thus we see, that in the two first great
monarchies the seeds of their destruction were sown
even before the monarchies themselves were established.
For while Nebuchadnezzar was raising the Babylonish
empire to its utmost height, his son was destroying
what his father built up j and at the very time when
Cyrus was establishing the Persian monarchy, by his
ill-timed severity to the Greeks he made that warlike
people his enemies, whom his successors were by no
means able to resist, and who would probably have
overcome Cyrus himself, had they united in order to
attack him. The transactions of Africa during this
period are almost entirely unknown j though we cannot
doubt that the Carthaginians enriched themselves by
means of their commerce, which enabled them after¬
wards to attain such a considerable share of power.
Fif jane- 5- Cyrus having now become master of all the east,
ral iad. the Asiatic affairs continued for some time in a state
ihc Ivs^ tran<luil%- ,^,e Jews obtained leave to return to
M ni- their own country, rebuild their temple, and again
aim sjp- establish their worship, of all which an account is given
tisn kc. in the sacred writings, though undoubtedly they must
have been in a state of dependence on the Persians
from that time forward. Cambyses the successor of Cy¬
rus added Egypt to his empire, which had either not
submitted to Cyrus, or revolted soon after his death.
He intended also to have subdued the Carthaginians ;
but as the Phoenicians refused to supply him with ships
to fight against their own countrymen, he was obliged
to lay this design aside.
In 517 B. C. the Babylonians finding themselves
grievously oppressed by their Persian masters, resolved
to shake off the yoke, and set up for themselves. For
this purpose, they took care to store their city with all
manner of provisions; and when Darius Hystaspes,
then king of Persia, advanced against them, they took
the most barbarous method that can be imagined of
preventing an unnecessary consumption of those provi¬
sions, which they had so carefully amassed. Having
collected all the women, old men, and children, into
one place, they strangled them without distinction,
whether wives, fathers, mothers, brothers, or sisters ;
every one being allowed to save only the wife he liked
best, and a maid servant to do the work of the house.
This cruel policy did not avail them : their citv was
taken by treachery (for it was impossible to take it
by force) } after which the king caused the walls of
it to he beaten down from 200 to 50 cubits height,
that their strength might no longer give encourage¬
ment to the inhabitants to revolt. Darius then turned
his arms against the Scythians j but finding that ex¬
pedition turn out both tedious and unprofitable, he
directed his course eastward, and reduced all the coun¬
try as fai- as the river Indus. In the mean time, the
lonians revolted j and being assisted by the Greek?, a
, 511
wai commenced between the two nations, which was Civil
not thoroughly extinguished but by the destruction of Hisiorr.
the Persian empire in 330 B. C. The lonians, how-   
ever, were for this time obliged to submit, after a war
of six years , and were treated with great seventy by
the Persians. The conquest of Greece itself was then
projected : but the expeditions for that purpose ended
most unfortunately for the Persians, and encouraged
the Greeks to make reprisals on them, in which they
succeeded according to their utmost wishes j and had
it only been possible for them to have agreed among
themselves, the downfal of the Persian empire would
have happened much sooner than it did. See Athens
Sparta, Macedon, and Persia.
In 459 B. C. the Egyptians made an attempt to
recover their liberty, but were reduced after a war of
six years. In 413 B. C. they revolted a second time:
and being assisted by the Sidonians, drew upon the
latter that terrible destruction foretold by the prophets j.
while they themselves were so thoroughly humbled, that
they never after made any attempt to recover their li¬
berty.
I he year 403 B. C. proved remarkable for the re¬
volt of Cyrus against his brother Artaxerxes Memnon*
in which, through his own rashness, he miscarried, and
lost his life at the battle of Cunaxa, in the province of aQ
Babylon. Ten thousand Greek mercenaries, who served Xenophon’*
in his army, made their way back into Greece, thoughretreat*
surrounded on all sides by the enemy, and in the heart
of a hostile country. In this retreat they were com¬
manded by Xenophon, who has received the highest
praises on account of his conduct and military skill in
bringing it to a happy conclusion. Two years after,
the invasions of Agesilaus king of Sparta threatened
the Persian empire with total destruction ; from which,
however, it was relieved by his being recalled in order
to defend his own country against the other Grecian
states j and after this the Persian affairs continued ins
a more prosperous way till the time of Alexander. 2J
During all this time, the volatile and giddy temper History of
of the Greeks, together with their enthusiastic desiretlie Greek*,
of romantic exploits, were preparing fetters for them¬
selves, which indeed seemed to be absolutely necessary
to prevent them from destroying one another. A zeal
for liberty was what they all pretended ; but on every
occasion it appeared, that this love of liberty was only
a desire of dominion. No state in Greece could bear to
see another equal to itself j and hence their perpetual
contests for pre-eminence, which could not but weaken
the whole body, and render them an easy prey to
an ambitious and politic prince, who was capable of
taking advantage of those divisions. Bmg all equally
impatient of restraint, they never could bear to submit
to any regular government; and hence their determi¬
nations were nothing but the decisions of a mere mob,
ot which they had afterwards almost constantly reason ;
to repent. Hence also their base treatment of those
eminent men whom they ought most to have honoured;
as Miltiades, Aristides, Themistocles, Alcibiades, So¬
crates, Phocion, &c. The various transactions be¬
tween the Grecian states, though they make a very
considerable figure in particular history, make none at
all in a general sketch of the history of the world. We
shall therefore only observe, that in 404 B. C. the A-
thenian power was in a manner totally broken by the
taking
HISTORY.
512
a vi i
History.
22
Conquest
of Persia
by Alex¬
ander.
HISTORY.
taking of tlieir city by the Spartans. In 370 B. C. that
of the Spartans received a severe check from the Ibebans
at the battle of Leuctra ; and eight years after was
still further reduced by the battle of Mantinea. Epa-
minondas the great enemy of the Spartans was killed ;
but this only proved a more speedy means of subju¬
gating all the states to a foreign, and at that time
despicable, power. 1 he Macedonians, a barbarous
nation, lying to the north of the states of Greece, were
two years after the death of Epaminondas reduced to
the lowest ebb by the Illyrians, another nation of bar¬
barians in the neighbourhood. The king of Macedon
being killed in an engagement, Philip his brother de¬
parted from Thebes, where he had studied the art of
war under Epaminondas, in order to take possession of
his kingdom. Being a man of great prudence aud poli¬
cy, he quickly settled his own affairs ; vanquished the
Illyrians •, and being no stranger to the weakened situa¬
tion of Greece, began almost immediately to meditate
the conquest of it. The particulars of this enterprise
are related under the article Macedon : here it is suf¬
ficient to take notice, that by first attacking those he
was sure he could overcome, by corrupting those whom
he thought it dangerous to attack, by sometimes pre¬
tending to assist one state and sometimes another, and
by imposing upon all as best served his turn, he at
last put it out of the power of the Greeks to make
anv resistancej at least such as could keep him from
earning his end. In 338 B. C. he procured himself
to be elected general of the Amphictyons, or council
of the Grecian states, under pretence of settling some
troubles at that time in Greece j but having once ob¬
tained liberty to enter that country with an army, he
quickly convinced the states that they must all submit
to his will. He was opposed by the Athenians and
Thebans 5 but the intestine wars of Greece had cut off
all her great men, and no general was now to be found
capable of opposing Philip with success.
The king of Macedon, being now master of all
Greece, projected the conquest of Asia. To this he
was encouraged by the ill success which had attended
the Persians in their expeditions against Greece, the
successes of the Greeks in their invasions, and the re¬
treat of the ten thousand under Xenophon. All these
events showed the weakness of the Persians, their vast
inferiority to the Greeks in military skill, and how ea¬
sily their empire might be overthrown by a proper union
among the states.
Philip was preparing to enter upon his grand design,
when he was murdered by some assassins. His son A-
lexander was possessed of every quality necessary for
the execution of so great a plan •, and his impetuosity
of temper made him execute it with a rapidity un¬
heard of either before or since. It must be confessed,
indeed, that the Persian empire was now ripe for de¬
struction, and could not in all probability have with¬
stood an enemy much less powerful than Alexander.
The Asiatics have in all ages been much inferior to the
European nations in valour and military skill. They
were now sunk in luxury and effeminacy $ and what
was worse, they seem at this period to have been seized
with that infatuation and distraction of councils which
scarce ever fails to be a forerunner of the destruction
of any nation. The Persian ministers persuaded their
sovereign to reject the prudent advice that was given
Sect. I
him, of distressing Alexander by laying waste the conn- £jTii
try, and thus forcing him to return for want of provi- History,
sions. Nay, they even prevented him from engaging
the enemy in the most proper manner, by dividing his
forces ; and persuaded him to put Charidemus the A-
thenian to death, who had promised with 100,000
men, of whom one-third were mercenaries, to drive the
Greeks out of Asia. In short, Alexander met with
only two checks in his Persian expedition. The one
was from the city of Tyre, which for seven months re¬
sisted his utmost efforts; the other was from Memnon
the Rhodian, who had undertaken to invade Macedo¬
nia. The first of these obstacles Alexander at last got
over, and treated the governor and inhabitants with
the utmost cruelty. The other was scarce felt; for
Memnon died after reducing some of the Grecian
islands, and Darius had no other general capable of
conducting the undertaking. The power of the Per¬
sian empire was totally broken by the victory gained
over Darius at Arbela in 331 B. C. and next year a
total end was put to it by the murder of the king by
Bessus one of his subjects. 55
The ambition of Alexander was not to be satisfied H*8 con-
with the possession of the kingdom of Persia, or indeed^|, °ft
of any other on earth. Nothing less than the total ^5
subjection of the word itself seemed sufficient to him ;
and therefore he was now prompted to invade every
country of which he could only learn the name, whe¬
ther it had belonged to the Persians or not. In con¬
sequence of this disposition, he invaded and reduced
Hy rcania, Bactria, Sogdia, and all that vast tract of
country now called Bukharia. At last, having entered
India, he reduced all the nations to the river Hypha-
sis, one of the branches of the Indus. But when he
would have proceeded farther, and extended his con¬
quests quite to the eastern extremities of Asia, his
troops positively refused to follow him farther, and he
was constrained to return. In 323 B. C. this mighty
conqueror died of a fever ; without having time to settle
the affairs of his vast extended empire, or even to name
his successor. . ^
While the Grecian empire thus suddenly sprung np^81^
in the east, the rival states of Rome and Carthage iveremans
making considerable advances in the west. The Ro¬
mans were establishing their empire on the most solid
foundations ; to which their particular situation natu¬
rally contributed. Being originally little better than a
parcel of lawless banditti, they were despised and hated
by the neighbouring states. This soon produced wars;
in which, at first from accidental circumstances, and af¬
terwards from their superior valour and conduct, the
Romans proved almost constantly victorious. The jea¬
lousies which prevailed among the Italian states, and
their ignorance of their true interest, prevented them
from combining against that aspiring nation, and crush¬
ing it in its infancy, which they might easily have
done ; while in the mean time the Romans being kept
in a state of continual warfare, became at last such ex¬
pert soldiers, that no other state on earth could resist
them. During the time of their kings they had made
a very considerable figure among the Italian nations;
but after their expulsion, and the commencement ot
the republic, their conquests became much more rapid
and extensive. In 501 B. C. they subdued the Sabines;
eight years after, the Latins; and in 399 B- C* l.he
I
S. t. I.
HISTORY.
vjl city of Veii, tlie strongest in Italy, exceeding Rome it-
tory. self, was taken after a siege of ten years. But in the
midst of their successes a sudden irruption of the Gauls
had almost put an end to their power and nation at
once. I he city was burnt to the ground in 383 B. C.
and the capitol on the point of being surprised, when
the Gauls, who were climbing up the walls in the night,
were accidentally discovered and repulsed *. In a short
I’. time Rome was rebuilt with much greater splendor
than before, but now a general revolt and combina¬
tion of the nations formerly subdued took place. The
Romans, however, still got the better of their ene¬
mies j but, even at the time of the celebrated Camil-
lus’s death, which happened about 352 B. C. their
territories scarce extended six or seven leagues from
the capital. The republic from the beginning was
agitated by those dissensions which at last proved its
ruin. The people had been divided by Romulus into
two classes, namely, Patr icians and Plebeians, answer¬
ing to our nobility and commonalty. Between these
two bodies were perpetual jealousies and contentions ;
which retarded the progress of the Roman conquests,
and revived the hopes of the nations they had conquer¬
ed. The tribunes of the people were perpetually op¬
posing the consuls and military tribunes. The senate
had often recourse to a dictator endowed with absolute
power; and then the valour and experience of the Ro¬
man troops made them victorious j but the return of
domestic seditions gave the subjugated nations an op¬
portunity of shaking off the yoke. Thus had the
Romans continued for near 400 years, running the
same round of wars with the same enemies, and reap¬
ing very little advantage from their conquests, till at
last matters were compounded by choosing one of the
consuls from among the plebeians; and from this time
chiefly we may date the prosperity of Rome, so that
by the time that Alexander the Great died they
were held in considerable estimation among foreign
nations.
Gar- The Carthaginians in the mean time continued to
ians, enrich themselves by commerce $ but, being less con-
Si- versant in military affairs, were by no means equal to
the Romans in power, though they excelled them in
wealth. A new state, however, makes its appearance
during this period, which may be said to have taught
the Carthaginians the art of war, and, by bringing
them into the neighbourhood of the Romans, proved
the first source of contention between these two power¬
ful nations. This was the island of Sicily. At what
time people were first settled on it, is not now to
be ascertained. The first inhabitants we read of were
called Sicani, Siculi, Leestrigones, &c. but of these we
know little or nothing. In the second year of the
17th Olympiad, or 710 B. C. some Greek colonies
are said to have arrived on the island, and in a short
time founded several cities, of which Syracuse was the
chief. The Syracusans at last subdued the original
inhabitants: though it doth not appear that the lat¬
ter were ever well affected to their government, and
therefore were on all occasions ready to revolt. The
first considerable prince, or (as he is called by the
Greeks) tyrant of Syracuse, was Gelon, who obtained
the sovereignty about the year 483 B. C. At what
time the Carthaginians first carried their arms into Si¬
cily is not certainly known j only we are assured, that
Vql. X. Part II. f
513
they possessed some part of the island as early as 505
B. C. lor in the time of the first consuls, the Ro¬
mans and Carthaginians entered into a treaty chiefly in
regard to matters of navigation and commerce j by
which it was stipulated, that the Romans who should
touch at Sardinia, or that part of Sicily which belong¬
ed to Carthage, should be received there in the same
manner as the Carthaginians themselves. Whence it
appears, that the dominion of Carthage already extend¬
ed over Sardinia and part of Sicily : but in 28 years
after, they had been totally driven out by Gelon :
which probably was the first exploit performed by him.
This appears from his speech to the Athenian and
Spartan ambassadors who desired his assistance against
the forces of Xerxes king of Persia. The Carthagi¬
nians made many attempts to regain their possessions in
this island, w’hich occasioned long and bloody wars be¬
tween them and the Greeks, as related under the ar¬
ticles Carthage and Sicily. This island also proved
the scene of much slaughter and bloodshed in the wars
of the Greeks with one another ■}*. Before the yearf-*f'e-/i^^7^
323 B. C. however, the Carthaginians had made them-au^Sparta.
selves masters of a very considerable part of the island 5
from whence all the power of the Greeks could not
dislodge them. It is proper also to observe, that af¬
ter the destruction of Tyre by Alexander the Great,
almost all the commerce in the western part of the
world fell to the share of th.e Carthaginians. Whether
they had at this time made any settlements in Spain is
not known. It is certain, that they traded to that
country for the sake of the silver, in which it was very
rich j as they probably also did to Britain for the tin
with which it abounded.
6. The beginning of the sixth period presents us with Sixth pe-
a state of the world entirely different from the pre-rlod-
ceding. We now behold all the eastern part of the^ l^e
world, frorn the confines of Italy to the river Indus,
and beyond it, newly united into one vast empire, andpiie.
at the same time ready to fall to pieces for want of a
proper head j the western world filled with fierce and
savage nations, whom the rival republics of Carthage
and Rome were preparing to enslave as fast as they
could. The first remarkable events took place in the
Macedonian empire.—Alexander, as already observed,
had not distinctly named any successor 5 but he had
left behind him a victorious, and, we may say, invin¬
cible army, commanded by most expert officers, all of
them ambitious of supreme authority. It is not to be
supposed that peace could long be preserved in such a
situation. For a number of years, indeed, nothing was
to be seen or heard of but the most horrid slaughters,
and wickedness of every kind, until at last the mother,
wives, children, brothers, and even sisters, of Alexander,
were cut oft j not one of the family of that great con¬
queror being left alive. When matters were a little
settled, four new empires, each of them of no small
extent, had arisen out of the empire of Alexander.
Cassander, the son of Antipater, bad Macedonia and
all Greece j Antigonus, Asia Minor j Seleucus had
Babylon and the eastern provinces $ and Ptolemy
Tagus, Fgypt and the western ones. One of these
empires, however, quickly fell ; Antigonus being de¬
feated and killed by Seleucus and Lysimachus at the
battle of Ipsus, in 301 B. C. The greatest part of
his dominions then fell to Seleucus; but several pro-
3 T vinces
1
514 HIST
Civil vinces took the opportunity of these confusions to
History, shake off tiie Macedonian yoke altogether : and thus
i-—v—”■* were formed the kingdoms of Pontus, Bithyma, Per-
gamus, Armenia, and Cappadocia. Ihe two most
powerful and permanent empires, however, were those
of Syria founded by Seleucus, and Egypt by Ptolemy
Lagos. The kings of Macedon, though they did not
preserve the same authority over the Grecian states
that Alexander, Antipater, and Cassander, had done,
yet effectually prevented them from those outrages up-
on one another, for which they had formerly been so
remarkable. Indeed, it is somewhat difficult to deter¬
mine, whether their condition was better or worse than
before they were conquered by Philip; since, though
they were now prevented from destroying one another,
they were most grievously oppressed by the Macedonian
tyrants.
While the eastern parts of the world were thus de¬
luged with blood, and the successors oi Alexander
were pulling to pieces the empire which he had esta-
27 Wished, the Romans and Carthaginians proceeded in
Of the Ro- their attempts to enslave the nations of the west. The
mans and Romans, ever engaged in war, conquered one city
nian^' and state after anotl^r> 4111 about the year 253 B- C*
they had made themselves masters of almost the whole
of Italy. During all this time they had met only with
a single check in their conquests, and that was the
invasion of Pyri’hus, king of Epirus, lhat ambitious
and fickle prince had projected the conquest of Italy,
which he fancied rvould be an easy matter. Accord¬
ingly in 271 B. C. he entered that country, and main¬
tained a war with the Romans for six years, till at last,
being utterly defeated by Curius Dentatus, he was obli¬
ged to return.
The Romans had no sooner made themselves masters
of Italy, than they wanted only a pretence to carry
their arms out of it, and this pretence was soon found
out. Being invited into Sicily to assist the Mamer-
tines against Hiero king of Syracuse and the Car¬
thaginians, they immediately commenced a war with
the latter, which continued with the utmost fury for
23 years. The war ended greatly to the disadvantage
of the Carthaginians, chiefly owing to the bad con¬
duct of their generals, none of whom, Hamilcar Bar¬
cas alone excepted, seem to have been possessed of any
degree of military skill *, and the state had suffered too
many misfortunes before he entered upon the command,
for him or any other to retrieve it at that time. The
consequence of this war was the entire loss of Sicily to
the Carthaginians ; and soon after the Romans seized
on the island of Sardinia.
Hamilcar perceiving that there was now no alter¬
native, but that in a short time either Carthage must
conquer Rome, or Rome would conquer Carthage,
bethought himself of a method by which his country
might become equal to that haughty republic. This
was by reducing all Spain, in which the Carthaginians
had already considerable possessions, and from the
mines of which they drew great advantages. He
had, therefore, no sooner finished the war with the
mercenaries, which succeeded that with the Romans,
than he set about the conquest of Spain. This, how¬
ever, he did not live to accomplish, though he made
great progress in it. His son Asdrubal continued the
war with success j till at last the Romans, jealous of
O R Y. Sect,
his progress, persuaded him to enter into a treaty with civil (
them, by which he engaged himself to make the river Histor '
Iberus the boundary of his conquests. This treaty'T**
probably was never ratified by the senate of Carthage,
nor, though it had, would it have been regarded by
Hannibal, who succeeded Asdrubal in the command,
and had sworn perpetual enmity with the Romans.
The transactions of the second Punic war are perhaps
the most remarkable which the history of the world
can afford. Certain it is, that nothing can show more
clearly the slight foundations upon which the greatest
empires are built. We now see the Romans, the na¬
tion most remarkable for their military skill in the
whole world, and who, for more than 500 years, had
been constantly victorious, unable to resist the efforts
of one single man. At the same time we see this man,
though evidently the first general in the world, lost
solely for want of a slight support. In former times,
the republic of Carthage supplied her generals in Si¬
cily with hundreds of thousands, though their enter¬
prises were almost constantly unsuccessful j but now
Hannibal, the conqueror of Italy, was obliged to
abandon his design, merely for want of 20 or 30,000
men. That degeneracy and infatuation, which never
fails to overwhelm a falling nation, or rather which is
the cause of its fall, had now infected the counsels of
Carthage, and the supplies were denied. Neither was
Carthage the only infatuated nation at this time.—»
Hannibal, whose prudence never forsook him either
in prosperity or adversity, in the height of his good
fortune had concluded an alliance with Philip king of
Macedon. Had that prince sent an army to the as¬
sistance of the Carthaginians in Italy immediately
after the battle of Cannse, there can be no doubt but
the Romans would have been forced to accept of thatjgeef((i 1
peace which they so haughtily refused J j and indeed,u |
this offer of peace, in the midst of so much success, is 124.
an instance of moderation which perhaps does more
honour to the Carthaginian general than all the mili¬
tary exploits he performed. Philip, however, could
not be roused from his indolence, nor see that his own
ruin was connected with that of Carthage. The Ro¬
mans had now made themselves masters of Sicily ; after
which they recalled Marcellos, with his victorious ar¬
my, to be employed against Hannibal j. and the con¬
sequence at last was, that the Carthaginian armies, |
unsupported in Italy, could not conquer it, but were
recalled into Africa, which the Romans had invaded.
The southern nations seem to have been as blind to
their own interest as the northern ones. They ought
to have seen, that it was necessary for them to preserve
Carthage from being destroyed ; but instead of this,
Masinissa king of Numidia allied with the Romans,
and by his means Hannibal was overcome at the
battle of Zama f, which finished the second Punic war,.j.geeZ('J
in 188 B. C. 28
The event of the second Punic war determined the of Eg)
fate of almost all the other nations in the world. AllandS)
this time, indeed, the empires of Egypt, Syria, and
Greece, had been promoting their own ruin by
mutual wars and intestine divisions. The Syrian
empire was now governed by Antiochus the Great,
who seems to have had little right to such a title.
His empire, though diminished by the defection of
the Parthians, was still very powerful j and to him
Hannibal
*9
C Greece.
t. L HIST
Hannibal applied, after he was obliged to leave
his country, as related under Carthage, N° 152.
Antiochus, however, had not sufficient judgment
to see the necessity of following that great man’s
advice} nor would the Carthaginians be prevailed
upon to contribute their assistance against the nation
which was soon to destroy them without any provo¬
cation. The pretence for war on the part of the Ro¬
mans was, that Antiochus would not declare his
Greek, subjects in Asia to be free and independent
states; a requisition which neither the Romans nor
any other nation had a right to make. The event of
all was, that Antiochus was everywhere defeated, and
forced to conclude a peace upon very disadvantageous
terms.
In Europe, matters went on in the same way ; the
states of Greece, weary of the tyranny of the Mace¬
donians, entered into a resolution of recovering their
liberties. For this purpose was framed the Achaean
* iGwcf League * $ but as they could not agree among them¬
selves, they at last came to the imprudent determination
of calling in the Romans to defend them against Philip
king of Macedon. This produced a war, in which
the Romans were victorious. The Macedonians, how¬
ever, were still formidable ; and as the intention of the
Romans to enslave the whole world could no longer be
doubted, Perseus, the successor of Philip, renewed the
war. Through his own cowardice he lost a decisive
engagement, and with it his kingdom, which submitted
to the Romans in 167 B. C.
I ruction Macedon being thus conquered, the next step was
0 mhage utterly to exterminate the Carthaginians j whose re-
‘ jGo' public, notwithstanding the many disasters that had
befallen it, was still formidable. It is true, the Car¬
thaginians were giving no offence ; nay, they even made
the most abject submissions to the republic of Rome;
but all was not sufficient. War was declared a third
time against that unfortunate state $ there was now no
Hannibal to command their armies, and the city was
utterly destroyed 146 B. C. The same year the Ro¬
mans put an end to the liberties they had pretended to
grant the cities of Greece, by the entire destruction of
31 Corinth. See that article,
j oryof After the death of Antiochus the Great, the af-
1 and ^li‘rs Syria and Egypt wTent on from bad to worse,
j 5a The degenerate princes which filled the thrones of
those empires, regarding only their own pleasures,
either spent their time in oppressing their subjects, or
in attempting to deprive each other of their dominions,
by which means they became a more easy prey to the
Romans. So far indeed were they from taking any
means to secure themselves against the overgrown
power of that republic, that the kings both of Syria
and Egypt sometimes applied to the Romans as pro¬
tectors. Their downfal, however, did not happen
within the period of which we now treat.—The only
other transaction which makes any considerable figure
m the Syrian empire is the oppression of the Jews by
Antiochus Epiphanes. After their return from the
Babylonish captivity, they continued in subjection to
the Persians till the time of Alexander.—From that
time they were subject to the kings of Egypt or Syria,
as the fortune of either happened to prevail. Egypt
being reduced to a low ebb by Antiochus Epiphanes,
the Jews fell under his dominion ; and being severely
O II Y.
5i5
treated by him, imprudently showed some signs of joy ciril
on a report of his death. This brought him against Historj.
them with a powerful army j and in 170 B. C. he
took Jerusalem by storm, committing the most horrid
cruelties on the inhabitants, insomuch that they were
obliged to hide themselves in caverns and in holes of
rocks to avoid his fury. Their religion was totally
abolished, their temple profaned, and an image of
Jupiter Olympius set up on the altar of burnt-offer¬
ings : which profanation is thought to be the abomina¬
tion of desolation mentioned by the prophet Daniel.
This revolution, however, was of no long continu¬
ance. In 167 B. C. Mattathias restored the true
worship in most of the cities of Judea ; and in 168 the
temple was purified, and the worship there restored by
Judas Maccabseus. This was followed by along series
of wars between the Syrians and Jews, in which the
latter were almost always victorious ; and before these
wars were finished, the destruction of Carthage happen¬
ed, which puts an end to the sixth general period for¬
merly mentioned. 32
7. The beginning of the seventh period presents us Seventh pe-
with a view of the ruins of the Greek empire in the
declining states of Syria and Egypt j both of them of^
much circumscribed in bounds. The empire of Syria world,
at first comprehended all Asia to the river Indus, and
beyond it j but in 312 B. C. most of the Indian pro¬
vinces were by Seleucus ceded to one Sandrocottus, or
Androcottus, a native, who in return gave him 500
elephants. Of the empire of Sandrocottus we know
nothing farther than that he subdued all the countries
between the Indus and the Ganges ; so that from this
time we may reckon the greatest part of India inde¬
pendent on the Syro-Macedonian princes. In 250
B. C. however, the empire sustained a much greater
loss by the revolt of the Parthians and Bactrians from
Antiochus Theus. The former could not be subdued j
and as they held in subjection to them the vast tract
which now goes under the name of Persia, we must
look upon their defection as an irreparable loss. Whe¬
ther any part of their country was afterwards recover¬
ed by the kings of Egypt or Syria is not very certain ;
nor is it of much consequence, since we are assured
that in the beginning of the seventh period, i. e. 146
B. C. the Greek empires of Syria and Egypt were
reduced by the loss of India, Persia, Armenia, Pon-
tus, Bithynia, Cappadocia, Pergamus, &c. The ge¬
neral state of the world in 146 B. C. therefore was
as follows. In Asia were the empires of India, Par-
thia, and Syria, with the lesser states of Armenia,
Pontus, &c. above mentioned j to which we must add
that of Arabia, which during the sixth period had
grown into some consequence, and had maintained its
independency from the days of Ishmael the son of
Abraham. In Africa were the kingdoms of Egypt
and Ethiopia; the Carthaginian territories now sub¬
ject to the Romans ; and the kingdoms of Numidia,
Mauritania, and Getulia, ready to be swallowed up
by the same ambitious and insatiable power, now that
Carthage was destroyed, which served as a barrier a-
gainst it. To the south lay some unknown and bar¬
barous nations, secure by reason of their situation and
insignificance, rather than their strength, or distance
from Rome. In Europe we find none to oppose the
progress of the Roman arms, except the Gauls, Ger-
3 T 2 mans,
5i6
Civil
History.
HIST
mans, and some Spanish nations. These were brave in¬
deed j but through want of military skill, incapable of
contending with such masters in the art of war as the
Romans then were.
The Spaniards had indeed been subdued by Scipio
Africanus in the time of the second Punic war : but,
in 155 B. C. they revolted ; and, under the conduct
of one Viriathus, formerly a robber, held out for a
long time against all the armies the Romans could send
into Spain. Him the consul Csepio caused to be
murdered about 138 B. C. because he found it impos¬
sible to reduce him by force. The city of Numantia
defied the whole Roman power for six years longer 5
till at last, by dint of treachery, numbers, and perse¬
verance, it was not taken, but the inhabitants, re¬
duced to extremity by famine, set lire to their houses,
and perished in the flames or killed one another, so
that not one remained to grace the triumph of the
conqueror : and this for the present quieted the rest of
the Spaniards. About the same time Attalus, king of
Pergamus, left by will the Roman people heirs to all
his goods ; upon which they immediately seized on his
kingdom as part of those goods, and reduced it to a
Roman province, under the name of Asia Proper. Thus
they continued to enlarge their dominions on every
side, without the least regard to justice, to the means
they employed, or to the miseries they brought upon the
conquered people. In 122 B. C. the Balearic islands,
now called Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica, were subdu¬
ed, and the inhabitants exterminated j and soon after,
several of the nations beyond the Alps were obliged to
submit.
In Africa the crimes of Jugurtha soon gave this am¬
bitious republic an opportunity of conquering the king¬
doms of Numidia and Mauritania : and indeed this is
almost the only war in which we find the Romans en¬
gaged where their pretensions had the least colour of
justice ; though in no case whatever could a nation show
more degeneracy than the Romans did on this occasion.
The particulars of this war are related under the arti¬
cles Numidia and Rome. The event of it was the
total reduction of the former about the year 105 B. C.
but Mauritania and Getulia preserved their liberty for
some time longer.
In the east, the empire of Syria continued daily to
decline by which means the Jews not only had an op¬
portunity of recovering their liberty, but even of be¬
coming as powerful, or at least of extending their do¬
minions as far, as in the days of David and Solomon.
This declining empire was still farther reduced by the
civil dissensions between the two brothers Antiochus
Grypus and Antiochus Cyzicenus ; during which the
cities of Tyre, Sidon, Ptolemais, and Gaza, declared
themselves independent, and in other cities tyrants
started up who refused allegiance to any foreign uower.
This happened about 100 B. C. j and 17 years after,
the whole was reduced by Tigranes king of Arme¬
nia. On his defeat by the Romans, the latter redu¬
ced Syria to a province of their empire. The king¬
dom of Armenia itself, with those of Pontus, Cappa¬
docia, and Bithynia, soon shared the same fate 5 Pon¬
tus, the most powerful, of them all, being subdued
about 64 B. C. The kingdom of Judea also was re¬
duced under the same, power much about this time.
Ibis state owed the loss of its liberty to the same
' Z’
O R Y.
Sect.
cause that had ruined several others, namely, calling civil
in the Romans as arbitrators between two contending History,
parties. The two sons of Alexander Jannaeus (Hyr- ''T—»
canus and Aristobulus) contended for the kingdom.
Aristobulus, being defeated by the party qf Hyrca-
nus, applied to the Romans. Pompey the Great,
who acted as ultimate judge in this affair, decided it
against Aristobulus, but at the same time deprived
Hyrcanus of all power as a king ; not allowing him
even to assume the regal title, or to extend his terri¬
tory beyond the ancient borders of Judea. To such a
length did Pompey carry this last article, that he obli¬
ged him to give up all those cities in Coslosyria and
Phoenicia which had been gained by his predecessors,
and added them to the newly acquired Roman province
of Syria.
Thus the Romans became masters of all the eastern
parts ef the world, from the Mediterranean sea to the
borders of Parthia. In the west, however, the Gauls
were still at liberty, and the Spanish nations bore the
Roman yoke with great impatience. The Gauls infest¬
ed the territories of the republic by their frequent in¬
cursions, which were sometimes very terrible j and
though several attempts had been made to subdue them,
they always proved insufficient till the time of Julius
Ccesar. By him they were totally reduced, from the ri¬
ver Rhine to the Pyrentean mountains, and many of
their nations almost exterminated. He carried his
arms also into Germany and the southern parts of Bri¬
tain ; but in neither of these parts did he make any
permanent conquests. The civil wars between him
and Pompey gave him an opportunity of seizing on
the kingdom of Mauritania and those parts of Numi¬
dia which had been allowed to retain their liberty.
The kingdom of Egypt alone remained, and to this
nothing belonged except the country properly so call¬
ed. Cyrenaica was bequeathed by will to the Romans
about 58 B. C. $ and about the same time the island of
Cyprus was seized by them without any pretence, ex¬
cept a desire of possessing the treasure ot the king.—
The kingdom of Egypt continued for some time longer
at liberty j which in some measure must be ascribed
to the internal dissensions of the republic, but more
especially to the amours of Pompey, Julius Caesar,
and Mark Antony, with the famous Cleopatra queen
of Egypt. The battle of Actium, however, deter¬
mined the fate of Antony, Cleopatra, and Egypt it¬
self ; which last was reduced to a Roman province
about 9 B. C. 34
While the Romans thus employed all means to re-Origin am
duce the world to their obedience, they were ma- progressc
king one another feel the same miseries at home which1
they inflicted upon other Rations abroad. The firstRonie
civil dissensions took their rise at the siege of Numan¬
tia in Spain. We have already observed, that this small
city resisted the whole power of the Romans for six
years. Once they gave them a most terrible and shame¬
ful defeat, wherein 30,000 Romans fled before 4000
Numantines. Twenty thousand were killed in the
battle, and the remaining ten thousand so shut up,
that there was no possibility of escaping. In this ex¬
tremity they were obliged to negociate with the ene¬
my, and a peace was concluded upon the following
terms: 1. That the Numantines should suffer theRomans
to retire unmolested j and, 2. That Numantia should
maintain
vil
l :orf.
S, t. L H
maintain its independence, and be reckoned among
the Koman allies.-—The Roman senate, with an inju-
J stice and ingratitude hardly to be matched, broke this
treaty, and in return ordered the commander of their
army to be delivered up to the Numantines j but they
refused to accept of him, unless his army was deliver¬
ed along with him 5 upon which the war was renewed,
and ended as already related. The fate of Numantia,
however, was soon revenged. Tiberius Sempronius
Gracchus, brother-in-law to Scipio Africanus the se¬
cond, had been a chief promoter of the peace with the
Numantines already mentioned, and of consequence
had been in danger of being delivered up to them
along with the commander in chief. This disgrace he
never forgot; and, in order to revenge himself, under¬
took the cause of the plebeians against the patricians,
by whom the former were greatly oppressed. He be¬
gan with reviving an old law, which had enacted that
no Roman citizen should possess more than 500 acres
of land. The overplus he designed to distribute among
those who had no lands, and to reimburse the rich out
of the public treasury. This law met with great op¬
position, bred many tumults, and at last ended in the
death of Gracchus and the persecution of his friends,
several hundreds of whom were put to cruel deaths with¬
out any form of law.
The disturbances did not cease with the death of
Gracchus. New contests ensued on account of the
Sempronian law, and the giving to the Italian allies
the privilege of Roman citizens. This last not only
produced great commotions in the city, but occasioned
a general revolt of the states of Italy against the re¬
public of Rome. This rebellion wras not quelled with¬
out the utmost difficulty ; and in the mean time, the
city was deluged with blood by the contending factions
of Sylla and Marius ; the former of whom sided with
the patricians, and the latter with the plebeians. These
disturbances ended in the perpetual dictatorship of Syl¬
la, about 80 B. C.
From this time we may date the loss of the Roman
liberty ; for though Sylla resigned his dictatorship two
years after, the succeeding contests between Csesar and
Pompey proved equally fatal to the republic. These
contests were decided by the battle of Pbarsalia, by
which Caesar became in effect master of the empire in
43 B. C. Without loss of time he then crossed over
into Africa totally defeated the republican army in
that continent; and, by reducing the country of Mau¬
ritania to a Roman province, completed the Roman
conquests in these parts. His victory over the sons of
Pompey at Munda 40 B. C. secured him from any fur¬
ther apprehensions of a rival. Being therefore sole ma¬
ster of the Roman empire, and having all the power of
it at his command, he projected the greatest schemes j
tending, according to some, not less to the happiness
than to the glory of his country : when he was assassi¬
nated in the senate-house, in the 56th year of his age,
and 39 B. C.
Without investigating the political justice of this
action, or the motives of the perpetrators, it is im¬
possible not to regret the death of this great man,
when we contemplate his virtues, and the designs
which he is said to have formed : (See Rome). Nor
is it possible to justify, from ingratitude at least, even
the most virtuous of the conspirators, when we consi-
I S T O R Y.
5i7
Civil
History.
35
der the obligations under which they lay to him. And
as to the measure itself, even in the view of expedien¬
cy, it seems to be generally condemned. In fact, from
the transactions which had long preceded, as well as
those which immediately followed, the murder of Cae¬
sar, it is evident, that Rome wras incapable of pre¬
serving its liberty any longer, and that the people had-
become unfit for being free. The efforts of Brutus and
Cassius were therefore unsuccessful, and ended in their
own destruction and that of great numbers of their
followers in the battle of Philippi. The defeat of the
republicans was followed by numberless disturbances,
murders, proscriptions, &c. till at last Octavianus, ha-°ctavianus
ving cut off all who had the courage to oppose him, ®IU*
and finally got the better of his rivals by the victory at public.
Actium, put an end to the republic in the year 27
B. C.
The destruction of the Roman commonwealth pro¬
ved advantageous to the few nations of the world who
still retained their liberty. That outrageous desire of
conquest which had so long marked the Roman cha¬
racter, now in a great measure ceased ; because there
was now another way of satisfying the desires of ambi¬
tious men, namely, by courting the favour of the em¬
peror. After the final reduction of the Spaniards,
therefore, and the conquest of the countries of Msesia,
Pannonia, and some others adjacent to the Roman ter¬
ritories, and which in a manner seemed naturally to be¬
long to them, the empire enjoyed for some time a pro¬
found peace.
The only remarkable transactions which took place
daring the remainder of the period of which we treat,
were the conquest of Britain by Claudius and Agrico¬
la, and the destruction of Jerusalem by Vespasian and
Titus. The war with the Jews began A. H. 67; and
was occasioned by their obstinately claiming the city
of Caesarea, which the Romans had added to the pro¬
vince of Syria. It ended in 73, with the most terrible
destruction of their city and nation ; since which time
they have never been able to assemble as a distinct peo¬
ple. The southern parts of Britain were totally sub¬
dued by Agricola about ten years after.
In the 98th year of the Christian era, Trajan was
created emperor of Rome ; and being a man of great
valour and experience in war, carried the Roman con¬
quests to their utmost extent. Having conquered the
Dacians, a German nation beyond the Danube, and
who had of late been very troublesome, he turned his
arms eastward ; reduced all Mesopotamia, Chaldaea,
Assyria ; and having taken Ctesiphon, the capital of
the Parthian empire, appointed them a king, which he
thought would be a proper method of keeping that war¬
like people in subjection. After this he proposed to
return to Italy, but died by the way j and with his
reign the seventh general period above mentioned is
concluded. ^
8. The beginning of the eighth period presents us Eighth pe-
with a view of one vast empire, in which almost all theriod. Re¬
nations of the world were swallowed up. This empire nera* state
comprehended the best part of Britain, all Spain, ^
France, the Netherlands, Italy, part of Germany, E-
gypt, Barbary, Bildulgerid, Turkey in Europe, Tur¬
key in Asia, and Persia. The state of India at this
time is unknown. The Chinese lived in a remote part
of the world, unheard of and unmolested by the western
nations
of the
1 world.
518
HIST
Civil
History.
nations who struggled for the empire of the world. The
northern parts of Europe and Asia were filled with
barbarous nations, already formidable to the Romans,
and who were soon to become more so. The vast empire
of the Romans, however, had no sooner attained itsutmost
degree of power, than, like others before it, it began to
decline. The provinces of Babylonia, Mesopotamia,
and Assyria, almost instantly revolted, and were aban¬
doned by Adrian the successor of Trajan in the empire.
The Parthians having recovered their liberty, conti¬
nued to be very formidable enemies, and the barbarians
of the northern parts of Europe continued to increase
in strength j while the Romans, weakened by intestine
divisions, became daily less able to resist them. At
dilFerent times, however, some warlike emperors arose,
who put a stop to the incursions of these barbarians j and
about the year 215, the Parthian empire was totally
overthrown by the Persians, who had long been subject
to them. This revolution proved of little advantage
to the Romans. The Persians were enemies still more
troublesome than the Parthians had been ; and though
often defeated, they still continued to infest the empire
on the east, as the barbarous nations of Europe did on
the north. In 260, the defeat and captivity of the
emperor Valerian by the Persians, with the disturbances
which followed, threatened the empire with utter
destruction. Thirty tyrants seized the government at
once, and the barbarians pouring in on all sides in
prodigious numbers ravaged almost all the provinces
of the empire. By the vigorous conduct of Claudius,
Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, and Carus, the empire was
restored to its former lustre } but as the barbarians
were only repulsed, and never thoroughly subdued,
this proved only a temporary relief. What was worse,
the Roman soldiers, growing impatient of restraint,
commonly murdered those emperors who attempted to
revive among them the ancient military discipline,
which alone could ensure them victory over their
enemies. Under Dioclesian, the disorders were so great,
that though the government was held by two persons,
they found themselves unable to bear the weight of it,
and therefore took other two partners in the empire.
Thus was the Roman empire divided into four parts 3
which by all historians is said to have been productive
of the greatest mischiefs. As each of these four
sovereigns would have as many officers both civil and
military, and the same number of forces that had been
maintained by the state when governed only by one
emperor, the people were not able to pay the sums
necessary for supporting them. Hence the taxes and
imposts were increased beyond measure, the inhabitants
in several provinces reduced to beggary, the laud left
untilled for want of hands, &c. An end was put to
these evils when the empire was again united under
Constantine the Great j but in 330 a mortal blow was
given it, by removing the imperial seat to Byzantium,
now Constantinople, and making it equal to Rome.
The introduction and establishment of Christianity,
already corrupted with the grossest superstitions, proved
also a most grievous detriment to the empire. Instead
of that ferocious and obstinate valour in which the
Romans had so long been accustomed to put their trust,
they now imagined themselves secured by signs of the
cross, and other external symbols of the Christian
Ci?il
Histor
' empire.
O R Y. Sect.
religion. These they used as a kind of magical incan¬
tations, which undoubtedly proved at all times inefl’ec-
tual; and hence also in some measure proceeded the
great revolution which took place in the next period.
9. The ninth general period shows us the decline andfj;nt^'
miserable end of the western part of the Roman empire, riod. R
We see that mighty empire, which formerly occupiedstmction
almost the whole world, now weakened by division,oft*le
and surrounded by enemies. On the east, the Persians jweslern
on the north, the Scythians, Sarmatians, Goths, and a
multitude of other barbarous nations, watched all occa¬
sions to break into it 3 and miscarried in their attempts,
rather through their own barbarity, than the strength
of their enemies. The devastations committed by those
barbarians when they made their incursions are incre¬
dible, and the relation shocking to human nature. Some
authors seem much inclined to favour them} and even
insinuate, that barbarity and ignorant ferocity were their
chief if not their only faults: but from their history it
plainly appears, that not only barbarity and the most
shocking cruelty, but the highest degree of avarice,
perfidy, and disregard to the most solemn promises, were
to be numbered among their vices. It was ever a
sufficient reason for them to make an attack, that they
thought their enemies could not resist them. Their
only reason for making peace, or for keeping it, was
because their enemies were too strong : and their only
reason for committing the most horrid massacres, rapes,
and all manner of crimes, was because they had gained
a victory. The Romans, degenerate as they were, are
yet to be esteemed much better than these savages} and
therefore we find not a single province of the empire
that would submit to the barbarians while the Romans
could possibly defend them.
Some of the Roman emperors indeed withstood this
inundation of savages ; but as the latter grew daily
more numerous, and the Romans continued to weaken
themselves by their intestine divisions, they were at
last obliged to take large bodies of barbarians into
their pay, and teach them their military discipline, in
order to drive away their countrymen, or others who
invaded the empire. This at last proved its total de¬
struction } for, in 476, the barbarians who served in
the Roman armies, and were dignified with the title of
allies, demanded the third part of the lands of Italy as
a reward for their services : but meeting with a re¬
fusal, they revolted, and made themselves masters of
the whole country, and of Rome itself, which from
that time ceased to be the head of an empire of any
consequence.
This period exhibits a most unfavourable view ofGenetaf
the western parts of the world : The Romans, from
the height of grandeur, sunk to the lowest slavery,
nay, in all probability, almost exterminated } the pro¬
vinces they formerly governed, inhabited by human
beings scarce a degree above the brutes} every art
and science lost} and the savage conquerors even in
danger of starving for want of a sufficient knowledge
of agriculture, having now no means of supplying
themselves by plunder and robbery as before. Britain
had long been abandoned to the mercy of the Scots
and Piets } and in 450 the inhabitants had called in
the Saxons to their assistance, whom they soon found
worse enemies than those against whom they had im¬
plored
ril
H nry-
StL ' HIST
plored their aid. Spain was held by the Goths and
Suevians ; Africa (that is Barbary and Bildulgerld)
1 by the Vandals; the Burgundians, Goths, Franks, and
Alans, had erected several small states in Gaul ; and
Italy was subjected to the Herull under Odoacer, who
had taken upon him the title of king of Italy. In the
east, indeed, matters wore an aspect somewhat more
agreeable. The Roman empire continued to live in
that of Constantinople, which was still very extensive.
It comprehended all Asia Minor and Syria, as far as
Persia ; in Africa, the kingdom of Egypt; and Greece
in Europe. The Persians were powerful, and rivalled
the emperors of Constantinople ; and beyond them lay
the Indians, Chinese, and other nations, who, unheard-
of by the inhabitants of the more western parts, enjoyed
peace and liberty.
The Constantinopolitan empire continued to decline
by reason of its continual wars with the Persians, Bul¬
garians, and other barbarous nations ; to which also
superstition and relaxation of military discipline largely
contributed. The Persian empire also declined from
the same causes, together with the intestine broils from
which it was seldom free more than that of Constanti¬
nople. The history of the eastern part of the world
during this period, therefore, consists only of the wars
between these two great empires, of which an account
is given under the articles Constantinople and Per¬
sia ; and which were productive of no other conse¬
quence than that of weakening them both, and making
them a more easy prey to those enemies who were now
as it were in embryo, but shortly about to erect an
empire almost as extensive as that of the Greeks or
Romans.
Among the western nations, revolutions, as might
naturally be expected from the character of the people,
succeeded one another with rapidity. The Heruli un¬
der Odoacer were driven out by the Goths under
Theodoric. The Goths were expelled by the Romans;
and, while the two parties were contending, both were
attacked by the Franks, who carried off an immense
booty. The Romans were in their turn expelled by the
Goths : the Franks again invaded Italy, and made
themselves masters of the province of Venetia ; but at
last the superior fortune of the emperor of Constantino¬
ple prevailed, and the Goths were finally subdued in
553. Narses, the conqueror of the Goths, governed
Italy as a province of the eastern empire till the year
568, when Longinus his successor made considerable
alterations. The Italian provinces had ever since the
time of Constantine the Great been governed by consu-
lares, correctores, and presides ; no alteration having
been made either by the Roman emperors, or the Go¬
thic kings. But Longinus, being invested with abso¬
lute power by Justinian, suppressed those magistrates ;
and, instead of them, placed in each city of note a go¬
vernor, whom he distinguished with the title of duke.
The city of Rome was not more honoured than any
other; for Longinus, having abolished the very name
ol senate and consuls, appointed a duke of Rome as well
as of other cities. To himself he assumed the title of
exarch; and, residing at Ravenna, his government was
styled the exarchate of Ravenna. But while he was
establishing this new empire, the greatest part of Italy
Was conquered by the Lombards.
In France a considerable revolntion also took place,
s-
Hi y of
lu
ncc.
519
Civil
History.
41
O R Y.
In 487, Clovis, the founder of the French mo¬
narchy, possessed himself of all the countries lying be¬
tween the Rhine and the Loire. By force or treach¬
ery, he conquered all the petty kingdoms which had
been erected in that country. His dominions had
been divided, reunited, and divided again ; and were
on the point of being united a second time, when the
great impostor Mahomet began to make a figure in the
world.
In Spain, the Visigoths erected a kingdom ten years Of Spain,
before the conquest of Rome by the Heruli. This king¬
dom they had extended eastward, about the same time
that Clovis was extending bis conquests to the w'est ; so
that the two kingdoms met at the river Loire. The
consequence of this approach of such barbarous conquer¬
ors towards each other was an immediate war. Clovis
proved victorious, and subdued great part of the coun¬
try of the Visigoths, which put a final stop to their con¬
quests on that side.
Another kingdom had been founded in the western
parts of Spain by the Suevi, a considerable time before
the Romans were finally expelled from that country.
In 409, this kingdom was entirely subverted by Theo¬
doric king of the Goths ; and the Suevi were so pent
up in a small district of Lusitania and Galicia, that it
seemed impossible for them to recover themselves. Du¬
ring the above-mentioned period, however, while the
attention of the Goths was turned another way, they
had found means again to erect themselves into an in¬
dependent state, and to become masters of considerably
extended territories. But this success proved of short
duration. In 584, the Goths attacked them ; totally
destroyed their empire a second time ; and thus became
masters of all Spain, except some small part which still
owned subjection to the emperors of Constantinople.
Of this part, however, the Goths became masters also
in the year 623 ; which concludes the 9th general pe¬
riod. . _ 42
Africa, properly so called, had changed its masters Of Africa,
three times during this period. The Vandals had ex¬
pelled the Romans, and erected an independent king¬
dom, which was at last overturned by the emperors of
Constantinople ; and from them the greatest part of it
was taken by the Goths in 620. A])
10. At the commencement of the tenth general pe- Tenth ge-
riod (which begins with the flight of Mahomet in neiaI pe-
the year 622, from whence his followers date their
era called the Hegira'), we see every thing prepared
for the great revolution which was now to take place :cens.
the Roman empire in the west annihilated ; the Per¬
sian empire and that of Constantinople weakened
by mutual wars and intestine divisions ; the Indians
and other eastern nations unaccustomed to war, and
ready to fall a prey to the first invader ; the southern
parts of Europe in a distracted and barbarous state ;
while the inhabitants of Arabia, from their earliest
origin accustomed to war and plunder, and now united
by the most violent superstition and enthusiastic desire
of conquest, were like a flood pent up, and ready to
overwhelm the rest of the world. The northern na¬
tions of Europe and Asia, however formidable in after
times, were at present unknown, and peaceable, at
least with respect to their southern neighbours; so that
there was in no quarter of the globe any power capa¬
ble of opposing the conquests of the Arabs. With
amazing
HIST
44
Of the
Pape’s
temporal
fwwer.
amazing celerity, therefore, they overran all Syria,
Palestine, Persia, Bukharia, and India, extending their
conquests farther to the eastward than ever Alexander
had done. On the west side, their empire extended
over Egypt, Barbary, and Spain, together with the
islands of Sicily, Sardinia, Majorca, Minorca, &c.
and many of the Archipelago islands 5 nor were the
coasts of Italy itself free from their incursions ; nay,
they are even said to have reached the distant and bar¬
ren country of Iceland. At last this great empire, as
well as others, began to decline. Its ruin was very
sudden, and owing to its internal divisions. Mahomet
had not taken care to establish the apostleship in his
family, or to give any particular directions about a
successor. 'I he consequence of this was, that the ca¬
liphate, or succession to the apostleship, was seized by
many usurpers in different parts of the empire j while
the true caliphs, who resided at Bagdad, gradually lost
all power, and were regarded only as a kind of high-
priests. Of these divisions the Turks took advantage
to establish their authority in many provinces of the
Mohammedan empire; but as they embraced the same
religion with the Arabs, and were filled with the same
enthusiastic desire of conquest, it is ol little consequence
to distinguish between them ; as indeed it signified little
to the world in general whether the Turks or Saracens
were the conquerors, since both were cruel, barbarous,
ignorant, and superstitious.
" While the barbarians of the east were thus grasping
at the empire of the whole world, great disturbances
happened among the no less barbarous nations of the
west. Superstition seems to have been the ruling mo¬
tive in both cases. The Saracens and Turks conquer¬
ed for the glory of God, or of his apostle Mahomet
and his successors j the western nations professed an
equal regard for the divine glory, but which was only
to be perceived in the respect they paid to the pope
and clergy. Ever since the establishment of Christi¬
anity by Constantine, the bishops of Rome had been
gradually extending their power j and attempting not
only to render themselves independent, hut even to as¬
sume an authority over the emperors themselves. The
destruction of the empire was so far from weakening
their power, that it afforded them opportunities of greatly
extending it, and becoming judges of the sovereigns
of Italy themselves, whose barbarity and ignorance
prompted them to submit to their decisions. All this
time, however, they themselves had been in subjec¬
tion to the emperors of Constantinople j but on the
decline of that empire, they found means to get
themselves exempted from this subjection. The prin¬
cipal authority in the city of Rome was then engross¬
ed by the bishop j though of right it belonged to the
duke appointed by the exarch of Ravenna. But though
they had now little to fear from the eastern empe¬
rors, they were in great danger from the ambition of
the Lombards, who aimed at the conquest of all Italy.
This aspiring people the bishops of Rome determined
to check j and therefore, in 726, when Luitprand
king of the Lombards had taken Ravenna and expel¬
led the exarch, the pope undertook to restore him.
For this purpose he applied to the Venetians, who are
now first mentioned in history as a state of any con¬
sequence •, and by their means the exarch was restored.
Some time before, a quarrel had happened between
Civil
History
O R Y. Sect. ]
the pope (Gregory II.) and Leo emperor of the east,
about the worship of images. Leo, who it seems,
in the midst of so much barbarism, bad still preserved ’
some share of common sense and reason, reprobated
the worship of images in the strongest terms, and com¬
manded them to be destroyed throughout his domi¬
nions. The pope, whose cause was favoured by the
most absurd superstitions, and by these only, refused
to obey the emperor’s commands. The exarch of
Ravenna, as a subject of the emperor, was ordered to
force the pope to a compliance, and even to seize or as¬
sassinate him in case of a refusal. ’I his excited the
pious zeal of Luitprand to assist the pope, whom he
had formerly designed to subdue: the exarch w7as first
excommunicated, and then torn in pieces by the enra¬
ged multitude: the duke of Naples shared the same
fate; and a vast number of the Iconoclasts, or Image-
breakers, as they were called, were slaughtered with¬
out mercy: and to complete all, the subjects of the
exarchate, at the instigation of the Pope, renounced
their allegiance to the emperor.
Leo was no sooner informed of this revolt than he
ordered a powerful army to be raised, in order to re¬
duce the rebels, and take vengeance on the Pope. A-
larmed at these warlike preparations, Gregory looked
round for some power on which he might depend for
protection. The Lombards were possessed of suffi¬
cient force, hut they were too near and too danger¬
ous neighbours to be trusted) the Venetians, though
zealous Catholics, were as yet unable to withstand the
force of the empire ) Spain was overrun by the Sa¬
racens : the French seemed, therefore, the only peo¬
ple to whom it was advisable to apply for aid) as
they were able to oppose the emperor, and were likewise
enemies to his edict. Charles Martel, who at that
time governed France as mayor of the palace, was
therefore applied to; hut before a treaty could be
concluded, all the parties concerned were removed by,
death. Constantine Copronymus, who succeeded Leo
at Constantinople, not only persisted in the opposition
to image-worship begun by his predecessor, but pro¬
hibited also the invocation of saints. Zachary, who
succeeded Gregory III. in the pontificate, proved as
zealous an adversary as his predecessor. Pepin, who
succeeded Charles Martel in the sovereignty of France,
proved as powerful a friend to the pope as his father
had been. The people of Rome had nothing to fear
from Constantinople; and therefore drove out all the
emperor’s officers. The Lombards, awed by the
power of France, for some time allowed the pope to
govern in peace the dominions of the exarchate; hot
in 752, Astolphus king of Lombardy not only re¬
duced the greatest part of the pope’s territories, but
threatened the city of Rome itself. Upon this an ap¬
plication was made to Pepin, who obliged Astolphus
to restore the places he had taken, and gave them to
the pope, or, as he said, to St Peter. Ihe Greek
emperor to whom they of right belonged, remonstra¬
ted to no purpose. The pope from that time became
possessed of considerable territories in Italy ; which,
from the manner of their donation, go under the
name of St Peter's Patrimony. It was not, however,
before the year 774, that the pope was fully secured
in these new dominions. This was accomplished when
the kingdom of the Lombards was totally destroyed
f ory.
■5
G( ral
tie
S :t. I.
vil by Charlemagne, who was thereupon crowned king
of Italy. Soon after this, the monarch made himself
master of all the Low Countries, Germany, and part of
Hungary ; and in the year 800 was solemnly crowned
by the pope emperor of the west.
Thus was the world once more divided into three
°f the great empires. The empire of the Arabs or Saracens
extended from the river Ganges to Spain ; compre¬
hending almost all of Asia and Africa which has ever
been known to Europeans, the kingdoms of China and
Japan excepted. The eastern Roman empire was re¬
duced to Greece, Asia Minor, and the provinces ad¬
joining to Italy. The empire of the west, under Char¬
lemagne, comprehended France, Germany, and the
greatest part ot Italy. The Saxons, however, as yet
possessed Britain unmolested by external enemies, though
the seven kingtjoms erected by them were engaged in
perpetual contests. The Venetians also enjoyed a
nominal liberty, tliough it is probable that their situ¬
ation would render them very much dependent on the
great powers which surrounded them. Of all nations
on earth, the Scots and Piets, and the remote ones of
China and Japan seem to have enjoyed, from their si¬
tuation, the greatest share of liberty $ unless, perhaps,
we except the Scandinavians, who, under the names
of Dunes and Normans, were soon to infest their south¬
ern neighbours. But of all the European potentates,
the popes certainly exercised the greatest authority j
since even Charlemagne himself submitted to accept
the crown from their hands, and his successors made
them the arbiters of their differences.
Matters, however, did not long continue in this
state. The empire of Charlemagne was on the death
of his son Lewis divided among his three children.
Endless disputes and wars ensued among them, till at
last the sovereign power was seized by Hugh Capet in
987. The Saxon heptarchy was dissolved in 827, and
the whole kingdom of England reduced under one
head. The Hanes and Normans began to make de¬
predations, and infest the neighbouring states. Tlie
former conquered the English Saxons, and seized the
government, but were in their turn expelled by the
Normans in 1066. In Germany and Italy the greatest
disturbances arose from the contests between the popes
and the emperors. To all this if we add the internal
contests which happened through the ambition of the
powerful barons of every kingdom, we can scarce form
an idea of times more calamitous than those of which
we now treat. All Europe, nay, all the world, was
one great held of battle; for the empire of the Maho¬
metans was not in a more settled state than that of the
Europeans. Caliphs, sultans, emirs, &c. waged con¬
tinual war with each other in every quarter ; new so¬
vereignties every day sprung up, and were as quickly
destroyed. In short, through the ignorance and barba¬
rity with which the whole world was overspread, it
seemed in a manner impossible that the human race
could long continue to exist ; wiien happily the crusades,
oy directing the attention of the Europeans to one
pnrticular object, made them in some measure suspend
their slaughters of one another.
if. The crusades originated from the superstition of
the two grand parties into which the world was at that
time divided, namely, the Christians and Mahometans.
Both looked upon the small territory of Palestine,
Vol. X. Part II. f
HISTORY.
521
Civil
History.
xh
which they called the Ho/y Land, to be an invaluable
acquisition, for which no sum of money could be an
equivalent ; and both took the most unjustifiable me¬
thods to accomplish their desires. The superstition of
Omar the second caliph had prompted him to invade
this country, part of the territories of the Greek empe¬
ror, who was doing him no hurt; and now when it had
been so long under the subjection of the Mahometans,
a similar superstition prompted the pope to send an army
for the recovery of it. The crusaders accordingly
poured forth in multitudes, like those with which the
kings of Persia formerly invaded Greece ; and their
fate w'as pretty similar. Their impetuous valour at first,
indeed, carried every thing before them ; they reco¬
vered all Palestine, Phoenicia, and part of Syria, from
the infidels ; but their want of conduct soon lost what
their valour had obtained, and very few of that vast
multitude which had left Europe ever returned to their
native countries. A second, a third, and several other
crusades, were preached, and were attended with a like
success in both respects : vast numbers took the cross,
and repaired to the Holy Land ; which they polluted
with the most abominable massacres and treacheries,
and from which very few of them returned. In the
third crusade Richard I. of England was embarked,
who seems to have been the best general that ever went
into the east: but even his valour and skill were not
sufficient to repair the faults of his companions; and he
was obliged to return even after he had entirely de¬
feated his antagonists, and was within sight of Jeru¬
salem.
But while the Christians and Mahometans were thus Conquests
surreptitiously contending for a small territory in the of the Mo
western parts of Asia, the nations in the more easterly Suls-
parts were threatened with total extermination. Jen-
ghiz Khan, the greatest as well as the most bloody
conqueror that ever existed, now makes his appearance.
The rapidity of his conquests seemed to emulate those
of Alexander the Great; and the cruelties he com¬
mitted were altogether unparalleled. It is worth ob¬
serving, that Jenghiz Khan and all ills followers were
neither Christians nor Mahometans, but strict deists.
For a long time even the sovereign had not heard
of a temple, or any particular place on earth ap¬
propriated by' the deity to himself, and treated the
notion with ridicule when it was first mentioned to
him.
The Moguls, over whom Jenghiz Khan assumed the
sovereignty, were a people of East Tartary, divided in¬
to a great number of petty governments as they are at
this day, but who owned a subjection to one sovereign,
whom they called Vang Khan, or the Great Khan.
Temujin, afterwards Jenghi* Khan, was one of these
petty princes ; hut unjustly deprived of the greatest part
of his inheritance at the age of 13, which he could not
recover till he arrived at that of 40.' This corresponds
with the year 1201, when he totally reduced the re¬
bels ; and as a specimen of his lenity caused 70 of their
chiefs to be thrown into as many caldrons of boiling
water. In 1202, he defeated and killed Vang Khan
himself (known to the Europeans by the name of Pres-
ter John of Asia) ; and possessing himself of his vast do¬
minions, became from thenceforward altogether irre¬
sistible. In 1206, having still continued to enlarge his
dominions, he was declared khan of the Moguls and
3 U Tartars ;
22
t'i'vif
History.
4S
Of Tamer
lane.
Tartars; and took upon him the title of Jengfiix Khan,
or The most Great Khan of khans. 'I his was followed
by the reduction of the kingdom of Hya in China,
Tangut, Kitay, Turkestan, Karazm (the kingdom of
Gazina founded by Mahmud Cazni), Great Bukhari a,
Persia, and part of India; and all llrese vast regions
were reduced in 26 years. The devastations and slaugh¬
ters with which they were accomplished are unparallel¬
ed, no fewer than 14,470,000 persons being computed
to have been massacred by Jenghiz Khan during the
last 22 years of his reign. In the beginning of 1227
he died, thereby freeing the world from a most bloody
tyrant. His successors completed the conquest of Chi¬
na and Korea ; but were foiled in their attempts on
Cochin-China, Tong-king, and Japan. On the west¬
ern side the Tartar dominions were not much enlarged
till the time of Hulaku, who conquered Media, Ba¬
bylonia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Syria, Georgia, Ar¬
menia, and almost all Asia Minor; putting an end to
the empire of the Saracens by the taking of Bagdad in
1258.
The empire of Jenghiz Khan had the fate of all
others. Being far too extensive to be governed by one
bead, it split into a multitude of small kingdoms, as it
had been before his time. All these princes, however,
owned allegiance to the family of Jenghiz Khan till
the time of Timur Bek, or Tamerlane. The Turks,
in the mean time, urged forward by the inundation of
Tartars who poured in from the east, were forced up¬
on the remains of the Greek empire ; and at the time
of Tamerlane above mentioned, they had almost con¬
fined this once mighty empire within the walls of Con¬
stantinople.
In the year 1335, the family of Jenghiz Khan be¬
coming extinct in Persia, a long civil war ensued ; du¬
ring which Timur Bek, one of the petty princes a-
mong which the Tartar dominions were divided, found
means to aggrandize himself in a manner similar to
what Jenghiz Khan had done about 150 years before.
Jenghiz Khan, indeed, was the model whom he pro¬
posed to imitate ; but it must be allowed that Timur
was more merciful than Jenghiz Khan, if indeed the
word can be applied to such inhuman tyrants. The
plan on which Jenghiz Khan conducted his expedi¬
tions was that of total extermination. For some time
he utterly extirpated the inhabitants of those places
vvhi ch he conquered, designing to people them anew
with his Moguls; and in consequence of this resolu¬
tion, he would employ his army in beheading 100,000
prisoners at once. Timur’s cruelty, on the other
hand, seldom went farther than the pounding of 3000
or 4000 people in large mortars, or building them
among bricks and mortar into a wall. We must ob¬
serve, however, that Timur was not a deist, but a
Mahometan, and conquered expressly for the purpose
of spreading the Mahometan religion ; for the Moguls
had now adopted all the superstitions and absurdities
of Mahomet. Thus was all the eastern quarter of the
world threatened anew' with the most dreadful devasta¬
tions, while the western nations were exhausting them¬
selves in fruitless attempts to regain the Holy Land.
The Turks were the only people who seem at this
period to have been gathering strength, and by their
perpetual encroachments threatened to swallow up the
HISTORY. Sett. ]
western nations as the Tartars had done the eastern
Cwil
Hisiorv, iK
In 1362, Timur invaded Bukharin, which he redu¬
ced in five years. He proceeded in his conquests,
though not with the same celerity as Jenghiz Khan, till
the year 1387, when he had subdued all Persia, Arme¬
nia, Georgia, Karazm, and great part of Tartary.
After this he proceeded westward, subduing all the
countries to the ^Euphrates; made himself master of
Bagdad ; and even entered Russia, where he pillaged
the city of Moscow. From thence he turned his arms
to the east, and totally subdued India. In 1393, be
invaded and reduced Syria ; and having turned his arms
against the Turks, forced their sultan Bajazet to raise
the siege of Constantinople. This brought on an en¬
gagement, in which Bajazet was entirely defeated and
taken prisoner ; which broke the power of the Turks
to such a degree, that they were not for some time
able to recover themselves. At last this great con¬
queror died in the year 1405, while on his way to
conquer China, as Jenghiz Khan had done before
him.
The death of Timur was followed almost immedi-g^^
ately by the dissolution of his empire. Most of thewor|iimm
nations he had conquered recovered their liberty.that time.
The Turks had now no further obstacle to their con¬
quest of Constantinople. The western nations having
exhausted themselves in the ho/y tears, as they were
called, had lost that insatiable thirst after conquest
which for so long time possessed the minds of men.
They had already made considerable advances in civi¬
lization, and began to study the arts of peace. Gun¬
powder was invented, and its application to the pur¬
poses of war already known ; and, though no invention
threatened to be more destructive, perhaps none was
ever more beneficial to the human race. By the use of
fire-arms, nations are put more on a level with each
other than formerly they were; war is reduced to a
regular system, which may he studied with as much
success as any other science. Conquests are not now
to he made with the same ease as formerly ; and hence
the last ages of the world have been much more quiet
and peaceable than the former ones. In 1453, the
conquest of Constantinople by the Turks fixed that
wandering people to one place ; and though now they
possess very large regions both in Europe, Asia, and
Africa, an effectual stop hath long been put to their
further progress.
About this time, also, learning began to revive in
Europe, where it had been long lost ; and the inven¬
tion of printing, which happened about the same time,
rendered it in a manner impossible for barbarism ever to
take place in such a degree as formerly. All nations
of the world, indeed, seem now at once to have laid
aside much of their former ferocity; and, though wars
have by no means been uncommon, they have not been
carried on with such circumstances of fury and savage
cruelty as before. Instead of attempting to enrich
themselves by plunder, and the spoils of their neigh¬
bours, mankind in general have applied themselves to
commerce, the only true and durable source of riches.
This soon produced improvements in navigation; and
these improvements led to the discovery of many re¬
gions formerly unknown. At the same time, the Eu¬
ropean
S t. I.
V1| ropean powers, being at last thoroughly sensible that
1 lory, extensive conquests could never be permanent, applied
u themselves more to provide for the security of those do¬
minions which they already possessed, than to attempt
the conquest of one another: and this produced the po¬
licy to which so much attention was lately paid, name¬
ly, the preserving of the balance of Europe; that is,
preventing any one of the nations from acquiring suffi¬
cient strength to overpower another.
In the end of the 15th century, the vast continent
of America was discovered ; and, almost at the same
time, the passage to the East Indies by the Cape of
Good Hope. The discovery of these rich countries
gave a new turn to the ambition of the Europeans.
To enrich themselves either by the gold and silver
produced in these countries, or by traffic with the
natives, now became the object. The Portuguese had
the advantage of being the first discoverers of the east¬
ern, and the Spaniards of the western countries. The
former did not neglect so favourable an opportunity of
enriching themselves by commerce. Many settlements
were formed by them in the East India islands, and on
the continent *, but their avarice and perfidious beha¬
viour towards the natives proved at last the cause of
their total expulsion. The Spaniards enriched them¬
selves by the vast quantities of the precious metals im¬
ported from America, which were not obtained but by
the most horrid massacres committed on the natives,
and of which an account is given under the different
names of the American countries. These possessions of
the Spaniards and Portuguese soon excited other Euro¬
pean nations to make attempts to share with them in
their treasures, by planting colonies in different parts of
America, and making settlements in the East Indies :
and thus has the rage of war in some measure been
transferred from Europe to these distant regions; and,
after various contests, the British at last obtained a
great superiority both in America and the East Indies.
In Europe the only considerable revolutions which
happened during this period, were, The total expulsion
of the Moors and Saracens from Spain, by the taking
of Granada in 1491 ; the union of the kingdoms of
Arragon and Castile, by the marriage of Ferdinand
and Isabella ; and the revolt of the states of Holland
from the Spaniards. After much contention and blood¬
shed, these last obtained their liberty, and were decla¬
red a free people in 1609; since which time they have
continued an independent and very considerable nation
of Europe.
In xAsia nothing of importance hath happened since
the taking of Constantinople by the Turks. That
Continent is now divided among the following nations.
The most northerly part, called Siberia, extending to
the very extremity of the continent, is under the
power of Russia. To the southward, from Asia Mi¬
nor to China and Korea, are the Tartars, formidable
indeed from their numbers, but, by reason of their
barbarity and want of union, incapable of attempting
any thing. The Turks possess the western part of the
continent, called Asia Minor, to the river Euphrates.
The Arabs are again confined within their own pen¬
insula ; which they possess, as they have ever done,
without owning subjection to any foreign power. To
the east of Turkey in Asia lies Persia, now more con¬
fined in its limits than before ; and to the eastward of
523
Persia lies India, or the kingdom late of the Mogul, Civil
comprehending all the country from the Indus to the History.
Ganges, and beyond that river. Still farther to the -y—
east lie the kingdoms of Siam, Pegu, Thibet, and
Cochin-China, little known to the Europeans. The
vast empire of China occupies the most easterly part of
the continent ; while that of Japan comprehends the
islands which go by that name, and which are suppo¬
sed to lie at no great distance from the western coasts
of America.
In Africa the Turks possess Egypt, which they
conquered in IJ1?* ant^ have a nominal jurisdiction
over the states of Barbary. The interior parts are fill¬
ed with barbarous and unknown nations, as they have
always been. On the western coasts are many settle¬
ments of the European nations, particularly the Bri¬
tish and Portuguese; and the southern extremity is
possessed by the Hutch. The eastern coasts are almost
totally unknown. The Asiatic and African islands are
either possessed by the Europeans, or inhabited by sa¬
vage nations.
The European nations at the beginning of the 17th
century were Sweden, Muscovy, Denmark, Poland,
Britain, Germany, Holland, France, Spain, Portu¬
gal, Italy, and Turkey in Europe. Of these the Rus¬
sians, though the most barbarous, were by far the most
considerable, both in regard to numbers and the ex¬
tent of their empire ; but their situation made them
little feared by the others, who lay at a distance from
them. The kingdom of Poland, which was first set
up in the year 1000, proved a barrier between Russia
and Germany ; and at the same time the policy above
mentioned, of keeping up the balance of power in
Europe, rendered it probable that no one European
nation, whatever wars it might be engaged in, would
have been totally destroyed, or ceased to exist as a di¬
stinct kingdom. The late dismemberment of Poland,
however, or its partition between the three powers
Russia, Hungary, and Prussia, was a step very incon¬
sistent with the above political system ; and it is sur¬
prising with what tameness it was acquiesced in by
the other powers. Subsequent circumstances, particu¬
larly the passiveness with which the ambitious designs
of Russia against the Porte have been so long beheld,
seem to indicate a total dereliction of that scheme of
equilibrium, formerly so wisely, though perhaps some¬
times too anxiously, attended to.
The revolt of the British colonies in America, it
was hoped by the enemies of Britain, would have given
a fatal shock to her strength and wonted superiority.
The consequences, however, have been very different.
These colonies, it is true, have been disjoined from
the mother-country, and have attained an independent
rank among the nations. But Britain has had no cause
to repine at the separation. Divested only of a splen¬
did encumbrance, an expensive and invidious appanage,
she has been left to enjoy the undivided benefits of her
native vigour, and to display new energies, which pro¬
mise her mild empire a long and prosperous duration.
On the other hand, it has been said, the flame which
was to have blazed only to her prejudice, has brought
confusion on her chief foe ; and the ambition and ty¬
ranny of that branch of the house of Bourbon which has
been long the pest of Europe, now lie humbled in the
dust. The French, indeed, have thus become a nation
3 U 2 of
HISTORY.
history.
524
Hccletia- of freemen as well as ourselves, and as well as the
■ siical Americans j who, by the way, were never otherwise,
Histcry. tlor ever knew what oppression was except in indicting
v' ^ it upon their African brethren. But neither is the
French revolution an event which Biitons, as lovers ot
liberty and friends to the rights of mankind, should te-
gret } or which, even in a political view, it duly con-
sideied, ought to excite either their jealousy or appre¬
hension. The papal power, too, is declining 5 and the
period seems to be approaching when the Homan pon¬
tiff will be reduced to his original title of bishop oj
Home. Such was the language held for some years
during the progress of the trench revolution. But
the extraordinary events which have since occurred,
have totally changed the views and sentiments of man¬
kind. The fair prospect of liberty which the friends
of humanity hoped had begun to dawn on trance, has
quite vanished ; and unfortunately the most powerful
despot, as well as the most capricious tyrant, lias seated
himself on the throne of her ancient kings, the pre¬
diction with regard to the pope was more than verified
by this usurper, at whose nod the head of the catholic
church holds his authority ; and at this moment (De¬
cember 1806) the continent of Europe seems to be
threatened with universal subjugation to the same rest¬
less and ambitious power.
Sect. II. Ecclesiastical History.
So
Bevoiu- The history of religion, among all the different na¬
tions in re-{jons {iave existed in the world, is a subject no less
hgion sd- jm.lortant alu| interesting than that of civil history. It
pen is, however, less fertile of great events, aliorus an ac¬
count of fewer revolutions, and is much more uniform,
than civil history. The reason of this is plain. Reli¬
gion is conversant about things which cannot be seen,
and which of consequence cannot suddenly and strongly
affect the senses of mankind, as natural things are apt
to do. The expectation of worldly riches can easily
induce one nation to attack another; but it is not easy
to find any thing which will induce a nation to change
its religion. The invisible nature of spiritual things,
the prejudice of habit and of early education, all stand
in the way of changes of this kind. Hence the revo¬
lutions in religion have been but few, and the duration
of almost any religion of longer standing than the most
celebrated empires; the changes which have happened,
in general, have required a long time to bring them
about, and history scarce affords an instance of the re¬
ligion of any nation being essentially and suddenly
changed for another.
With regard to the origin of religion, w’e must have
recourse to the Scriptures; and are as necessarily con¬
strained to adopt the account there given, as we are to
adopt that of the creation given in the same book ;
namely, because no other hath made its appearance
which seems in any degree rational, or consistent with
itself.—In what manner the true religion given to
Adam was falsified or corrupted by his descendants be¬
fore the flood, doth not clearly appear from Scripture.
Idolatry is not mentioned ; nevertheless we are assured
that the inhabitants of the world were then exceedingly
wicked; and as their wickedness did not consist in wor¬
shipping false gods, it may be concluded that they wor¬
shipped none at all ; i. e. that the crime of the antedi¬
luvians was deism or atheism.
• F.CCYsi;
stical
If
Haiory. |
Sect. II
After the flood, idolatry quickly made its appear¬
ance ; but what gave rise to it is not certainly known.
This superstition indeed seems to be natural to man,
especially when placed in such a situation that he hath
little opportunity of instruction, or of improving bis0
rational faculties. This seems also probable from ail}o|alr).s
caution given to the Jews, lest, when they looked up
to the sun, moon, and stars, and the rest of the host ot
heaven, they should be driven to worship them. The
origin of idolatry among the Syrians and Arabians,
and also in Greece, is therefore accounted for with
great probability in the following manner by the au¬
thor of the Ruins of Balbeck. “ In those uncomfort¬
able deserts, where the day presents nothing to the
view but the uniform, tedious, and melancholy prospect
of barren sands, the night discloses a most delightful
and magnificent spectacle, and appears arrayed with
charms of the most attractive kind. For the most
part unclouded and serene, it exhibits to the wonder¬
ing eye the host of heaven in all their variety and
glory! In the view of this stupendous scene, the tran¬
sition from admiration to idolatry was too easy to unin-
structed minds; and a people whose climate offered no
beauties to contemplate hut those of the firmament,
would naturally look thither for the objects of their
worship. The form of idolatry in Greece was different
from that of the. Syrians ; which perhaps may be at¬
tributed to that smiling and variegated scene of moun¬
tains, valleys, rivers, woods, groves, and fountains,
which the transported imagination, in the midst of its
pleasing astonishment, supposed to be the seats of invi¬
sible deities.”
A difficulty, however, arises on this supposition ; for
if idolatry is naturally produced in the mind of unin¬
structed and savage man from a view of the creation,
why hath not idolatry of some kind or other taken
place among all the different nations of the world ?
This certainly hath not been the case ; of which the
most striking examples are the Persians of old, and
the Moguls in more modern times. Both these nations
were strict deists ; so that w'e must allow some other
causes to concur in producing idolatry besides these
already mentioned ; and of these causes an imperfect
and obscure notion of the true religion seems to be the
most probable. ‘ ^
Though idolatry, therefore, was formerly very pre- General ■
valent, it neither extended over the whole earth, nor account (■
were the superstitions of the idolaters all of one kind, die Hea-
Every nation had its respective gods, over which onetlien ^Ui,,
more excellent than the rest was said to preside ; yet in
such a manner, that this supreme deity himself w'as
controuled by the rigid empire of the fates, or by what
philosophers called eternal necessity. The gods of the
east were different from those of the Gauls, the Ger¬
mans, and the other northern nations. The Grecian
divinities differed widely from those of the Egyptians,
who deified plants, animals, and a great variety of the
productions both of nature and art. Each people also
had their own particular manner of worshipping and ap¬
peasing their respective deities, entirely different from
the sacred rites of other countries. All this variety of
religions, however, produced neither wars nor dissen¬
sions among the different nations ; each nation suffered
its neighbours to follow their own method of worship,
without discovering any displeasure on that account.
There
stition*.
5
Sf t. II. HIS’
E, esia- There is nothing surprising in this mutual toleration,
ril when we consider, that they all looked upon the world
II ory. as one great empire, divided into various provinces,
over each of which a certain order of divinities presid¬
ed ; for which reason they imagined that none could
behold with contempt the gods of other nations, or force
strangers to pay homage to theirs.—The Homans exer¬
cised this toleration in the most ample manner j for
though they would not allow any change to be made
in the religions that were publicly professed in the em¬
pire, nor any new form of worship to be openly intro¬
duced, yet they granted to their citizens a full liberty
of observing in private the sacred rites of other nations,
and of honouring foreign deities as they thought pro¬
per.
The heathen deities were honoured with rites and
sacrifices of various kinds, according to their respec¬
tive natures and offices. Their rites were absurd and
ridiculous ; while the priests, appointed to preside over
this strange worship, abused their authority, by decei¬
ving and imposing upon the people in the grossest man-
? ner.
Sh of ie- From the time of the flood to the coming of
h« at Christ, idolatry prevailed among almost all the nations
tin ijKai- 0f the world, the Jews alone excepted ; and even
^ at they were on all occasions ready to run into it, as is
evident from their history in the Old Testament. At
the time of Christ’s appearance, the religion of the Ro¬
mans, as well as their empire, extended over a great
part of the world. Some people there were among the
heathens who perceived the absurdities of that system j
but being destitute of means, as well as of abilities, to
efl’ect a reformation, matters went on in their old way.
Though there were at that time various sects of philoso¬
phers, yet all of them proceeded upon false principles,
and consequently could be of no service to the advance¬
ment or reformation of religion. Nay, some, among
whom were the Epicureans and Academics, declared
openly against every kind of religion whatever.
Two religions at this time flourished in Palestine,
viz, the Jewish and Samaritan *, between whose re¬
spective followers reigned thp most violent hatred or
contempt. The difference between them seems to
have been chiefly about the place of worship $ which
the Jews would have to lie in Jerusalem, and the Sa¬
maritans on Mount Gerizzim. But though the Jews
were certainly right as to this point, they had greatly
corrupted their religion in other respects. They ex¬
pected a Saviour indeed, hut they mistook his charac¬
ter ; imagining that he was to be a powerful and war¬
like prince, who should set them free from the Roman
yoke, which they bore with the utmost impatience.
They also imagined that the whole of religion consist¬
ed in observing the rites of Moses, and some others
which they had added to them, without the least re¬
gard to what is commonly called morality or virtue ;
as is evident from the many charges our Saviour brings
against the Pharisees, who had the greatest reputa¬
tion for sanctity among the whole nation. To these
corrupt and vicious principles, they added several ab¬
surd and superstitious notions concerning the divine
nature, invisible powers, magic, &c. which they had
partly imbibed during the Babylonian captivity, and
partly derived from their neighbours in Arabia, Sy-
i'/a and Egypt. The principal sects among them
f O R Y. 525
were the Essenes or Essenians, PHARISEES, and Sad- Ecclesia-
DUCEES. The Samaritans, according to the most ge- stical
neral opinion, had corrupted their religion still more History.
than the Jews. «—-y—
When the true religion was preached by the Savi¬
our of mankind, it is not to be wondered at if be be¬
came on that account obnoxious to a people so deeply
sunk in corruption and ignorance as the Jews then
were. It is not here requisite to enter into the par¬
ticulars of the doctrine advanced by him, or of the op¬
position he met with from the Jews •, as a full ac¬
count of these things, and likewise of the preaching '
of the gospel by the apostles, may be found in the
New Testament.—The rapid progress of the Christian
religion, under these faithful and inspired ministers,
soon alarmed the Jews, and raised various persecutions
against its followers. The Jews, indeed, seem at first
to have been everywhere the chief promoters of per¬
secution ; for we find that they officiously went from
place to place, wherever they heard of the increase of
the gospel, and by their calumnies and false suggestions
endeavoured to excite the people against the apostles.
The Heathens, however, though at first they showed
no very violent spirit of persecution against the Chri¬
stians, soon came to hate them as much as the Jews
themselves. Tacitus acquaints us with the causes of
this hatred, when speaking of the first general persecu¬
tion under Nero. That inhuman emperor having, as
was supposed, set fire to the city of Borne, to avoid the
imputation of this wickedness, transferred it on the 54
Christians. Our author informs us that they were al-Tacitus’s
ready abhorred on account of their many and enormous acco.unt
crimes. “ The author of this name (Christians')S'1 says1*16 il,st.•
ne was Christ, who, m the reign 01 liberals, was[,y \jer0i
executed under Pontius Pilate, procurator of Judaia.
The pestilent superstition was for a while suppressed :
but it revived again, and spread, not only over Jiukta,
where this evil was first broached, but readied Rome,
whither from every quarter of the earth is constantly
flowing whatever is hideous and abominable amongst
men, and is there readily embraced and practised.
First, therefore, were apprehended such as openly
avowed themselves to be of that sect; then by them
were discovered an immense multitude; and all were
convicted, not of the crime of burning Rome, hut of
hatred and enmity to mankind. Their death and tor¬
tures were aggravated by cruel derision and sport; for
they were either covered with the skins of wild beasts
and torn in pieces by devouring dogs, or fastened to
crosses, or wrapped up in combustible garments, that,
when the day-light failed, they might, like torches,
serve to dispel the darkness of the night. Hence, to¬
wards the miserable sufferers, however guilty and de¬
serving the most exemplary punishment, compassion
arose ; seeing they were doomed to perish not with a
view to the public good, but to gratify the cruelty of
one man.”
That this account of Tacitus is downright misre¬
presentation and calumny, must be evident to every
one who reads it. It is impossible that any person can
be convicted of hatred and enmky to mankind, with¬
out specifying a number of facts by which this ha¬
tred showed itself. The burning of Rome would in¬
deed have been a very plain indication of enmity to
mankind j but of this Tacitus himself clears them,
and
526
E<c!esia-
rtfcal
Hintary.
Second
persecu¬
tion.
HISTORY. Sect. 1 i :«
ami mentions no other crime of which they were guil¬
ty. It is probable, therefore, that the only reason of
this charge against the Christians, was their absolute
refusal to have any share in the Roman worship, or to
countenance the absurd superstitions of Paganism in
any degree.
The persecution under Nero was succeeded by ano¬
ther under Domitian ; during which the apostle John
was banished to Patmos, where he saw the visions, and
wrote the book called his Revelation, which completes
the canon of Scripture. This persecution commenced
in the 95th year of the Christian era j and John is
supposed to have written his Revelation the year after,
or in the following one.
During the first century, the Christian religion
spread over a great number of different countries ; but
as we have now no authentic records concerning the
travels of the apostles, or the success which attended
them in their ministry, it is impossible to determine
how far the gospel was carried during this period. We
are, however, assured, that even during this early pe¬
riod many corruptions were creeping in, the progress
of which was with difficulty prevented even by the
apostles themselves. Some corrupted their profession
by a mixture of Judaism, others by mixing it with the
oriental philosophy j while others were already at¬
tempting to deprive their brethren of liberty, setting
themselves up as eminent pastors, in opposition even to
the apostles, as we learn from the epistles of St Paul,
and the third epistle of St John. Hence arose the sects
of the Gnostics, Cerinthians, Nicolaitans, Nazarenes,
Ebionites, &c. with which the church was troubled du¬
ring this century.
Concerning the ceremonies and method of worship
used by the Christians of the first century, it is impos¬
sible to say any thing with certainty. Neither is the
church order, government, and discipline, during this
period, ascertained with any degree of exactness. Each
of those parties, therefore, which exist at this day,
contends with the greatest earnestness for that particu¬
lar mode of worship which they themselves have adopt¬
ed ; and some of the most bigotted would willingly
monopolize the word chvrch in such a manner as to ex¬
clude from all hope of salvation every one who is not
attached to their particular party. It doth not how¬
ever appear that, excepting baptism, the Lord’s sup¬
per, and anointing the sick with oil, any external ce¬
remonies or symbols were properly of divine appoint¬
ment. According to Dr Mosheim, “ there are seve¬
ral circumstances which incline us to think, that the
friends and apostles of our blessed Lord either tolerated
through necessity, or appointed for tvise reasons, many
other external rites in various places. At the same
tune, we are not to imagine, that they ever conferred
upon any person a perpetual, indelible, pontifical au¬
thority, or that they enjoined the same rites in all
churches. We learn, on the contrary, from authentic
lecord?, that the Christian worship was from the be¬
ginning celebrated in a different manner in different
places ; and that, no doubt, by the orders, or at least
with the approbation, of the apostles and their disci¬
ples. In those early times, it was both wise and ne¬
cessary to show, in the establishment of outward forms
of worship, some indulgence to the ancient opinions,
3
manners, and laws, of the respective nations to whom EccIcmi
the gospel was preached.” iticd
The second century commences with the third year ^Utorf p
of the emperor Trajan. The Christians were still per- ^ ^
secuted •, but as the Roman emperors were for the most jjistory 0
part of this century princes of a mild and moderate the secoa m
turn, they persecuted less violently than formerly.tenury.
Marcus Aurelius, notwithstanding the clemency and
philosophy for which he is so much celebrated, treated
the Christians worse than Trajan, Adrian, or even
Severus himself did, who was noted for his cruelty.
This respite from vigorous persecution proved a very fa¬
vourable circumstance for the spreading of the Christian
religion ; yet it is by no means easy to point out the
particular countries through which it was diffused. We
are, however, assured, that in the second century, Christ
was worshipped as God almost through the whole east;
as also among the Germans, Spaniards, Celtes, and
many other nations : but which of them received the
gospel in the first century, and which in the second, is
a question unanswerable at this distance of time. The
writers of this century attribute the rapid progress of
Christianity chiefly to the extraordinary gifts that
were imparted to the first Christians, and the miracles
which were wrought at their command ; without sup¬
posing that any part of the success ought to he ascribed
to the intervention of human means, or secondary cau¬
ses. Many of the moderns, however, are so far from
being of this opinion, that they are willing either to
deny the authenticity of all miracles said to have been
wrought since the days of the apostles, or to ascribe
them to the power of the devil. To enter into the
particulars of this controversy is foreign to our present
purpose ; for which reason we must refer to the writers
of polemic divinity, who have largely treated of this
and other points of a similar nature. ^
The corruptions which had been introduced in the Ccremoni
first century, and which were almost coeval with Chri-multiplio
stianity itself, continued to gain ground in the second.
Ceremonies, in themselves futile and useless, but which
must be considered as highly pernicious when joined
to a religion incapable of any other ornament than the
upright and virtuous conduct of its professors, were
multiplied for no other purpose than to please the ig¬
norant multitude. The immediate consequence of this
was, that the attention of Christians was dravvn aside
from the important duties of morality 5 and they were
led to imagine, that a careful observance of the cere¬
monies might make amends for the neglect of moral
duties. This was the most pernicious opinion that
could possibly be entertained ; and was indeed the very
foundation of that enormous system of ecclesiastical
power which afterwards took place, and held the whole
world in slavery and barbarism for many ages. <8
Another mischief was the introduction of mysteries, Mys'611
as they were called, into the Christian religion ; that’lili0^c
is, insinuating that some parts of the worship in common
use had a hidden efficacy and power far superior to the
plain and obvious meaning assigned to them by the
vulgar : and by paying peculiar respect to these myste¬
ries, the pretended teachers of the religion of Jesus ac¬
commodated their doctrines to the taste of their hea¬
then neighbours, whose religion consisted in a heap ot
mysteries, of which nobody knew the meaning.
By
SeII.
H I S T O K Y.
Kc :sia-
, ul
a p( iil'
ovc >e
peo, ,
Fot uf
elm
Ter;
go-
at.
By these, and other means of a similar kind, the
Christian pastors greatly abridged the liberty of their
U a1'?- i flocks- Being masters of the ooremonies and mysteries
u‘“ of the Christian religion, they had it in their power to
Tin ach-nia^e ^ieir followers worship and believe whatever they
t,H ume thought proper; and this they did not fail to make use
of for their own advantage. They persuaded the peo¬
ple, that die ministers of the Christian church succeed¬
ed to the character, rights, and privileges, of the Jewish
priesthood ; and accordingly the bishops considered
themselves as invested with a rank and character simi¬
lar to those of the high priest among the Jews, while
the presbyters represented the priests, and the deacons
the Levites. This notion, which was first introduced
in the reign of Adrian, proved a source of very consi¬
derable honour and profit to the clergy.
The form of ecclesiastical government was in this
century rendered permanent and uniform. One in¬
spector or bishop presided over each Christian assembly,
to which office he was elected by the voices of the
whole people. To assist him in his office, he formed
a council of presbyters, which was not confined to any
stated number. To the bishops and presbyters the
ministers or deacons were subject; and the latter were
divided into a variety of classes, as the different exigen¬
cies of the church required. During a great part of
this century, the churches were independent of each
other; nor were they joined together by association,
confederacy, or any other bonds but those of charity.
Each assembly was a little state governed by its own
laws, which were either enacted, or at least approved
of, by the society. But in process of time all the
Christian churches of a province were formed into one
large ecclesiastical body, which, like confederate states,
assembled at certain times, in order to deliberate about
the common interests of the whole. This institution
had its origin among the Greeks; but in a short time
it became universal, and similar assemblies were form¬
ed in all places where the gospel had been planted.
These assemblies, which consisted of the deputies or
commissioners from several churches, were called .sy/Ws
by the Greeks, and councils by the Latins ; and the
laws enacted in these general meetings were called ca¬
nons, i. e. rules.
These councils, of which we find not the smallest
trace before the middle of this century, changed the
itiu h "of whole face of the church, and gave it a new form ; for
by them the ancient privileges of the people were con¬
siderably diminished, and the power and authority of
the bishops greatly augmented. The humility, indeed,
and prudence, of these pious prelates hindered them
from assuming all at once the power with which they
were afterwards invested. At their first appearance in
these general councils, they acknowledged that they
were no more than the delegates of their respective
churches, and that they acted in the name and bv the
appointment of their people. But they soon changed
this humble tone ; imperceptibly extended the limits of
their authority ; turned their influence into dominion,
their counsels into laws ; and at length openly asserted,
that Christ had empowered them to prescribe to his
people authoritative rules of faith and manners. An¬
other effect of these councils was the gradual abolition
of that perfect equality which reigned among all
bishops in the primitive times; for the order and de¬
CllH ;S
P'ot ed
P? t ■
(5a
cency of these assemblies required, that some one of
the provincial bi-diops met in council should be invest¬
ed with a superior degree of power and authority; and
hence the rights of metropolitans derive their origin.
In the mean time, the bounds of the church were en¬
larged ; the custom of holding councils was followed
wherever the sound of the gospel had reached ; and the
universal church had now the appearance of one vast
republic formed by a combination of a great number
ot little states. This occasioned the creation of a new
order of ecclesiastics, who were appointed in different
parts of the world as heads of the church, and whose
office it was to preserve the consistence and union of
that immense body, whose members were so widely
dispersed throughout the nations. Such was the na¬
ture and office of the Patriarchs; among whom, at
length, ambition, being arrived at its most insolent
period, formed a new dignity, investing the bishop of
Borne with the title and authority of the Prince of the
Patriarchs.
During the second century, all the sects continued Account ot
which had sprung up in the first, with the addition ofthe Ascc-
several others ; the most remarkable of which were the ries.
Ascetics. These owed their rise to an error propaga¬
ted by some doctors of the church, who asserted that
Christ had established a double rule oj sanctity and vir¬
tue for two different orders of Christians. Of these
rules, one was ordinary, the other extraordinary ; the
one of a lower dignity, the other more sublime: the
first for persons in the active scenes of life ; the other
for those who, in a sacred retreat, aspired after the
glory of a celestial state. In consequence of this sys¬
tem, they divided into two parts all those moral doc¬
trines and instructions which they had received either
by writing or tradition. One of these divisions they
called precepts, and the other counsels. They gave the
name of precepts to those laws that were universally ob¬
ligatory upon all orders of men ; and that of counsels
to those which related to Christians of a more sublime
rank, who proposed to themselves great and glorious
ends, and breathed after an intimate communion with
the Supreme Being.—Thus were produced all at once
a new set of men, who made pretensions to uncommon
sanctity and virtue, and declared their resolution of
obeying all the precepts and counsels of Christ, in order
to their enjoyment and communion with God here,
and also that, after the dissolution of their mortal bo¬
dies, they might ascend to him with the greater fa¬
cility, and find nothing to retard their approach to the
centre of happiness and perfection. They looked up¬
on themselves as prohibited from the use of things
which it was lawful for other Christians to enjoy; such
as wine, flesh, matrimony, and commerce. They
thought it their indispensable duty to extenuate their
body by watchings, abstinence, labour, and hunger.
They looked for felicity in solitary retreats, and desert
places ; where, by severe and assiduous efforts of sub¬
lime meditation, they raised the soul above all external
objects, and all sensual pleasures. They were distin¬
guished from other Christians, not only by the titles
of Ascetics, 'ZwvlictKu, JLxXtxTDt, and philosophers, but
also by their garb. In this century, indeed, those who
embraced such an austere kind ot life, submitted them¬
selves to all these mortifications in private, without
breaking asunder their social bands, or withdrawing
themselves
528
H I
Ecclesia- themselves from mankind j but in process of time they
stical retired into deserts, and, after the example of the Es-
History. senes an(l Therapeutte, they formed themselves into cer-
' tain companies.
This austere sect arose from an opinion which has
been more or less prevalent in all ages and in all coun¬
tries, namely, that religion consists more in prayers,
meditations, and a kind of secret intercourse with
God, than in fulfilling the social duties of life in acts
of benevolence and humanity to mankind. Nothing
can be more evident than that the Scripture reckons
the fulfilling of these infinitely superior to the obser¬
vance of all the ceremonies that can be imagined : yet
it somehow or other happens, that almost every body
is more inclined to observe the ceremonial part of de¬
votion than the moral ; and hence, according to the
diflerent humours or constitutions of different persons,
there have been numberless forms of Christianity, and
the most virulent contentions among those who profess¬
ed themselves followers of the Prince of Peace. It is
obvious, that if the moral conduct of Christians was to
be made the standard of faith, instead of speculative
opinions, all these divisions must cease in a moment;
but while Christianity, or any part of it, is made to
consist in speculation, or the observance of ceremonies,
it is impossible there can be any end of sects or heresies.
No opinion whatever is so absurd, but some people have
pretended to argue in its defence; and no ceremony so
insignificant, but it hath been explained and sanctified
bv hot-headed enthusiasts ; and hence ceremonies, sects,
and absurdities, have been multiplied without number,
to the prejudice of society and of the Christian religion.
This short relation of the rise of the Ascetic sect will
also serve to account for the rise of any other ; so that
we apprehend it is needless to enter into particulars
concerning the rest, as they all took their origin from
the same general principle variously modified, accord¬
ing to the different dispositions of mankind.
The Ascetic sect began first in Egypt, from whence
it passed into Syria and the neighbouring countries.
At length it reached the European nations: and hence
that train of austere and superstitious vows and rites
which totally obscured, or rather annihilated, Christi¬
anity ; the celibacy of the clergy, and many other ab¬
surdities of the like kind. The errors of the Ascetics,
however, did not stop here : In compliance with the
doctrines of some Pagan philosophers, they affirmed,
that it was not only lawful, but even praise-worthv, to
deceive, and to use the expedient of a lie, in order to
advance tbe cause of piety and truth ; and hence the
pious frauds for which the church of Rome bath been
so notorious, and with which she hath been so often and
justly reproached.
As Christians thus deviated more and more from tbe
true practice of their religion, they became more zea¬
lous in tbe external profession of it. Anniversary fes¬
tivals were celebrated in commemoration of the death
and resurrection of Christ, and of the effusion of the
Holy Ghost on the apostles. Concerning the days
Contests on which these festivals were to be kept, there arose
festivals118 v^ent contests. The Asiatic churches in general dif¬
fered in this point from those of Europe ; and towards
the conclusion of the second century, Victor bishop of
Rome took it in his head to force the eastern churches
to follow the rules laid down by the western ones.—.
STORY. Sect. 1
This they absolutely refused to comply with : upon Ecclesi
which Victor cut them off from communion with the stical
church of Rome ; though, by means of tbe intercession , Hist01:
of some prudent people, the difterence was made up for
the present. 5^
During most of tbe third century, tbe Christians Third ce
were allowed to enjoy their religion, such as it was,tury.
without molestation. The emperors Maximinus and
Decius, indeed, made them feel all the rigours of a
severe persecution ; hut their reigns were short, and
from the death of Decius to the time of Dioclesian
the church enjoyed tranquillity. Thus vast multitudes
were converted ; but, at tbe same time, the doctrine
grew daily more corrupt, and the lives of professed
Christians more wicked and scandalous. New ceremo¬
nies were invented in great numbers, and an unaccount¬
able passion now prevailed for the oriental superstitions
concerning demons, whence proceeded the whole train
of exorcisms, spells, and fears for the apparition of
evil spirits, which to this day are nowhere eradicated.
Hence also the custom of avoiding all connections
with those who were not baptized, or who lay under
tbe penalty of excommunication, as persons supposed
to be under tbe dominion of some evil spirit. And
hence the rigour and severity of that discipline and
penance imposed upon those who had incurred, by
their immoralities, the censure of the church. Se¬
veral alterations were now made in the manner of
celebrating the Lord’s supper. Tbe prayers used on
this occasion were lengthened, and the solemnity and
pomp with which it was attended were considerably
increased. Gold and silver vessels were used in tbe ce¬
lebration •, it was thought essential to salvation, and for
that reason administered even to infants. Baptism was
celebrated twice a-year to such as, after a long course
of trial and preparations, offered themselves candidates.
Tbe remission of sins was thought to be its immediate
consequence ; while the bishop, by prayer and impo¬
sition of hands, was supposed to confer those sanctify¬
ing gifts of the Holy Ghost that were necessary to
a life of righteousness and virtue. An evil demon was
supposed naturally to reside in every person, who was
the author and source of all the corrupt dispositions
and unrighteous actions of that person. The driving
out of this demon was therefore an essential requisite
for baptism ; and in consequence of this opinion, the
baptized persons returned home clothed in white gar¬
ments, and adorned with crowns, as sacred emblems,
tbe former of their inward purity and innocence, and
tbe latter of their victory over sin and the world.—
Fasting began now to be held in more esteem than for¬
merly. A high degree of sanctity was attributed to
this practice ; it was even looked upon as indispensa¬
bly necessary, from a notion that tbe demons directed
their force chiefly against those who pampered them¬
selves with delicious fare, and were less troublesome
to the lean and hungry who lived under the severities
of a rigorous abstinence.— The sign of the cross also
was supposed to administer a victorious power over all
sorts of trials and calamities ; and was more especially
considered as the surest defence against the snares and
stratagems of malignant spirits; for which reason, no
Christian undertook any thing of moment, without
arming himself, as he imagined, with tbe power of
this triumphant sign. The heresies which troubled
the
S' t. II. HIST
E csia- ^ie c^i£Jrc^ daring this century, were the Gnostics,
Seal (whose doctrines were new-modelled and improved by
i lory. Manes, from whom they were afterwards chiefly called
*■" Manicheans), the Hieracites, Noetians, Sabel-
lians, and Novatians j for a particular account of
ii __ which, see those articles.
Fo keen- ^*)e f°urth century is remarkable for the establish¬
ment of Christianity by law in the Roman empire j
which, however, did not take place till the year 324.
In the beginning of the century, the empire was go¬
verned by four chiefs, viz. Dioclesian, Maximian,
Constantius Chlorus, and Galerius, under whom the
church enjoyed a perfect toleration. Diociesian, though
much addicted to superstition, had no ill-will against
the Christians; and Constantius Chlorus, having aban¬
doned polytheism, treated them with condescension
and benevolence. This alarmed the Pagan priests,
whose interests were so closely connected with the
continuance of the ancient superstitions; and who
apprehended, not without reason, that the Christian
religion would at length prevail throughout the em¬
pire. To prevent the downfal of the Pagan supersti¬
tion, therefore, they applied to Dioclesian and Gale¬
rius Csesar, by whom a most bloody persecution was
commenced in the year 303, and continued till 311.
An asylum, however, was opened for the Christians in
the year 304. Galerius having dethroned Dioclesian
and Maximian, declared himself emperor in the east;
leaving all the western provinces, to which great num¬
bers of Christians resorted to avoid the cruelty of the
former, to Constantius Chlorus. At length Galerius
being overtaken with an incurable and "dreadful dis¬
ease, published an edict ordering the persecution to
cease, and restoring freedom to the Christians, whom
he had most inhumanly oppressed for eight years.
Galerius died the same year; and in a short time af-
Cht a- ter> when Constantine the Great ascended the throne,
nit; ta. the Christians were freed from any farther uneasiness,
i by by his abrogating all the penal laws against them ; and
hB{ n* afterwards issuing edicts, by which no other religion
than the Christian was tolerated throughout the em¬
pire.
lac: ie of This event, however, so favourable to the outward
its rap. peace of the church, was far from promoting its inter-
lioB nal harmony, or the reformation of its leaders. The
clergy, who had all this time been augmenting their
power at the expence of the liberty of the people, now
set no bounds to their ambition. The bishop of Rome,
v/as the first in rank, and distinguished by a sort of
pre-eminency above the rest of the prelates. He sur¬
passed all his brethren in the magnificence and splen¬
dour of the church over which he presided, in tire
riches of his revenues and possessions, in the number
and variety of his ministers, in his credit with the
people, and in his sumptuous and splendid manner of
living. Hence it happened, that when a new pontiff
was to be chosen by the presbyters and people, the
city of Rome was generally agitated with dissensions,
tumults, and cabals, which often produced fatal conse¬
quences. The intrigues and disturbances which pre¬
vailed in that city in the year 366, when, upon the
death of Liberius, another pontiff was to be chosen in
his place, are a sufficient proof of what we have ad¬
vanced. Upon that occasion, one faction elected Da-
masus to that high dignity; while the opposite party
« Vol, X. Part II. f
OR Y. sj 2 9
chose Ursicinus, a deacon of the vacant church, to Ecdesia-
succeed laberius. TLhis double election gave rise to stical
a dangerous schism, and to a sort of civil war within History,
the city of Rome; which was carried on with the ut-
most barbarity and fury, and produced the most cruel
massacres and desolations. The inhuman contest end¬
ed in the victory of Damasus ; but whether his cause
was more just than that of Ursicinus, is not so easily
determined.
Notwithstanding the pomp and splendour which sur¬
rounded the Roman see, it is certain that the bishops
of Rome had not yet acquired that pre-eminence of
power and jurisdiction which they afterwards enjoyed.
In the ecclesiastical commonwealth, indeed, they were
the most eminent order of citizens ; but still they were
citizens as well as their brethren, and subject, like
them, to the laws and edicts of the emperors. AH re¬
ligious causes of extraordinary importance were exa¬
mined and determined either by judges appointed by
the emperors, or in councils assembled for that pur¬
pose ; while those of inferior moment were decided in
each district by its respective bishop. The ecclesiasti¬
cal laws were enacted either by the emperor or coun¬
cils. None of the bishops acknowledged that they de¬
rived their authority from the permission and appoint¬
ment of the bishop of Rome, or that they were created
bishops by the favour of the apostolic see. On the con¬
trary, they all maintained that they were the ambassa¬
dors and ministers of Jesus Christ, and that their au¬
thority was derived from above. It must, however,
he observed, that even in this century several of those
steps were laid by which the bishops of Rome mounted
afterwards to the summit of ecclesiastical power and
despotism. This happened partly by the imprudence
of the emperors, partly by the dexterity of the Ro¬
man prelates themselves, and partly by the inconside¬
rate zeal and precipitate judgment of certain bishops.
The imprudence of the emperor, and precipitation of
the bishops, were remarkably discovered in the follow¬
ing event, which favoured extremely the ambition of
the Roman pontiff. About the year 372, Valentinian
enacted a law, empowering the bishop of Rome to ex¬
amine and judge other bishops, that religious disputes
might not be decided by any profane or secular judges.
The bishops assembled in council at Rome io 378, not
considering the fatal consequences that must arise from
this imprudent law both to themselves and to the
church, declared their approbation in the strongest
terms, and recommended the execution of it in their
address to the emperor Gratian. Some think, indeed,
that this law empowered the Roman bishop to judge
only the bishops within the limits of his jurisdiction ;
others, that his power was given only for a certain
time, and for a particular purpose. This last notion
seems the most probable j but still this privilege must
have been an excellent instrument in the hands of sa¬
cerdotal ambition. g-g
By the removal of the seat of empire to Constanti-Bishops of
nople, the emperor raised up, in the bishop of this ^'ome an.d
new metropolis, a formidable opponent to the bishope^^ai
of Rome, and a bulwark which threatened a vigorous ea£h
opposition to his growing authority. For as the em¬
peror, in order to render Constantinople a second
Rome, enriched it with all the rights and privileges,
honours and ornaments, of the ancient capital of the
3 X world;
530
Eccies-ia-
(ideal
History.
69
Form of
church go-
■vernment
e^tabihlied
by Con¬
stantine.
HIST
world so Its bishop, measuring his own dignity and
rank by the magnificence of the new city, and its
eminence as the residence of the emperor, assumed an
equal degree of dignity with the bishop of Home, and
claimed a superiority over the rest of the episcopa or¬
der. Nor did the emperors disapprove of these higli
pretensions, since they considered their own dignity as
connected in a certain measure with that of the bis.iop
of their imperial city. Accordingly, in a council held
at Constantinople in the year 381, by the authority
of Theodosius the Great, the bishop of that city was,
durin"-the absence of the bishop of Alexandria, and
against the consent of the Homan prelate, placed >y
the third canon of that council in the first ran^t alter
the bishop of Home, and consequently above those of
Alexandria and Antioch. Nectanus was the first bi¬
shop who enjoyed these new honours accumulated up¬
on the see of Constantinople. His successor, the cele¬
brated John Chrysostom, extended still farther the
privileges of that see, and submitted to its jurisdiction
all Thrace, Asia, and Pontus; nor were the succeed¬
ing bishops of that imperial city destitute of a fervent
zeal to augment their privileges and extend their do¬
minion. By this unexpected promotion, the most dis¬
agreeable effects were produced. '1 be bishops of Alex¬
andria were not only filled with the most inveterate ha¬
tred against those of Constantinople, but contention was
excited between the bishops of Rome and Constantino¬
ple *, which, after being carried on for many ages, con¬
cluded at last in the separation of the Greek and La¬
tin churches.
Constantine the Great, in order to prevent civil com-
• motions, and to fix his authority on a stable and solid
foundation, made several changes not only in the laws
of the empire, but also in the form of the Roman go¬
vernment. And as there were many important reasons
which induced him to suit the administration of the
church to these changes in the civil constitution,' this
necessarily introduced among the bishops new degrees
of eminence and rank. The four bishops, of Rome,
Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, were distin¬
guished by a certain degree of pre-eminence over the
rest. These four prelates answered to the four prae¬
torian prefects created by Constantine *, and it is pos¬
sible, that even in this century they were distinguished
by the Jewish title of patriarchs. After these followed
the exarchs, who had the inspection of several pro¬
vinces, and answered to the appointment of certain ci¬
vil officers who bore the same title. In a lower class
were the metropolitans, who had only the government of
one province j under whom were the archbishops, whose
inspection was confined to certain districts. In this
gradation the bishops brought up the rear ; but the
sphere of their authority was not in all places equally
extensive ; being in some considerably ample, and in
others confined within narrow limits. To these va¬
rious ecclesiastical orders we might add that of the
chorepiscopi, or superintendents of the country churches j
but this last order was in most places suppressed by
the bishops, with a design to extend their own autho¬
rity, and enlarge the sphere of their power and juris¬
diction. The administration of the church itself was
divided by Constantine into an external and internalm-
spection. The latter, which was committed to bishops
and councils, related to religious controversies, the
O R Y.
Sect. IT, b
forms of divine worship, the offices of priests, the vices
of the ecclesiastical orders, &.c. The external admi- uicat
nistration of the church the emperor assumed to him- Hfitoiy.
self. This comprehended all those things which re-' 'r J
lated to the outward state and discipline of the church j
it likewise extended to all contests that should arise be¬
tween the ministers of the church, superior as well as
inferior, concerning their possessions, their reputation,
their rights and privileges, their ofiences against the
laws, &c. but no controversies that related to matters
purely spiritual were cognizable by this external in¬
spection. In consequence ol this artful division ol the
ecclesiastical government, Constantine and his succes¬
sors called councils, presided in them, appointed the
judges of religious controversies, terminated the difler-
ences which arose between the bishops and the people,
fixed the limits of the ecclesiastical provinces, took
cognizance of the civil causes that subsisted between
the ministers of the church, and punished the crimes
committed against the laws by the ordinary judges ap¬
pointed for that purpose ; giving over all causes purely
ecclesiastical to the bishops and councils. But this ia-
mous division of the administration of the clmrch was
never explained with sufficient accuracy j so that both
in the fourth and fifth centuries, there are Irequent in¬
stances of the emperors determining matters purely ec¬
clesiastical, and likewise of bishops and councils deter¬
mining matters which related merely to the external
form and government of the church. j0
After the time of Constantine many additions werescandahm
made by the emperors and others to the wealth and lives ot the
honours of the clergy ; and these additions were fo!-®161^-
lowed by a proportional increase of their vices and
luxury, particularly among those who lived in great and
opulent cities. The bishops, on the one hand, con¬
tended with each other in the most scandalous manner
concerning the extent of their respective jurisdictions 5
while, on the other, they trampled on the rights of the
people, violated the privileges of the inferior ministers,
and imitated in their conduct and in their manner oi
living the arrogance, voluptuousness, and luxury ot
magistrates and princes. This pernicious example was
soon followed by the several ecclesiastical orders. The
presbyters, in many places, assumed an equality with
the bishops in point of rank and authority. Many
complaints are also made by the authors of this cen¬
tury about the vanity and effeminacy of the deacons.
Those more particularly of the presbyters and deacons
who filled the first stations of these orders, carried their
pretensions to an extravagant length, and were offend¬
ed at the notion of being placed on an equality with
their colleagues. For this reason they not only assu¬
med the titles of arch-presbyters, and arch-deacons, but
also claimed a degree of authority and power much su¬
perior to that which was vested in the other members
of their respective orders. 7’
In the fifth century, the bishops of Constantinople
having already reduced under their jurisdiction all t^e
Asiatic provinces, began to grasp at still further acces- f Ronlc
sions of power. By the 28th canon ol the council held al)(j con
at Cbalcedon in 451, it was resolved, that the sametiantk6!
rights and honours which had been conferred on the
bishop of Rome were due to the bishop of Constanti¬
nople, on account of the equal dignity and lustre ot
the two cities in which these prelates exercised their
authority.
HISTORY.
S t. II.
£ csia- atilliority. The same council confirmed also, by a so-
cal lemn act, the bishop of Constantinople in the spiritual
1 too- government of those provinces over which he had
u v usurped the jurisdiction. Leo the Great, bishop of
Kome, opposed with vehemence the passing of these
laws j and his opposition was seconded by that of se¬
veral other prelates. But their elforts were vain, as
the emperors threw in their weight into the balance,
and thus supported the decisions of the Grecian bi¬
shops. In consequence, then, of the decisions of this
famous council, the bishop of Constantinople began to
contend obstinately for the supremacy with the Ho¬
man pontiff, and to crush the bishops of Antioch and
Alexandria. About the same time, Juvenal, bishop
of Jerusalem, attempted to withdraw himself and his
church from the jurisdiction of the bishop of Caesarea,
and aspired after a place among the first prelates of
the Christian world. The high degree of veneration
and esteem in which the church of Jerusalem was held
among all other Christian societies (on account of its
rank among the apostolical churches, and its title to the
appellation of mother-church, as having succeeded the
first Christian assembly formed by the apostles), was
extremely favourable to the ambition of Juvenal, and
rendered bis project much more practicable than it
would otherwise have been. Encouraged by this, and
likewise by the protection of Theodosius the younger,
this aspiring prelate not only assumed the dignity of
patriarcli of all Palestine, a rank which rendered him
independent-of all spiritual authority j but also invad¬
ed the rights of the bishop of Antioch, and usurped his
jurisdiction over the provinces of Phoenicia and Arabia.
Hence arose a warm contest between Juvenal and Ma¬
ximus bishop of Antioc!) ; which the council of .Chal-
cedon decided, by restoring to the latter the provinces
of Phoenicia and Arabia, and confirming the former
in the spiritual possession of all Palestine and in the
high rank which he had assumed in the church.
In 588, John, bishop of Constantinople, surnamed
the Faster, either by his own authority or that of the
emperor Mauritius, summoned a council at Constanti-
noole to acquire into an accusation brought against
Gregory, bishop of Antioch; and upon this occasion as¬
sumed the title of oecumenical ox universal bishop. This
title had been formerly enjoyed by the bishops of Con¬
stantinople without any offence: but now, Gregory
the Great, at that time bishop of Rome, suspecting
that John was aiming at the supremacy over all the
churches, opposed his claim with the greatest vigour.
For this purpose he applied by letters to the emperor,
and others, whom he thought capable of assisting him
in his opposition ; but all his efforts were without ef¬
fect; and the bishops of Constantinople were allowed
to enjoy the disputed title, though not in the sense
which had alarmed the Roman pontift.
Gregory, however adhered tenaciously to his pur¬
pose, raised new tumults and dissensions among the
clergy, and aimed at nothing less than an unlimited
supremacy over the Christian church. 'Ibis ambitious
design succeeded in the west; while in the eastern pro¬
vinces, his arrogant pretensions were scarcely respected
by any but those who were at enmity with the bishop of
Constantinople. How much the people were at this
time deluded by the Roman pontiffs, appears from
the expression of Ennodius, one of the flatterers of Sym-
machus (who was a prelate of but ambiguous fame), Ecciesia-
that the Roman pontifl u’as constituted judije in the place stical
of God, which he filled as the vicegerent of the Most History.
High. On the other hand, it is certain, from a va-
riety of the most authentic records, that both the em¬
perors and the nations in general were far from being
disposed to bear with patience the yoke of servitude
which the see of Rome was arrogantly imposing on the
whole church.
In the beginning of the seventh century, according Qnrrfnof
to the most learned historians, Boniface III. engaged theAipre-
Phocas, emperor of Constantinople, to take from the ™acy of tke
bishop of that metropolis the title of oecumenical orP°Pe*
universal bishop, and to confer it upon the Roman pon¬
tiff; and thus was first introduced the supremacy of the
pope. The Roman pontiffs used all methods to maintain
and enlarge this authority and pre-eminence, which
they had acquired from one of the most odious tyrants
that ever disgraced the annals of history.
In the eighth century, the power of the bishop of
Rome, and of the clergy in general, increased prodi¬
giously. The chief cause of this, besides the supersti¬
tion of the people, was the method at that time used
by the European princes to secure themselves on their
thrones. All these princes being then employed
either in usurpation or in self-defence, and the whole
continent being in the most unsettled and barbarous
condition, they endeavoured to attach warmly to their
interests these whom they considered as their friends
and clients. For this purpose they distributed among
them extensive territories, cities, and fortresses, with
the various rights and privileges belonging to them ;
reserving only to themsel ves the supreme dominion, and
the military service of these powerful vassals. For this
reason it was by the European princes reckoned a high
instance of political prudence to distribute among the
bishops and other Christian doctors the same sort of
donations which had formerly been given to their ge¬
nerals and clients. By means of the clergy, they
hoped to check the seditious and turbulent spirits of
their vassals ; and to maintain them in their obedience
by the influence and authority of their bishops, whose
commands were highly respected, and whose spiritual
thunderbolts, rendered formidable by ignorance, struck
terror into the boldest and most resolute hearts.
This prodigious accession to the opulence and au¬
thority of the clergy in the west, began at their head,
viz. the Roman pontiff; from whence it spread gra¬
dually among the inferior sacerdotal orders. The bar¬
barous nations who had received the gospel, looked up¬
on the bishop of Rome as the successor of their chief
druid or high priest : and as this tremendous druid
had enjoyed, under the darkness of Paganism, a kind
of boundless authority ; so these barbarous nations
thought proper to confer upon the chief bishop the
same authority which had belonged to the chief druid.
The pope received these august privileges with great
pleasure ; and lest, upon any change of affairs, at¬
tempts should be made to deprive him of them, he
strengthened his title to these extraordinary honours
by a variety of passages drawn from ancient history,
and, what is still more astonishing, by arguments of a
religious nature. This swelled the Roman druid to
an enormous size ; and gave to the see of Rome that
high pre-eminence and despotic authority in civil and
3 * 2 political
532
HISTORY.
Sect. II :
Ecclesia¬
stical
History.
political matters, that were, unknown to former ages.
Hence, among other unhappy circumstances, arose
that monstrous and pernicious opinion, that such per¬
sons as were excluded from the communion of the
church by the pontiff himself, or any of the bishops,
thus forfeited, not only their civil rights and advan¬
tages as citizens, but even the common claims and
privileges of humanity. This horrid opinion, which
was a fatal source of wars, massacres, and rebellions
without number, and which contributed more than
any thing else to confirm and augment the papal au¬
thority, was borrowed by the clergy from the Pagan
superstitions.-—Though excommunication, from the
time of Constantine the Great, was in every part of
the Christian world attended with many disagreeable
effects; yet its highest terrors were confined to Eu¬
rope, where its aspect was truly formidable and hide¬
ous. It acquired also, in the eighth century, new ac¬
cessions of teri'or j so that from that period the excom¬
munication practised in Europe difiered entirely from
that which was in use in other parts of Christendom.
Excommunicated persons were indeed considered in all
places as objects of hatred both to God and man; but
they were not, on that account, robbed of the privi¬
leges of citizens, nor of the rights of humanity j much
less were those kings and princes, whom an insolent
bishop had thought proper to exclude from the com¬
munion of the church, supposed to forfeit on that ac¬
count their crowns or their territories. But from this
century it was quite otherwise in Europe. Excom¬
munication received that infernal power which dissolved
all connexions; so that those whom the bishops, or
their chief, excluded from church communion, were
degraded to a level with the beasts. The origin of
this unnatural and horrid power was as follows:—On
the conversion of the barbarous nations to Christiani¬
ty, these ignorant proselytes confounded the excom¬
munication in use among Christians with that which
had been practised in the times of Paganism, and
which was attended with all the dreadful effects a-
bove mentioned. The Roman pontiffs, on the other
hand, were too artful not to encourage this error $
and therefore employed all sorts of means to gain
credit to an opinion so well calculated to gratify their
ambition, and to aggrandize in general the episcopal
order.
The annals of the French nation furnish us with the
temporal following instance of the enormous power which was
nnee' at this time vested in the Roman pontiff. Pepin, who
was mayor of the palace to Childeric III. king of
France, and who in the exercise of that high office
was possessed in reality of the royal power and autho¬
rity, aspired to the titles and honours of majesty also,
and lormed a scheme of dethroning his sovereign.
For this purpose he assembled the states in 751 ; and
though they were devoted to the interests of this am¬
bitious usurper, they gave it as their opinion that the
bishop of Rome was previously to be consulted whether
the execution of such a scheme was lawful or not. In
consequence of this, ambassadors were sent by Pepin
to Zachary, the reigning pontiff, with the follow¬
ing question, “ Whether the divine law dkl not per¬
mit a valiant and warlike people to dethrone a pu¬
sillanimous and indolent pHnce who was incapable
of discharging any of the functions of royalty j and to
73
He becomes
substitute in his place one more worthy to rule, and Ecclesia-
who had already rendered most important services to stical
the state ?” The situation of Zachary, who stood much , Hl5t0fy-
in need of the succours of Pepin against the Greeks * ^
and Lombards, rendered bis answer such as the usurper
desired : and when this favourable decision of the Ro¬
man oracle was published in France, the unhappy
Childeric was stripped of his royalty without the least
opposition •, and Pepin, without the smallest resistance,
stepped into the throne of his master and his sove¬
reign. This decision was solemnly confirmed by Ste¬
phen II. the successor of Zachary $ who undertook a
journey into France in the year 754, in order to so¬
licit assistance against the Lombards. The pontiff at
the same time dissolved the obligation of the oath of
fidelity and allegiance which Pepin had sworn to Chil¬
deric, and violated by his usurpation in the year 751 }
and to render his title to the crown as sacred as pos¬
sible, Stephen anointed and crowned him, with his wife
and two sons, for the second time. This complaisance
of the pope was rewarded with the exarchate of Ra¬
venna and all its dependencies, as we have already re¬
lated. See Civil History, N° 44. supra; and History
of Italy. 74
In the succeeding centuries, the Roman pontiffs con-His power
tinned to increase their power by every kind of artifice still increa
and fraud which can dishonour the heart of man ; and,s€?
by continually taking advantage of the civil dissensions
which prevailed throughout Italy, France, and Ger¬
many, their influence in civil affairs rose to an enor¬
mous height. The increase of their authority in reli¬
gious matters was not less rapid. The wisest and most
impartial among the Roman Catholic writers acknow¬
ledge, that from the time of Louis the Meek the an¬
cient rules of ecclesiastical government were gradually
changed in Europe by the counsels and instigation of
the church of Rome, and new laws substituted in their
place. The European princes suffered themselves to bo
divested of the supreme authority in religious matters,
which they had derived from Charlemagne $ the power
of the bishops was greatly diminished, and even the
authority of both provincial and general councils began
to decline. The popes, elated with their overgrown
prosperity, and become arrogant beyond measure by
the daily accessions that were made to their authority,
were eagerly bent upon establishing the maxim, That
the bishop of Rome was constituted and appointed by
Jesus Christ supreme legislator and judge of the church
universal $ and that therefore the bishops derived all
their authority from him. This opinion, which they
inculcated with the utmost zeal and ardour, was oppo¬
sed in vain by such as wei*e acquainted with the ancient
ecclesiastical constitutions, and the government of the
church in the earlier ages. In order to gain credit to
this new ecclesiastical code, and to support the preten¬
sions of the popes to supremacy, it was necessary to pro¬
duce the authority of ancient deeds, in order to stop the
mouths of such as were disposed to set bounds to their
usurpations. The bishops of Rome were aware of this j
and as those means were looked upon as the most law¬
ful that tended best to the accomplishment of their
purposes, they employed some of their most ingenious
and zealous partisans in forging conventions, acts of
councils, epistles, and such like records, by which it
might appear, that in the first ages of the church the
Roman.
Se :■ II
HISTORY.
Esti ie
inso ce
of tl
pOJH
Ec sia- Roman pontiiTs were clothed with the same spiritual
s *1 majesty and supreme authority which they now assumed.
^ ' I'*161’6 were n°t» however, wanting among the bishops
some men of prudence and sagacity, who saw through
these impious frauds, and perceived the chains that
were forging both for them and the church. The
French bishops distinguished themselves eminently in
this respect: but their opposition was soon quashed;
and as all Europe was sunk in the grossest ignorance
and darkness, none remained who were capable of de¬
tecting these odious impostures, or disposed to support
the expiring liberty of the church.
This may serve as a general specimen of the charac¬
ter and conduct of the pretended vicegerents of Jesus
Christ to the 16th century, In the nth century, in¬
deed, their power seems to have risen to its utmost
height. They now received the pompous titles of
Masters of the World, and Popes, i. e. universalfathers.
They presided everywhere in the councils by their le¬
gates, assumed the authority of supreme arbiters in all
controversies that arose concerning religion or church-
discipline, and maintained the pretended rights of the
church against the encroachments and usurpations of
kings and princes. Their authority, however, was
confined within certain limits : for, on the one hand, it
was restrained by sovereign princes, that it might not
arrogantly aim at civil dominion 5 and on the other, it
was opposed by the bishops themselves, that it might
not arise to a spiritual despotism, and utterly destroy
the privileges and liberty of synods and councils. From
the time of Leo IX. the popes employed every me-
533
treated by many fervent prayers, while none stood up Ecclesia*
to oppose this prepovterous kind of worship. The stical
images of those who during their lives had acquired the History,
reputation of uncommon sanctity, were now honoured't—"’
with a particular worship in several places ; and many
imagined that this drew into the images the- propitious
presence of the saints or celestial beings which they
were supposed to represent. A singular and irresistible
efficacy was attributed to the bones of martyrs, and to
the figure of the cross, in defeating all the attempts of
Satan, removing all sorts of calamities, and in healing
not only the diseases of the body, but also those of the
mind. The famous Pagan doctrine concerning the pu¬
rification of departed souls by means of a certain kind
of fire, i. e. purgatory, was also confirmed and ex¬
plained more fully than it had formerly been ; and
every one knows of how much consequence this absurd
doctrine hath been to the wealth and power of the
Romish clergy.
In the sixth century, Gregory the Great advanced
an opinion, 'l hat all the words of the sacred writings
were images of invisible and spiritual things ; for which
reason he loaded the churches with a multitude of ce¬
remonies the most insignificant and futile that can be
imagined ; and hence arose a new and most difficult
science, namely, the explication of these ceremonies,
and the investigation of the causes and circumstances
whence they derived their origin. A new method was
contrived of administering the Lord’s Supper, with a 77
magnificent assemblage of pompous ceremonies. This Introduc-
was called the canon of the mass. Baptism, except in tlon of the
thod which the. most artful ambition could suggest to cases of necessity, was administered only on the great
TfrlYXIWTC* fnr»C#a I 1 m I f O O n H f ,, .. J ~ ! • 1 . I P a. * A • 1 • I V « n 1
i b]
remove those limits, and to render their dominion both
despotic and universal. They not only aspired to the
character of supreme legislators in the church, to an
unlimited jurisdiction over all synods and councils whe¬
ther general or provincial, to the sole distribution of
all ecclesiastical honours and benefices, as divinely au¬
thorised and appointed for that purpose j but they car¬
ried their insolent pretensions so far, as to give them¬
selves out for lords of the universe, arbiters of the fate
of kingdoms and empires, and supreme rulers over the
kings and princes of the earth. Hence we find instan¬
ces of their giving away kingdoms, and loosing sub¬
jects from their allegiance to their sovereigns ; among
which the history of John, king of England, is very re¬
markable. At last they plainly assumed the whole
earth as their property, as well where Christianity was
preached as where it was not; and therefore, on the
discovery of America and the East Indies, the pope,
by virtue of this spiritual property, granted to the Por¬
tuguese a right to all the countries lying eastward, and
to the Spaniards all those lying to the westward, of
Cape Non in Africa, which they were able to conquer
by force of arms; and that nothing might be wanting
to complete their character, they pretended to be lords
of the future world also, and to have a power of restrain¬
ing even the divine justice itself, and remitting that
' ls punishment which the Deity hath denounced against
1 fif ly tl 1_ _ r • • *.
orru
a»0i
d the workers of iniquity.
lions t^1‘s time the powers of superstition reigned
>fsa L triumphant over those remains of Christianity which
ejc' ?r- i]a(l escaped the corruptions of the first four centuries.
*c.In the fifth century began the invocation of the hap-
e py souls of departed saints. Their assistance was ia-
■y a!or
festivals. An incredible number of temples was erec¬
ted in honour of the saints. The places set apart for
public worship were also very numerous : but now they
were considered as the means of purchasing the pro¬
tection and favour of the saints -, and the ignorant and
barbarous multitude were persuaded, that these de¬
parted spirits defended and guarded against evils and
calamities of every kind, the provinces, lands, citiesj
and villages in which they were honoured with temples.
The number of these temples was almost equalled by
that of the festivals, which seem to have been invented
in order to bring the Christian religion as near the mo¬
del of Paganism as possible.’
In the seventh century, religion seemed to be alto-Supersti-
gether buried under a heap of superstitious ceremonies j ^ sti!I
the worship of the true God and Saviour of thejneieasefJ
world was exchanged for the worship of bones, bits of
wood (said to be of the cross), and the images of saints.
The eternal state of misery threatened in Scripture to
the wicked was exchanged for the temporary punish¬
ment of purgatory j and the expressions of faith in
Christ by an upright and virtuous conduct, for the aug¬
mentation of the riches of the clergy by donations to
the church, and the observance of a heap of idle cere¬
monies. New festivals were still added ; one in par¬
ticular was instituted in honour of the true cross on
which our Saviour suffered j and churches were declared
to be sanctuaries to all such as fled to them, whatever
their crimes might have been.
Superstition, it would seem, had now attained its
highest pitch ; nor is it easy to conceive a degree of ig¬
norance and degeneracy beyond what we have already*
mentioned. If any thing can possibly be imagined >;
more
«
534
HISTORY.
Sect.
Ecclesia¬
stical
History.
more contrary to true religion, it is an opinion which
prevailed in the eighth century, namely, That Chri¬
stians might appease an offended Deity by voluntary
acts of mortification, or by gifts and oblations lavish¬
ed on the church ; and that people ought to place their
confidence in the works and merits of the saints. 1 he
piety in this and some succeeding ages consisted in
building and embellishing churches and chapels; in en¬
dowing monasteries and basilics ; hunting after the re¬
lics of saints and martyrs, and treating them with an
absurd and excessive veneration ; in procuring the in¬
tercession of the saints by rich oblations, or super¬
stitious rites ; in worshipping images ; in pilgrimages
to those places which were esteemed holy, particu¬
larly to Palestine, &c. The genuine religion of Jesus
was now utterly unknown both to clergy and people,
if we except a few of its general doctrines contained
in the creed. In this century also, the superstitious
custom of solitary masses had its origin. These were
celebrated by the priest alone in behalf of souls de¬
tained in purgatory, as well as upon some other occa¬
sions. They were prohibited by the laws of the church,
but proved a source of immense wealth to the clergy.
Under Charlemagne they were condemned by a synod
assembled at Mentz, as criminal effects of avarice and
sloth. A new superstition, however, still sprung up
in the tenth century. It was imagined, from Rev.
xx. I. that Antichrist was to make his appearance on
the earth, and that soon after the world itself would
he destroyed. An universal panic ensued; vast num¬
bers of people, abandoning all their connections in so¬
ciety, and giving over to the churches and monasteries
all their worldly effects, repaired to Palestine, where
they imagined that Christ would descend from heaven
to judge the world. Others devoted themselves by a
solemn and voluntary oath to the service of the churches,
convents, and priesthood, whose slaves they became,
in the most rigorous sense of that word, performing
daily their heavy tasks ; and all this from a notion that
the supreme Judge would diminish the severity of their
sentence, and look upon them with a more favourable
and propitious eye, on account of their having made
themselves the slaves of his ministers. When an eclipse
of the sun or moon happened to be visible, the cities
were deserted, and their miserable inhabitants fled for
refuge to hollow caverns, and hid themselves among
the craggy rocks, and under the bending summits of
steep mountains. The opulent attempted to bribe the
saints and the Deity himself by rich donations confer¬
red upon the sacerdotal tribe, who were looked upon
as the immediate vicegerents of heaven. In many
places, temples, palaces, and noble edifices both pub¬
lic and private, were suffered to decay, nay, were deli¬
berately palled down, from a notion that they were no
longer of any use, as the final dissolution of all tilings
was at hand. In a word, no language is sufficient to
express the confusion and despair that tormented the
minds of miserable mortals upon this occasion. The
general delusion was indeed opposed and combated by
the discerning few, who endeavoured to dispel these
terrors, and to efface the notion from which they arose
in the minds of the people. But their attempts were
ineffectual ; nor could the dreadful apprehensions of the
superstitious multitude be removed before the end of
the century, and this terror became one of the acci- Eccleij
79
dental causes of the Croisades.
That nothing might now be wanting to complete
that antichristian system of religion which had over¬
spread all Europe, it was in the nth century deter¬
mined that divine worship should he celebrated in the
Latin tongue, though now unknown throughout the
whole continent. During the whole of this century,
also, Christians were employed in the rebuilding
and ornamenting their churches, which they had de¬
stroyed through the superstitious fears already taken
notice of.
In much the same way with what is above related,
or worse if possible, matters went on till the time of
the reformation. The clergy were immersed in crimes
of the deepest dye ; and the laity, imagining them¬
selves able to purchase pardon of their sins for money,Ex,ra'a
followed the examples of their pastors without remorse.
The absurd principle formerly mentioned, iiamelyn.el,Hteij
that religion consists in acts of austerity, and an un-saints,
known mental correspondence with God, produced
the most extravagant and ridiculous behaviour in the
devotees and reputed saints. They not only lived
among the wild beasts, but also after the manner of
these savage animals: they ran naked through the
lonely deserts with a furious aspect, and all the agita¬
tions of madness and frenzy; they prolonged their
wretched life by grass and wild herbs, avoided the sight
and conversation of men, remained almost motionless in
certain places for several years, exposed to the rigour
and inclemency of the seasons, SVid towards the con¬
clusion of their lives shut themselves up in narrow and
miserable huts ; and all this was considered as true
piety, the only acceptable method of worshipping the
Deity and attaining a share in his favour.—But of
all the instances of superstitious frenzy which disgraced
the times we now speak of, none was held in higher
veneration, or excited mora the wonder of the multi¬
tude, than that of a certain order of men who were
called Sttflites by the Greeks, and Sancti Columnarcs,
or Pillar Saints, by the Latins. These were persons
of a most singular and extravagant turn of mind, who
stood motionless on the tops of pillars expressly raised
for this exercise of their patience, and remained there
for several years amidst the admiration and applause
of the stupid populace. The inventor of this strange
discipline was one Simeon a Syrian, who began his
follies by changing the agreeable employment of a
shepherd for the austerities of a monkish life. He be¬
gan his devotion on the top of a pillar six cubits high *,
but as he increased in sanctity, he also increased the
height of his pillar, till, towards the conclusion of his
life, he had got up on the top of a pillar 40 cubits
in height. Many of the inhabitants of Syria and Pa¬
lestine, seduced by a false ambition and an utter igno¬
rance of true religion, followed the example of this
fanatic, though not with the same degree of austerity.
This superstitious practice began in the fifth century,
and continued in the east for 600 years. The Latins,
however, had too much wisdom and prudence to imi¬
tate the Syrians and Orientals in this whimsical super¬
stition ; and when a certain fanatic, or impostor, named
WulfilaictiSy erected one of these pillars in the country
of Treves, and proposed to live on it after the manner
r of
1
Ed sia
si il
Hi ry-
Se* .II. HIS
of Simeon, the neighbouring bishops ordered it to be
pulled down.
The practices of austere worship and discipline in
other respects, however, gained ground throughout
ail parts of Christendom. Monks of various kinds
were to be found in every country in prodigious num¬
bers. But though their discipline was at first exceed¬
ingly severe, it became gradually relaxed, and the
monks gave into all the prevailing vices of the times.
Other orders succeeded, who pretended to still great¬
er degrees of sanctity, and to reform the abuses of
the preceding ones; hut these in their turn became
corrupted, and fell into the same vices they had bla¬
med in others. The most violent animosities, disputes,
and hatred, also reigned among the different orders of
monks ; and, indeed, between the clergy of all ranks
asd degrees, whether we consider them as classed in
different bodies, or as individuals of the same body.
To enter into a detail of their wranglings and dis¬
putes, the methods which each of them took to ag¬
grandise themselves at the expence of their neigh¬
bours, and to keep the rest of mankind in subjection,
would require many volumes. \\e shall only observe,
therefore, that even the external profession of the au¬
stere and absurd piety which took place in the fourth
aud fifth centuries, continued gradually to decline.
l£ome there were, indeed, who boldly opposed the tor¬
rent of superstition and wickedness which threatened
to overflow tiie whole world : but their opposition
proved fruitless,-and all of these towards the era of the
reformation had been either silenced or destroyed : so
that, at that time, tire pope and clergy reigned over
mankind without control)!, had made themselves ma¬
sters of almost all the wealth in every country of Eu¬
rope,, and may truly be said to have been the only so-
uereigus ; the rest of the human race, even kings and
princea, being only their vassals and slaves.
While the Popish superstition reigned thus violently
in the west, the absurd doctrines of Mahomet over¬
spread ail the east. The rise of this impostor is rela¬
ted under the article Arabia. His successors con¬
quered in order to establish the religion of their
apostle; and thus the very name of Christianity was
extinguished in many places where it had formerly
flourished. The conquests of the Tartars having inter¬
mingled them with the Mahometans, they greedily em¬
braced the superstitions of that religion, which thus al¬
most .entirely overspread the whole continents of Asia
ami Africa ; and, by the conquest of Constantinople by
tlie Turks in 1453, "as likewise established through¬
out a considerable part of Europe.
About the beginning of the 16th century, the Ro
535
Rie
Uni
lijio n
tlte 1 ia.
man pontiffs lived in the utmost tranquillity ; nor had
Lj)ls ^ they, according to the appearance of things at that
1''tli , " time, any reason to fear an opposition to their autho-
_»ry I] rity in any respect, since the commotions which had
|nce at been raised by the Waldenaes, Aibigenses, &c. were
e‘ sow entirely suppressed. We must, not, however,
conclude, from this apparent tranquillity and security
ot the pontiffs and their adherents, that their measures
ware universally applauded. Not only private persons,
but also the most powerful princes and sovereign states,
exclaimed loudly against the tyranny of the popes,
*nd the unbridled licentiousness of the clergy of all
Historv.
TORY.
denominations. They demanded, therefore, a reforma- Ecelesia
tion of the church in its head and members, and a gene- stieai
ral council to accomplish that necessary purpose. But
these complaints and demands were not carried to such
a length as to produce any good effect; since they came
from persons who never entertained the least doubt a-
bout the supreme authority of the pope in religious mat¬
ters, and who, of consequence, instead of attempting
themselves to bring about that reformation which was
so ardently desired, remained entirely inactive, or look¬
ed for redress to the court of Rome, or to a general
council. But while the so much desired reformation
seemed to be at such a great distance, it suddenly arose
from a quarter whence it was not at all expected. A
single person, Martin Luther, a monk of the order of
St Augustine, ventured to oppose himself to the whole
torrent of papal power and despotism. This bold at¬
tempt was first made public on the 30th of Sept, ;
and notwithstanding all the efforts of the pope and his
adherents, the doctrines of Luther continued daily to
gain ground. Others, encouraged by his success, lent
their assistance in the work of reformation; which at last
produced new churches, founded upon principles quite
diflerent from that of Rome, and which still continue.
But for a particular account of the transactions of the
first reformers, the opposition they met with, and the final
settlement of the reformed churches in different nations
in Europe, see the articles Luther and Reformation.
The state of religion in other parts of the world
seems as yet to be but little altered. Asia and Africa
are sunk in the grossest superstitions either of the Ma¬
hometan or Fagan kinds. The southern continent
of America, belonging to the Spaniards, continues
immersed in the most absurd superstitions of Popery.
The northern continent, being mostly peopled with
colonies from Great Britain, professes the reformed re¬
ligion. At the same time it must be owned, that some
kind of reformation hath taken place even in Popery
and Mahometanism themselves. The popes have no
longer that authority over states and princes, even those
most bigotted to Popery, which they formerly had.
Neither are the lives either of the clergy or laity so
corrupt as they were before. The increase of learning
in all parts of the world has contributed to cause men
open their eyes to the light of reason, and this hath
been attended with a proportional decrease of super¬
stition. Even in Mahometan countries, that furious
enthusiasm which formerly emboldened their inhabitants
to face the greatest dangers, hath now almost vanished;
so that the credit of Mahomet himself seems to have
sunk much in the estimation of his followers. This is
to be understood even of the most ignorant and bigot¬
ted multitude ; and the sensible part of the Turks are
said to incline much towards deism. With regard to
those nations which still profess Paganism, the inter¬
course of Europeans with them is so small, that it is
impossible to say any thing concerning them. As
none of them are in a state of civilization, however,
it may be conjectured, that their religion is of the
same unpolished cast with their manners; [and that it
consists of a heap of barbarous superstitions which
have been handed down among them from time imme¬
morial, and which they continue to observe without
knowing why or wherefore.
Sect..
536
HIST
Composi¬
tion of
History.
Sect. III. Of the Composition of History.
S2
Cicero’s
rules.
Dir Orat.
Cicero has given us the whole art of composing
history, in a very short and comprehensive manner.
We shall first transcribe what he says, and then con¬
sider the several parts of it in their proper order.
“ No one is ignorant (says he), that the first law in
writing history is, Not to dare to say any thing that
is false 5 and the next, Not to be afraid to speak the
truth : that on the one hand there be no suspicion of
affection, nor of prejudice on the other. -'These foun¬
dations are what all are acquainted with. But the
superstructure consists partly in things, and partly in
the style or language. I he former require an order
of times, and descriptions of places. And because,
in great and memorable events, we are desirous to
know first their causes, then the actions themselves,
and lastly their consequences j the historian should
take notice of the springs or motives that occasioned
them j and, in mentioning the facts themselves, should
not only relate what was done or said, but likewise in
what manner; and, in treating upon their conse¬
quences, show if they were the efiects of chance, wis¬
dom, or imprudence. Nor should he only recite the
lib. ii.c. 15. actions of great and eminent persons, but likewise de¬
scribe their characters. The style ought to be fluent,
smooth, and even, free from that harshness and poig¬
nancy which is usual at the bar.” Ihus far Cicero.
A history written in this manner, and furnished with
all these properties, must needs be very entertaining,
as well as instructive. And perhaps few have come
nearer this plan than Tacitus ; though his subject is
attended with this unhappy circumstance, or at least
unpleasant one, that it affords us examples rather of
what we ought to avoid than what to imitate. But
it is the business of the historian, as well as of the phi¬
losopher, to represent both virtues and vices in their
proper colours j the latter doing it by precepts, and
the former by examples. Their manner is different j
but the end and design of both is, or should be, the
same : And therefore history has not improperly been
said by some to be moral philosophy exemplified in the
lives and actions of mankind.
We shall reduce these several things mentioned by
Cicero to three heads, Matter, Order, and Style 5 and
treat upon each of them separately. But as Truth is
the basis and foundation of all history, it will be ne¬
cessary to consider that in the first place.
Art. I. Of Truth in History.
83 . .
Of historic Truth is, as it were, the very life and soul of
truth. history, by which it is distinguished from fable or ro¬
mance. A historian therefore ought not only to be
a man of probity, but void of all passion or bias. He
must have the steadiness of a philosopher, joined with
the vivacity of a poet or orator. Without the former,
he will be insensibly swayed by some passion to give
a false colouring to the actions or characters he de¬
scribes, as favour or dislike to parties or persona affect
his mind. Whereas he ought to be of no party, nor
to have either friend or foe while writing j but to pre¬
serve himself in a state of the greatest indifferency to
all, that be may judge of things as they really are in
Composi-
tioa of
Historv,
o R Y. Sect, in It
their own nature, and not as connected with this or
that person or party. And with this firm and sedate
temper, a lively imagination is requisite $ without
which his descriptions will be fiat and cold, nor will
he be able to convey to his readers a just and adequate
idea of great and generous actions. Nor is the assist¬
ance of a good judgment less necessary than any of the
former qualities, to direct him what is proper to be said
and what to be omitted, and to treat every thing in a
manner suitable to its importance. And since these
are the qualifications necessary for a historian, it may
perhaps seem the less strange that we have so few good
histories.
But historical truth consists of two parts *, one is,
Not to say any thing we know to be false: Though it
is not sufficient to excuse a historian in relating a false¬
hood that he did not know it was so when he wrote it,
unless he first used all the means in his power to inform
himself of the truth j for then, undoubtedly, an invin¬
cible error is as unpardonable in history as in morality.
But the generality of writers in his kind content them¬
selves with taking their accounts from hearsays, or
transcribing them from others, without duly weighing
the evidence on which they are founded, or giving
themselves the trouble of a strict inquiry. Few will
use the diligence necessary to inform themselves of the
certainty of what they undertake to relate. And as
the want of this greatly abates the pleasure of reading
such writers, while persons read with diffidence; so
nothing more recommends an historian than such in¬
dustry. Thus we are informed of Thucydides, that
when he wrote his history of the Peloponnesian war, he
did not satisfy himself with the best accounts he could
get from his countrymen the Athenians, fearing they
might be partial in their own cause; but spared no
expence to inform himself how the same facts were re¬
lated by their enemies the Lacedmmonians ; that, by
comparing the relations of both parties, he might better
judge of the truth. And Polybius took greater pains
than he, in order to write his history of the Roman af¬
fairs ; for he travelled into Africa, Spain, and Gaul,
and other parts of the world, that by viewing the se¬
veral scenes of action, and informing himself from the
inhabitants, he might come at a greater certainty of
the facts, and represent them in a juster light. But
as an historian ought not to assert what he knows to be
false ; so he should likewise be cautious in relating
things which are doubtful, and acquaint his readers
with the evidence he goes upon in such facts, from
whence they may be able to judge how far it is proper
to credit them. So Herodotus tells us what things he
saw himself in his travels, and what he heard from the
information of the Egyptian priests and others with
whom he conversed. And Curtius, in the life of Alex¬
ander, speaking of the affairs of India, ingenuously
confesses, that he wrote more than he fully believed.
“ For (says he) I neither dare to affirm positively what
I doubt of, nor can I think it proper to omit what I
have been told-” By such a conduct the author secures
his credit, whether the things prove really true or false ;
and gives room for further inquiry, without imposing
on his readers.
The other branch of historical trnth is, Not to omit
any thing that is true, and necessary to set the matter
treated of in a clear and full light. In the actions of
past
t. Til.
HISTORY.
537
,.,ysi- Past ages or distant countries, wherein the writer has
Hr no personal concern. He can have no great induce-
ory. ment to break in upon this rule. But where interest
/—-■'or party is engaged, it requires no small candour, as
well as firmness of mind, constantly to adhere to it.
Affection to some, aversion to others, fear of dis¬
obliging friends or those in power, will often inter¬
pose and try his integrity. Besides, an omission is
less obvious to censure than a false assertion : for the
one may be easily ascribed to ignorance or forgetful¬
ness j whereas the other will, if discovered, be com¬
monly looked upon as design. He therefore who, in
such circumstances, from a generous love to truth, is
superior to all motives to betray or stifle it, justly de¬
serves the character of a brave as well as honest man.
What Polybius says upon this head is very well worth
remarking: “ A good man ought to love his friends
and his country, and to have a like disposition with
them, both towards their friends and enemies. But
when he takes upon him the character of a historian,
they must all be forgot. He must often speak well
of his enemies, and commend them when their actions
deserve it j and sometimes blame, and even upbraid
his greatest friends, when their conduct makes it ne¬
cessary. Nor must he forbear sometimes to reprove,
and at other times to commend the same persons y
since all are liable to mistake in their management,
and there are scarce any persons who are always in
the wrong. Therefore, in history, all personal consi¬
derations should be laid aside, and regard had only to
their actions.”
What a different view of mankind and their actions
should we have were these rules observed by all hi¬
storians P Integrity is undoubtedly the principal qua¬
lification of a historian ; when we can depend upon
this, other imperfections are more easily passed over.
Suetonius is said to have written the lives of the frst
twelve Roman emperors with the same freedom where¬
with they themselves lived. What better character
can be given of a writer? The same ingenuous temper
appears in the two Grecian historians above men¬
tioned, Thucydides and Polybius: The former of
whom, though banished by his countrymen the Athe¬
nians, yet expresses no marks of resentment in his
history, either against them in general, or even against
the chief authors of it, when he has occasion to men¬
tion them 5 and the latter does not forbear censuring
what he thought blameable in his nearest relations
and friends. But it is often no easy matter to know
whether a historian speaks truth or not, and keeps
up to the several characters here mentioned; though
it seems reasonable, upon the common principles of
justice due to all mankind, to credit him where no
marks of partiality or prejudice appear in his writings.
Sometimes, indeed, a judgment may in a good mea¬
sure be formed of the veracity of an author from his
manner of expressing himself. A certain candour and
frankness, that is always uniform and consistent with
itself, runs through their writings who have nothing
In view but truth, which may be justly esteemed as a
Very good evideuce of their sincerity. Whereas those
who have partial designs to answer are commonly
more close and covert j and if at other times they as¬
sume an air of openness and freedom, yet this is not
constant and even, but soon followed again with the
Vol. X. Part II. t
appearance of some bias and reserve: for it is very Composi-
difficult to act a part long together without lying tion ot
open to a discovery. And therefore, though craft and ^lstw-v-
design is exceeding various, and, Proteus-like, assumes "" v '
very different shapes, there are certain characters by
which it may often be perceived and detected. Thus,
where things are uncertain by reason of their being
reported various ways, it is partiality in a historian to
give into the most unfavourable account, where others
are as well known and equally credible. Again, it
is a proof of the same bad temper, when the facts
themselves are certain and evident, but the design and
motives of those concerned in them are unknown and
obscure, to assign some ill principle, such as avarice,
ambition, malice, interest, or any other vicious habit,
as the cause of them. This conduct is not only unjust
to the persons whose actions they relate j but hurt¬
ful to mankind in general, by endeavouring to de¬
stroy the principal motive to virtue, which springs
from example. Others, who affect to be more covert,
content themselves with suspicions and sly insinuations j
and then endeavour to come off, by intimating their
unwillingness to believe them, though they would have
their readers do so. And to mention no more, there
are others, who, when they have loaded persons with
unjust calumnies and reflections, will allow them some
slight commendations, to make what they have said be¬
fore look more credible, and themselves less partial.
But the honest and faithful historian contemns all such
low and mean arts} he considers things as they are in
themselves, and relates them as he finds them without
prejudice or affection.
Art. II. The Subject or Argument of History.
,s4
The subject in general is facts, together with such Subject of
things as are either connected with them, or may atfflstorY“
least be requisite to set them in a just and proper light.
But although the principal design of history be to ac¬
quaint us with facts, yet all facts do not merit the re¬
gard of an historian ; but such only as may be thought
of use and service for the conduct of human life. Nor
is it allowable for him, like the poet, to form the plan
and scheme of his work as he pleases. His business
is to report things as he finds them, without any co¬
louring or disguise to make them more pleasing and
palatable to his reader, which would be to convert his
history into a novel. Indeed some histories afford
more pleasure and entertainment than others, from the
nature of the things of which they consist $ and it may
be^esteemed the happiness of an historian to meet with
such a subject, but it is not his fault if it be otherwise.
Thus Herodotus begins his history with showing, that
the barbarians gave the first occasion to the wars be¬
tween them and the Greeks, and ends it with an ac¬
count of the punishment which, after some ages, they
suffered from the Greeks on that account. Such a re¬
lation must not only be very agreeable to his country¬
men the Grecians, for whose sakes it was written j but
likewise very instructive, by informing them of the jus¬
tice of Providence in punishing public injuries in this
world, wherein societies, as such, are only capable of
punishment. And therefore those examples might be of
use to caution them against the like practices. On the
contrary, Thucydides begins his history with the un¬
happy state of his countrymen the Athenians j and in
3 Y the
538 H I S 1
Composi. the course of it plainly intimates, that they were the
lion of cause of the calamitous war between them and the
, '*‘^or-v’ ^ Lacedaemonians. Whereas, had he been more inclined
mmmym t0 please and gratify his countrymen than to write
the truth, he might have set things in such a light as
to have made their enemies appear the aggressors.
But he scorned to court applause at the ex pence of
truth and justice, and has set a noble example of in¬
tegrity to all future historians. But as all actions do
not merit a place in history, it requires no small judge¬
ment in an historian to select such only as are proper.
Cicero observes very justly, that history “ is conver¬
sant in great and memorable actions.” For this rea¬
son, an historian should always keep posterity in viewj
and relate nothing which may not, upon some account
or other, be worth the notice of after-ages. To de¬
scend to trivial and minute matters, such as frequently
occur in the common affairs of life, is below the dig¬
nity of history. Such writers ought rather to be deemed
journalists than historians, who have no view or ex¬
pectation that their works should survive them. But
the skilful historian is fired with a more noble ambi¬
tion. His design is to acquaint succeeding ages with
what remarkable occurrences happened in the world
before them j to do justice to the memory of great
and virtuous men $ and at the same time to perpetuate
his own. Pliny the younger has some fine reflections
upon this head, in a letter to a friend. “ You advise
me (says he) to write a history $ and not you only,
tor many others have done the same, and I am myself
inclined to it. Not that I believe myself qualified for
it, which would be rash to think till I have tried it;
but because I esteem it a generous action not to suffer
those to be forgotten whose memory ought to be eter¬
nised j and to perpetuate the names of others, together
with one’s own. For there is nothing I am so desirous
or ambitious of, as to be remembered hereafter j which
is a thing worthy of a man, especially of one who, con¬
scious of no guilt, has nothing to fear from posterity.
Therefore I am thinking day and night by what means,
as Virgil says,
—— My name
To raise aloft $
l hat would suffice me; tor it is above my wish to add
with him,
—— and wing my flight to fame.
But oh !
lab. v. however, this is enough, and what history alone seems
cp. S. to promise.” This was Pliny’s opinion with regard
to the use and advantage of history j the subjects of
which are generally matters of weight and importance.
And therefore, when a prudent historian thinks it
convenient to take notice of things in themselves less
considerable, he either does it with brevity, or for
sonic appaient reason^ or accounts For it by some just
apology. So Dion Cassius, when he has mentioned
seme things of less moment in the life of Commodus
(as indeed that emperor’s life was chiefly filled up with
cruelty and folly), makes this excuse for himself: “ I
would not have it thought that I descend below the
gravity of history in writing these things : For, as
they were the actions of an emperor, and I was pre¬
sent and saw them all, and both heard and conversed
o R Y. Sut, in -■
with him, I did not think it proper to omit them.” eomposi. 61
He seems to think those actions, when performed by tionof" ^
an emperor might be worth recording, which, if done Historr. ! ’
by a person of inferior rank, would scarce have deserved
notice. Nor does he appear to have judged amiss,
if we consider what an influence the conduct and be¬
haviour of princes, even in the common circumstances
of life, have upon all beneath them } which may some¬
times render them not unworthy the regard of an histo¬
rian, as examples either for imitation or caution.
But although facts in general are the proper subject
of history, yet they may be differently considered with
regard to the extent of them, as they relate either to S5 jifj,
particular persons or communities of men. And from liferent ji
this consideration history has been distinguished intOp11*1*of P
three sorts, viz. biography, particular venb general /zi- ory’
story. The lives of single persons is called biography.
By particular history is meant that of particular states,
whether for a shorter or longer space of time. And
general history contains an account of several states ex¬
isting together in the same period of time.
1. The subjects of biography are the lives either of
public or private persons ; for many useful observa-
tions in the conduct of human life may be made from
just accounts of those who have been eminent and be¬
neficial to the world in either etation. Nay, the lives
of vicious persons are not without their use, as warn¬
ings to others, by observing the fatal consequences
which sooner or later generally follow such practices.
But for those who exposed their lives, or otherwise
employed their time and labour, for the service of their
fellow-creatures, it seems but a just debt that their
memories should be perpetuated after them, and po¬
sterity acquainted with their benefactors. The ex¬
pectation of this was no small incentive to virtue in
the Pagan world. And perhaps every one, upon due
reflection, will be convinced how natural this passion is
to mankind in general. And it was for this reason,
probably, that Virgil places not only his heroes, btit
also the inventors of useful arts and sciences, and other
persons of distinguished merit, in the Elysian Fields,
where he thus describes them :
Here patriots live, who, for their country’s good,
In fighting fields were prodigal of blood ;
Priests of unblemish’d lives here make abode.
And poets worthy their inspiring god j
And searching wits of more mechanic parts,
Who grac’d their age with new invented arts j
Those who to worth their bounty did extend.
And those who knew that bounty to commend :
The heads of these with holy fillets bound,
And all their temples were with garlands crown’d.
iENEID, vi. 66
In the lives of public persons, their public characters
are principally, but not solely, to be regarded. The
world is inquisitive to know the conduct of princes
and other great men, as well in private as public.
And both, as has been said, may be of service, consi¬
dering the influence of their examples. But to be
over-inquisitive in searching into the weaknesses and
infirmities of the greatest or best of men, is, to say no
more of it, but a needless curiosity. In the writers of
this kind, Plutarch is justly allowed to excel.
But it has been a matter of dispute among the
learned,
5, • HI
Cc >osi- learned, whether any one ought to write his own
i ■ of history. It may be pleaded in favour of this, that
E ^7^ no one can be so much master of the subject as the
person himself: and besides, there are many instances
both ancient and modern, to justify such a conduct.
But on the other hand it must be owned, that there are
many inconveniencies which attend it $ some of which
are mentioned by Cicero. “ If (says he) there is any
thing commendable, persons are obliged to speak of
themselves with greater modesty, and to omit what is
blameable in others. Besides, what is said is not so
soon credited, and has less authority ; and after all,
Ai vn. many not stick to censure it.” And Pliny says
very well to the same purpose, “ Those who proclaim
ep. . their own virtues, are thought not so much to proclaim
them because they did them, as to have done them that
they might proclaim them. So that which would have
appeared great if told by another, is lost when related
by the party himself. For when men cannot deny the
fact, they reflect upon the vanity of its author. Where¬
fore, if you do things not worth mentioning, the actions
themselves are blamed 5 and if the things you do are
Lj .j;j commendable, you are blamed for mentioning them.”
cp. These reflections will be generally allowed to be very
just; and yet considering how natural it is for men to
love themselves, and to be inclined in their own favour,
it seems to be a very difficult task for any one to write
an impartial history of his own actions. There is scarce
any treatise of this kind that is more celebrated than
Caesar’s Commentaries. And yet Suetonius tells us,
that “ Asinius Pollio (who lived at that time) thought
they were neither written with due care nor integrity :
that Caesar was often too credulous in his accounts of
what was done by other persons; and misrepresented
his own actions, either designedly, or through forget¬
fulness ; and therefore he supposes he would have re¬
vised and corrected them.” However, at some times
it may doubtless be justifiable for a person to be his
own historian. Plutarch mentions two cases wherein
it is allowable for a man to commend himself, and be
the publisher of his own merits. These are, when
the doing of it may be of considerable advantage ei¬
ther to himself or others. It is indeed less invidious
for other persons to undertake the province. And
especially for a person to talk or write of his own vir¬
tues, at a time when vice and a general corruption of
manners prevails, let what he says be ever so true, it
will be apt at least to be taken as a reflection upon
others. “ Anciently (says Tacitus), many wrote their
own lives, rather as a testimony of their conduct, than
from pride.” Upon which he makes this judicious re¬
mark : “ That the more virtue abounds, the sooner the
reports of it are credited.” But the ancient writers
had a way of taking off the reader’s attention from
themselves in recording their own actions, and so ren¬
dering what they said less invidious*, and that was, by
speaking of themselves in the third person, and not in
the first. Thus Csesar never says, “ I did,” or “ I said,
this or that;” but always, “ Ccesar did, or said, so and
so.” Why the moderns have not more chosen to fol¬
low them in this, we know not, since it seems less ex¬
ceptionable.
2. In a continued history of particular states, some
account may be given of their original, and founders ;
the nature of their soil, and situation ; what advan-
539
tages they have for their support or improvement, ei- Corapo>i-
ther within themselves, by foreign traffic, or con- tion of
quest; with the form of their government. Then History,
notice should be taken of the methods by which they
increased in wealth or power, till they gradually ad¬
vanced to their highest pitch of grandeur; whether
by their virtue, the goodness of their constitution,
trade, industry, wars, or whatever cause. After this
the reasons of their declension should be shown ; what
were the vices that principally occasioned it (for that
is generally the case) ; whether avarice, ambition, lux¬
ury, discord, cruelty, or several of these in conjunction.
And lastly, where that has been their unhappy fate,
how they received their final ruin and subversion. Most
of these things Livy had in view when he wrote his
History of the Roman State, as he acquaints his readers
in the preface. “ The accounts (says he) of what hap¬
pened either before or while the city was building, con¬
sisting rather of poetical fables than any certain records
of facts, I shall neither assert nor confute them. Let
antiquity be allowed to make the origin of their cities
more venerable, by uniting things human and divine.
But if any nation may be suffered to fetch their origin
from the gods, such is the military glory of the Ro¬
mans, that when they represent Mars as the father of
their founder, other nations may as easily acquiesce in
this as they do in their government. But I lay no
great stress upon these things, and others of the like
nature, whatever may he thought of them. What I
am desirous eve.ry one should carefully attend to, are
our lives and manners : by.what men, and what arts,
civil and military, the empire was both acquired and
enlarged : then let him observe, how our manners gra¬
dually declined with our discipline ; afterwards grew
worse and worse; and at length so far degenerated, that
at present we can neither hear with our vices nor suffer
them to be remedied. This is the chief benefit and ad¬
vantage to be reaped from history, to fetch instruction
from eminent examples of both kinds ; in order to imi¬
tate the one, which will he of use both to yourself and
your country, and avoid the other, which are equally
base in their rise and event.” Thus far Livy. And
how well he has executed this design must be acknow¬
ledged by all who will be at the pains to peruse his
work.
3. But as a particular history consists in a number of
facts relating to the same state, suitably connected and
laid together in a proper series; so a general history is
made up of several particular histories, whose separate
transactions within the same period of time, or part of
it, should be so distinctly related as to cause no confu¬
sion. Such was the history of Diodorus Siculus, which
contained an account of most of the eminent states and
kingdoms in the world, though far the greatest part of
it is now unhappily lost. Of the same nature is the hi¬
story of Herodotus, though not so extensive; to whom
we are especially indebted for the Persian affairs. And
to this kind may likewise be referred Justin’s history,
though it be only the epitome of a larger work written
by another hand. The rules proper for conducting
such histories are much the same as those above men¬
tioned concerning particular histories; excepting what
relates to the order, of which we shall have occasion to
speak hereafter. •
But the histories both of particular states and those
3 Y 2 which
HISTORY.
54°
Composi¬
tion of
History.
HIST
which are more general frequently contain only the af¬
fairs of some short period of time. Tims the history of
the Peloponnesian war, written by Ihucydides, com-
’ prises only what was done in the lirst 20 years of that
war, which lasted seven years longer than his account
reaches $ though indeed the reason ol that might be,
because Thucydides died before the war was finished,
otherwise he would very probably have continued his
history to the conclusion of it. But the history ot the
war between the Romans and King Jugurtha in Afri¬
ca, given us by Sallust, as also GajsaPs histories ot the
Gallic and Civil wars, are all confined within a much
less number of years than that of Thucydides. Nay,
sometimes one single transaction is thought sufficient to
furnish out a history. Such was the conspiracy of Ca¬
tiline to subvert the Roman state, written likewise by
Sallust. As to more general histories, Xenophon’s his¬
tory of Greece may be esteemed as such j which in or¬
der of time succeeds that of Thucydides, and contains
the affairs of 48 years. And Polybius called his a ge¬
neral history; which, though it principally contained
the Roman affairs, yet took in the most remarkable
transactions of several other states, for the space of 53
years : though it has met with the same hard fate as
that of Diodorus Siculus, so that only the first five
books out of forty, of which it consisted at first, now re¬
main entire. And to mention no more, the celebrated
history of Thuanus is another instance of this sort, in
which the principal transactions of Europe for about
60 years, chiefly in the 16th century, are described
with that judgment and fidelity, and in a manner so ac¬
curate and beautiful, that he has been thought scarce¬
ly inferior to any of the ancient historians. Now, in
such histories as these, to go farther back than is neces¬
sary to set the subject in a just light, seems as improper
as it is unnecessary.
The general subject or argument of history, in its
several branches, may be reduced to these four heads j
narration, reflections, speeches, and digressions.
U . .
Of aarra- I. By narration is meant a description of facts or
*«»«»• actions, with such things as are necessarily connected
with them ) namely, persons, time, place, design, and
event.
As to actions themselves, it is the business of the
historian to acquaint his readers with the manner in
which they were performed j what measures were con¬
certed on all sides, and how they were conducted,
whether with vigilance, courage, prudence, and cau¬
tion, or the contrary, according to the nature of the
action ; as likewise, if any unforeseen accidents fell
out, by which the designed measures wei’e either pro¬
moted or broken. All actions may he referred to
two sorts, military and civil. And as war arises from
injustice and injuries received on one side or the
other, it is fit the reader should be informed who were
the aggressors. For though war is never to be desi¬
red, yet it is sometimes necessary. In the description
of battles, regard should be had equally to both par¬
ties ; the number of forces, conduct of the generals, in
what manner they engaged, what turns and chances
happened in the engagement, either from accidents,
courage, or stratagem, and how it issued. The like
circumstances should all-be observed in sieges and other
O R Y. Sect. Ill,
actions. But the most agreeable scene of history arises Compusi,
from a state of peace. Here the writer acquaints us tion of c
with the constitution of states, the nature of their laws, t History. |J(y
the manners and customs of the inhabitants, the 'Tu
vantages of concord and unanimity, with the disad¬
vantages of contention and discord j the invention of
arts and sciences, in what manner they were impro¬
ved and cultivated, and by whom j with many other
things, both pleasant and profitable in the conduct of
life.
As to persons, the characters of all those should be
described who act any considerable part in a history.
This excites the curiosity of the reader, and makes him
more attentive to what is said of them ; as one is more
inquisitive to hear what relates to others in proportion
to his knowledge of them. And it will likewise be of
use to observe, how their actions agree with their cha¬
racters, and what were the effects of their different qua¬
lifications and abilities.
The circumstances of time and place are carefully to
be regarded by an historian, without which his accounts
of facts will be frequently very lame and imperfect.
And therefore chronology and geography seem not im¬
properly to have been called the two eyes of history.
Besides, they very much assist the memory : for it is-
much easier to remember any thing said to be done at
such a time, and in such a place, than if only related
in general $ nay, the remembrance of these often re-
cals those things to mind which otherwise had been ob¬
literated. By time is meant not only the year of any
particular era or period $ but likewise the season, as
summer or winter ; and the age of particular persons.
For it is oftentimes from hence that we are principally
enabled to make a just estimate of facts. Thus Cicero
commends Pompey for undertaking and finishing the
Piratic war at a season of the year when other generals
would not have thought it safe to venture out at sea.
This double danger, as well from the weather as theprti(^
enemy, considering the necessity of the case, heightenssiU-
the glory of the action 5 since to have done the same
thing in summer would not have been an equal proof ot
the courage and intrepidity of the general. And there
is nothing more surprising in the conquests of Alexan¬
der than that he should subdue so large a part of the
world by the time he was little more than 30 years old 5
an age at which few other generals have been much
distinguished. Had we not known this, a considerable
part of bis character bad been lost.
The like advantages arise from the other circumstan¬
ces of place. And therefore in marches, battles, and
other military actions, the historian should take notice
of the nature of the country, the passes, rivers, distances
of places, situation of the armies, and strength of the
towns either by nature or art $ from which the reader
may the better form a judgment of the difficulties and
greatness of any enterprise. Caesar is generally very
particular in these things, and seems to have thought it
highly requisite in order to give his readers a just idea
of his actions. The descriptions of countries, cities,
and rivers, are likewise both useful and pleasant; and
help us to judge of the probability of what is related
concerning the temper and genius of the inhabitants,
their arts, traffic, wealth, power, or whatever else is re¬
markable among them.
But an accurate historian goes yet further, and con?
siders
bee
Cob
tio
His
III.
si. siclers the causes of actions, and what were the designs
>f and views of those persons who were principally con-
y- cerned in them. Some, as Polybius has well observed,
are apt to confound the beginnings of actions with
their springs and causes, which ought to be carefully
separated. For the causes are often very remote, and
to be looked for at a considerable distance from the ac¬
tions themselves. Thus, as he tells us, some have re¬
presented Hannibal’s besieging Saguntum in Spain,
and passing the Ebro, contrary to a former agreement
between the Romans and Carthaginians, as causes of
the second Punic war. But these were only the begin¬
nings of it. The true causes were the jealousies and
fears of the Carthaginians from the growing power of
the Romans ; and Hannibal’s inveterate hatred to
them, with which he had been impressed from his in¬
fancy. For his father, whom he succeeded in the com¬
mand of the Carthaginian army, had obliged him,
when but nine years old, to take a most solemn oath
upon an altar never to be reconciled to the Romans :
and therefore he was no sooner at the head of the army,
than he took the first opportunity to break with them.
Again, the true springs and causes of actions are to be
distinguished from such as are only feigned and pretend¬
ed. For generally the worse designs men have in view,
the more solicitous they are to cover them with specious
pretences. It is the historian’s business, therefore, to
lay open and expose to view these arts of politicians.
So, as the same judicious historian remarks, we are not
to imagine Alexander’s carrying over his army into
Asia to have been the cause of the war between him
and the Persians. That had its being long before.
The Grecians had formerly two armies in Asia, one
under Xeflophon and the other commanded by Agesi-
laus. Now the Asiatics did not venture to oppose or
molest either of these armies in their march. This made
King Philip, Alexander’s father, who was an ambiti¬
ous prince, and aspired after universal monarchy, think
it might be a practicable thing to make a conquest of
Asia. Accordingly, he kept it in his view, and made
preparations for it; but did not live to execute it.
That was left for his son. But as King Philip could
not have done this without first bringing the other states
of Greece into it, his pretence to them was only to
avenge the injuries they had all suffered from the lei-
sians j though the real design was an universal govern¬
ment, both over them and the Persians, as appeared af¬
terwards by the event. But in order to our being well
assured of a person’s real designs, and to make the ac¬
counts of them more credible, it is proper we should
be acquainted with his disposition, manners, way ot
life, virtues, or vices j that by comparing his actions
with these, we may see how far they agree and suit
each other. For this reason Sallust is so particular in
his description of Catiline, and Livy of Hannibal ; by
which it appears credible, that the one was capable of
entering into such a conspiracy against his country, and
the other of performing such great things as are re¬
lated concerning him. But if the causes of actions lie
in the dark, and unknown, a prudent historian will not
trouble himself or his readers with vain and trifling
conjectures, unless something very probable oilers it¬
self.
Lastly, an historian should relate the issue and event
of the actions he describes. This is undoubtedly the
541
most useful part of history ; since the greatest advan- fomposi-
tage arising from it is to teach us experience from bun of
What has happened in the world before us. When we Histcxy.
learn from the examples of others the happy effects of ' v
wisdom, prudence, integrity, and other virtues, it na¬
turally excites us to an imitation of them, and to pur¬
sue the same measure in our own conduct. And, on
the contrary, by perceiving the unhappy consequencis
which have followed from violence, deceit, rashness, cr
the like vices, we are deterred from such practices.
But since the wisest and most prudent measures do not
always meet with the desired success, and many cross
accidents may happen to frustrate the best concerted
designs 5 when we meet with instances of this nature,
it prepares us for the like events, and keeps us From
too great a confidence in our own schemes. However,
as this is not commonly the case, but in the ordinary
course of human affairs like causes usually produce like
effects $ the numerous examples of the happy conse¬
quences of virtue and wisdom recorded in history are
sufficient to determine us in the choice of our measures,
and to encourage us to hope for an answerable success,
though we cannot be certain we shall in no instance
meet with a disappointment. And therefore Polybius
very justly observes, that “ he who takes from hi¬
story the causes, manner, and end of actions, and
omits to take notice whether the event was answerable
to the means made use of, leaves nothing in it but a
bare amusement, without any benefit or instruction.”
These, then, are the several things necessary to be at¬
tended to in historical narrations •, but the proper dis¬
position of them must be left to the skill and prudence
of the writer.
II. Reflections made by the writers. Some have con- ^ r^c
demned these, as having a tendency to bias the reader j tj011s>
who should be left to draw such conclusions from the
accounts of facts as he sees proper. But since all
readers are not capable of doing this for themselves,
what disadvantage is it for the author to suggest to
them such observations as may assist them to make the
best use of what they read ? And if the philosopher is
allowed to draw such inferences from his precepts as he
thinks just and proper, why has not the historian an
equal right to make reflections upon the facts he re¬
lates ? The reader is equally at liberty to judge for him¬
self in both cases, without danger of being prejudiced.
And therefore we find, that the best historians have al¬
lowed themselves this liberty. It would be easy to
prove this by a large number of instances, but one or
two here may suffice. When Sallust lias given a very
distinct account of the designs of Catiline, anil of the
whole scheme of the conspiracy, lie concludes it with
this reflection : “All that time the empire of the Ro¬
mans seems to me to have been in a very unhappy state.
For when they had extended their conquests through
the whole world from east to west, and enjoyed both
peace and plenty, which mankind esteem their greatest
happiness j some persons were obstinately bent upon
their own ruin, and that of their country. For not:~
withstanding two decrees were published by the s'enate, c ,^
not one out of so great a multitude was prevailed with,
by the rewards that were oflereil, either to discover the
conspiracy or to leave the army of Catiline. So despe¬
rate a disease, and as it were infection, had seized the
minds of most people !” And it is a very handsome
observation
HISTORY.
542
Composi¬
tion of
History.
Lib. xxiii.
c. IS.
8S
Of speech¬
es.
Lib. xxxi.
c. S-l
HIST
observation that Livy makes upon the ill-conduct of
Hannibal in quartering his army in Capua after the
battle of Cannae $ by which means they lost their mar¬
tial vigour through luxury and ease. “ Those (says
he) who are skilled in military affairs reckoned this a
greater fault in the general, than his not marching his
army immediately to Rome after his victory at Cannae j
for such a delay might have seemed only to defer the
victory, but this ill step deprived him of the power to
gain it.” The modesty of the historian in this passage
is worth remarking, in that he does not represent this
as his own private opinion, and by that means under¬
take to censure the conduct of so great a general as
Hannibal was, but as the sense of those who were skill¬
ed in such affairs. However, a historian should be
brief in such remarks j and consider, that although he
does not exceed his province by applauding virtue, ex¬
pressing a just indignation against vice, and interposing
his judgment upon the nature and consequences of the
facts he relates 5 yet there ought to be a difference be¬
tween his reflections and the encomiums or declamations
of an orator.
III. Speeches inserted by historians. These are of
two sorts, oblique and direct. The former are such
as the historian recites in his own person, and not in
that of the speaker. Of this kind is that of Hannibal
in Justin $ by which he endeavours to persuade King
Antiochus to carry the seat of the war against the Ro¬
mans into Italy. It runs thus : “ Having desired jjli-
bevty to speak, he said none of the present counsels
and designs pleased him j nor did he approve of Greece
for the seat of the war, which might be managed in
Italy to greater advantage : because it was impossible
to conquer the Romans but by their own arms, or to
subdue Italy but by its own forces; since both the nature
of those men, and of that war, was different from all
others. In other wars, it was of great importance to
gain an advantage of place or time, to ravage the coun¬
tries and plunder the towns; but though you gain some
advantage over the Romans, or defeat them, you must
still fight with them when beaten. Wherefore, should
any one engage with them in Italy, it was possible for
him to conquer them by their own power, strength, and
arms, as he himself had done ; but should he attempt
it out of Italy, the source of their power, he would
be as much deceived, as if he endeavoured to alter
the course of a river, not at the fountain-head, but
where its streams were largest and deepest. This was
his judgment in private, and what he had offered as his
advice, and now repeated in the presence of his friends;
that all might know in what manner a war ought to be
carried on against the Romans, who were invincible
abroad, but might be conquered at home. For they
might sooner be driven out of their city than their em¬
pire, and from Italy than their provinces ; having been
taken by the Gauls, and almost subdued by himself.
That he was never defeated till be withdrew out of
their country ; but upon his return to Carthage, the
fortune of the war was changed with the place.” He
seems to intimate by this speech, that the Romans were
like some fierce and impetuous animals, which are no
otherwise to be subdued than by wounding them in
some vital part. In speeches related after this manner,
we are not necessarily to suppose the historian gives us
O R Y. Sect. Ill, tle
the very words in which they were at first delivered, Couiposi- ;i.
but only the sense. But in direct speeches, the person tion of K Cc
himself is introduced as addressing his audience ; and, nir ^
therefore the words as well as the sense are to be suited
to his character. Such is the speech of Eumenes, one
of Alexander’s captains and successors, made to his sol¬
diers when they had traitorously bound him in chains,
in order to deliver him up to his enemy Antigonus, as
we have it in the same writer. “You see, soldiers (says
he), the habits and ornaments of your general, which
have not been put upon me by mine enemies; that
would afford me some comfort: it is by you, that of a
conqueror I am become conquered, and of a general a
captive ; though you have sworn to be faithful to me
four times within the space of a year. Bnt I omit that,
since reflections do not become persons in calamity.
One thing I intreat, that, if Antigonus must have
my life, you would let me die among you. For it no
way concerns him how or where I suffer, and I shall
escape an ignominious death. If you grant me this, I
free you from your oath, with which you have been so
often engaged to me. Or, if shame restrains you from
offering violence to me at my request, give me a sword,
and suffer your general to do that for you without the
obligation of an oath which you have sworn to do for^ ^
your general.” c ^
But this likewise is a matter in which critics have
been divided in their sentiments; whether any, or
what kind of speeches ought to be allowed in history.
Some have thought all speeches should be excluded:
and the reason given for that opinion is this ; that it
breaks the thread of the discourse, and interrupts the
reader, when he is desirous to come to the end of an
action, and know how it issued. This is true, indeed|
when speeches are either very long or too frequent;
but otherwise they are not only entertaining, but liker
wise instructive. For it is of service to know the
springs and reasons of actions; and these are frequently
opened and explained in the speeches of those by whom
they were performed. Others therefore have not been
against all speeches in general, but only direct ones.
And this was the opinion of Trogus Pompeius, as Ju*c, 3.
stin informs us; though he did not think fit to follow
him in that opinion, when he abridged him, as we
have seen already by the speech of King Eumenes.
The reason offered against direct speeches is, because
they are not true; and truth is the foundation of all
history, from which it never ought to depart. Such
speeches, therefore, are said to weaken the credit of
the writer ; since he who will tell us that another
person spoke such things which he does not know
that he ever did speak, and in such language as lie
could not use, may take the same liberty in represent¬
ing his actions. Thus, for example, when Livy gives
us the speeches of Romulus, the Sabine women, Bru¬
tus, and others, in the first ages of the Roman state,
both the things themselves are imaginary, and the
language wholly disagreeable to the times in which
those persons lived. Accordingly we find, that when
several historians relate some particular speech of the
same person, they widely differ both in the subject-
matter and expressions. So the speech of Veturia,
by which she dissuaded her son Coriolanus from be¬
sieging Rome when he came against it with an army
!m-
ir
ed III. HISTORY.
'Cum; i* of Volscians to avenge the injuries he had received, is
tior f very differently related by Livy, Dionysius of Halicar-
,1ft];* nassus, ahd Plutferdn Such hetitious speeches there*
Y;1 fore are judged more fit for poets, who are allowed a
,40, greater liberty to indulge their fancy than historians.
Int, 1 «• And if any direct speeches are to be inserted, they
b- vl should be such only as were really spoken by the per-
n^Co 1. 8ons w^om they are ascribed, where any such have
m, been preserved. These have been the sentiments of
ce "V !. some critics both ancient and modern. However,
irsj t. (|iere ;s scarce an ancient historian now extant, either
"c‘ Greek or Latin, who has not some speeches, more or
less, in his works ; and those not only oblique, but also
direct. They seem to have thought it a necessary or¬
nament to their writings : and even where the true
speeches might be come at, have chosen rather to give
them in their own words j in order, probably, to pre¬
serve an equality in the style. Since therefore the best
and most faithful historians have generally taken this
liberty, we are to distinguish between their accounts of
facts and their speeches. In the former, where nothing
appears to the contrary, we are to suppose they adhere
to truth, according to the best information they could
get; but in the latter, that their view is only to ac¬
quaint us with the causes and springs of actions, which
they choose to do in the form of speeches, as a method
most ornamental to the work, and entertaining to the
reader: Though the best historians are cautious of in¬
serting speeches, but where they are very proper, and
upon some solemn and weighty occasions. Thufcydides
is said to have been the first who brought complete and
finished speeches into history, those of Herodotus be¬
ing but short and imperfect. And though Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, in his censure epon Thucydides, seems
then to have disliked that part of his conduct ; yet he
afterwards thought fit to imitate it in his Antiquities of
Home, where we find many not only oblique, but also
1 direct speeches.
What has been said of speeches, may likewise be Un¬
derstood of letters, which we sometimes meet with in
l1'1®* histories; as that of Alexander to Darius in Quintus
rirau j Curtius, those of Tiberius and Drusus in Tacitus, and
3,ii; 5’ many others. Some letters are wholly fictitious ; and
'•9’ in others perhaps the historian represents the substance
of what was really said, but gives it his own dress.
Thus we find that short letter of Lerttulus to Catiline
at the time of his conspiracy differently related by
CicefO and Sftllust. The reason of which seems to be
this : That as Cicero recited It publicly to the people
of Home in his third oration against Catiline, it is rea¬
sonable to imagine he did it it) the very words of the
letter, which he had by him; whereas Sallust, as an
historian, might think it sufficient to give the sense of
it in his own words.
IV. Digressions. These if rightly managed, afford
the reader both delight and profit. Like speeches, they
should neither be too long nor frequent; lest they in¬
terrupt the course of the history, and divert the reader
from the main design of the work. But now and then
to introduce a beautiful description, or some remarkable
incident, which may give light to the subject; is so far
from an interruption, that it is rather a relief to the
reader, and excites him to go on with greater pleasure
and attention. See further on this bead, Oratory,
N°37.
Art. III. Of Order.
Since most histories consist of an introduction and the
body of the work, in each of which some order is re¬
quisite, we shall discuss them separately.
I. The design of the introduction is the same here as
in orations. For the historian proposes three things by
his introduction, which may be called its parts ; to
give his reader some general view of the subject, to
engage his attention, and to possess him with a candid
opinion of himself and his performance. Some have
thought this last unnecessary for an historian. But if
we consider how differently mankind are apt to judge of
the same persons and actions, it seems as requisite for
an historian to be well esteemed as an orator. And
therefore we find some of the best historians have not
omitted this part. Livy’s introduction has been very
much applauded by the learned, as a masterpiece in
its kind. It begins with an account of his design.
“ Whether (says he) it may answer any valuable end
for me to write the history of the Roman affairs from
the beginning of the city, I neither am certain, nor if
I was should I venture to declare it.” Soon after he
endeavours to prepare the reader’s attention, by repre¬
senting the grandeur and usefulness of the subject in
the following words: “ Either I am prejudiced in fa¬
vour of my subject, or there never was any state great¬
er, more virtuous, and fruitful of good examples, or in
which avarice and luxury had a later admittance, or po¬
verty and thriftiness were either more highly or longer
esteemed, they always coveting less the less they en¬
joyed.” And then he presently proceeds to ingratiate
himself with his readers, and gain their favourable opi¬
nion : “ Although my name is obscure in so great a
number of writers, yet it is a comfort that they cloud
it by their fame and character. But I shall gain this
advantage by my labour, that I shall be diverted for a
time from the prospect of those evils which the age has
seen for so many years ; while my mind is wholly intent
upon former times, free from all that care which gives
the writer an uneasiness, though it cannot bias him
against the truth.” In this passage we see he endea¬
vours to gain the good esteem of his readers from two
very powerful motives, modesty and a strict regard to
truth. It may scarce seem necessary to observe, that
those introductions are esteemed the best which are
most natural ; that is, such as are taken from the sub¬
ject-matter of the history itself, and closely connected
with it. Such are those of Herodotus, Thucydides,
Livy, Tacitus, and others. And therefore Sallust is
greatly blamed by Quintilian on the account of his in¬
troductions, which are so general that they might suit
other histories as well as those to which they are pre¬
fixed. Introductions should likewise be proportioned
to the length of the work. We meet with some few
histories, in which the writers immediately enter upon
their subject, without any introduction ; as Xenophon
in his Expedition of the younger Cyrus, and Caesar in
his Commentaries of the Gallic and Civil Wars. But
the latter does not profess to write a just history ; and
therefore left himself more at liberty, as well in this res¬
pect as in some others.
2. But order is principally to be regarded in the
body of the work. And this may be managed two
ways; either by attending to t>he time in a chronologi¬
cal
543
Composi¬
tion of
History.
> 111... v—
99
Of order.
5
544
Composi¬
tion of
Historv.
HIST
cal series, or the different nature and circumstances
of the things contained in . the history. However, as
these two methods do not equally suit all subjects, we
shall a little consider to what kind of histones eacb ot
them seems more properly adapted. All history then,
as we have observed already, may be reduced to three
sorts •, biography, the history of particular states, and
the general history of several states existing at the same
time. . .
In biography, or the lives of particular persons, most
writers follow the order of time j though some reduce
them to certain general heads, as their virtues and vices,
or their public and private character. Plutarch and
Cornelius Nepos have taken the former method, and
Suetonius the latter. f
As to the history of particular states, the order ot
time is generally best, as being most natural and easy.
And therefore it has usually been observed by the best
historians, as Thucydides, Livy, and others. riaC1'
tus, indeed, wrote two distinct works; one of which
he called Annals, and the other Histories. And as in
both he has kept to the order of time, critics have been
at a loss to assign any other reason lor these different
titles, unless that in the former work he confines him¬
self more closely to the facts themselves, and does not
treat so largely upon the causes, manner, or event of
them, as he has done in the latter. And even in the
circumstances of facts, there is a certain order proper
to be observed, for rendering the account more plain
and intelligible. Thus, for instance, in the descrip¬
tion of a battle or siege, the time should first be known,
then the chief person or persons who conducted it,
then the number of forces, and other requisites, after¬
wards the nature of the place, then the action itself,
and lastly the event. But sometimes it is necessary to
add the time in which several of the other circum¬
stances happened, especially in actions of any consider¬
able length. Where the order of these circumstances
is confused, it perplexes the account, and renders it
both less entertaining to the reader, and more difficult
to remember.
In a general history, the order of time cannot al¬
ways be preserved; though, where the actions of^ dif¬
ferent communities have respect to one as the princi¬
pal, they should all, as far as possible, he referred to
the transactions of that state. But even here the se¬
veral affairs of those different states ought to be rela¬
ted separately, which will necessarily occasion the an¬
ticipating some things, and postponing others, so that
they cannot all stand in the order of time in which
they were performed. However, Velleius Paterculus
says very justly with regard to this subject, “ That
every entire action placed together in one view, is
much better apprehended than if divided by different
trifles.” In this case, therefore, for better preserving
the chronology, it is usual with historians, when they
have finished any particular narrative, in passing to the
next, to express the time by some short and plain
transition ; and sometimes to apologize for themselves,
by assigning the reasons of their conduct. So Poly¬
bius, whose history is of this kind, says concerning
himself: “ As in writing the actions of each year, in
the order of time, I endeavour to represent the affairs
of the same nation together in one summary view, it
is plain that inconvenience must of course attend this
3
O R Y. Sect. II
way of writing.” Curtins professes only to write the Composi
actions of Alexander king of Macedon ; but his history nan of
contains in it the principal affairs of the greatest states ,11
in the world during that period. Now although, in
the course of those transactions, the war between Ar-
chelaus governor ol Macedonia, and Agis king of
Sparta, happened before the battle of Alexander at
Arbela ; yet the historian not only relates that battle
first, but carries on the account of Alexander s aflairs
in Asia to the death of Darius without interruption;
for which he gives this reason: “ If I should relate Lib. v.
the affairs of Alexander, which happened in the meanM,,<-
time, either in Greece or Illyricum anti Thrace, each
in their proper order and time, I must interrupt the
affairs of Asia ; which it is much better to represent
together in one continued series as they fell out, to
the flight and death of Darius.” Such anachronisms,
therefore, are nothing more than what necessarily arise
sometimes from the nature of the subject: As every
thing, the more complex it is, and contains under it a
great number of parts, is more difficult to be digested
in a regular order. But in a history composed of se¬
veral states, whose affairs are independent of one an¬
other, the actions of each nation must necessarily be
separated, in order to represent bhem in a just view,
and prevent confusion. This is the method which
Herodotus has taken, as likewise Diodorus Siculus
and Justin. Now both the pleasure and benefit which
such histories afford, arise from observing the conduct
of each state separately in the course of their affairs,
and then comparing one with the other. And as the
order of time must frequently be interrupted, it is not
unusual to continue the chronology at proper distances
in relating the affairs of each nation; which preserves
an unity in the whole, and connects it in one consistent
body. . ,
The division of histories into books was designed
only for the better distinction of the subject and ease
of the reader. And the dividing these hooks again
into chapters, is rather a practice of latter editors
(founded, as they have thought, on the same rea¬
sons), thaa countenanced by the example of ancient
writers.
Art. IV. Of Style.
p
An historical style is said to be of a middle nature, stjk
between that of a poet and an orator, differing from
both not only in the ornamental parts, but likewise m
the common idioms and forms of expression.
Cicero observes, that i(, nothing is more agreeable inj)^ cte
history than brevity of expression, joined with puntyOrflt c 3
and perspicuity.” Purity indeed is not peculiar to his¬
tory, but yet it is absolutely necessary; ffir no one will
ever think him fit to write a history who is not master
of the language in which he writes: and there¬
fore when Albinus had written a history of the Roman
affairs in Greek, and apologised for any slips or impro¬
prieties that might be found in the language upon the
account of his being a Roman, Cato called him a triner,
for choosing to do that which, after he had done it, he
was obliged to ask pardon for doing. Nor is perspi-fr: c
cuity less requisite in an historical style. Hie nature o
the "subject plainly directs to this. For as history con¬
sists principally in narration, clearness and perspicuity
are nowhere more necessary than in a relation of iacts.
j
li
1 1
i c
Sec in.
^lSj. But these two properties are to be accompanied with
liJjf brevity, since nothing is more disagreeable than a long
Hi hr- and tedious narrative. And in this respect an histori*
cal style differs both from that of poetry and oratory.
For the poet frequently heightens and enlarges his de¬
scriptions of facts, by dwelling upon every circumstance,
placing it in different views, and embellishing it with
the finest ornaments of wit and language, to render his
images more agreeable 5 and the orator often does the
like, with a design to strike the passions. But such co¬
louring is not the business of an historian, who aims at
nothing more than a just and faithful representation of
what he relates, in a way best suited to its nature, and
in such language as is most proper to set it in a plain
and easy light.
'*■ Again, Cicero, treating of an historical style, says:
llli' “ It ought to be fluent, smooth, and even, free from
^ ’ that harshness and poignancy which is usual at the
bar.” The properties here mentioned distinguish this
style from that of judicial discourses, in which the ora¬
tor often finds it necessary to vary his manner of speak¬
ing, in order to answer different views, either of pursu¬
ing an argument, pressing an adversary, addressing a
judge, or recommending the merits of his cause. This
occasions an inequality in his style, while he speaks
sometimes directly, at other times by way of question,
and intermixes short and concise expressions with round
and flowing periods. But the historian has no necessi¬
ty for such variations in his style. It is his province
to espouse no party, to have neither friend nor foe, but
to appear wholly disinterested and indifferent to all j
and therefore his language should be smooth and equal
iu his relations of persons and their actions.
^ ^ But further: Dionysius makes “ decency a princi-
u pal virtue in an historian j” which he explains by say¬
ing, that “ he ought to preserve the characters of the
persons and dignity of the actions of which he treats.”
And to do this it seems necessary that an historical
stvle should be animated with a good degree of life and
vigour j without which neither the characters of emi¬
nent persons, nor their remarkable actions, which make
up the main business of history, can be duly represent¬
ed : for even things in themselves great and excellent,
if related in a cold and lifeless manner, often do not
affect us iu a degree suitable to their dignity and im¬
portance. Aud this seems particularly necessary in
speeches, in order to represent what every one says, ac¬
cording to his different country, age, temper, and sta¬
tion of life, in the same manner we may suppose he
either really did, or would have spoken himself on that
occasion. Besides there are some scenes of action which
require very pathetic and moving language to repre¬
sent them agreeably to their nature. And in descrip¬
tions, the most beautiful tropes and lively figures are
often necessary to set the ideas of things in a proper
light. From whence it appears, that painting and ima¬
gery make up no small part of the historian’s province,
though his colours are not so strong and glittering as
those either of the poet or orator. He ought therefore
to be well acquainted with the manners of men and the
nature of the passions, since he is often obliged to de¬
scribe both; in the former of which Herodotus ex¬
cels, and Thucydides in the latter, as Dionysius has ob¬
served.
Vol. X. Part II. f
545
Now from these several properties laid down by an- Composi-
cient writers, as requisite for an historical style, it seems tion of
upon the whole to agree best with the middle charac-. Bi!8t0|y-
ter. And this will further appear, by what they say v
relating to the ornamental parts of style ; namely, com¬
position and dignity. As to the former of these, which
respects the structure of sentences, and the several parts
of them, Demetrius remarks, that “ An historical pe¬
riod ought neither to rise very high, nor sink very low,
but to preserve a medium.” This simplicity (he says)
“ becomes the gravity and credit of history j and dis¬
tinguishes it from oratory on the one hand, and dia¬
logue on the other.” His meaning is, that historical
periods should neither be so full and sonorous as is fre¬
quent in oratory : nor yet so short and flat as in dia¬
logue : the former of which, as he says, require a strong
voice to pronounce them} and the latter have scarce
the appearance of periods. So that, according to this
judicious writer, the periods best suited for history are
those which, being of a moderate length, will admit of
a just rise and cadency, and may he pronounced with
ease. And Dionysius tells us, that “ History should
flow smooth and even, everywhere consistent with itself,
without roughness or chasms in the sound.” This re¬
lates to the harmony of periods, which arises from such
a position of the words as renders the sound pleasant
and agreeable, and as he thinks ought to be attended
to in history. And as to dignity, which respects the
use of tropes and figures, the same author says, that
“ History should be embellished with such figures as
are neither vehement nor carry in them the appearance
of art.” This is agreeable to what Cicero observes, in
comparing Xenophon and Calisthenes, two Greek his¬
torians. “ Xenophon the Socratic (says he) was the
first philosopher, and after him Calisthenes the scholar
of Aristotle, who wrote an history: the latter almost
like a rhetorician : but the style of the former is more
moderate, and has not the force of an orator, less vehe¬
ment perhaps, but in my opinion more sweet and plea¬
sant.” The difference between these two writers, with j)c Orat,
regard to their style, consisted chiefly in the choice ofbb. ii.
their figures : which in Xenophon were more gentlec‘ I4*
and moderate, and therefore in the judgment of Cicero
more agreeable to history. Now these several proper¬
ties relating to the ornaments of language, as well as
those before mentioned, which by ancient writers have
been thought requisite for history, are all suited to the
middle style, as we have elsewhere shown at large. See
Oratory, N° 99—121.
But notwithstanding this general account of the se¬
veral properties which constitute an historical style, it
admits of considerable varieties from the difl’erent na¬
ture and dignity of the subject. The lives of particu¬
lar persons do not require that strength and majesty of
expression, nor all those ornaments of language, as
an history of the Koman empire. And accordingly
we find the style of Nepos and Suetonius very differ¬
ent from that of Livy. The former is smooth and
easy, scarce rising above the low character; but the
latter often approaches near to the sublime. And
other historians again have kept a medium between
these. Upon the whole, therefore, we may conclude,,
that the middle style is the proper character for his¬
tory ; though historians may sometimes sink into the
3 Z low
HISTORY.
54°
HISTORY.
Composi- low character, and at other times rise to the gran-
tion of deur and magnificence of the sublime, from the dif-
History, ferent nature of their subject, or some particular parts
* of it. For that is to be esteemed the proper charac¬
ter of any writing which in the general best suits it.
And this distinction may help us in some measure to
History
1!
Hi the.
HIT
See Na-
IhsTOiiY of Nature, or Natural History.
tdral History.
HISTRIO, in the ancient drama, signified an ac¬
tor or comedian ; but more especially a pantomime, who
exhibited his'part by gestures and dancing. Livy in¬
forms us that the histriones were brought to Home
from Etruria, in the year of the city 39x> (Dec. i.
lib. 7.).
HfSTRIX. See Hystrix.
HITCHING, a large and populous town of Hart-
fordshire in England, situated near a large wood called
Hitchwood. The manor was the ancient demesne of
the kings of England, as it continues at this day ) and
it has been the dower of several of their queens. The
town is reckoned the second in the county for number
of streets, houses, and inhabitants. It was formerly
famous for the staple commodities of the kingdom, and
divers merchants of the staple of Calais resided here,
since which that trade is lost. The inhabitants now
make large quantities of malt ; and the market is one
of the greatest in England for wheat. Population 3608.
W. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 51. 58.
HIT HE, or Hythe, a town of Kent in England,
70 miles from London. It is one of the cinque ports 5
and had formerly five parishes, but by the choking up of
its harbour and other accidents is now reduced to one.
In the reign of Henry IV. numbers of its inhabitants
were cut off’ by a pestilence, 200 of their houses con¬
sumed by fire, and five of their ships sunk at sea, with
the loss of 100 men 5 so that the people were going to
abandon the town, had not the king by his charter
generously released to them, for five turns next follow¬
ing, their service of five ships of 100 men and five
horse, which they were to have furnished out and kept
at their own charge in the king’s wars for 15 days.
It was first incorporated by the name of barons of the
town and port of Hith ; but the government was after¬
wards changed. It was incorporated by Queen Eliza¬
beth with the name of the mayor, jurats, and common¬
alty of the town and port of Hith, who with the free¬
men elect the members of parliament. The mayor is
chosen yearly on Candlemas-day. Here is a market
on Saturdays, and fairs in July and December. From
hence to Canterbury is a paved Roman military way,
called Stoney Street; and at a little, distance from hence
are the remains of the walls of a castle, which included
10 acres. There is a remarkable pile of dry bones in
the town, 28 feet long, 6 broad, and 8 high ; they are
kept in a vault under the church in as good order as
books in a library, consisting of several thousand heads,
arms, legs, thigh-bones, &c. some very gigantic, and
appear by an inscription to be the remains of the Danes
and Britons killed in a battle near this place, before
Sect. I]
reconcile the sentiments of writers upon this head, tompoi,,
who seem to attribute different characters to an histo- bon 0
rical style, or at least to judge where the truth lies j, ^lst0^
since a variety of style is not only requisite in different ^
subjects, but likewise in different parts of the same
work.
H O A
the Norman conquest. From hence to Boulogne is ^ji,c
reckoned the shortest cut to France. Population 2318 jpJjJ
in 18 r 1. E. Long. 1. 10. N. Lat. 51. 8. w-y-.
HITTITES, the descendants of Heth. See HetH.
HIVE, in country affairs, a convenient receptacle
for bees. See Apis and Bee.
HIVITES, a people descended from Canaan. They
dwelt at first in the country which was afterwards pos¬
sessed by the Caphtorims, or Philistines. There were
Hivites likewise at Shechem and Gibeon, and conse¬
quently in the centre of the promised land } lor the
inhabitants of Shechem and the Gibeonites were Hi¬
vites, (Joshua xi. 19. Genesis xxxiv. 2.). Lastly, there
were some beyond Jordan, at the foot of Mount Her-
mon (Joshua xi. 3.). Bochart is of opinion, that Cad¬
mus, who carried a colony of Phoenicians into Greece,
was an Hivite. His name, Cadmus, comes from the
Hebrew Keden, “ the east,” because he was of the east¬
ern part of the land of Canaan. The name of his wife
Hermione, comes from Mount Hermon, at the loot
whereof the Hivites had their dwelling. The meta¬
morphosis of Cadmus’s companions into serpents is
grounded on the signification of the name Hivitcs,
which in Phoenician signifies “ serpents.”
HO ACHE, in Natural History, a kind of earth
approaching to the nature of chalk, but harder, and
feeling like soap ; whence some think that it is either
the same with the soap-rock of Cornwall, or very like
it. The Chinese mix it with water till the liquor is of
the consistence of cream, and then varnish their china-
ware with it.
HOADLEY, Benjamin, successively bishop of
Bangor, Hereford, Salisbury, and Winchester, was
born in 1676. His first preferment in the church was
the rectory of St Peter le Poor, and the lectureship of
St Mildred’s in the Poultry. In the year 1706, he
published some Remarks on the late Bishop Atterbury’s
sermon at the funeral of Mr Bennet, in which Dr At-
terbury had, in the opinion of Mr Hoadley, laid down
some dangerous propositions. Two years after, Mr
Hoadley again entered the lists against this formi¬
dable antagonist j and in his exceptions against a ser¬
mon published by Dr Atterbury, intitled “ The Power
of Charity to Cover Sin,” he attacked the doctor with
his usual strength of reasoning and dispassionate in¬
quiry. In 1709, another dispute arose between these
two learned combatants, concerning the doctrine ot
non-resistance, occasioned by a performance of Mr
Hoadley’s, intitled “ The Measures of Obedience ;
some positions in which Dr Atterbury endeavoum
to confute in his elegant Latin sermon preached that
year before the London clergy. In this debate 1 1
Hoadley signalized himself in so eminent a degree,
J ^ that
/K*irycT2tfat/ti \fct*£p •
/'// ^ '/r/sr/w \ frry't/'nvf . ^J^-. ct/tS^/era/'&y/t/pc/tytA'y m ///s ^///tz / v / s>//// z^ (^z/z/t/zz z'y/i .
.{
H O A [ 547 ] HOB
Ei Hey. that the honourable house of commons gave him a
^ 'mmmJ particular mark of their regard, by representing,
in an address to the queen, the signal services he
had done to the cause of civil and religious liberty.—
The principles, however, which he espoused being re¬
pugnant to the general temper of those times, drew
on him the virulence of a party ; yet it was at this
period (1710, when, as he himself expressed it, fuj'ij
seemed to be let loose upon hini) that the late Mrs How¬
land presented him to the rectory of Streatham in Sur¬
ry, unasked, unapplied to, and without his either ha¬
ving seen her or been seen by her. Soon after the ac¬
cession of King George I. MrHoadley was consecrated
to the see of Bangor} and, 1717, having broached
some opinions concerning the nature of Christ’s king¬
dom, &c. he again became the object of popular cla¬
mour. At this juncture he was distinguished by an¬
other particular mark of the royal regard, by means
of which the convocation was successively prorogued,
and it was not permitted to sit, or do any business,
till that resentment was entirely subsided. In 1721
he was translated to Hereford ; and from thence, in
1723, to Salisbury. In 1734, he was translated to
Winchester (on the demise of Dr Willis), and pub¬
lished his Plain Account of the Sacrament: a perform¬
ance which served as a butt for his adversaries to shoot
at; yet impartiality owns it to be clear, rational, and
manly, written with great candour and judgment, and
suited to the capacity of every serious and considerate
inquirer after truth.—His latter days were embittered
- by a most vile instance of fraud and ingratitude. The
bishop took a French priest, who pretended to abjure
his religion, under his protection, with no other re¬
commendation than that of his necessities; in return for
which act of humanity, the priest found an opportunity
of getting the bishop’s name written by his own hand,
and, causing a note of some thousand pounds to be placed
before it, offered it in payment. But the bishop deny¬
ing it to be his, it was brought before a court of justice,
and was there found to be a gross imposition. The un¬
grateful villain had now recourse to a pamphlet, in
which he charged the bishop with being a drunkard ;
and alleged that he had the note of him when he was
in liquor. To this calumny the bishop made a full
and nervous answer; in which he exposed the man’s
falsehood, and solemnly averred that he was never
drunk in his whole life. The world with becoming
ardour embraced bis defence, and he had the happi¬
ness to find himself perfectly acquitted even of any
suspicion of such a charge. As a writer, he possessed
uncommon abilities. His sermons (published in 1754
and 1755) are esteemed inferior to few writings in the
English language, for plainness and perspicuity, ener¬
gy and strength of reasoning, and a free and masterly
manner. In private life, he was naturally facetious,
easy, and complying ; fond of company, yet would
frequently leave it for the purposes of study or devo¬
tion. He was everywhere happy ; and particularly
in his own family, where he took all opportunities of
instructing by his influence and example. He died in
1761, aged 83. Besides the works already mentioned,
he wrote, 1. Terms of Acceptance, 8vo. 2. Reason¬
ableness of Conformity. 3. On the Sacrament. His
tracts and pamphlets are extremely numerous : and
the reader may see a complete catalogue of them in
his life inserted in the supplement to the Biographia Hoadley
Bri tannica. |]
HoADLEt, Benjamin, M. D. son of the former, was tlobbcs'.
born in 1706; and studied at Bennet college, Cam-
bridge, under the tuition of Dr Herring, afterwards
archbishop of Canterbury. He took his degree in phy¬
sic ; and particularly applying himself to mathematical
and philosophical studies, was, when very young, ad¬
mitted a member of the royal society. He was made
register of Hereford while his father filled that see, and
was early appointed physician to his majesty’s house¬
hold, but died at his house in Chelsea in 1757. He
wrote, I. Three letters on the organs of respiration, 410.
2. The Suspicious Husband, a comedy. * 3. Observa¬
tions on a series of electrical experiments; and, 4. Ora-
tio anniversaria, in Theatro Col. Med. Londin. ex Ilar-
vei instituto habita die Octob. 1742.
HOAI-ngan-fou, a city of China, in the province
of Hiang-nan. According to Grosier, it is situated in
a marsh, and is enclosed by a triple wall. As the ground
on which it stands is lower than the bed of the canal,
the inhabitants live in continual dread of an inundation.
The suburbs extend to the distance of a league on each
side of the canal, and form at their extremity a kind of
port on the river Hoang-ho. This place is very po¬
pulous, and every thing in it announces an active and
brisk trade. One of those great mandarins who have
the inspection of the canals and navigation, and who
are also obliged to supply the court with necessary pro¬
visions, resides here. This city has eleven others under
its jurisdiction; two of which are of the second, and
nine of the third class.
HOAR-hound. See Marrubium, Botany In¬
dex.
HOARSENESS, in Medicine, a diminution of tlie
voice, commonly attended with a preternatural asperity
and roughness thereof. The parts affected are the
aspera arteria and larynx. For its causes and cure, see
Medicine Index.
HOBAL, in Mythology, an idol of the ancient
Arabs, the worship of which at Mecca was destroyed
by Mahomet.
HOBBES, Thomas, a political writer, was born at
Malmsbury in 1588. He was the son of a clergyman ;
and having completed his studies at Oxford, he was af¬
terwards governor to the eldest son of William Caven¬
dish earl of Devonshire. He travelled through France
and Italy with that young nobleman, and at length ap¬
plied himself entirely to "the study of polite literature.
Fie translated Thucydides into English ; and published
his translation in 1628, in order to show his countrv-
men, from the Athenian history, the disorders and
confusions ol a democratical government. In 1626 his
patron the earl of Devonshire died ; and in 1628 his
son died also ; which, loss allected Air Hobbes to such
a degree, that he very willingly accepted an offer made
him of going abroad a second time with the son of Sir
Gervase Clifton ; whom he accordingly accompanied
into I ranee, and staid tiiere some time. But while
he continued there, he was solicited to return to Eng¬
land, and to resume his concern for the hopes of that
family to whom he had attached himself so early, and
to which he owed so many and so great obligations.
In 1631, the countess dowager of Devonshire desired
to put the young earl under his care, who was then
3 ^ 2 about
HOB
[ 548 3
HOB
Hobbes, about the age of 13. This was very suitable to Mr
-v-— Hobbes’s inclinations, who discharged that trust with
great fidelity and diligence. In 1634, he republished
his translation of Thucydides, and prefixed to it a de¬
dication to tiiat young nobleman, in which he gives a
great character of his father, and represents in the
strongest terms the obligations he was under to that
illustrious family. The same year he accompanied his
noble pupil to Paris, where he applied his vacant hours
to the study of natural philosophy, and more especially
to the perfect understanding of mechanism, and the
causes of animal motion. He had frequent conversa¬
tions upon these subjects with Father Marin Mersenne $
a man deservedly famous, and who kept up a corre¬
spondence with almost all the learned in Europe. From
Paris he attended his pupil into Italy, where at Pisa he
became known to that great astronomer Galileo Gali¬
lei, who communicated to him his notions very freely $
and after having seen all that was remarkable in that
country, he returned with the earl of Devonshire into
England. Afterwards, foreseeing the civil wars, he
went to seek a retreat at Paris ; where, by the good
offices of his friend Father Mersenne, he became known
to the famous Renatus des Cartes, and afterwards held
a correspondence with him upon several mathematical
subjects, as appears from the letters of Mr Hobbes pub¬
lished in the works of Des Cartes. But when this
philosopher printed afterwards his Meditations, where¬
in he attempted to establish points of the highest conse¬
quence from innate ideas, Mr Hobbes took the liberty
of dissenting from him; as did also the French king’s
mathematical professor, the illustrious Peter Gassendi,
with whom Mr Hobbes contracted a very close friend¬
ship, which was not interrupted till the death of the
former. In 1642, Mr Hobbes printed a few copies
of his famous hook De Give, which, in proportion as
it became known, raised him many adversaries, who
charged him with instilling principles which had a
dangerous tendency. Among many illustrious persons
who, upon shipwreck of the royal cause, retired to
France for safety, was Sir Charles Cavendish, brother
to the duke of Newcastle ; and this gentleman, being
skilled in every branch of the mathematics, proved a
constant friend and patron to Mr Hobbes $ who, by
embarking in 1645 in a controversy about squaring the
circle, was grown so famous for it, that in 1647
was recommended to instruct Charles prince of Wales,
afterwards King Charles II. in mathematical learning.
His care in the discharge of this office gained him the
esteem of that prince in a very high degree : and though
lie afterwards withdrew his public favour to Mr Hobbes
on account of his writings, yet he always retained
a sense of the services he had done him 51 showed him
various marks of his favour after he was restored to his
dominions \ and, as some say, had his picture hanging
in his closet. This year also was printed in Holland,
by the care of M. Sorbiere, a second and more com¬
plete edition of his book De CzW; to which are pre¬
fixed two Latin letters to the editor, the one by Mr
Gassendi, the other by Father Mersenne, in commen¬
dation of it: and in 1650 was published at London a
small treatise of Mr Hobbes’s, entitled Human Nature ;
and another He corpore politico, or “ Of the elements
qf the law.”
AU this time Mr Hobbes had been digesting with
great care and pains his religious, political, and moral
principles, into a complete system, which he called the ^
Leviathan, and which was printed in English at Lou¬
don in 1650 and 1651. After the publication of his
Leviathan he returned to England, and passed the sum¬
mer commonly at his patron the earl of Devonshire’s
seat in Derbyshire, and some of his winters in town,
where he had for his intimate friends some of the great¬
est men of the age. In 1660, upon the Restoration, he
quitted the country, and came up to London, where
he obtained from the king assurance of protection, and
had an annual pension of look settled upon him out
of the privy purse. Yet this did not render him en¬
tirely safe : for, in 1666, his Leviathan and his trea¬
tise He Give were censured by parliament j which
alarmed him very much, as did also the bringing in of
a bill into the house of commons to punish atheism and
profaneness. When this storm was a little blown over,,
he began to think of procuring a beautiful edition of
his pieces that were in Latin $ but finding this im¬
practicable in England, be caused it to be undertaken
abroad, where they were published in quarto in 1668,
from the press of John Bleau. In 1669, he was vi¬
sited by Cosmo de Medicis, then prince, afterwards
duke of Tuscany, who gave him ample marks of his
esteem and respect; and having received his picture,
and a complete collection of his writings, caused them
to be reposited, the former among his curiosities, the
latter in his noble library at Florence. The like visits
he received from foreign ambassadors and other strangers
of distinction j who were curious to see a person whose
singular opinions and numerous writings had made so
much noise all over Europe. In 1672, he wrote his
own life in Latin verse, when, as he observes, he had
completed his 84th year: and, in 1674, he published
in English verse four books of Homer’s Odyssey; which
was so well received, that it encouraged him to under¬
take the whole Iliad and Odyssey, which he likewise
performed and published in 1675. About this time
he took his leave of London, and went to spend the
remainder of his days in Derbyshire : where, however,
he did not remain inactive, notwithstanding his ad¬
vanced age ; hut published from time to time several
pieces, to be found in the collection of his works. He
died in 1679, aSe^ 92,
As to his character and manners, they are thus de¬
scribed by Dr White Kennet, in his Memoirs of the
Cavendish family. “ The earl of Devonshire (says
he) for his whole life entertained Mr Hobbes in his
family, as his old tutor rather than as his friend or
confidant. He let him live under his rool in ease and
plenty, and in his own way, without making use of him
in any public, or so much as domestic affairs. He
would frequently put off the mention of his name, and
say, ‘ He was a humorist, and nobody could account
for him.’ There is a tradition in the family, of the
manners and customs of Mr Hobbes, somewhat obser¬
vable. His professed rule of health was to dedicate
the morning to his exercise, and the afternoon to his
studies. And therefore, at his first rising, he walked
out, and climbed any hill within his reach $ or if the
weather was not dry, he fatigued himself within doors
by some exercise or other, to be in a sweat: recom¬
mending that practice upon this opinion, that an old
man had more moisture than heat, and therefore by
such
IJoi.hr
HOB [ 549 3 HOC
] jbes, such motion heat was to be acquired and moisture ex-
bby. pelted. Alter this, he took a comfortable breakfast $
’ ’ ' and then went round the lodgings to wait upon the
earl, the countess, and the children, and any consider¬
able strangers, paying some short addresses to all of
them. He kept these rounds till about 12 o’clock,
when he had a little dinner provided for him, which
he ate always by himself without ceremony. Soon af¬
ter dinner he retired to his study, and had his candle
with 10 or 12 pipes of tobacco laid by him ; then shut¬
ting his door, he fell to smoking, thinking, and wri¬
ting for several hours. He retained a friend or two at
court, and especially the lord Arlington, to protect
him if occasion should require. He used to say, that
it was lawful to make use of ill instruments to do our¬
selves good : * If I were cast (says he) into a deep pit,
and the devil should put down his cloven foot, I would
take hold of it to be drawn out by it.’ After the Re¬
storation, he watched all opportunities to ingratiate
himself with the king and his prime ministers; and look¬
ed upon his pension to be more valuable, as an earnest
of favour and protection, than upon any other account.
H is future course of life was to be free from dan¬
ger. He could not endure to be left in an empty
house. Whenever the earl removed, he would go along
with him, even to his last stage, from Chatsworth to
Hardwick. When he was in a very weak condition,
he dared not to be left behind, but made his way upon
a feather-bed in a coach, though he survived the jour¬
ney but a few days. He could not bear any discourse of
death, and seemed to cast off all thoughts of it. He
delighted to reckon upon longer life. The winter be¬
fore he died, he made a warm coat, which he said must
last him three years, and then he would have such ano¬
ther. In his last sickness his frequent questions were,
Whether his disease was curable ? and when intimations
Were given, that he might have ease, but no remedy,
he used this expression, ‘ I shall be glad to find a hole
to creep out of the world at j’ which are reported to
have been his last sensible words; and his lying some
days following in a silent stupefaction, did seem owing
to his mind more than to his body.
The reverend Mr Granger observes, that Hobbes’s
style is incomparably better than that of any other wri¬
ter in the reign of Charles I. and was for its uncom¬
mon strength and purity scarcely equalled in the suc¬
ceeding reign. “ He has in translation (says he)
done Thucydides as much justice as he has done injury
to Homer j but he looked upon himself as born for
much greater things than treading in the steps of his
predecessors. He was for striking out new paths in
science, government, and religion j and for removing
the land-marks of former ages. His ethics have a
strong tendency to corrupt our morals, and his politics
to destroy that liberty which is the birthright of every
human creature. He is commonly represented as a
sceptic in religion, and a dogmatist in philosophy j but
ne was a dogmatist in both. The main principles of
his Leviathan are as little founded in moral or evan¬
gelical truths, as the rules he has laid down for squa¬
ring the circle are in mathematical demonstration. His
book on human nature is esteemed the best of his
works.”
HOBBY, the name of a hawk called by some au¬
thors subbutco. See Falco, Ornithology Index.
It is a hawk of the lure, and not of the fist; and is Hobby
very’ like the saker, only much less. It makes excel- S!
lent sport with net and spaniels j for when the birds. Huchc’
see the hobby, they dare not commit themselves to
the wing, but lie close to the ground, and so are ta¬
ken in nets.
Hobby is also a name formerly given to strong ac¬
tive horses of a middling size : they are reported to
have been originally natives of Ireland, and were much
liked and used. Nags answer the same description as
to size, qualities, and employments.
HOBGOBLIN, is a name vulgarly applied to fai¬
ries or apparitions. Skinner calls the word robgoblins,
and derives it from Robin Goodfellow, Hob being the
nick-name of Robin : but Wallis and Junius, with
greater probability, derive it from hopgoblins, empnsa:,
because they are supposed to bop without moving both
their feet.
HOBLERS, or HoBlLERS, Hobelarii, in our an¬
cient customs, were men who, by their tenure, were
obliged to maintain a light horse or hobby, for the cer-
tifying any invasion towards the sea-side.—The name
was also used for certain Irish knights, who used to
serve as light horsemen upon hobbies.
HOB-NAIL, a nail with a thick strong head, used
in shoeing a hobby or little horse.
HOB-NOB, or Hab-nab, a cant word formed from
hap ne hap, and denoting an event which happens at
random or by mere chance.
HOBOO, a name given by the people of Otabeite,
and in the neighbouring islands of the South sea, to
their superfine cloth. It is the thinnest and most fi¬
nished preparation of the aouta.
HOBSHEE COFFREES, a kind of Abyssinian slaves
very frequent in the empire of Hindostan. They
come mostly from a province subject to the Negus of
Ethiopia, called Innariah, to the south of his othet
dominions, and bordering upon Negroland in Africa j
from whence they are selected, and a great traffic
made of them over all Mogolistan and Persia ; hut it is
chiefly from the ports of Arabia and the Red sea that
they are brought. Nothing can be imagined more
smooth and glossy, and perfectly black, than their skin j
in which they far surpass the negroes on the coast of
Guinea j and, generally speaking, have not any thing
of their thick lips, though otherwise as woolly haired
as they. They are highly valued for their courage,
fidelity, and shrewdness ; in which they so sar excel, as
often to rise to posts of great honour, and are made
governors of places under the title Siddees.
PIOBSON’s choice, a vulgar proverbial expression,
applied to that kind of choice in which there is no al¬
ternative. It is said to be derived from the name of a
carrier at Cambridge, who let out hackney horses, and
obliged each customer to take in his turn that horse
which stood nex’t the stable door.
HOCHE, Lazarus, a republican French general.
This extraordinary man, and particular favourite of
fortune, was born on the 24th of June 1768, at the
village of Montreuil, in the suburbs of Versailles. His
father, in the early part of his life, had been a soldier ;
but acted afterwards in the capacity of a menial ser¬
vant, and was appointed to feed the hounds of Louis
XV. His mother died soon after the birth of young
Hoche, by which he was left in a great measure desti-
tute, ,
HOC [ 550 ] HO C
ITodie- tute’ aSe^ fat!ier (t5ien about 72) ^eing unable to
 r-^ contribute to his support. By the humanity of an
aunt, however, who kept a green stall at Versailles,
he was rescued from absolute beggary. She sent him
to a small school, where he acquired a tolerable know¬
ledge of reading and writing, shewing himself at once
the" best and most mischievous scholar in the whole
school. He was made a chorister by the rector of St
tiermain-en-Laye, because he found him to be a boy
of a very lively disposition. He very soon discovered
an insatiable thirst for information upon every subject,
asking questions at those who were much older than
himself, and listening with the utmost attention to the
answers they returned. The ingenuity of his remarks
and inquiries was often perplexing to others ; hut as
he gradually approached towards manhood, a very re¬
markable change took place, both in his manners and
disposition. His loquacity was succeeded by a musing,
contemplative turn, and he proved by the importance
of his conversation, that he had not meditated in
vain.
Finding that his wants grew more numerous than
could be supplied by the industry of his aunt, he form¬
ed the commendable resolution of earning his own sub¬
sistence, and accordingly became a sort of assistant in
the royal stables of Versailles. His ardent character,
however, soon found this situation by far too degrading $
he already viewed it with abhorrence 5 and having ac¬
cidentally met with some part of the works of Rousseau,
a spirit of independence instantly seized upon him. Ap¬
prehending that he might better his situation by going
abroad, to which he was strongly urged by a rascal who
made a prey of him, even offered him money to enable
him to prosecute the undertaking, and then gave him
to understand that he was now a soldier in the French
guards. Hoche, finding it wholly unavailing to remon¬
strate, was sent at the age of 16 to join his regiment,
which was then quartered at Paris. Here he found
himself possessed of no more than I25livres (about 5I.
sterling), the united result of his own economy, and
the bounty he received on entering the army. Even
out of this small sum he was obliged to treat his fellow
soldiers with a breakfast, which exhausted his whole
stock. A military life, however, soon appeared to be
exactly suited to his disposition, so that he surpassed all
the other recruits in the rapidity with which he learned
the manual exercise ; and in a single month was fit for
the veteran ranks.
His limbs were admirably proportioned, his dress was
always neat, and his conduct so regular, that he was
made a grenadier at the request of the company. He
now felt the circumscribed nature of his education, of
which he was ashamed, and he determined to achieve
that by his own exertions which the penury of his rela¬
tions prevented them from accomplishing. He saw the
necessity of a command of books, and as his pay was
inadequate to the purchase of these, he determined to
make up the deficiency by manual labour, with no
species of which was he ever disgusted, while it put the
means of intellectual improvement within his reach. He
rose at the dawn of day, either to draw water, or trench
ground for the gardeners in the vicinity of Paris ; and
at night he embroidered vests and caps.
The fruits of his industry were, at the end of the
week, divided into three parts j the first was given to
the substitute who mounted guard for him *, the second Hoduv
was devoted to the incidental expences of a convivial v*nr-
hour with his companions ; and the third defrayed tire
expences of the books which he borrowed. He now
turned his whole attention to the attainment of a better
knowledge of his own profession, and even ventured to
point out the radical defects of the prevailing system of
military tactics, and reprobated some of the regulations
which obtained in the army. In spite, however, of the
general gravity of his deportment, he was no enemy to
occasional conviviality. Having once understood that
a companion had been murdered during a quarrel in tire
vicinity of the metropolis, he determined not to sleep
till he had taken vengeance on the assassin. Marching
forth at the head of a body of his companions, to the
house where the deed was perpetrated, he demolished
all the windows, and destroyed the furniture ; but for
this he was sentenced to three months confinement in
the black hole. At the expiration of this period he ex¬
hibited a spectacle truly deserving of commiseration, be¬
ing destitute of linen, clothes and shoes, his face pale
and disfigured, and in this condition he arrived at the
barracks, where he was received by his companions
with every demonstration of joy. He soon after fought
a duel with a tyrannical corporal, of whom the whole
regiment was afraid except the gallant Hoche. The
latter fell, and Hoche received a deep cut in his fore¬
head, which added greatly to his martial appearance.
Soon after this period appeared the celebrated pam¬
phlet of Sieyes respecting the Third Estate, and almost
every Frenchman was ready to prove that he belonged
to it. The guards, it is well known, took a decided
part with the people 5 and on the 14th of July 1789?
Hoche, at the head of his companions, was among the
first who seized on the Bastile. The guards were
formed into the I02d, 103d, and 104th regiments, into
the last of which Hoche was admitted with the rank
of second adjutant, when he had an opportunity of ma¬
nifesting his talents in a different channel. Improper
hands having obtained the administration of the military
hospital of the French guards, he minutely investigated
the state of the accounts, which had been veiled with
ambiguity for the purpose of deceiving. He amended
the discipline of the army, and his active talents did
not pass unrewarded. While the regiment was reviewed
in the Elysian fields, Servan, the minister at war, was
so delighted with the platoons of Hoche’s company, that
he enquired who the young man was by whom it was
conducted, and he bestowed on him some flattering com¬
pliments, and in four days after sent him the brevet of
lieutenant in the regiment of Ronergue. Pie left Paris
on the 24th of June 1792, in order to join his regi¬
ment, then in garrison at Thionville. General Leve-
neur, who held the command in the absence of Va¬
lence, sent LieutenantPIoche with aregiment of hussars,
to procure provisions for the troops which Miranda had
ordered to lav siege to Maestricht. This he executed
with universal applause •, and when the army of the
Ardennes was ordered to recross the Meuse, Hoebe
succeeded in removing the powder from the abbey of
Merchen, in bringing away the military chest of the
division, and conducting the sick in the hospital, wlien
every thing appeared to be in the power of the enemy’s
hussars. Plaving fought in the capacity of aide-de-camp
to General Leveneur, at Gutenhowen, Neerwinden,
HOC [ 55i ] HOC
lithe, the heights of Vertricb, and at Blangen, the repub-
v——' lican army repassed the Dyle, breaking down the
bridges ; and Hoche enabled it to effect a retreat, by
disputing every inch of ground along with the rear¬
guard.
When Dumourier threw off the disguise at the camp
of Maulde, arresting the deputies from the convention,
General Leveneur entrusted to young Hoche the deli¬
cate charge of carrying the news to Paris. His con¬
duct on this occasion was so highly approved of by the
administration, that he was raised to the rank of ad¬
jutant-general, and chief of battalion ; but he de¬
clined a higher rank than captain and aide-de-camp ta
his patron.
When the British troops and the Austrians besieged
Dunkirk, Houchard, who was ordered to cover the
place, threw in supplies under the command of Souham
and Adjutant-general Houche, the latter of whom in¬
spired all around him with enthusiasm ; keeping up the
spirits of the troops and harassing the enemy by frequent
sallies, while the right wing and centre of the besieging
army were attacked by Jourdan. Hoche constructed
several advanced works before the place, and for six
weeks together was never in a bed. The representa¬
tives with the army, as a reward for his activity, ap¬
pointed him chief of brigade.
Having obtained this rank, he was sent, into Austrian
Flanders, where invariable success attended all his
movements. And when only 24 years of age, he was
appointed commander in chief of the army of the Mo-
xelle, which had remained for a long time inactive, and
even experienced some disgrace under Houchard. Few
scenes of action could be mare inauspicious than that
upon which Hoche was now about to enter. The Aus¬
trians and Prussians were about 100,000 strong, under
the command of the first officers in Europe, which
presented a formidable front from the Upper Palatinate
to the Hundsruck : and almost every position might be
deemed impregnable. The troops of General Hocbe
were nearly undisciplined, and the nature of their situa¬
tion rendered them dispirited 5 but their leader first en¬
deavoured to gain their confidence, which be conceived
made a general invincible ; he restored military disci¬
pline \ investigated the characters and talents of his of¬
ficers ; and punished or rewarded as necessity required.
To inspire the inhabitants on the frontiers with cou¬
rage was his next object, for which purpose he visited
the difl’erent towns in his vicinity, frequented popular
societies, and addressed them in person ; so that he not
only secured a high degree of confidence, but even pro¬
cured volunteers, clothes, and provisions. Having re¬
ceived instructions from the committee of public safety
to raise the siege of Bitche and Landau j he drew a
number of troops from the different garrisons, and on
the event of an attack on the quarter he had weakened,
he gave orders to General Moreau to shut himself up
in Thionville, which place he was charged to defend
until death. He formed such a general plan of opera¬
tions as gave the strongest evidence of his great milita¬
ry talents ; for if the subordinate parts of it miscarried
(which was actually the case), the grand object, the
effecting a junction with Pichegru, who commanded the
army on the Rhine, was still within his reach. By a
sudden and formidable manoeuvre, he so astonished the
enemy, that they immediately quitted the Sarre, and
5
after experiencing a defeat, retired towards the heights Hoclie.
of Blisecastel, with the loss of 700 men killed upon the —y—-
field. The duke of Brunswick retreated towards Kay-
serlautern, at which place the whole of the Prussian
columns formed a junction. General Hoche was well
aware that his great object would be attained, if he
could vanquish the enemy at this place, and therefore
he began to scale the mountains, and when he reached
the plain on the top, he found them deeply entrench¬
ed. In defiance of this advantageous position, he de¬
termined to give them battle, and as soon as the signal
gun was fired, he advanced from the ranks, and tossing
his hat in the air, he exclaimed “ Long live the repub¬
lic !” The attack on his part was bold, and the de¬
fence of the enemy was obstinate j about 40,000 were
engaged on each side, but the able manner in which
the duke of Brunswick had fortified his position, gave
him evidently the advantage. After fighting for two
days, Hoche obtained little or no advantage. The am¬
munition of the Prussians being exhausted, he next day
determined to carry their entrenchments at the point
of the bayonet 5 but being informed that they had ob¬
tained a supply during the night, he found it necessary
to retreat. But he soon after relieved Landau, and ef¬
fected a junction with General Pichegru, being appoint¬
ed commander in chief of both armies.
The victorious Hoche afterwards made himself master
of Germersheim; Worms and Spires opened their gates
to receive him, and Fort \ anban was retaken. It was
his determination to cross the Rhine at Strasburgh, or
Offendorf, and venture into the heart of Germany with
25,000 men 5 to which movement Pichegru was un¬
friendly, and had the address to prevail with the repre¬
sentatives then present to refuse their sanction. Robe¬
spierre now regarded him with a jealous eye 5 all his
plans were treated with unmerited indignity, and his
arrest was resolved on. This, however, would have been
a desperate attempt at the head of his victorious troops,
and therefore he was offered the chief command of the
army of Italy j but no sooner had he arrived at Nice
than he was sent a prisoner to Paris, where he remain¬
ed confined for many months, almost entirely forgotten.
Another temporary revolution procured his liberty, and
Carnot consented to his being again employed, although
he was far from being his warm friend.
He was appointed to the command of the army
destined to protect the coasts of Cherbourg, a situation
which by no means agreed with his disposition ; for he
was often heard to exclaim “ how much happier are
they who fight against the Prussians !” His situation
was indeed disagreeable, for it was Frenchmen fighting
against Frenchmen, and he succeeded a number of ge¬
nerals who had been nearly all of them degraded. His
keen discernment enabled him to observe that igno¬
rance and superstition were at the bottom of the con¬
test, which made him adopt a plan of procedure very
different from those of his predecessors 5 and he made
this singular assertion to the committee of public safety,
that a “few proclamations would be productive of in¬
finitely more effect than sixteen pounders.” He check¬
ed the depredations of his own soldiers, restored the
confidence of the peasantry, and so highly satisfied the
government, that the command of the district of Brest
was committed to him. So prolligate and abandoned
had been the conduct of his predecessors, that he could
not
HOC [ 552 ] HOC
Hoche. not procure a lodging at Rennes, which he had come
—— to protect from the insurgents, although he ofiered an
extravagant price for it. Soon, however, was he enabled
to disarm their prejudices; for instead of hunting down
the priests, he allowed the celebration of the mass, or¬
dered the clergy to be protected, and took many of the
confessors into pay. These were not like the plans of
so young a man ; they would have done honour to one
who had studied human nature much longer than he had
been in existence.
We have said that he protected both the priests and
the people, but he discovered no disposition to negociate
with the chiefs. But the government having positively
ordered him to do so, he began a treaty with Cormar-
tin and sopie others, from which he was decidedly of
opinion that the chief leaders might be gained over by
money, and commissions in the republican army. He
was accustomed to say, “ with two hundred thousand
livres and ten part of epaulets, I could gain over a ma¬
jority of these men; as for the rest, a cane will suffice.”
'He chiefs imposed upon the representatives with the
army, but the general was not so easily deceived, Cler¬
mont having been permitted to travel through the can¬
tons in which he had some influence, ostensibly to put
a period to hostilities, was arrested by orders of General
Hoche, being taken in the act of issuing false assignats,
Cormartin, another rebel chief, gave the money to the
royalists which he had received from the republic, and
recruited an army of Chouans in the name of Louis
XVIII. Government now perceived the necessity of
giving General Hoche a discretionary power, who in
consequence thereof arrested Cormartin ; and being
apprehensive that it was the design of Decils to take
possession of the arsenal of Cisay, he marched against
that leader, putting him and 300 of his associates to
the bayonet.
W hen the ill-fated expedition against Quiberon was
undertaken, and an English flotilla with ten thousand
emigrants made a descent, and took possession, without
opposition, of Penthievre, and the peninsula it com¬
mands, Hoche having received strong reinforct-
merits, commenced offensive operations, and determined
to carry Fort Penthievre by assault. This was oppo¬
sed by the engineers as by far too desperate an under¬
taking, who recommended a regular siege ; but the
general was not to be diverted from the steady execu¬
tion of bis purpose. Having divided his army into
three columns, he marched during the night, though
assailed by a dreadful tempest. The fort was discover¬
ed about the dawn of day, which poured upon them
such a tremendous fire of grape shot, that two of the
divisions began to retire; but a general cry of victory
soon made them return. 'Ihree hundred emigrants
were put to death.
His next great military project was an expedition
against Guernsey and Jersey, which we are told, was
rejt-cted by the influence of Boissy d’Anglas, who was
at that time a member of the committee of public
safety. But having obtained the chief command of
the army of the W^est, the whole charge of the war in
La Vendee was committed to his management, to
which he was resolved to put a glorious termination,
presenting the deluded people with the olive branch in
one hand, and the sword in the other. Having granted
a pardon to all who had been deceived, be proposed to
' 3
unite the armies of Cherburg, Brest, and the West, un-
der the appellation of the army of the coasts of the
Ocean, which by the influence of Barras, was instantly
adopted. Having marched against Charette with a
body of troops, that chief was seized and ordered to be
executed. In passing through Sartbe, Maine, Loire, and
Morbihan, with his moving columns, he gave no quar¬
ter to the chiefs; but when he beheld the ignorant pea¬
santry in arms, and at his mercy, he used to exclaim,
These unfortunate people are Frenchmen ! He de¬
clared the principal towns to be no longer in a state
of siege; abolished martial law, dissolved military tri¬
bunals ; and, after succeeding in the accomplishment
of his wishes in the space of eight weeks, he was
honoured with the title of Pacificator of La Ven¬
dee.
The next object which attracted his whole attention
was the conquest of England, a country with which he
appears to hare been little acquainted. His plan, how¬
ever, was much approved of by the minister of marine
(Truguet) ; but every thing was wanting for the accom¬
plishment of an undertaking so very extraordinary ;
and the attempt was restricted to Ireland alone. For
this purpose he set out for Brest, and procured the re¬
moval of Admiral Villaret-Joyeuse, because he was ini¬
mical to his favourite project. General Hoche super¬
intended the dock-yards, hastened the public works,
and prepared every thing connected with a great na¬
val equipment. It was the declaration of Rear-admiral
Bruix, who fell at Aboukir, that Hoche would become
the best minister of marine that France ever beheld, if
he had only a single year’s experience. When every
thing was in readiness for the proposed descent upon
Ireland, General Hoche embarked on board the frigate
La Fraternity this being the first time he was ever at
sea. In a gale of wind he was separated from his ar¬
my, which consisted of 15,000 men; part of the fleet
appeared off the coast of Ireland, and some ships enter¬
ed Bantry Bay; but without their general they could
undertake nothing ; and therefore after holding a coun¬
cil of war, they determined to return. General Hoche
arrived some time after, but learning that the fleet had
given up the enterprise, he steered back to the French
coast, weeping, it is said, when be got the last sight of
Ireland.
It was believed by some, that General Hoche would
be disgraced on account of the total failure of this ex¬
pedition ; but instead of any such attempt, he was cho¬
sen to the command of the army of the Sambre and
Meuse, which at difl’erent periods had been commanded
by Jourdan, Kleber, and Bernadotte. The troops had
continued for some time inactive, and so shocking were
the excesses they had been accustomed to commit, that
the officer whom he succeeded called them a horde of
robbers. These unfavourable circumstances, however,
did not terrify young Hoche, who commenced his la¬
bours with the reformation of the officers : he then bet¬
tered the situation of the men ; attended to the very
minutiae of the service, and he cast an eagle’s eye on
the conduct of the commissaries. Being also entrusted
with the administration of the conquered countries, he
appointed a board of five members to redress all griev¬
ances which might be brought before it.
Having signified to the enemy that the armistice whs
at an end, he dispatched a courier to the directory to
inform
HOD [5
yciie inform them, “ that he was now ready with a body of
(| 86,000 men, to proceed towards the Danube, and force
l: egos. tj)e enemy to make peace on such terms as might be
U v advantageous to the republic.” He accordingly began
his march, crossed the Rhine without any difficulty,
and occupied the heights of Neuwied. He then pur¬
sued the enemy to Dierdorff, which they were forced
to abandon, while he encamped at Montabaur and Al-
tenkirchen. The Austrians at this time lost iooo
men killed, and 8ooo prisoners, with a vast quantity of
baggage and ammunition. This victorious career was
stopped by the news of an armistice concluded be¬
tween Bonaparte in Italy and the emperor.
He once more turned his attention to the invasion of
Ireland, to prepare for which he visited Paris, and af¬
terwards went to Plolland ; but while he was march¬
ing a body of troops to Brest, the defeat of the Dutch
fleet under Admiral De Winter completely frustra¬
ted his designs. But as the directory was at a loss
for a general of character in the metropolis, Hoche was
made choice of, afterwards appointed minister at war,
and favoured with the unlimited confidence of Barras.
But as it was suspected that Hoche was too young to
hold that important office, the council of five hundred
sent a message to the executive power to receive infor¬
mation upon this point, during which General Hoche
resigned, and set off for Charleville, where he had sta¬
tioned a body of troops for the purpose, it was believed,
of marching to Paris. These orders being counter¬
manded, he set off for his head quarters. Although
the royalist party was gaining ground in the legislature,
and the general’s health rapidly on the decline, he de¬
termined to celebrate the memorable loth of August
with great pomp and magnificence. He dispatched two
confidential officers, Cherin and Angereau, to assist in
the revolution which took place in a few days after
their arrival in Paris, while he himself was labouring
under a mortal distemper. He refused to comply with
the advice of his physicians •, and when a messenger
arrived with intelligence respecting the events of the
18th Fructidor, he rose from his bed with this excla¬
mation, “ the republic triumphs !”
Soon after this he was appointed to command the
army on the Rhine, on which he repaired immediately
to Strasburg. At this place his malady increased, and
perceiving that his end was fast approaching, he pre¬
pared to meet it with undaunted fortitude. He died
on the 26th of September 1797.
HOCUS POCUS, a cant expression with which
the exhibitors of legerdemain tricks generally prefaced
their feats. They are thought to be derived from that
arch legerdemain trick of the Romish priests convert¬
ing the sacramental bread into Deity j in which won¬
derful metamorphosis the words 7wc est corpus made a
conspicuous part of the ceremony, and which words
may be considered as the probable root of our modern
hocus-pocus.
HOD, a sort of tray for carrying mortar, in use
among bricklayers.
HODEGOS, a term purely Greek, eJay#?, signify-
mg guide. The word is chiefly used as the title of a
book composed by Anastasius the Sinate, towards the
close of the fifth century j being a method of disputing
against the heretics, particularly the Acephali.
Mr I oland lias also published a dissertation under the
Vol. X. Fart II. +
53 1 HOF
same title. Its subject is the pillar of fire, &c. which Hodegos
went before the Israelites as a guide in the desert. j|"
HODGE-PODGE. See Hotch-pot. Hoffman.
HODMAN, a cant term formerly used for a young r—“
scholar admitted from Westminster-school to be student
in Christ-church in Oxford.
EIODY, Humphry, a learned English divine, was
horn in 1659. At 21 years of age, he published his ce¬
lebrated Dissertation against Aristeus’s history of the 70
interpreters ; which was received with great applause
by all the learned, Isaac Vossius excepted, who could
not bear to have bis opinions opposed by such a youth,
twenty years after, he treated the subject more fully in
a work ex\l\t\ei\,De Jdibliorum textibus or/ginolibus, ver-
siojnbus Gratis, et Latina vulgata, librilV. In 1689,
he wrote the Prolegomena to John Melala’s Chronicle,
printed at Oxford ; and the year after was made chap¬
lain .to Dr Stiilingfleet bishop of Worcester. The
deprivation of the nonjuring bishops engaged him in
a controversy with Mr Dodwell ; which recommended
him to Archbishop lillotson, to whom, and his succes¬
sor Dr Tennison, he was domestic chaplain. In 1698
he was made regius professor of the Greek tongue at
Oxford, and archdeacon of Oxford in 1704, On oc¬
casion of the controversy about the convocation, be, in
1701, published A History of English councils and
convocations, and of the clergy’s sitting in parliament,
&e. He died in 1706, leaving in MS. An Account
ot those learned Grecians who retired to Italy on the
taking of Constantinople, &c. which was published in
.1742 by Dr Jebb.
HOE, or How, a husbandman’s tool, made like a
cooper’s adz, to cut up weeds in gardens, fields, &c.
lliis instrument is of great use, and ought to be much
more employed than it is in hacking and clearing the
several corners and patches of land in spare times of the
year, which would be no small advantage to it.
Horse-Hoe, a large kind of hoe drawn by horses,
and used to stir the intervals in the new husbandry,
and clear the corn from weeds. See Agriculture.
HOEING, in the new husbandry, is the break¬
ing or dividing the soil by tillage while the corn or
other plants are growing therein.—It differs from
common tillage (which is always performed before
the corn or plants are sown or planted) in the time
of performing it j and it is much more beneficial
to the crop than any other tillage. This sort of til¬
lage is performed various ways, and by means of
difl'erent instruments, as described under the article
Agriculture.
HOEF-tchou, the most southern city of the pro¬
vince of Kiang-nan in China, and one of the richest of
the empire. The people are economical and temper¬
ate, but they are active and enterprising iu trade ; they
boast of their tea, varnish, and engravings, which are
indeed the most esteemed in China. It has dependent
upon it six cities of the third class ; the mountains
which surround this canton contain gold, silver, and
copper mines.
HOEMATOPUS, a genus of birds of the order of
grallse. See Ornithology Index.
HOFFMAN, the name of several eminent physi¬
cians 5 of whom Maurice Hoffman, and John Maurice
Hoffman his son, practised at Altorf. Maurice died
in 1698, leaving behind him many works j and was
4 A succeeded
HOG [ 554 ] HOG
Hoffman succeeded by his son John Maurice, who wrote as well
[| as his father, and died in 1727, highly esteemed by
Ho*’* the faculty.—Frederic Hoffman, probably of the same
, Eh1”?* .family, was born at Magdeburg in 1660. J be prin-
' ~v cipal known circumstances of bis life are, his journey
into Holland and England, where he became inti¬
mately acquainted with Paul Herman and iiobert
Boyle, never taking any fees, being supported by his
annual stipend 5 his curing the emperor Charles VI.
and Frederic I. king of Prussia of inveterate diseases j
to which may be added, his accurate knowledge of the
nature and virtues of mineral waters. He survived
his 80th year, and his works, which are in great
esteem, were printed in six volumes folio at Geneva,
in 1740.
HOFFMANtSTS, in ecclesiastical history, denote
those who espoused the sentiments of Daniel Hoffman,
professor of the university of Helmstadt, who, from the
year 1598, maintained, that philosophy was^ a mortal
enemy to religion, and that what was true in philoso¬
phy was false in theology. These absurd and perni¬
cious tenets occasioned a warm and extensive contro¬
versy : at length Hoffman was compelled by Julius duke
of Brunswick to retract his invectives against philoso¬
phy, and to acknowledge, in the most open manner, the
harmony and union of sound philosophy with true and
genuine theology.
HOG. See Sus, Mammalia Index.
Hog, on board of a ship, is a sort of flat scrubbing
broom, formed by inclosing a number of short twigs of
birch or such wood between two pieces of plank fasten¬
ed together, and cutting off the ends of the twigs $ and
serving to scrape the filth from a ship’s bottom under
water, particularly in the act of boot-topping. For
this purpose they fit to this broom a long staff with two
ropes } one of which is used to thrust the hog under the
ship’s bottom, and the other to guide and pull it up
again close to the planks. This business is commonly
performed in the ship’s boat, which is confined as close
as possible to the vessel’s side during the operation,
and shifted from one part of the side to another till the
whole is completed.
Hog's Dung is by Mortimer reckoned one of the
richest manures we are acquainted with, and the next
in value to sheep’s dung j and is found to be equal in
virtue to twice the quantity of any other dung except
this. The ancients seem to have been displeased with
it on account of its breeding weeds j but this is only
accusing it of being too rich $ for any dung will do
tills when laid too thick. It is an excellent manure for
pasture-grounds, and excels all other kinds of dung for
trees. The farmers who use this dung for their lands,
generally take care to save it, by well-paving the styes j
and increase the quantity by throwing in bean-stalks,
stubble, and many other things of a like nature : and,
by good management of this kind, many farmers have
procured 50 or 60 loads of excellent manure a-year
out of a small stye. The very best way of using this
dung is by mixing it with horse-dung j and for this
reason it is best to have the stye near the stable, that
the two cleansings may be mixed in one heap, and used
together.
They have in many parts of Staffordshire a poor,
light, shallow land, on which they sow a kind of white
pea : the land is neither able to bear this nor any Hog’J If
thing else to advantage for their reaping : but when Duag ^
the pease are ripe, they turn in as many hogs as the H
quantity of pease will fatten, suffering them to live at. ~c^trl
large, and to remain there day and night: in conse¬
quence of this, the lands will produce good crops of
hay for several years afterwards j or, if too poor for
that, it will at worst raise grass enough to make it good
pasture-ground.
Hog's Lard. See Axungia, Materia Medica
Index.
HQGABTH, William, a truly great and original
genius, is said by Dr Burn to have been the descend¬
ant of a family originally from Kirby There, in West¬
moreland. His father, who had been a schoolmaster in
the same county, went early to London, where he was
employed as a corrector of the press j and appears to
have been a man of some learning, a dictionary in La¬
tin and English, which he composed for the use of
schools, being still existing in MS. He married in
London, and kept a school in Ship-Court, in the Old
Bailey. Our hero was born in 1697 or 1698, in the
parish of St Martin, Ludgate. The outset of his life,
however, was unpromising. “ He was bound,” says
Mr W alpole, “ to a mean engraver of arms on plate.”
Hogarth probably chose this occupation, as it requir¬
ed some skill in drawing: to which his genius was par¬
ticularly turned, and which he contrived assiduously to
cultivate. His master, it since appears, was Mr Ellis
Gamble, a silversmith of eminence, who resided in Cran-
burn-street, Leicester-fields. In this profession it is
not unusual to bind apprentices to the single branch of
engraving arms and cyphers on every species of metal j
and in that particular department of the business young
Hogarth was placed ; “ but, before his time was ex-
“ pired, he felt the impulse of genius, and that it di-
“ reeled him to painting.” During his apprentice¬
ship, he set out one Sunday, with two or three com¬
panions, on an excursion to Highgate. The weather
being hot, they went into a public house, where they
had not been long before a quarrel arose between some
persons in the same room. One of the disputants struck
the other on the head with a quart pot, and cut him
very much. The blood running down the man’s face,
together with the agony of the wound, which had dis¬
torted his features into a most hideous grin, presented
Hogarth, who showed himself thus early “ apprised
of the mode Nature had intended he should pursue,”
with too laughable a subject to be overlooked. He
drew out bis pencil, and produced on the spot one of
the most ludicrous figures that ever was seen. What
rendered this piece the more valuable was, that it ex¬
hibited an exact likeness of the man, with the portrait
of his antagonist, and the figures in caricature of the
principal persons gathered round him.
How long he continued in obscurity we cannot ex¬
actly learn ; but the first piece in which lie distinguish¬
ed himself as a painter is supposed to have been a re¬
presentation of Wanstead Assembly. The figures in
it, we are told, were drawn from the life, and without
any circumstances of burlesque. The faces were said
to be extremely like, and the colouring rather better
than in some of his late and more highly finished per*
formances. From the date of the earliest plate that
can
= J
hog C 555 ] HOG
arth, can be ascertained to be the work of Hogarth, it may
' be presumed that he began business on his own account
at least as early as 1720.
His first employment seems to have been the engra¬
ving of arms and shop bills. The next was to design
and furnish plates for booksellers. Mr Bowles, at the
Black Horse in Cornhill, was one of his earliest pa¬
trons, whose prices were very low. His next friend
in that line was Mr Philip Overton, who paid him
somewhat better for his labour and ingenuity.
There are still many family pictures by Hogarth ex¬
isting, in the style of serious conversation-pieces. What
the prices of his portraits were, Mr Nichols strove in
vain to discover j but he suspects they were originally
very low, as the people who are best acquainted with
them choose to be silent on that subject.
It happened, in the early part of Hogarth’s life, that
a nobleman who was uncommonly ugly and deformed
came to sit to him for his picture. It was executed
with a skill that did honour to the artist’s abilities ;
but the likeness was rigidly observed, without even the
necessary attention to compliment or flattery. The
peer, disgusted at this counterpart of his dear self, ne¬
ver once thought of paying for a reflector that would
only insult him with his deformities. Some time was
suffered to elapse before the artist applied for his mo¬
ney ; but afterwards many applications were made by
him (who had then no need of a banker) for payment
without success. The painter, however, at last hit
upon an expedient, which he knew must alarm the
nobleman’s pride, and by that means answer his pur¬
pose. It was couched in the following card: “ Mr
Hogarth’s dutiful respects to Lord —— ; finding that
he does not mean to have the picture which was drawn
lor him, is informed again of Mr H’b necessity for the
money; if, therefore his lordship does not send for it
in three days, it will be disposed of, with the addition
of a tail, and some other little appendages, to Mr
Hare, the famous wild-beast man *, Mr H. having
given that gentleman a conditional promise of it for an
exhibition-picture on his lordship’s refusal.” This inti¬
mation had the desired effect. The picture was sent
home, and committed to the flames.
Mr Walpole has remarked, that if our artist “ in¬
dulged his spirit of ridicule in personalities, it never
proceeded beyond sketches and drawings and won¬
ders “ that he never, without intention, delivered the
very features of any identical person.” Mr Nichols as¬
sures us, from unquestionable authority, that almost all
the personages who attended the levee of the Rake were
undoubted portraits; and that in “ Southwark Fair,”
and the “ Modern Midnight Conversation,” as many
more were discoverable. While Hogarth was painting
the “ Rake’s Progress,” he had a summer residence at
Isleworth ; and never failed to question the company
who came to see these pictures, if they knew for whom
one or another figure was designed. When they guessed
xvrong, he set them right.
The duke of Leeds has an original scene in the
‘‘ Beggar’s Opera,” painted by Hogarth. It is that
in which Lucy and Polly are on their knees, before
their respective fathers, to intercede for the life of the
hero of the piece. All the figures are either known
or supposed to be portraits. If we are not misinformed,
the late Sir Thomas Robinson (perhaps better known
by the name of Long Sir Thomas) is standing in one
of the side-boxes. Macbeatb, unlike his spruce repre¬
sentative on our present stage, is a slouching bully;
and Polly appears happily disencumbered of such a
hoop as the daughter of Peachum within our younger
memories has worn. Mr Walpole has a picture of a
scene in the same piece, where Macheath is going to
execution. In this also the likenesses of Walker, and
Miss Fenton, afterwards duchess of Bolton (the first
and original Macheath and Polly) are preserved. In
the year 1726, when the affair of Mary Tofts, the
rabbit-breedeV of Godaiming, engaged the public at¬
tention, a few of our principal surgeons subscribed
their guinea a-pieee to Hogarth, for an engraving
from a ludicrous sketch he had made on that verv po¬
pular subject. Ibis plate, among other portraits,
contains that of St Andie, then anatomist to the royal
household, and in high credit as a surgeon. In 1727,
Hogarth agreed with Morris an upholsterer to furnish
him with a design on canvas, representing the element
of earth as a pattern for tapestry. The work not beiny
performed to the satisfaction of Morris, he refused to
pay for it; and our artist, by a suit at law, recovered
the money.
In 1730, Mr Hogarth married the only daughter
of Sir James Thornhill, by whom he had no child.
This union, indeed, was a stolen one, and consequent¬
ly without the approbation of Sir James, who, consi¬
dering the youth of his daughter, then barely 18, and
the slender finances of her husband, as yet an obscure
artist, was not easily reconciled to the match. Soon
after this period, however, he began his “ Harlot’s
Progress” (the coffin in the last plate is inscribed Sept.
2. 1731) j and was advised by Lady Thornhill to have
some of the scenes of it placed in the way of his father-
in-law. Accordingly, one morning early, Mrs Ho¬
garth undertook to convey several of them into his
dining-room. Wken he arose, he inquired from whence
they came ; and being told by whom they were intro¬
duced, he cried out, “ Very well ; the man who can
furnish representations like these can also maintain a
wife without a portion.” He designed this remark as
an excuse for keeping his purse-strings close; but, soon
after, became both reconciled and generous to the
young people. An allegorical ceiling by Sir James
Thornhill is at the house of the late Mr Huggins, at
Headly Park, Hants. I he subject of it is the story of
Zepbyrus and I lora ; and the figure of a satyr and others
were painted by Hogarth.
In 1732, Hogarth ventured to attack Mr Pope, in
a plate called “The Man of J-aste;” containing a
view of the Gate of Burlington-house, with Pope white¬
washing k and bespattering the duke of Chandos’s
coach. Ibis plate was intended as a satire on the
translator of Homer, Mr Rent the architect, and the
earl of Burlington. It was fortunate for Hogarth tha^
lie escaped the lash of the former. Either Hogarth’s
obscurity at that time was his protection, or the bard
was too prudent to exasperate a painter who had al¬
ready given such proof of his abilities for satire.
Soon after his marriage, Hogarth had summer lodg¬
ings at South Lambeth: and being intimate with Mr
Tyres, contributed to the improvement of the Spring
Gardens at Vauxhall, by the hint of embellishing them
with paintings, some of which were the suggestions of
4 A 2 his
Hosrartli.
Hogarth.
t
HOG r 556 ] HOG
Iiis own truly comic pencil. For liis assistance, Mr
'j'vres gratefully presented him with a gold ticket ot
admission for himself and his friends.
Jn 1733, his genius became conspicuously known.
The third scene of his “ Harlot’s Progress” introdu¬
ced him to the notice of the great. At a board of
treasury which was held a day or two after the appear¬
ance of that print, a copy of it was shown by one of the
lords, as containing, among other excellencies, a. stri-
kin« likeness of Sir John Gonson. It gave universal
satisfaction : from the treasury each lord repaired to
the print-shop for a copy of k, and Hogarth rose com¬
pletely into fame.
The ingenious Abbe Du Bos has often complained
that no bistory-painter of his time went through a se¬
ries of actions, and thus, like an historian, painted the
successive fortunes of an hero from the cradle to the
grave. - What Du Bos wished to see done, Hogarth
performed. He launches out his young adventurer a
simple girl upon the town, and conducts her through
all the vicissitudes of wretchedness to a premature
death. This was painting to the understanding and
to the heart; none had ever before made the pencil
subservient to the purposes of morality and instruc¬
tion : a hook like this is fitted to every soil and every
observer ; and he that runs may read. Nor was the
success of Hogarth confined to his persons. One of
his excellencies consisted in what may he termed the
furniture of his pieces; for as, in sublime and histori¬
cal representations, the fewer trivial circumstances are
permitted to divide the spectator’s^attention from the
principal figures, the greater is their force ; so, in
scenes copied from familiar life, a proper variety of
little domestic images contributes to throw a degree of
verisimilitude on the whole. “ The Rake’s levee-
room,” says Mr Walpole, “ the nobleman’s dining¬
room, the apartments of the husband and wife in Mar¬
riage a la Mode, the alderman’s parlour, the bed-cham¬
ber, and many others, are the history of the manners
of the age.”
In 1745, Hogarth sold about 20 of his capital pic¬
tures by auction 5 and in the same year acquired addi¬
tional reputation by the six prints of “ Marriage a la
Mode,” which may be regarded as the ground-work
of a novel called “ The Marriage Act,” by Dr Sheb-
beare, and of “ The Clandestine Marriage.”
Soon after the peace of Aix la Chapelle, he went
over to France, and was taken into custody at Calais
while he was drawing the gate of that town ; a cir¬
cumstance which he has recorded in his picture, enti¬
tled, “ O the Roast Beef of Old England !” published
March 26. 1749* He was actually carried before the
governor as a spy, and after a very strict examination
committed a prisoner to Gransire, his landlord, on his
promising that Hogarth should not go out of his house
till lie was to embark for England.
In 1753, he appeared to the world in the character
of an author, and published a quarto volume, entitled,
“ The Analysis of Beauty, written with a view of fix¬
ing the fluctuating ideas of taste.” In this perform¬
ance he shows, by a variety of examples, that a curve
is the line of beauty, and that round swelling figures
are most pleasing to the eye ; and the truth of his opi¬
nion has been countenanced by subsequent writers on
the subject. In this work, the leading idea of which
was hieroglyplncally thrown out in a frontispiece to his Hogart *!_
works in 1745, he acknowledges himself indebted to *■“—y" ^
his friends for assistance, and particularly to one gen¬
tleman for his corrections and amendments of at least
a third part of the wording. This friend was Dr Ben¬
jamin Hoadley the physician, who carried on the work
to about the third part, Chap. IX. and then, through
indisposition, declined the friendly office with regret.
Mr Hogarth applied to his neighbour Mr Ralph 5 but
it was impossible for two such persons to agree, both
alike vain and positive. He proceeded no farther than
about a sheet, and they then parted friends, and seem
to have continued such. The kind office of finishing
the work, and superintending the publication, was
lastly taken up by Dr Morell, who went through the
remainder of the book. The preface was in like man¬
ner corrected by the Reverend Mr Townley. The
family of Hogarth rejoiced when the last sheet of the
“ Analysis,” was printed off j as the frequent disputes
he had with his coadjutors, in the progress of the work,
did not much harmonize his disposition. This work
was translated into German by Mr Mylins, when in
England, under the author’s inspection j and the trans¬
lation was printed in London, price five dollars. A
new and correct edition was in 1754 proposed for pub¬
lication at Berlin, by Ch. Fr. Vok, with an explana¬
tion of Mr Hogarth’s satirical prints, translated from
the French j and ai) Italian translation was published
at Leghorn in 1761.
Hogarth had one failing in common with most peo¬
ple who attain wealth and eminence without the aid of
liberal education.—Fie affected to despise every kind
of knowledge which he did not possess. Having esta¬
blished his fame with little or no obligation to litera¬
ture, he either conceived it to he needless, or decried
it because it lay out of his reach. His sentiments, in
short, resembled those of Jack Cade, who pronounced
sentence on the clerk of Chatham because he could
write and read. Till, in evil hour, this celebrated ar¬
tist commenced author, and was obliged to employ the
friends already mentioned to correct his “ Analysis of
Beauty,” he did-not seem to have discovered that even
spelling was a necessary qualification 5 and yet he had
ventured to ridicule the late Mr Rich’s deficiency as
to this particular, in a note which lies before the Rake
whose play is refused while he remains in confinement
for debt. Previous to the time of which we are now
speaking, one of our artist’s common topics of decla¬
mation was the uselessness of books to a man ot Ins
profession. In “ Beer-street,” among other volumes
consigned by him to the pastry-cook, we find Turn-
bull “ on Ancient Paintinga treatise which Ho¬
garth should have been able to understand before he
ventured to condemn. Garrick himself, however, was
not more ductile to flattery. A word in praise of
“ Sigismunda,” his favourite work, might have com¬
manded a proof print, or forced an original sketch out
of our artist’s hands. The following authenticated
story of our artist will also serve to show how much
more easy it is to detect ill placed or hyperbolical adu¬
lation respecting others than when applied to ourselves.
Hogarth being at dinner with the great Cheselden and
some other company, was told that Mr John Ireke,
surgeon of St Bartholomew’s-hospital, a few evenings
before, at Dick’s cofl'eehouse, had asserted that Greene
was
HOG [ 557 1 HOG
H^rth. 'tvas as eminent in composition as Handel. “ That
u. r—J fellow Freke,” replied Hogarth, “ is always shooting
his bolt absurdly one way or another ! Handel is a giant
in music j” Greene only a light Florimel kind of a com¬
poser.”—“ Aye,” says our artist’s informant j “ but at
the same time Mr Freke declared you were as good a
portrait-painter as Vandyck.”—“ There he was in the
right,” adds Hogarth $ “ and so by G— I am, give me
my time, and let me choose my subject !”
A specimen of Hogarth’s propensity to merriment,
on the most trivial occasions, is observable in one of
his cards requesting the company of Dr Arnold King
to dine with him at the Mitre. Within a circle, to
which a knife and fork are the supporters, the written
part is contained. In the centre is drawn a pye, with
a mitre on the top of it; and the invitation of our
artist concludes with the following sport on the Greek
letters—to Tta Beta Pi. The rest of the inscription
is not very accurately spelt. A quibble by Hogarth is
surely as respectable as a conundrum by Swift.
In one of the early exhibitions at Spring-Gardens,
a very pleasing small picture by Hogarth made its first
appearance. It was painted for the earl of Charle-
mont, in whose collection it remains, and was entit¬
led “ Picquet, or Virtue in Danger and shows us a
young lady who during a tete a iSte had just lost all her
money to a handsome officer of her own age. He is
represented in the act of returning her a handful of
bank bills, with the hope of exchanging them for a
softer acquisition and more delicate plunder. On the
chimney-piece a watch case and a figure of Time over
it, with the motto—NUNC. Hogarth has caught
his heroine during this moment of hesitation, this
struggle with herself, and has marked her feelings with
uncommon success.
In the “ Miser’s Feast,” Mr Hogarth thought pro¬
per to pillory Sir Isaac Shard, a gentleman proverbi¬
ally avaricious. Hearing this, the son of Sir Isaac,
the late Isaac Pacatus Shard, Esq. a young man of
spirit, just returned from his travels, called at the
painter’s to see the picture ; and, among the rest, ask¬
ing the Cicerone “ whether that odd figure was in¬
tended for any particular person ?” on his replying
“ that it w'as thought to be very like one Sir Isaac
Shard,” he immediately drew his sword and slashed the
canvas. Hogarth appeared instantly in great wrath :
to whom Mr Shard calmly justified what he had done,
saying, “ that this was a very unwarrantable licence ;
that he was the injured party’s son, and that he was
ready to defend any suit at law which, however, was
never instituted.
About 1757, his brother-in-law, Mr Thornhill, re¬
signed the place of king’s serjeant-painter in favour of
Mr Hogarth.
The last remarkable circumstance of his life was his
contest with Mr Churchill. It is said that both met
at Westminster-hall; Hogarth to take by his eye a ri¬
diculous likeness of the poet, and Churchill to furnish
a description of the painter. But Hogarth’s print of
the poet was not much esteemed, and the poet’s letter
to him was but little admired. Some pretend, indeed
to say that it broke the painter’s heart; but this we
can from good authority say is not true. Indeed the
report falls of itself; for we may as well say, that
Hogarth’s pencil was as efficacious as the poet’s pen, Hogarth,
since neither long survived the contest. i—-y——
It may be truly observed of Hogarth, that all his
powers of delighting were restrained to his pencil.
Having rarely been admitted into polite circles, none
of his sharp corners had been rubbed off, so that he
continued to the last a gross uncultivated man. The
slightest contradiction transported him into rage. To
some confidence in himself he was certainly entitled ;
for, as a comic painter, he could have claimed no ho¬
nour that would not most readily have been allowed
him ; but he was at once unprincipled and variable in
his political conduct and attachments. He is also said
to have beheld the rising eminence and popularity of
Sir Joshua Reynolds with a degree of envy ; and, if
we are not misinformed, frequently spoke with asperity
both of him and his performances. Justice, however,
obliges us to add, that our artist was liberal, hospi¬
table, and the most punctual of paymasters ; so that,
in spite of the emoluments his works had procured to
him, he left but an inconsiderable fortune to his wi¬
dow. His plates indeed are such resources to her as
may not speedily be exhausted. Some of his domestics
had lived many years in his service ; a circumstance that
always reflects credit on a master. Of most of these he
painted strong : likenesses on a canvas still in Mrs Ho¬
garth’s possession.
Of Hogarth’s lesser plates many were destroyed.
When he wanted a piece of copper on a sudden, he
would take any from which he had already worked off
such a number of impressions as he supposed he would
sell. He then sent it to be effaced, beat out, or other¬
wise altered to his present purpose. The plates which
remained in his possession were secured to Mrs Hogarth
by his will, dated Aug. 12. 1764, chargeable with
an annuity of Sol. to his sister Anne, who survived
him. When, on the death of his other sister, she left
off the business in which she was engaged, he kindly
took her home, and generously supported her, making
her, at the same time, useful in the disposal of his
prints. Want of tenderness and liberality to his rela¬
tions was not among the failings of Hogarth.
The following character of Hogarth as an artist is
given by Mr Gilpin in his Essay on Prints. The
works of this master abound in true humour, and sa¬
tire which is generally well directed : they are admi¬
rable moral lessons, and a fund of entertainment suited
to every taste ; a circumstance which shows them to
be just copies of nature. We may consider them too
as valuable repositories of the manners, customs, and
dresses of the present age. What a fund of entertain¬
ment would a collection of this kind afford, drawn
from every period of the history of Britain !—How
far the works of Hogarth will bear a critical examina¬
tion, may be the subject of a little more inquiry.
“ In design, Hogarth was seldom at a loss. His
invention was fertile, and his judgment accurate. An
improper accident is rarely introduced, a proper one
rarely omitted. No one could tell a story better, or
make it, in all its circumstances, more intelligible. His
genius, however, it must be owned, was suited only to
low ov familiar subjects ; it never soared aho\e common
life : to subjects naturally sublime, or which from an¬
tiquity or other accidents borrowed dignity, he could
HOG
[ 558 ]
H O L
not rise. In composition we see little In him to admire.
In many of his prints the deficiency is so great as plainly
to imply a want of all principle j which makes us ready
to believe, that when we do meet with a beautiful
group, it is the effect of chance. In one of his minor
works, the Idle Prentice, we seldom see a crowd more
beautifully managed than in the last print. If the
sheriff officers had not been placed in a line, and had
been brought a little lower in the picture, so as to
have formed a pyramid with the cart, the composition
had been unexceptionable $ and yet the first print of
this work is such a striking instance of disagreeable
composition, that it is amazing how an artist who had
any idea of beautiful forms could suffer so unmasterly
a performance to leave his hands. Of the distribution
of light Hogarth had as little knowledge as of composi¬
tion. In some of his pieces we see a good eftect, as in
the Execution mentioned 5 in which, if the figures
at the right and left corners had been kept down a lit¬
tle, the light would have been beautifully distributed
•n the fore-ground, and a fine secondary light] spread
over part of the crowd. But at the same time there is
so obvious a deficiency in point of effect in most of his
prints, that it is very evident he had no principles.
Neither was Hogarth a master in drawing. Of the
muscles and anatomy of the head and hands he had
perfect knowledge; but his trunks are often badly
moulded, and his limbs ill set on; yet his figures, up¬
on the whole, are inspired with so much life and mean¬
ing, that the eye is kept in good-humour in spite of
its inclination to find fault. The author of the Ana¬
lysis of Beauty, it might he supposed, would have
given us more instances of grace than we find in the
works of Hogarth j which shows strongly that theory
and practice are not always united. Many opportuni¬
ties his subjects naturally afford of introducing graceful
attitudes, and yet we have very few examples of them.
With instances of picturesque grace his works abound.
Of this expression, in which the force of his genius lay,
we cannot speak in terms too high. In every mode of
it he was truly excellent. The passions he thoroughly
understood, and all the effects which they produce in
every part of the human frame. He had the happy
art also of conveying his ideas with the same precision
with which he conceived them. He was excellent too
In expressing any humorous oddity which we often
see stamped upon the human face. All his heads are
cast in the very mould of nature. Hence that endless
variety which is displayed through his wrorks ; and hence
it is that the difference arises between his heads and the
affected caricatures of those masters who have some¬
times amused themselves with patching together an as¬
semblage of features from their own ideas. Such are
Spaniolet’s: which, though admirably executed, appear
plainly to have no archetypes in nature. Hogarth’s,
on the other band, are collections of natural curiosities.
The Oxford-heads, the Physicians arms, and some of
his other pieces, are expressly of this humorous kind.
They are truly comic, though ill-natured effusions of
mirth : more entertaining than Spaniolet’s, as they are
pure nature j but less innocent, as they contain ill-di¬
rected ridicule.—But the species of expression in which
this master perhaps most excels, is that happy art of
catching those peculiarities of art and gesture which
the ridiculous part of every profession contract, and
which for that reason become characteristic of the whole.
His counsellors, his undertakers, his lawyers, his usur¬
ers, are all conspicuous at sight. In a word, almost
every profession may see in his works that 'particular
species of affectation which they should most endeavour
to avoid. The execution of this master is well suited to
his subjects and manner of treating them. He etches
with great spirit, and never gives one unnecessary
stroke.”
HOGSHEAD, in Commerce, a measure of capacity
containing 63 gallons, z=i6 gallons in Scotland.
HOGUE, a town and cape on the north-west point
of Normandy in France; near which Admiral Kook
burnt the French admiral’s ship called the Rising Sun,
with 12 more large men of war, the day after the vic¬
tory obtained by Admiral Russel near Cherburg in May
1692. W. Long. 2. 0. N. Lat. 49. 50.
HOIST, in sea-language, denotes the perpendicu¬
lar height of a flag or ensign, as opposed to the fly,
which signifies its breadth from the staff to the outer
edge.
HOISTING signifies the operation of drawing up
any body by the assistance of one or more tackles.
Hoisting is never applied to the act of pulling up any
body by the help of a single block, except in the ex¬
ercise of extending the sails by drawing them upwards
along the masts or stays, to which it is invariably ap¬
plied.
HOKE-DAY, HocK-Day, or Hocx-Tuesday, in our
ancient customs (dies Mortis, quern quindenam paschcc
vacant), the second Tuesday after Easter week ; a so¬
lemn festival celebrated for many ages in England in me¬
mory of the great slaughter of the Danes in the time of
King Ethelred, they having been in that reign almost
all destroyed in one day in different parts of the king¬
dom, and that principally by women. This is still kept
up in some counties ; and the women bear the principal
sway in it, stopping all passengers with ropes and chains,
and exacting some small matter from them to make
merry with. This day was very remarkable in former
times, insomuch as to be used on the same footing with
Michaelmas for a general term or time of account. We
find leases without date reserving so much rent payable
ad duosanni terminos, soil, ad le hoke-day, et adfestum
sancti Michaelis. In the account of Magdalen college,
Oxford, there is yearly an allowance pro mulieribus
hockantibus of some manors of theirs in Hampshire;
where the men hock the women on Mondays and the
women hock them on Tuesdays. The meaning of it
is, that on that day the women in merriment stopped
the way with ropes, and pulled passengers to them, de¬
siring something to be laid out for pious uses.
HoKE-Day Money,or Hoke-Tuesday Money, a tribute
anciently paid the landlord, for giving his tenants and
bondmen leave to celebrate hock-day, or hoke-day, in
memory of the expulsion of the domineering Danes.
HO-KIEN-Fou, a city of China, and one of the
principal in the province of Pe-tcbeli. It has two ci¬
ties of the second, and fifteen of the third class in its
district, but is remarkable for nothing but the neatness
of its streets.
HOLBEIN, Hans, a celebrated painter, born at
Basil in Switzerland in 1498, learned the rudiments
of his art from his father, who was a painter; but
soon shewed his superior genius. In the town-house
of
Hogwiit
11
Holbein,
A “
H O L [ 559 ] H O L
jj ,ein, of Basil he painted our Saviour’s Passion $ and in the
w fish-market of the same city Death’s Dance, and a
Dance of Peasants, which were extremely admired ;
and Erasmus was so pleased with them, that he desired
him to draw his picture, and was ever after his friend.
He staid some years longer at Basil, till his necessities,
occasioned by his own extravagance and an increasing
family, made him comply with Erasmus’s persuasions
to go to England. In his journey he staid some days
at Strasburg, where it is said he applied to a very great
painter for work, who took him in, and ordered him
to give a specimen of his skill. On which Holbein
finished a piece with great care, and painted a fly on the
most eminent part of it $ after which he privately with¬
drew in the absence of his master, and pursued his jour¬
ney, without saying any thing to any body. When
the painter returned home, he was astonished at the
beauty and elegance of the drawing ; and especially at
the fly, which he at first took for a real one, and en¬
deavoured to remove it with his hand. He now sent all
over the city for his journeyman ; and after many in¬
quiries, discovered that he had been thus deceived by
the famous Holbein.—Holbein having in a manner
begged his way to England, presented a letter of re¬
commendation from Erasmus to Sir Thomas More, and
also showed him Erasmus’s picture. Sir Thomas, who
was then lord chancellor, received him with all the joy
imaginable, and kept him in his house between two
and three years ; in which time he drew Sir Thomas’s
picture, and those of many of his relations and friends.
Holbein one day happening to mention a nobleman
who had seme years before invited him to England,
Sir Thomas was very solicitous to know who it was.
Holbein said that he had forgot his title, but remem¬
bered his face so well, that he believed he could draw
his likeness 5 which he did so perfectly, that the noble¬
man, it is said, was immediately known by it. The
chancellor having now adorned his apartments with the
productions of this great painter, resolved to introduce
him to Henry VIII. For this purpose he invited
that prince to an entertainment; having, before he
came, hung up all Holbein’s pieces in the great hall,
in the best order, and placed in the best light. The
king, on his first entrance into this room, was so
charmed with the sight, that he asked whether such an
artist was now alive, and to be had for money ? Upon
this, Sir Thomas presented Holbein to his majesty,
who immediately took him into his service, and brought
him into great esteem with the nobility and gentry, by
which means he drew a vast number of portraits. But
while he was here, there happened an affair which
might have proved fatal to him, had he not been pro¬
tected by the king. On the report of this painter’s
character, a lord of the first quality came to see him
when he was drawing a figure after the life. Holbein
sent to desire bis lordship to defer the honour of his
visit to another day ; which the nobleman taking for
an afiront, broke open the door, and very rudely went
up stairs. Holbein hearing a noise, came out of his
chamber ; and meeting the lord at his door, fell into a
violent passion, and pushed him backwards from the
top of the stairs to the bottom^ However, immediately
reflecting on what he had done, he escaped from the
tumult he had raised, and made the best of his way to
the king. The nobleman, much hurt, though not so
much as he pretended, was there soon after him ; and Holbein
Upon opening his grievance, the king ordered Holbein ||
to ask his pardon. But this only irritated the noble-, Holdc1'-
man the more, who would not be satisfied with less * "
than his life; upon which the king sternly replied,
“ My lord, you have not now to do with Holbein
but with me; whatever punishment you may contrive
by way of revenge against him, shall certainly be in¬
flicted on yourself. Remember, pray, my lord, that
I can whenever I please make seven lords of seven
ploughmen, but I cannot make one Holbein of even
seven lords.” Holbein died of the plague at his lodg¬
ings at Whitehall in 1554* “ It is amazing (says De
Piles, that a man born in Switzerland, and who had
never been in Italy, should have so good a .g&sYo, and so
fine a genius for painting.” He painted alike in every
manner; in fresco, in water-colours, in oil, and in
miniature. His genius was sufficiently shown in the
historical style, by two celebrated compositions which
he painted in the hall of the Stillyard company. He
was also eminent for a rich vein of invention, which he
showed in a multitude of designs which he drew for
engravers, statuaries, jewellers, &c. and he had this
singularity, that he painted with his left band.
HOLCUS, Indian Millet or Corn, a genus of
plants belonging to the polygamia class, and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 4th order, Gramina.
See Botany Index.
HOLD, the whole interior cavity or belly of a
ship, or all that part of her inside which is compre¬
hended between the floor and the lower-deck through¬
out her whole length.—This capacious apartment usu¬
ally contains the ballast, provisions, and stores of a ship
of war, and the principal part of the cargo in a mer¬
chantman. The disposition of these articles with re¬
gard to each other, naturally falls under consideration
in the article Stowage; it suffices in this place to say,
that the places where the ballast, water, provisions,
and liquors are stowed, are known by the general
name of the ho/d. The several store-rooms are sepa¬
rated from each other by bidk-heads, and are deno¬
minated according to the articles which they contain,
the sail-room, the bread-room, the fish-room, the spirit-
room, &c.
HOLDER, William, D. D. an English divine, .
was born in Nottinghamshire, educated in Pembroke-
hall, Cambridge, and in 1642 became rector of Blech-
ingdon of Oxford. In 1660 he proceeded D. D. was
afterwards canon of Ely, fellow of the Royal Society,
canon of St Paul’s, sub-dean of the royal chapel, and
sub-almoner to bis majesty. Dr Holder was a very ac¬
complished scholar, and greatly distinguished himself,
by making a young gentleman of rank who was born
deaf and dumb, to speak. This gentleman’s name
was Alexander Popham, son of Colonel Edward Pop-
ham, who was some time an admiral in the service of
the long parliament. The cure was performed by him
in bis bouse at Blecbingdon in 1659; but Popham lo¬
sing what he had been taught by Holder after he was
called home to bis friends, was sent to Dr Wallis, who
brought him to his speech again. Holder published a
book, entitled u The Elements of Speech ; an essay of
enquiry into the natural Production of Letters; with
an appendix concerning persons that are deaf and
dumb, 1669,” 8vo. In the appendix he relates how
soon, ,
H O L
H O L
Hokler
Holiness.
soon, ami by what methods, he brought Popham to
speak In 1678, he published in 4^“ a b»PPlem^
to the Philosophical Transactions of July 1670, with
some reflections on Dr Wallis’s letter there inserted
This was written to claim the glory of haying taught
Ponham to speak, which Wallis in the said letter had
claimed to himself', upon which the Doctor soon after
publisheda Defence of the Royal Society, and the
Philosophical Transactions, particularly those ot July
1670, in answer to the Cavils of Dr William Holder,
1678” 4to. Holder was skilled in the theory and
practice of music, and wrote “ a Treatise of the natural
Grounds and Principles of Harmony, 1694, Hyo.
He wrote also “ a Discourse concerning Time, with
Application of the natural Day, lunar Month, and so¬
lar Year, &c. 1694,” 8vo. He died at Amen Corner
in London, January 24. 1696-7, and was buried in bt
Paul’s.
HOLDERNESS, a district of the east riding of
Yorkshire, having the German sea on the east, and the
Humber on the south. This district is remarkable for
its rich soil and a large breed of horned cattle and
horses. It had the title of an earldom, now extinct.
HOLDSWORTH, E DWARD, a very polite and
elegant scholar, was born about 1688, and educated at
Winchester school. He was thence elected demy ol
Magdalen college, Oxford, in July 1705$ took the
degree of M. A. in April 1711 ', became a college-tu¬
tor, and had many pupils. In 1715, when he was to
be chosen into a fellowship, he resigned his demyship
and left the college, because unwilling to swear allegi¬
ance to the new government. The remainder of his
life was spent in travelling with young noblemen and
gentlemen as tutor ; in 1741 and 1744 he was at Rome
in this capacity. He died ot a lever at Lord Digby’s
house at Coleshill in Warwickshire, December 30.
1747. He was the author of the “ Muscipula,” a
poem, esteemed a master-piece in its kind, and ot
which there is a good English translation by Dr John
Hoadley, in vol. v. of Dodsley’s Miscellanies. He was
the author also of a dissertation, entitled “ Pharsalia
and Philippi or the two Philippi in Virgil’s Georgies
attempted to be explained and reconciled to History,
1741,” 4to: and of Remarks and Dissertations on
Virgil ; with some other classical Observations, pub¬
lished with several notes and additional remarks by Mr
Spence, 1768,” 4to. Mr Spence speaks of him in Po¬
lymetis, as one who understood Virgil in a more mas¬
terly manner than any person he ever knew.
HOLORACEiE, (from holu.s, “ pot-herbs”) ; the
name of the 12th order in Linnaeus’s fragments of a
natural method, consisting of plants which are used for
the table, and enter into the economy of domestic af¬
fairs. See Botany Index.
HOLIBUT. See Pleuronectes, Ichthyology
Index.
HOLINESS, or Sanctity j a quality which con¬
stitutes or denominates a person or thing holy; i. e.
pure, or exempt from sin. The word is also used in
respect of persons and things that are sacred, i. e. set
apart to the service of God, and the uses of religion.
HOLINESS, is also a title of quality attributed to the
pope ; as that of majesty is to kings. Even kings, when
writing to the pope, address him under the venerable
5
560 ]
appellation of Your Holiness, ov Holy Father; in Latin,
Sanctissime or Beatissime Pater. Anciently the same
title was given to all bishops. The Greek emperors also
were addressed under the title of Holiness, in regard of
their being anointed with holy oil at their coronation.
Du Cange adds, that some of the kings of England
have had the same attribute*, and that the orientals
have frequently refused it to the pope.
HOLINGSHED, Ralph, or Raphael, was one
of the humble but useful class of historians called chro~
nologers. He was educated at Cambridge, according
to Bishop Tanner, and became A. M. in the year
1544. The nature and extent of his education, as well
as his profession, are involved in uncertainty. It seems
probable, however, that he was steward to Thomas
Burdett, Esq. of Bomcote in Warwickshire, where he
died about the year 1580. He has given name to a
compilation of Chronicles of English history from the
earliest times, the first edition of which was published
at London in 1577, in two volumes folio, and the se¬
cond edition in three volumes, was printed about seven
years after his death, brought down to 1586. Ibis
work, according to the testimony of Holingshed him¬
self, was begun by the advice of Reginald Wolfe, prin¬
ter to Queen Elizabeth. Part of it was compiled by
himself, but he received considerable assistance from
William Harrison, John Hooker, Abraham Fleming,
Francis Tbvnne, and some others. It was continued by
John Stowe after the death of Holingshed. Some parts
of the first edition were altered in the second and third,
because they gave offence to Queen Elizabeth and the
ministry, who laid many restrictions on the liberty of
the press. The first edition of consequence is both
scarce and valuable ; but the suppressed sheets were
afterwards printed by themselves. The chronicles of
Holingshed, although considered as both tedious and
vulgar, contain many important facts, which tend to il¬
lustrate the customs and manners of remote periods.
HOLLAND, Philemond, M. D. commonly call¬
ed the translator general of his age, was educated in
the university of Cambridge. He was for many years
a schoolmaster at Coventry, where he also practised
physic. He translated Livy, Pliny’s Natural Flistory,
Plutarch’s Morals, Suetonius, Ammianus Marcellinus,
Xenophon’s Cyropoedia, and Camden’s Britannia, in¬
to English; and the geographical part of Speed’s
Theatre of Great Britain into Latin. I he Britan¬
nia, to which he made many useful additions, was the
most valuable of his works. It is surprising that a
man of two professions could find time to translate so
much ; but it appears from the date of the Cyropredia,
that he continued to translate till he was 80 years ot
age. He died in 1637, aged 85. He made the fol¬
lowing epigram upon writing a large folio with a single
pen :
Holine
Holian
With one sole pen I wrote this book,
Made of a grey goose quill ;
A pen it was when it I took,
And a pen I leave it still.
HOLLAND, the largest of the seven United Pro¬
vinces, divided into South and North Holland, the
latter of which is also called JFest Frieslaml, is bounc¬
ed on the west bv the German ocean, or North sea; to
the
Hand
H O L [ 561 ]
the east by the Zuyder-see, the province of Utrecht, ed to France.
and part of Guelderland ; to the south by Dutch Bra
bant and Zealand j and to the north by the Zuyder-
see. Its greatest extent from north to south including
the island of Texel, is about 90 English miles j but
from east to west its extent varies from 40 to 25. To
defend it against the sea, dykes have been erected at an
immense expence, and innumerable canals cut to drain
it, as being naturally very low and marshy. Some
parts of the province are very fruitful in corn j but the
greater part consists of rich pastures, wherein are kept
large herds of kine, which supply them with incredible
quantities of butter and cheese. Of the latter, that of
Edam, in North Holland, is highly esteemed. The
many rivers and canals that intersect the province are
of great advantage to its commerce, but contribute to
render the air foggy and unwholesome. There is a
Communication by water betwixt almost every town and
village. Towards the middle also of the province are
great numbers of turf-pits. The number of the inha¬
bitants in 1817 was 748,000. In point of cleanliness
no country surpasses, and few come up to it, especially
in North Holland, and that even in the villages. From
the counts of Holland this province devolved, in 1436,
to the dukes of Burgundy, and from them to the house
of Austria, along with the other provinces. By the an¬
cient constitution of the country the states of Holland
and West Friesland were composed of the nobility and
deputies of the towns ; of the latter there were 18 that
sent deputies to the assembly of the states, which was
held at the Hague. The grand pensionary was a person
of great dignity and weight in this assembly, and his
office required extraordinary abilities. There were also
two councils composed of deputies, one for South and
another for North Holland, who had the cognizance of
the revenue and military affairs. The whole province
sent one deputy from among the noblesse to the states-
general, who took precedence of all others, together
with three or four more. There were two supreme
courts of judicature for Holland and Zealand ; viz. the
great council of Holland and Zealand, and the hof
or court of Holland. To these appeals lay from the
towns 5 but the causes of noblemen came before them
in the first instance. With respect to the ecclesiastical
government, there is a synod held annually both in
South and North Holland, of which the former con¬
tains eleven classes, and the latter six ; and the mini¬
sters of both together amount to 331. In the whole
province are 37 towns, eight boroughs, and 400 vil¬
lages.
Soon after the commencement of the French revo¬
lution, this ill-fated country became the theatre of war,
the old government was subverted, and the stadtholder
having fled to England for safety, the republican rulers
of France imposed a political constitution upon it ac¬
cording to their pleasure. The infatuated people of
Holland received their conquerors with apparent,
perhaps with real satisfaction at first 5 but experience
fatally taught them the pernicious nature of the
change. As the government of France changed from
directorial to consular, and from consular to imperial,
that of Holland also received various modifications,
till at last it was converted into a monarchy under
one of Bonaparte’s brothers, who afterwards withdrew
from his kingdom, and then Holland was annex-
Vol. X. Part II. f
H O L
In this state it remained, till the sue- Holland,
cesses of the 'allies in 1813 restored the prince of New Hol-
Orange. For a copious detail of the political vicissi- hmd-
tudes which Holland has experienced in consequence of v *
the French revolution, see the article France j and
for the history, see United Provinces.
Holland, one of the divisions of Lincolnshire in
England. It so much resembles the province of that
name upon the continent, in most respects, being low
and marshy, with the sea on one side, and canals run¬
ning through it, that it must either have had its name
from thence or on the same account. On the east it
has what the ancient geographers call 2E.stiiarium Me~
tuaris, now the Washes, which are overflowed at high
water, and part of Cambridgeshire on the south. The.
lower part of it is full of bogs and marshes, and has
huge banks to defend it against the sea and land floods.
The ground is so soft that horses are worked unshod ;
and it produces plenty of grass, but little corn.
The whole tract seems to have been gained from the
sea; and is divided into Upper and Lower, the latter
of which was impassable j but since the fens have been
drained, the lands are grown more solid, and the inha¬
bitants sow cole-seed upon them to their great profit.
Though there are no stones to be found in or upon
the ground, yet most of the churches are of stone.
They have no fresh water but from the clouds, which
is preserved in pits : but if these are deep, it soon turns
brackish ) and if they are shallow, they soon become
dry.
New Holland, the largest island in the world,
reaching from 10 to 40° S. Lat. and between 114
and 153 Long, from London. It received its
name from having been chiefly explored by Dutch
navigators. The land first discovered in those parts
was called Eemlraght (Concord) Land, from the name
of the ship on board which the discovery was made in N
1616; 240 and 230 south. In 1618, another part of
this coast, nearly in 150 south, was discovered by
Zeachen, who gave it the name of Arnheim and Die¬
men ; though a different part from what afterwards re¬
ceived the name of Diemen’s Land from Tasman, which
was supposed to be the southern extremity, in latitude
430. This is now found to be an island separated from
New Holland by Bass’s Straits. See Dieman's Land.
In 1619, Jan Van Edels gave his name to a southern
part of New Holland. Another part situated between
30 and 330 received the name of Leuwen. Peter Van
Nuitz gave his name, in 1627, to a coast which com¬
municates to Leuwen’s Land towards the westward j
and a part of the western coast, near the tropic of Ca¬
pricorn, bore the name of De Wit's. In 1628, Peter
Carpenter, a Dutchman, discovered the great gulf of
Carpentaria, between 10 and 20° south. In 1687,
Dampier, an Englishman, sailpd from Timor, and coast¬
ed the western parts of New Holland. In 1699, he
left England, with a design to explore this country, as
the Dutch suppressed whatever discoveries had been
made by them. He sailed along the western coast of it,
from 28 to 150. He saw the land of Eendraght and
of De Wit. He then returned to Timor, from
whence he went out again ; examined the isles of Pa¬
pua j coasted New Guinea; discovered the passage that
bears his name ; called a great island which forms this
passage or strait on the east side, New Britain ; and
4 B sailed
H O L
[ 562 ]
H O L
Saw Ho’- sailed back to Timor along New Guinea, Tins is the
land same Dampier who between 1683 and 1691, sailed
  * J round the world by changing his ships. Notwitli-
etanding the attempts of all these navigators, however,
the eastern part ot this vast tract was totally unknown
till Captain Cook made his voyages j and by fully ex¬
ploring that part of the coast, gave his country an un¬
doubted title to the possession of it $ which according¬
ly has since been taken possession ol under the name 01
. New South IFlies.
Whether Some have disputed whether the title of island can
the name be properly applied to a country of such vast extent,
oS continent QV whether it ought not rather to be denominated a
belongs to cont{nent; while others have replied, that though the
laud word island, and others similar to it, do indeed signify
a tract of land surrounded by sea, yet in the usual ac*
ceptation it means only a land of moderate extent
surrounded in this manner. Were it otherwise, we
might call the whole world an island, as it is every
where surrounded by the sea j and in fact, Dionysius
Periegetes applies this term to it, with the addition of
the word immense^ to distinguish it from other islands.
The best rule, according to Mr Stockdale, for deter¬
mining when a country ought to lose the name of island
and begin to be called a continent, is when it begins to
lose the advantages of an insular situation. The first
and principal of these, is the being capable of an union
under one government, and thence deriving a security
from all external attacks excepting those by sea •, but
in countries of great extent, this is not only difficult,
but impossible. If we consider, therefore, New Hol¬
land as extending about a thousand miles every way,
we shall find that its claim to be called a continent is
undoubted; its length from east to west being about
t 2400 English miles, and 2300 from north to south.
Captain This coast was first explored by Captain Cook in
Cook’s ac- tbe year 1770 j but his stay was too short to examine
ommt of ^ nature of the country with the accuracy which he
tbe couu- 4 4
try*
would otherwise have done had he continued longer New Hoi.
in it. In general, it was found rather barren than land,
otherwise. Many brooks and springs were found along ' r
the eastern coast, but no river of any consequence.
They found ^only two kinds of trees useful as timber,
the pine, and another which produces a sort of gum.
They found three kinds of palm trees j but few esculent
plants, though there are abundance of such as might
gratify the curiosity of the botanist. A great variety
of birds were met with, which have since been particu¬
larly described j but the number of quadrupeds bears
but a very small proportion to that of tbe other ani¬
mals. The most remarkable insects seen at this time
were the green ants (a), who build their nests upon
trees in a very singular manner. 3
This country has now become an object of more Settlement
consequence than formerly, by reason of the establish-of a Bntifli
ment of a British colony in it $ where the criminals
condemned to be transported are sent to pass their time lan(j
of servitude. Before this plan was resolved on by govern¬
ment, another had been discussed, viz. that of employ¬
ing these criminals in workhouses j and Judge Black-
stone, with Mr Eden and Mr Howard, had con¬
sidered of the best method of putting it in execution j
but though this plan had been approved by parliament
as early as 1779, some difficulties always occurred,
which prevented its going forward j and at length on
the 6th of December 1786, orders were issued by his
majesty in council for making a settlement on New
Holland, establishing a court of judicature in the
colony, and other regulations necessary on the oc¬
casion. The whole received the complete sanction of
legislature in the beginning of the year 1787. The
squadron appointed for putting the design in execution
began to assemble at the Mother Bank, the place of
rendezvous, in the Isle of Wight, on the 16th of
March 1787. It consisted of the Sirius frigate Cap¬
tain John Hunter, the Supply armed tender Lieute¬
nant
(a) These little animals form their habitations, by bending down the leaves of trees, and glueing the ends of
them together, so as to form a purse. Though these leaves are as broad as a man’s hand, they perform this feat
by main strength, thousands of them being employed in holding down the leavesj while multitudes of others
apply the glutinous matter. Captain Cook’s people ascertained themselves that this was the case, by some¬
times disturbing them at their work ; in which case the leaf always sprung up with an elasticity, which they
could not have supposed that such minute insects were capable of overcoming. For this curiosity, however,
they smarted pretty severely j for thousands of these little enemies instantly threw themselves upon the aggres¬
sors, and revenged themselves by their bites or stings for the interruption they had met with. These were little
less painful at first than the sting of a bee j but the pain did not last above a minute. Another species of ants
burrow themselves in the root of a plant which grows on the bark of trees like the misletoe, and which is com¬
monly as big as a large turnip. When this is cut, it appears intersected with innumerable winding passages all
filled with these animals j notwithstanding which, the vegetation of the plant suffers no injury. These do not give
pain by their stings, but produce an intolerable itching by crawling about on the skin. They are about the size
of the small red ant in this country. Another sort, which do not molest in any manner, resemble the white
ant of the East Indies. J hey construct nests three or four times as big as a man’s head on the branches of
trees j the outsides being composed of some vegetable matter along with a glutinous substance. On breaking the
outer crusts of these hives, innumerable cells appear swarming with inhabitants, in a great variety of winding
directions, all communicating with each other, and with several other nests upon the same tree. They have also
another house built on the ground, generally at the root of a tree *, formed like an irregular sided cone; some¬
times more than six feet high* and nearly as much in diameter. The outside of these is well-tempered clay about
two inches thick: and within are the cells, which have no opening outward. One of these is their summer
and the other their winter dwelling, communicating with each other by a large avenue leading to the
ground, and by a subterraneous passage* The ground structures are proof against wet, which those on the branches
are not,.
H O L - [ 5^3 ] H O L
N- Hoi- nant H. L. Ball ; three store-ships, the Golden-grove,
IU^ Fishburn, and Borrowdale, for carrying provisions and
U ' stores for two years; and lastly, six transports, the Scar¬
borough and Lady PenrhynfromPortsmouth, the Friend¬
ship and Charlotte from Plymouth, and the Prince of
Wales and Alexander from Woolwich. These were
to carry the convicts, with a detachment of marines in
each proportioned to the nature of the service ; the
largest where resistance was most expected, viz. in
those which carried the greatest number of male con¬
victs. On the arrival of Governor Phillip at the sta¬
tion, he hoisted his flag on board the Sirius as commo¬
dore of the squadron; and the embarkation being com¬
pleted, he gave the signal to weigh anchor on the 13th
of May at day-break. The number of convicts was
778, of whom 558 were men. They touched at the
island of Tenerifle on the 3d of June, without meeting
with any bad accident. Here they staid a week, in or¬
der to procure such refreshments as were necessary for
preventing the disorders mostly to be dreaded in such
a long and perilous voyage. In this they succeeded to
their wish ; and were about to depart on the 9th of
June, when it was discovered that one of the convicts
had made his escape, having found means to cut away
a boat and make off with it. He offered himself as a
sailor aboard a Dutch vessel at that time in the har¬
bour, but was refused 5 on which he attempted to con¬
ceal himself in a cove. In this he would probably have
succeeded, had it not been for the boat, which he could
not conceal j so that he was soon discovered and brought
back to the ship, where, however, he obtained his
pardon from the governor.
On the 10th of June the fleet set sail from Santa
Cruz in the island of Teneriffe, and on the 18th came
in sight ot the Cape Verd islands, where they steered
forStJago: but the want of a favourable wind and
other circumstances prevented their getting in j so that
as Governor Phillip did not choose to waste time, they
did not touch land till they came to Rio Janeiro on the
coast of Brazil. It may seem surprising, that a voyage
to the eastward, which of itself may be accounted of
sufficient length, should thus be wilfully made so much
longer, by sailing twice across the Atlantic. The
calms, however, so frequent on the coast of Africa,
seem of themselves to be a sufficient inducement for na¬
vigators to preserve a westerly course $ and even the
islands at which it is so necessary to touch, are not far
distant from the American coast. The returning tracks
of Captain Cook’s three voyages are all within a little
space of the 45th degree of west longitude, which is
even 10 degrees farther west than Cape St Roque ;
and that course appears to have been taken voluntari¬
ly, without any extraordinary inducement.
During the time of their stay at Santa Cruz the
weather had been very moderate ; the barometer about
30 inches, and the thermometer never above 72 ; as
they approached the Cape Verd islands it rose to 82,
and did not exceed 82° all the way from thence to
Rio Janeiro. Here they met with a very favourable
reception, contrary to that which Captain Cook expe¬
rienced on a similar occasion. Provisions were so cheap,
that though the allowance of meat was fixed by the go¬
vernor at 20 ounces per day, the men were victualled
completely at 3|d. each, including rice, vegetables, and
every other necessary. Wine was not at this time to
be had except at an advanced price: but rum was laid New Hol-
in, and such seeds and plants procured as were thought land,
most likely to flourish in New South Wales $ particu- v—'
larly coffee, indigo, cotton, and the cochineal fig. An
hundred sacks of cassada were likewise purchased as a
substitute for bread, if it should happen to be scarce.
By the kindness of the viceroy also, some deficiencies
in the military stores were made up from the royal ar¬
senal, and every assistance given which the place could
afford. They arrived here on the 5th of August 1787,
and set sail on the 4th of September, receiving as the
last compliment from the governor a salute of 21
guns.
From Rio Janeiro the fleet had a fine run to Table
Bay, in the southern extremity of Africa, which they
accomplished in 39 days : where they took in the re¬
freshments meant to supply them during the remainder
of the voyage. Here they arrived on the 13th of Octo¬
ber j and having supplied themselves with a great num¬
ber of live stock, they set sail on the 12th of Novem¬
ber, but were long impeded by contrary winds from
the south-east. On the 25th they were only 80 leagues
distant from the Cape, when Governor Phillip left the
Sirius and went aboard the Supply tender j in hopes,
by leaving the convoy, to gain sufficient time for exa¬
mining the country round Botany Bay, that the most
proper situation for the new colony might be chosen
before the transports should arrive. They now met
with favourable winds, blowing generally in very strong
gales from the north-west, west, and south-west. The
wind shifted only once to the east, but did not continue 4
in that direction above a few hours. On the 3d of Ja-They ar-
nuary 1788 the Supply came within sight of New South rive at
Wales j but the winds then became variable, and Ne'T Ho1"
a current, which at times set very strongly to thelaud*
southward, impeded her course so much, that it was
not till the 18th of the month that she arrived at Bo¬
tany Bay. ^
Governor Phillip no sooner landed than he had an Interview
opportunity of conversing with the natives, who were witb the
assembled on shore. As it was the intention of thisIlat*Tes•
gentleman to conciliate if possible their friendship, he
used every method at this first interview to inspire them
with a favourable idea of the Europeans. For this pur¬
pose he presented them with beads and other trifling
ornaments, which they seemed pleased to wear, though
Captain Cook found them very indifferent about any
kind of finery he could furnish them with. They
seemed, according to the account of that celebrated na¬
vigator, to be so attached to their own ornaments, that
they made no account of any thing else. They recei¬
ved indeed such things as were given them, but made
no offer to return any thing in exchange 5 nor could
they be made to comprehend that any thing of the kind
was wanted. Many of the presents which they had
received were afterwards found thrown away in the
woods. 6
Governor Phillip having parted with his new ac-Inooimni-
quaintance in a friendly manner, next set about an ex-ence of Bo-
amination of the country about Botany Bay, which had^any
been strongly recommended by Captain Cook as theSelt*C'
most eligible place for a settlement. He found, how¬
ever, that the bay itself was very inconvenient for ship¬
ping; being exposed to the easterly winds, and so shal¬
lop that ships even of a moderate burden could not
4 B 2 get
>£e\v Hol¬
land.
H O L [ 564
get far enough within land to be sheltered from the fu¬
ry of the ocean. Neither did the land about any part
of this bay appear an eligible situation for a colony $
being in some places entirely swampy, in others quite
destitute of water. Point Sutherland seemed to allord
the situation most free from objections, but the ships
could not approach it; and even here the ground seem¬
ed to be universally damp and spongy : so that, on the.
whole, finding no place within the compass of the bay
proper for the new settlement, they found themselves
obliged to remove somewhere else.
The rest of the fleet arrived in two days after the
Supply j and that no time might be lost, Governor
Phillip ordered the ground about Point Sutherland to
be cleared, and preparations to be made for landing,
while he went with several officers in three boats to exa¬
mine Port Jackson, which was only three leagues di¬
stant. Here they bad the satisfaction to find one of the
finest harbours in the world, where 1000 sail of the
line might ride in perfect safety. On examining the
different coves, one was preferred which had a fine run
of spring water, and where ships could anchor so close
to the shore, that at a very small expence quays might
be constructed for loading and unloading the largest
vessels. This was named by the governor Sydney Cove,
in honour of Lord Sydney, and the country around it
destined for the place of settlement. It is about half a
mile long, and a quarter of a mile broad at the en¬
trance. On the governor’s return to Botany Bay, the
reports made to him concerning the adjacent country
were so exceedingly unfavourable, that orders were
immediately given for the removal of the fleet to
Port Jackson. On the morning of the 25th, therefore,
mein lorul- the governor sailed from Botany Bay, and was soon fol-
Jacksop11" ^ovve^ t*le vv^°*e Aeet* 1° the mean time, they
were surprised by the appearance of two other Euro-
8 pean vessels, which had been first seen off Botany Bay
Visited by on the 24th. These were found to be two French
two French ships, named the Astrolabe and Boussole, which had
left France on a voyage of discovery under the com¬
mand of M. la Peyrouse, in the year 1785. They had
touched at the island of Santa Catharina on the coast
of Brasil, and from thence gone by the extremity of
South America into the Pacific ocean, where they had
run along by the coasts of Chili and California; after
which they had visited Easter Island, Nootka Sound,
Cook’s river, Kamtschatka, Manilla, the isles des Na-
vigateurs, and the Sandwich and Friendly Isles. -They
had also attempted to land on Norfolk Island, but
found it impossible on account of the surf. During the
whole voyage none were lost by sickness j but two
boats crews had unfortunately perished in a surf on the
north-west coast of America ; and at Masuna, one of
the isles des Navigateurs, M. L’Angle, captain of the
Astrolabe, with 12 of his people, officers and men,
were murdered by the savages. This was the more sur¬
prising, as there had been an uninterrupted friendship
with them from the time the French touched at the
island, till that unfortunate moment. M. L’Angle had
gone ashore with two long boats for the purpose of fill¬
ing some water-casks. His party amounted to forty
men $ and the natives, from whom the French had al¬
ready received abundance of refreshments, did not show
any signs of a hostile disposition: But from whatever
motive their resentment was excited, the men had no
]
H O L
>
A settle
ships.
sooner begun (0 get out the boats, than the savages New Ho!
made a most furious and unexpected assault with stones, fand.
In this encounter M. L’Angle himself, with the peo- '•“-'Y—*
pie above mentioned, fell a sacrifice to the treachery of
these barbarians. The remainder of the party escaped
with great difficulty; the ships having at that time pas¬
sed a point of land which intercepted their view of the
affray.
The convicts and others destined to remain in New
South Wales being landed, no time was lost in begin¬
ning to clear ground for an encampment, store-houses,
&c. The work, however, went on but slowly, partly
owing to the natural difficulties they had to encounter,
and partly to the habitual indolence of the convicts,
which indeed was naturally to be expected considering
their former way of life. Nevertheless, by the end of
the first week of February, the plan of an encampment
was formed, the places were marked out for different
purposes, so that the colony already began to assume
some appearance of order and regularity. The ma¬
terials and frame-wmrk of a slight temporary habita¬
tion for the governor had been brought out from Eng¬
land ready formed, which were landed and put toge¬
ther with as much expedition as circumstances would
allow. Hospital tents were also erected; and the sick¬
ness which soon took place showed the propriety of so
doing. In the passage from the Cape there had been
but little sickness, and few of the convicts had died ;
but a little time after they landed a dysentery began to
prevail, which proved fatal in several instances, and the
scurvy began to rage with great violence, so that the
hospital-tents were soon filled with patients. The dis¬
order proved the more virulent as fresh provisions could
but rarely be obtained; nor were esculent vegetables
often obtained in such plenty as could produce any ma¬
terial alleviation of the complaint: the only remedy for
the dysentery was found to be a kind of red gum, pro¬
duced in plenty by the trees growing upon this coast.
The yellow gum has the same properties, though in an
inferior degree.
In the beginning of February, a most violent storm
of thunder and lightning destroyed five of the sheep
which had a shed erected for them under a tree, which
proved a prelude to other misfortunes among the cattle.
The encampment, however, was carried on with great
alacrity ; the foundations of the store-houses were laid,
and every thing began to wear a promising appearance. 9
On the 7th of the month a regular form of govern-Itegular
ment was established in the colony, with all the solem-foim°f
nity which could possibly be given: the governor made
a proper speech to the convicts, reminding them of the
situation in which they stood ; and that now, if they
continued their former practices, it was impossible they
could hope for mercy if detected ; neither could they
expect to escape detection in so small a society. Of¬
fenders, therefore, he said, would certainly be punished
with the utmost rigour ; though such as behaved them¬
selves in a proper manner, might always depend upon
encouragement. He particularly noticed the illegal in¬
tercourse betwixt the sexes, as a practice which encou¬
raged profligacy in every respect; for which reason he
recommended marriage : and this exhortation seemed
not to be altogether in vain, as 14 marriages were ce¬
lebrated that very week in consequence.
Heavy rains took place during the remainder of this
month,
vf-' %
I
B
]'ni B
H 0 L
C 565 ]
H O L
Htd.
Wei Jol- which showed the necessity of going on with
j. I. the work as soon as possible. The want of carpenters,
1— —^ however, prevented this from being done so expediti¬
ously as could have been wished. Only 16 of these
could be hired from all the ships j and no more than
12 of the convicts were of this profession, of whom se¬
veral were sick j so that the party were by far too few
for the work they had to perform. A hundred con¬
victs were added as labourers ; but with every effort it
was found impossible to complete either the barracks
or the huts for the officers so soon as could be wished.
N<>r £ On the 14th of February a small party was sent out
ild et" *0 set^e on Norfolk Island, who have since established
a colony there which promises to be of considerable uti-
*Si foe- lity *. It was soon found, however, absolutely neces-
folk md-sary to make examples of some of the convicts at Port
Jackson. Towards the end of February it was found
necessary to convene a criminal court, in which six of
the convicts received sentence of death. One who was
the head of the gang was executed the same day : one
of the rest was pardoned j the other four were repriev¬
ed, and afterwards exiled to a small island within the
bay, where they were kept on bread and water. They
had frequently robbed both the stores and other con¬
victs. The fellow who was executed, and two others,
had been detected in stealing the very day on which
they received a week’s provision j and at the same time
that their allowance was the same as that of the soldiers,
spirituous liquors only excepted,
firol In the beginning of March the governor went out
Say uni-with a small party to examine Broken Bay, lying about
eight miles to the northward of Port Jackson. This
was found very extensive, with many openings. One of
the latter ended in several small branches, and a large
lagoon, which they could not at that time examine.
Most of the land about the upper part of this branch
was low and full of swamps, with great numbers of pe¬
licans, and other aquatic birds. Among the rest they
met with an uncommon bird, called at that time the
Hooded Gulf, but afterwards found to be the species
named by Mr Latham the Caspian Tern.
From this north-west branch they proceeded across
the bay to the south-west branch, which is also very
extensive, with a second opening to the westward ca¬
pable of affording shelter to almost any number of
ships, with depth of water for vessels of almost any
burden. The land was found much higher here than
at Port Jackson, more rocky, and equally covered with
timber. Large trees were seen growing even on the
summits of the mountains, which appeared totally in¬
accessible to the human species. Round the headland
which forms the southern entrance into the bay is a
third branch, which Governor Phillip thought the finest
piece of water he had ever seen j which for that rea¬
son he honoured with the name of Pitt-water. This
branch, as well as the former, is sufficient to contain
all the navy of Great Britain $ but the latter has a bar
at the entrance of only 18 feet at low water. Within
are from 7 to 15 fathoms. The land here is more le¬
vel than on the south-west brancii, and some situations
are proper for cultivation. The governor determined
to have returned by land, in order to explore the coun¬
try betwixt Port Jackson and Broken Bay, but the
continual rains prevented him.
On the loth of March the French ships departed,
little intercourse having passed between them and the jsjew u0j.
English during the time of their stay. While the for- land.
mer remained in Botany Bay, Father la Receveur, who -.J
had come out in the Astrolabe as a naturalist, died of^ “ of
the wounds he had received in the battle with the m-janere_
habitants of Masuna. A kind of monument was erect- vcnr.
ed to his memory, with the following inscription ;
Hie jacet La Receveur
E. F. F. minimis Galliae sacerdos,
Physicus in circumnavigatione
Mundi
D uce He la Peyrouse,
Ob. 17. Feb. 1788.
This monument, however, was soon after destroyed
by the natives ; on which Governor Phillip caused the
inscription to be engraved on copper and nailed to a
neighbouring tree. M. de la Peyrouse had paid a simi¬
lar tribute to the memory of Captain Clerke at Kamts-
chatka. 2j
On the 15th of April, the governor, attended by Excursions
several officers and a small party of marines, set out|nto^e
on an expedition into the interior parts of the country.
Their first landing was at the head of a small cove country,
named Shell-covey near the entrance of the harbour on
the north side. Proceeding in this direction, they ar¬
rived with great labour at a large lake, surrounded on
all sides with bog and marshy ground to a considerable
extent, and in which they frequently plunged up to
the waist. Here they observed that bird so rare in
other parts of the world, viz. a black swan. On being
fired at, it rose, and shewed that its wings were edged
with white, the bill being tinged red. They spent three
days in a very laborious manner in passing the marshes
and swamps which lie in the neighbourhood of the har¬
bour : and here they had an opportunity of observing,
that all the small streams which descend into Port Jack-
son proceed from swamps, occasioned by the stagnation
of the water in the low grounds as it rises from the
springs. On leaving these low grounds, they found
them succeeded by a rocky and barren country $ the
hills covered with various flowering shrubs, though fre¬
quently inaccessible by reason of various natural obsta¬
cles. At about 15 miles distance from the sea, the go¬
vernor had a fine view of the internal parts of the coun¬
try, which were mountainous. To the most northerly
chain of these he gave the name of Carmarthen, and to
the most southerly that of Lansdown Hills ; and to one
which lay between these he gave the name of Richmond
Hill. It was conjectured, that a large river must rise
from these mountains j but there was now a necessity for
returning. On the 22d, however, another expedition
was undertaken. Governor Phillip with his party land¬
ed near the head of the harbour. Here they found a
good country 5 but in a short time arrived at a close
thicket through which they found it impossible to make
their way, so that they were obliged to return. Next
day, by keeping close to the banks of a small creek,
they made a shift to pass that obstacle, and continued
their course for three days to the westward. The coun¬
try was now extremely fine, either entirely level or ris¬
ing in small hills j the soil excellent, but stony in a few
places. The trees grew at the distance of from 20 to
40 feet from each other, in general totally destitute of
underwood, which was confined to the barren and stony .
spots. ,
H O L
New Hoi- spots. On the 5th day they saw for the first time in
Ian ). this second expedition Carmarthen and Lansdown hills ;
but the country all round was so beautiful, that Go¬
vernor Phillip gave it the name ofVue. They
were still apparently 30 miles from the mountains which
they had intended to reach j but not having been able
to carry more than six days provisions along with them,
they found it necessary to return ; and even with this
small stock the officers as well as men were obliged to
carry heavy loads. During all this time they had not
proceeded farther in a direct line than 30 miles, so great
were the obstructions they had met with from deep
ravines, &c. Their return, however, was effected with
much greater ease, having cleared a track, and marked
trees all the way as they went along to direct them in
their journey back. The country explored at this time
appeared so fine, that Governor Phillip determined to
form a settlement there as soon as a sufficient number
could be spared from those works which were immedi¬
ately necessary. On his return he had the mortification
to find, that five ewes and a lamb had been killed very
near the camp, and in the middle of the day. This
mischief was supposed to have been done by some dogs
belonging to the natives.
All this time the scurvy had continued to rage with
great violence : so that by the beginning of May near
200 people were incapable of work. For this reason,
and on account of the great difficulty of clearing the
ground, no more than eight or ten acres of wheat and
barley had been sown, besides what private individuals
had sown for themselves j and it was even feared that
this small crop would suffer from the depredations of
ants and field mice. To procure as much relief as
possible therefore in the present exigence, the Supply
was sent in the beginning of May to Lord Howe Island,
in hopes of procuring some turtle and other provisions j
but unfortunately the vessel returned without any tur¬
tle, having met with squally weather, and being obli¬
ged to cut away her best bower anchor. The natives
by "the na- now ^egan to s^10w an hostile disposition, which they had
lives. n°t hitherto done. One of the convicts, who had
wandered away from the rest in quest of vegetables, re¬
turned with a very dangerous wound in the back j giv¬
ing information also, that another who had gone out
lor the same purpose had been carried off in his sight by
the natives, after being wounded in the head. A shirt
and hat were afterwards found in some of the huts of
the natives, but no intelligence of the man could be
gained. This was followed by other misfortunes of the
same nature. On the 30th of the month, two men
who had been employed in cutting rushes for thatch at
some distance from the camp were found dead. One
of them had four spears in his body, one of which had
pierced quite through it; but the other had no marks
of violence upon him. In this case, however, it was
proved, that those who suffered had been the aggres¬
sors ; as they had been seen with one of the canoes of
the natives which they had taken from one of the fish¬
ing places. All possible inquiry was made after the
natives who had been guilty of the murder, but to no
purpose. In the course of this inquiry, it was found
that one of the natives had been murdered, and several
wounded, previous to the attack upon the rush-cutters.
1 be governor promised liberty to any convict who
should discover the aggressors ; but no information was
3
Murders
committed
[ 566 ] H O L
procured, though it is probable that it may prevent ac- New 11
cidents of that kind for the future. About this time land,
the two bulls and four cows belonging to government ''“““V'
and to the governor, having been left for some time bv
the man who had the charge of them, strayed into the
woods and could not be recovered, though they were
afterwards traced to some distance.
The 4th of June being his majesty’s birth-day, was
celebrated with as much festivity as circumstances would
allow; and on this occasion it was first made public
that the governor had given the name of Cumberland
County to this part of the territory. The appointed
boundaries were Carmarthen and Lansdown hills on the
west, the northern parts of Broken Bay on the north,
and the southern parts of Botany Bay on the south ;
thus including these three principal bays, with Sydney
Cove nearly in the centre. r
The misfortunes which attended those convicts who A coink
strayed to too great a distance from the settlement, exee'llfl1
were not sufficient to prevent some of them from ramb¬
ling into the woods, in hopes of subsisting themselves
there and regaining their liberty. One of these, who
had been guilty of a robbery, fled into the woods on
the 5th of June, but was obliged to return half-starved
on the 24th. He had found it impossible to subsist in
the woods, and had met with very little relief from the
natives. One of them gave him a fish, but made signs •
for him to go away. According to his account, they
themselves were in a very miserable situation ; and he
pretended to have seen four of them apparently dying
of hunger, who made signs to him for something to
eat. He pretended also to have fallen in with a party
who would have burnt him, and that he made his es¬
cape f»;om them with difficulty. He said also, that he
had seen the remains of a human body lying on a fire ;
and endeavoured to inculcate the idea of these savages
eating human flesh when other provisions were scarce.
This poor wretch was tried and executed for the theft
he had committed before his departure, along with an¬
other criminal. ^
By this time the colony was so far advanced, that Regulai
the plan of a regular town had been marked out. ThePlancf
principal street, when finished, is to be 200 feet wide,,0'vnl*
terminated by the governor’s house, the main guard,
and criminal court. The plans of other streets are
likewise marked out; and it is the governor’s inten¬
tion, that when houses are built here, the grants of
land shall be made with such clauses as will prevent
the building of more than one house on one allotment,
which is to consist of 60 feet in front and 150 in depth.
Thus a kind of uniformity will be preserved in the
building, narrow streets prevented, and many inconve¬
niences avoided, which a rapid increase of inhabitants
might otherwise occasion. It has likewise been an ob¬
ject of the governor’s attention to place the public
buildings in such situations as will be eligible at all
times, and particularly to give the store-houses and hos¬
pital sufficient space for future enlargement, should it
be found necessary. The first huts erected in this place
were composed only of the soft wood of the cabbage
palm, in order to give immediate shelter, and which
had the further inconvenience of being used quite
green. The huts of the convicts were constructed only
of upright posts wattled with slight twigs, and plaster¬
ed up with clay. Buildings of stone might easily have
been
H O L [ 567 ] H O L
Hoi- been ralsetl, had there been any means of procuring
I. lime for mortar. There were three kinds of stone met
with about Sydney Cove, one equal in goodness to
Portland stone, an indifferent kind of sandstone or free¬
stone, and a sort which seems to contain iron j but nei¬
ther chalk nor any species of limestone has yet been
discovered. Lime was indeed procured from oyster-
shells collected in the neighbouring coves to construct
a small house for the governor j but it cannot be ex¬
pected that a sufficient quantity can thus be procured
i'or many or very extensive buildings. Good clay for
bricks has been found near Sydney Cove, and very
good bricks have been made of it j the wood also, not¬
withstanding the many reports to the contrary, is found
abundantly fit for various purposes after being tho¬
roughly seasoned. Such specimens as have been sent
to England were fine-grained and free of knots, but
heavy.
On the point of land that forms the west side of the
Cove a small observatory has been erected, the longi¬
tude of which has been ascertained to be 1590 ip7 30"
east from Greenwich, and the latitude 320 52' 30"
south. Instead of thatch they now make use of shingles
made from a certain tree, which has the appearance of
a fir, but produces wood like English oak.
nt With regard to the state of this colony there have
ts been various and discordant accounts. Some of these
have represented the country in such a light, that it
would seem impossible to subsist on it y and it has been
said, that the people who have had the misfortune to
go there already were in the utmost danger of starving
before any assistance could be sent from Britain. These
reports, however, appear not to be well founded. Dif¬
ficulties must undoubtedly be felt at the first settlement
of every uninhabited country ; and we are not to ex¬
pect that a colony, most of whom are wretches ex¬
iled for their crimes from their own country, can
thrive in an extraordinary manner for some time. It
appears, indeed, that so far from the transportation to
this place having had any good effect in reforming
them, the governor has been obliged to execute the
utmost rigour of the law by hanging several of them.
A good number of others have unaccountably disap¬
peared, and are supposed to have been murdered by
the natives, or perished with hunger in the woods j so
that, unless the numbers be recruited by more respec¬
table inhabitants, it is not likely that much can be ex¬
pected from the Port Jackson settlement for a long
time to come. Of this, however, there seems to be
little doubt: the general spirit of emigration which
prevails through most, indeed we may say all the coun¬
tries of Europe, will undoubtedly soon supply a suffi¬
cient number j and even some of the Americans, not¬
withstanding the extent and fertility of their own
country, and the liberty they enjoy in it, are said to
be willing to exchange these blessings for the precari¬
ous hopes of what may be obtained in New Holland
among British convicts and slaves. This rambling dis¬
position may perhaps be accounted for from an obser¬
vation which has been made, viz. that “ it may admit
of a doubt whether many of the accommodations of a
civilized life be not more than counterbalanced by the
artificial wants to whioh they give birth. That these
accommodations do not give a satisfaction equivalent
to the trouble with which they are procured, is certain ; jj0j_
and it is no wonder, then, to find numbers of people in land,
every country who are willing to exchange them for'—"v—
independent ease and tranquillity, which belong, com¬
paratively speaking, to few individuals in those coun¬
tries which are called civilized.” jg
With regard to the geography of this extensive General
country, which may perhaps be reckoned a fifth gene-acconnt of
ral division of the world, Captains Cook and Furneaux1^6 c<jUn'
so fully explored its coast, that succeeding navigators tfy*
have added little to their labours. What they left un¬
finished has been completed by Captain Flinders, whose
laborious and accurate survey of the coast leaves little
more to be desired. The discovery of Bass’s straits
has completed our idea of the general outline of the
coast; and, in future, discoveries of importance can only
be looked for in the interior.
A vast chain of lofty mountains runs nearly in a
north and south direction farther than the eye can trace,
about 60 miles inland. The general face of the coun¬
try is pleasing, diversified with gentle risings and small
winding valleys, covered for the most part with large
spreading trees, affording a succession of leaves in all
seasons. A variety of flowering shrubs, almost all en¬
tirely new to an European, and of exquisite fragrance,
abound in those places which are free from trees ; and
among these, a tall shrub, bearing an elegant flower
which smells like English may, is peculiarly delight¬
ful, and perfumes the air to a great distance. There
are but few trees j and, as Captain Tench and others
relate, of so bad a grain, that they can scarcely be
used for any purpose: This, however, Mr Stockdale Red and
ascribes to their being used in an unseasoned state, as yellow
has been already mentioned. In return for these bad8^1,n,*
qualities, however, the trees yield vast quantities of the
gum already mentioned as a cure for the dysentery. It
is of an acrid quality, and therefore requires to be gi¬
ven along with opiates. The tree which yields it is of
very considerable size, and grows to a great height be¬
fore it puts out any branches. The gum itself is usual¬
ly compared to sanguis draconis, but differs from it in
being perfectly soluble in water, which the sanguis dra¬
conis is not. It may be extracted from the wood by
tapping, or taken out of the veins when dry. The
leaves are narrow, and not unlike those of a willow ;
the wood fine-grained and heavy, but warps to such a
degree, when not properly seasoned, as soon to become
entirely useless.
The yellow gum is properly a resin, being entirely
insoluble in water. It greatly resembles gamboge,
but has not the property of staining. It is produced
by a low small plant with long grassy leaves ; but the
fructification shoots out in a surprising manner from
the centre of the leaves on a single straight stem to the
height of 12 or 14 feet. This stem is strong and
light, and is used by the natives for making their
spears. The resin is generally dug up from the soil
under the tree, not collected from it, and may perhaps
he the same as Tasman ca\\s gtnn lac of the ground..
It has been tried by Dr Blane physician to St Tho¬
mas’s hospital, who found it very efficacious in the
cure of old fluxes, and that in many and obstinate cases.
Many of the New Holland plants have been already,
imported into Britain, and are now flourishing in per¬
fection.
New Hol¬
land.
20
Scai oity of
fresh wa¬
ter.
21
Rivers dis¬
covered by
Captain
Phillip.
H O L [
fection at the nursery garden of Mr Lee of Hammer¬
smith.
The soil immediately around Sydney Cove is sandy,
with here and there a stratum of clay ; hut hitherto
the produce has not been remarkable. The principal
difficulty hitherto experienced in clearing the ground
arises from the size of the trees, which is said to be so
enormous, that 12 men have been employed for five
days in grubbing up one. Captain Cook speaks of
some fine meadows about Botany Bay ; but none ol
these have been seen by the present settlers, and Go¬
vernor Phillip supposes them to have been swamps
seen at a distance. Grass grows in almost every place,
but in the swamps with the greatest vigour and luxu-
riancy, though not of the finest quality. It is found to
agree better with cows and horses than sheep. A few
wild fruits are sometimes procured j among which is a
kind of small purple apple mentioned by Captain Cook}
and a fruit which has the appearance of a grape, but
tasting like a green gooseberry, and excessively sour.
From the first discovery of this continent, the ex¬
treme scarcity of fresh water has been mentioned by
every navigator. None have been fortunate enough
to. enter the mouth of any navigable river such as
might be expected in a country of such extent.
The settlers about Port Jackson found enough for
the common purposes of life; but Captain Tench in¬
forms us, that when he left the country, towards the
end of 1788, there had been no discovery of a stream
large enough to turn a mill. Since that time, how¬
ever, Governor Phillip has been more successful} as
we are informed by a letter of his to Lord Sydney, of
date February 13. 1790 : In this letter he relates,
that soon after the ships sailed in Nov. 1788, he again
made an excursion to Botany Bay, where he staid five
days ; but the researches he made there tended only
to confirm him in the opinion he already entertained
that the country round it was by no means an eligible
situation for a colony. After having visited Broken
Bay several times with boats, a river was found, which
has since been traced, and all those branches explored,
which afforded any depth of water. This river has
obtained the name of Hawkcsbury, is from 300 to 800
feet wide, and seems navigable for the largest merchant
ships as far up as Richmond hill, at which it becomes
very shallow, and divides into two branches } on which
account the governor calls Richmond hill the head of
the river. As after very heavy rains, however, the
water sometimes arises 30 feet above its level, it would
not be safe for ships to go up so far} but 15 or 20
miles below it they would lie in fresh water, and be
perfectly safe.
The country about Broken Bay is at first high and
rocky, but as we proceed up the river it becomes more
level, the banks being covered with timber, and the
soil a light rich mould, supposed to be very capable of
cultivation. The other branches of this river are shal¬
low, but probably run many miles up into the country.
Great number of black swans and wild ducks were
seen on these rivers, and the natives had several decoys
for catching quails.
Richmond hill, near which a fall prevented the boats
from proceeding farther up, is the most southerly of
a large range of hills which run to the northward, and
568 ] H O L
probably join the mountains nearly parallel to the coast Ne
from 50 to 60 miles inland. The soil of this hill is
good, and it lies well for cultivation. There is a very
extensive prospect from the top, the whole country a-
round seeming a level covered with timber. There is
a flat of six or seven miles between Richmond hill and
a break in the mountains which separates Lansdown
and Carmarthen kills ; in which flat the governor sup¬
poses that the Hawkesbury continues its course; though
the river could not be seen on account of the timber
with which the ground is everywhere covered where
the soil is good. Six miles to the southward of Port
Jackson is a small river } and 20 to the westward is one
more considerable, which probably empties itself into
the Hawkesbury. As far as this river was at that time
explored, the breadth was computed at from 300 to
400 feet. It was named the Nepean, and, like the
Hawkesbury, sometimes rises 30 feet above its level.
A party who crossed the river attempted to reach the
mountains, but found it impossible, probably for want
of provisions. After the first day’s journey they met
with such a succession of deep ravines, the sides of
which were frequently so inaccessible, that in five days
they could not proceed farther than 15 miles. At the
time they turned back, they supposed themselves to be
12 miles from the foot of the mountains. With re¬
gard to the state of the colony, it appears from this let¬
ter to be as flourishing as could in any reasonable man¬
ner be expected. Another has been formed at a place
called Rosehill, at the head of the harbour of Sydney
Cove. At this place is a creek, which at half flood
has water for large boats to go three miles up ; and
one mile higher the water is fresh and the soil good.
Some ground having been cleared and cultivated, the
governor in the above letter writes, that 27 acres were
sown with corn, and that in December the crop was
got in : That the corn was exceedingly good} about
200 bushels of wheat and 60 of barley, with a small
quantity of flax, Indian corn, and oats; all which is
preserved for seed : That if settlers are sent out, and
the convicts divided amongst them, this settlement will
very shortly maintain itself} but without which this
country cannot be cultivated to any advantage. u At
present (continues the governor) I have only one per¬
son, who has about 100 convicts under his direction,
who is employed in cultivating the ground for the pub¬
lic benefit, and he has returned the quantity of corn
above mentioned into the public store : the officers
have raised sufficient to support the little stock they
have: some ground I have had in cultivation will re¬
turn about 40 bushels of wheat into store ; so that the
produce of the labour of the convicts employed in cul¬
tivation has been very short of what might have been
expected, and which I take the liberty of pointing out
to your lordship in this place } to show as fully as pos¬
sible the state of this colony, and the necessity of the
convicts being employed by those who have an interest
in their labour.” The, country for 20 miles to the west¬
ward is very capable of cultivation } though the labour
of cutting down the trees is very great. At Sydney
Cove the stores had been infested by a swarm of rats
which destroyed no less than 12,000 lb. weight of flour
and rice. The gardens also had suffered very consider¬
ably ; so that, having met with such a considerable loss
of
3
H O L [ 569 ] H O L
Hoi- of provision, and a sufficient supply not being procured
I d. from the Cape, Governor Phillip thought proper to
send a further detachment to Norfolk Island, where the
fertility of the soil afforded great hopes of their being
able in a short time to subsist themselves independent
of any assistance from the stores.
p0, . In the year 1813 a few private individuals made an
mei tf the excursion across the Blue mountains, and discovered
«olo|. Macquarrie river flowing to the north-west, through a
rich, beautiful, undulating country. After a road was
made, the governor himself visited this newly disco¬
vered region ; and founded the town of Bathurst on the
river, about seventy miles from its source. This new
establishment has prospered greatly. The land yields
excellent crops $ and the cattle are found to thrive ex¬
tremely. The direction of Macquarrie river away
from the nearest sea coast, into the vast interior of the
country, gave rise to many speculations j and the
Lachlan, another river, having a similar course, was
found out shortly after. Two successive expeditions,
conducted by Mr Oxley, were fitted out in 1817, to
explore the country farther west. The result, however,
disappointed the sanguine expectations entertained.
The Macquarrie, after being traced for two or three
hundred miles, and the Lachlan for a greater distance,
were found to terminate in a vast extended marsh.
The soil, as they approached this marsh, became gra¬
dually worse j and the hills sunk by degrees till the
country became a dreary flat. A great extent of ex¬
cellent land however has been ascertained to exist on
the upper part of the Macquarrie j and to this district
the eyes of the colonists are now directed.
With regard to the civil establishment in this colony,
Governor Phillip’s jurisdiction extends from 430 49' to
10° 37' south, being the northern and southern extremi¬
ties of the continent. It commences again in 1350 E.
Long, from Greenwich j and proceeding in an easterly
direction, includes all the islands within the above-
mentioned latitudes in the Pacific ocean 5 by which
partition it is supposed that every source of litigation
will be cut off, as all these are indisputably the disco¬
very of the British navigators.
The powers of the governor are absolutely unlimi¬
ted, no mention being made of a council to assist him
in any thing j and as no stated time is appointed for
assembling the courts similar to the assizes and gaol
deliveries in England, the duration of imprisonment
is altogether in his hands. He is likewise invested
with a power of summoning general courts martial}
but the insertion in the marine mutiny act, of a smal¬
ler number of officers than 13 being able to compose
such a tribunal, has been neglected j so that a military
court, should detachments be made from head quar¬
ters, or sickness prevail, may not always be found
practicable to be obtained, unless the number of officers
in the settlement at present be increased. The gover¬
nor is allowed to grant pardons in all cases, treason and
willful murder excepted ; and even in these he has au¬
thority to stay the execution of the law until the king’s
pleasure shall be signified. In case of the governor’s
death, the lieutenant governor takes his place ; and on
his decease, the authority is lodged in the hands of the
senior officer.
It was not long after the convicts were landed that
there appeared a necessity for assembling a criminal
VOL. X. Part II. +
court ; and it was accordingly convened by warrant New Hol-
from the governor. The members were the judge ad- land,
vocate, who presided, three naval, and three military
officers. The number of members is limited by act of
parliament to seven j who are expressly ordered to be
officers either of his majesty’s sea or land forces. The
court being met, completely arrayed and armed as at
a military tribunal, the judge advocate proceeds to ad¬
minister the usual oaths taken by jurymen in England
to each member} one of whom afterwards swears him
in a like manner. The ceremony being over, the
crime is laid to the prisoner’s charge, and the question
“ guilty or not guilty” put to him. No law officer
being appointed on the part of the crown, the party
at whose suit he is tried is left to prosecute the pri¬
soner entirely by himself. All the witnesses are exa¬
mined on oath; and the decision must be given according
to the laws of England, or “ as nearly as may be, al¬
lowing for the circumstances and situation of the settle¬
ment,” by a majority of votes, beginning with the
youngest member, and ending with the president of
the court. No verdict, however, can be given in
cases of a capital nature, unless at least five of the
seven members concur therein. The evidence on both
sides being finished, and the prisoner’s defence heard,
the court is cleared, and, on the judgment being set¬
tled, is thrown open again, and sentence pronounced.
During the time of sitting, the place iu which it is
assembled is directed to be surrounded by a guard un¬
der arms, and admission granted to every one who
chooses to enter it.
The first trials which came before this court wereTrials of
those of three convicts, one of whom was convicted convicts,
of having struck a marine with a cooper’s adze, and&c‘
behaving otherwise in a most scandalous and riotous
manner. For this he was condemned to receive 150
lashes, being a smaller punishment than a soldier would
have suffered in a similar case. A second, for having
committed a petty theft, was sent to a small barren
island, and kept there on bread and water only for a
week. The third was sentenced to receive 50 lashes;
but being recommended by the court to the governor,
had his sentence remitted. The same lenity, however,
could not be observed in all cases. One fellow, who
had been condemned to be hanged, was pardoned
while the rope was about his neck, on condition that
he would become the common executioner ever after.
He accepted the horrid office, but not without a pause.
Some examples of severity were undoubtedly necessary ;
and among these it is impossible to avoid feeling some
regret for the fate of one who suffered death for steal¬
ing a piece of soap of eight pence value : but by a letter
of Governor Phillip, we are informed that the con¬
victs in general had begun to behave much better;
more so indeed than ever he expected ; and at this
time one woman had suffered for a robbery ; five chil¬
dren had died, and 28 had been born. The whole
amount of the deaths 77, of the births 87.
Besides the criminal court, there is an inferior one,
composed of the judge advocate, and one or more
justices of the peace, for the trial of small misdemeanors.
This court is likewise empowered to decide all law¬
suits ; and its verdict is final, except where the sum ex¬
ceeds 300I. in which case an appeal can be made to
England from its decree. In case of necessity, an
4 ^ admiralty
H O L
[ 57° 1
H O L
Animals
found in
New Hol¬
land.
Climate.
26
Account of
the inhabi¬
tants.
admiralty court, of which the lieutenant governor is
judge, may also be summoned for the trial ot ofiences
committed on the high seas.
The quadrupeds on the continent of New Holland
hitherto discovered, are principally of the opossum
kind, of which the most remarkable is the kangaroo.
There is also a species of dogs very different from those
known in Europe. They are extremely fierce, and
never can be brought to the same degree of familiarity
with those we are acquainted with. Some of them
have been brought to England, but still retain their
usual ferocity. There are a great many beautiful birds
of various kinds ; among which the principal are the
black swans already mentioned, and the ostrich or
cassowary ; which last arrives frequently at the height
or seven feet or more. Several kinds of serpents, large
spiders, and scolopendras, have also been met with.
There are likewise many curious fishes $ though the
finny tribe seem not to be so plentiful on the coast as
to give any considerable assistance in the way of provi¬
sions for the colony. Some very large sharks have
been seen in Port Jackson, and two smaller species,
one named the Port Jackson shark, the other Watts’s
shark. The latter, notwithstanding its diminutive size,
the mouth scarce exceeding an inch in breadth, is ex¬
cessively voracious. One of them having been taken
and flung down upon the deck, lay there quiet for
tivo hours; after which Mr Watts’s dog happening to
pass by, the fish sprung upon it with all the ferocity
imaginable, and seized it by the leg in such a manner
that the animal could not disengage himself without
assistance.
The climate of this continent appears not to he dis¬
agreeable, notwithstanding the violent complaints which
some have made about it. The heat has never been
excessive in summer, nor is the cold intolerable in win¬
ter. Storms ot thunder and lightning are frequent ;
hut these are common to all warm countries ; and it
has been supposed, (though upon what foundation does
not well appear) that were the country cleared of wood,
and inhabited, these would in a great measure cease.
A shock of an earthquake has likewise been felt j but
these natural calamities are incident to some of the
finest countries in the world. It is not known whether
or not there are any volcanoes.
The inhabitants of New Holland are by all accounts
represented as the most miserable and savage race of
mortals perhaps existing on the face of the earth. They
go entirely naked ; and though pleased at first with some
ornaments which were given them, they soon threw
them away as useless. ]t does not appear, however,
that they are insensible of the benefits of clothing, or
of some of the conveniences which their new neigh¬
bours are in possession of. Some of them, whom the
colonists partly clothed, seemed to be pleased with the
comfortable warmth they derived from it; and they all
express a great desire for the iron tools which they see
their neighbours make use of. Their colour, in the
opinion of Captain Cook, is rather a deep chocolate
than a full black ; but the filth with which their skins
are covered, prevents the true colour of them from ap¬
pearing. At some of their interviews with the colo¬
nists, several droll instances happened of their mistaking
the negroes among the colonists for their own coun¬
trymen. Notwithstanding their disregard for European
finery, they are fond of adorning, or rather deforming,
their bodies with scars ; so that some of them cut the
most hideous figure that can be imagined. The scars
themselves have an uncommon appearance. Sometimes
the skin is raised several inches from the flesh, and ap¬
pears as if filled with wind ; and all these seem to be
reckoned marks of honour among them. Some of
them perforate the cartilage of the nose, and thrust a
large bone through it, a hideous kind of ornament,
humorously called by the sailors their sprit-sail yard.
Their hair is generally so much clotted with the red
gum already mentioned, that they resemble a mop.
rIhey also paint themselves with various colours like
most other savages *, they will also sometimes ornament
themselves with beads and shells, but make no use of
the beautiful feathers procurable from the birds of the
country. Most of the men want one of the fore-teeth
in the upper jaw j a circumstance mentioned by Dam-
pier and other navigators j and this also appears to be
a badge of honour among them. It is very com¬
mon among the women to cut off the two lower joints
ot the little finger j which, considering the clumsiness
of the amputating instruments they possess, must cer¬
tainly be a very painful operation. This was at first
supposed to be peculiar to the married women, or those
who had horn childi'en 5 but some of the oldest women
were found without this distinction, while it was ob¬
served in others who were very young.
The New Hollanders appear extremely deficient in
the useful arts. Of tiie cultivation of the ground they
have no notion ; nor can they even be prevailed upon
to eat bread or dressed meat. Hence they depend en¬
tirely for subsistence on the fruits and roots they can
gather, with the fish they catch. Governor Phillip
also mentions their frequent setting fire to the grass,
in order to drive out the opossums and other animals
from their retreats : and we have already taken notice
of their using decoys for quails. As all these resources,
however, must be at best precarious, it is no wonder
that they are frequently distressed for provisions. Tims,
in the summer-time, they would eat neither the shark
nor sting-ray ; but in winter any thing was acceptable.
A young whale being driven ashore, was quickly cut
in pieces and carried off. They broiled it only long
enough to scorch the outside, and in this raw state they
eat all their fish. They broil also the fern root and an¬
other whose species is unknown. Among the fruits
used by them is a kind of wild fig; and they eat also
the kernels of a fruit resembling the pine apple. The
principal part of their subsistence, however, is fish ;
and when these happened to be scarce, they were wont
to watch the opportunity when the colonists hauled the
seine, and often seized the whole, though a part had
formerly been offered or given them. They sometimes
strike the fish from the canoes with their spears, some¬
times catch them with hooks, and also make use ot
nets, contrary to the assertion of Dr Hawkeswortli,
who says that none of these are to be met with among
them. Their nets are generally made of the fibres of
the ilax plant, with very little preparation, and are
strong and heavy ; the lines of which they are com¬
posed twisted like whip-cord. Some of them, how¬
ever, appear to be made of the fur of an animal, and
others of cotton. The meshes of their nets are made
of very large loops artificially inserted into each other,
but
New H
land.!!l
^ V
H O L [ 5'
Ne without any knots. Their hooks are made of the
1 i. inside of a shell very much resembling mother-of-pearl.
l-. The canoes in which they fish are nothing more than
large pieces of hark tied up at both ends with vines j
and considering the slight texture of these vessels, we
cannot but admire the dexterity with which they are
managed, and the boldness with which they venture
in them out to sea. They generally carry fire along with
them in these canoes, to dress their fish when caught.
When fishing with the hook, if the fish appears too
strong to be drawn ashore by the line, the canoe is
paddled to the shore j and while one man gently draws
the fish along, another stands ready to strike it with a
spear, in which he generally succeeds. There is no
good season for supposing them to be cannibals, and
they never eat animal substances but raw or next to it.
Some of their vegetables are poisonous when raw, but
deprived of this property when boiled. A convict
unhappily experienced this by eating them in an un¬
prepared state; in consequence of which he died in 24
hours. The dislike of the New Hollanders to the Eu¬
ropean provisions has already been mentioned : if bread
he given them, they chew and spit it out again, seldom
choosing to swallow it. They like salt beef and pork
rather better; but they could never be brought to taste
spirits a second time.
The huts of these savages are formed in the most
rude and barbarous manner that can be imagined.
They consist only of pieces of bark laid together in
the form of an oven, open at one end, and very low,
though long enough for a man to lie at full length.
There is reason, however, to believe, that they depend
less on them for shelter than on the caverns with
which the rocks abound. They go invariably naked,
as has already been observed; though we must not
imagine that the custom of going naked inures them so
to the climate as to make them insensible to the injuries
of the weather. The colonists had repeated oppor¬
tunities of observing this, by seeing them shivering with
cold in the winter time, or huddling together in heaps
in their huts or in caverns, till a fire could be kindled
to warm them. It is probable, however, notwith¬
standing their extreme barbarity, that some know¬
ledge of the arts will soon he introduced among them,
as some have been seen attentively considering the
utensils and conveniences of the Europeans, with a
view, seemingly, of making similar improvements of
their own. It has also been observed, that in some
tilings they possess a very great power of imitation.
They can imitate the songs and language of the Eu¬
ropeans almost instantaneously, much better than the
latter can imitate theirs by long practice. Their ta¬
lent for imitation is also discernible in their sculptures
representing men and other animals everywhere met
with on the rocks; which, though rude, are very
surprising for people who have not the knowledge even
of constructing habitations in the least comfortable for
themselves, or even clothes to preserve them fi’otn the
cold.
In their persons, the new Hollanders are active, vi¬
gorous, and stout, though generally lean. Dampier
asserts that they have a dimness of sight; though later
navigators have determined this to be a mistake, ascri¬
bing to them, on the contrary, a quick and piercing
1 ] H O L
sight. Their sene oi smelling is also very acute. One New Hoi.
of them having touched a piece of porkj held out his land,
finger for his companion to smell with strong marks of v—"‘V-"-'
disgust. The only kind of food they eagerly accept
of is fish. Their behaviour with regard to the wo¬
men has been hitherto unaccountable to the colonists.
Few of them, comparatively speaking, have been seen,
and these have sometimes kept back with the most
jealous sensibility; sometimes offered with the greatest
familiarity. Such of the females as have been seen,
have soft and pleasing voices; and notwithstanding
their barbarism and excessive rudeness, seem not to be
entirely destitute of modesty.
The New Hollanders generally display great per¬
sonal bravery on the appearance of any danger. An
old man, whom Governor Phillip had treated with
some familiarity, took occasion to steal a spade; but
being taken in the fact, the governor gave him a few
slight slaps on the shoulder; on which the old man
caught hold of a spear, and coming up to him, seem¬
ed for some time determined to strike, though had he
done so, it would have been impossible for him to
escape, being then surrounded by the officers and sol¬
diers. No encounters between parties of the natives
themselves have been observed, though from some cir¬
cumstances it appears that wars are parried on among
them. They have more than once been seen assembled
as if bent on some expedition. An officer one day
met 14 of them marching along in a regular Indian
file through the woods, each man having a spear in
one hand and a stone in the other. A chief appeared
at their head, who was distinguished from the rest by
being painted. They passed on peaceably, though
greatly superior in number to our people. On another
occasion they ofiered no hostilities when assembled to the
number of 200 or 300, anti meeting the governor attend¬
ed only by a small party. With all their courage,
however, they are much afraid of a musket, and almost
equally so of a red coat, which they know to be the
martial dress of the Europeans. The mischief which
they have hitherto done has been exercised only on
some straggling convicts, most of whom probably have
been the first aggressors.
Though these savages allow their beards to grow to
a considerable length, it does not appear that they
look upon them to be any ornament, but rather the
contrary, as appears from the following instance. Some
young gentlemen belonging to the Sirius, one day
met an old man in the woods with a beard of consi¬
derable length. This his new acquaintance let him
know that they would rid him of, streaking their
chins, and showing him the smoothness of them at the
same time. At length the old fellow consented ; and
one of the youngsters taking a penknife from his poc¬
ket, and making the best substitute for lather he
could, performed the operation with such success, that
the Indian seemed highly delighted. In a few days
he paddled alongside of the Sirius again, pointing
to his beard ; but could not by any means be prevailed
upon to enter the ship. On this a barber was sent
down to him, who again freed him from his beard, at
which he expressed the utmost satisfaction. It has,
however, been found impossible to form any kind of
permanent intercourse with the natives, though many
4 C 2 attempts
H O L
r 572 ]
H O L
Xcw Hoi' attempts have been made for that purpose *, hut in his
land. letter above quoted, Governor Phillip declares that he
U"1 -v"—1 bas not the least apprehension of their doing any da¬
mage to the colony. At first the colonists imagined
the spears of the New Hollanders to be very trivial
weapons ; but it now appears that they are capable of
inflicting very grievous and mortal wounds. T-hey
are sometimes pointed with a sharp piece of the same
reed of which the shafts are made, but more frequently
with the sharp bone of the sting-ray. They certainly
burn their dead, which perhaps has given rise to the
report of their being cannibals. Governor Phillip, ob¬
serving the ground to be raised in several places, caused
one of these tumuli to be opened, in which were found
a jaw-bone half consumed and some ashes. From the
manner in which the ashes are deposited, it appears
that the body has been laid at length, raised from the
ground a little space, and consumed in that posture, be¬
ing afterwards lightly covered with mould.
The only domestic animals they have are the dogs
already mentioned, which resemble the fox-dog of Eng¬
land. In their language these animals are called elm-
go ; but all other quadrupeds without exception they
name kangaroo—They seem very little given to thiev¬
ing in comparison with the inhabitants of most of the
South Sea islands j and are very honest among them¬
selves, leaving their spears and other implements open
on the beach, in full and perfect security of their re¬
maining untouched. They are very expert at throw¬
ing their javelins, and will hit a mark with great cer¬
tainty at a considerable distance ; and it seems that
sometimes they kill the kangaroo with this weapon, as
a long splinter of one of the spears was taken out of the
thigh of one of these animals, the flesh having closed
over it completely. The people are more numerous
than was at first imagined, though still the number of
inhabitants must be accounted few in comparison to the
extent of country ; and there is great reason to believe
that the interior parts are uninhabited.
The New Hollanders bake their provisions by the
help of hot stones, like the inhabitants of the South
Sea islands. They produce fire with great facility ac¬
cording to Captain Cook, but with difficulty accord¬
ing to later accounts, and spread it in a wonderful
manner. To produce it, they take two pieces of dry
soft wood : one is a stick about eight or nine inches
long, the other piece is flat. The stick they shape
into an obtuse point at one end j and pressing it upon
the other, turn it nimbly, by holding it between both
their hands, as we do a chocolate mill *, often shifting
their hands up, and then moving them down upon it,
to increase the pressure as much as possible. By this
method they get fire in less than two minutes, and
from the smallest spark they increase it with great
speed and dexterity. “ \Ve have often seen (says Cap¬
tain Cook) one of them run along the shore, to all ap¬
pearance with nothing in his hand, who stooping down
for a moment, at the distance of every fifty or an hun¬
dred yards, left fire behind him, as we could see, first
by the smoke, and then by the flame along the drift of
wood and other litter which was scattered along the
place. We had the curiosity to examine one of these
planters of fire when he set off, and we saw him wrap
up a small spark in dry grass, which, when he had run
a, little way,, having been fanned by the air that his
motion produced, began to blaze •, he then laid it down xew nej
in a place convenient for his purpose, inclosing a spark land.
of it in another quantity of grass, and so continued his' v
course.”
Besides the black swans already mentioned, which
the ancients despaired of ever seeing, this country pro¬
duces that beautiful bird called menura superba, of
which an interesting description is given by Mr Col¬
lins, in the second volume of his Account of the Eng¬
lish Colony. Here also there is a considerable number
of very uncommon and exquisitely fragrant shrubs.
There is also an extraordinary amphibious animal
found here, called the ornithorynchus paradoxus, of
which Mr Home has given a description, which was
published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1801.
In 1801, there were in circulation the following
coins, which were made legal tenders by authority of
the governor.
A guinea,
A johannes,
A half do.
A ducat,
A gold mohur,
A pagoda,
A Spanish dollar,
A rupee,
A Dutch gilder,
An English shilling,
A copper coin of I oz*
A do. of -§• oz.
A do, of ^ oz.
L.
1
4
2
0
I
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
2
O
o
9
I7
8
5
2
2
I
0
O
o
d.
o
0
o
6
6
o
o
6
o
1
2
I
Oi
The successive accounts published of the colony,shew
a very rapid progress in wealth and population. At
the close of the year I 797 the colony had of live stock,
26 horses, 58 mares, 132 bulls and oxen, 195 cows,
4247 hogs, 743 rams, 17x4 sheep, 781 he and 1495
she goats. Of land in a state of cultivation, there
were 3361-^ acres in wheat, 1527 for maize, and 26J
in bailey, besides a considerable quantity of garden
ground, which produced potatoes, callevances, and
vines.
From the 27th of January 1788, to the 7th of June
1800, not fewer than 120 ships and vessels of various
descriptions, and from different quarters of the globe,
have visited this country ; a convincing proof that they
either found it a place of refreshment after the fatigues
of a long voyage, or an advantageous market for their
commercial speculations. Thirty-seven of them went
from England with convicts, to the number of 5OCO, of
whom about 157 were females. i\
In the year 1801 the increasing prosperity of the co-In iSon
lony was still conspicuous, for the live stock of differ¬
ent individuals consisted of 6269 sheep, 362 cattle,
2i I horses, 1259 goats, and 4766 hogs j and what be¬
longed to government consisted of 488 sheep, 931 cat¬
tle, and 32 hogs. There were 5324 acres of land sown
with wheat, and 3864 acres with maize ; and the in¬
habitants amounted to 6508. ’ s
In 1818, the horned cattle amounted to 4Q,OOQ, the In 1 1
horses to 3300, the sheep to 73,000, and the hogs to
22,000, exclusive of the stock of Van Diemen’s Land.
The population of the colony, including that of ^ an
Diemen’s Land, was 25,000.
Holland,
"'.■'.s r
H O L [ 573 ] H O L
jje 1,^) HOLLAND, in commerce, a fine and close kind of
H ir. linen, so called from its being first manufactured in
*— —Holland.
HOLLAR, Wenceslaus, a celebrated engraver,
born at Prague in 1607. His parents were in a gen¬
teel line of life ; and he was at first designed for the
study of the law. But the civil commotions which
happened in his youth, ruining his family afi’airs, he
was obliged to shift for himself; and by discovering
some genius for the arts, he was placed with Marian,
a very able designer and engraver of views. Being
himself a man of great ingenuity, he profited hastily
from the instruction of his tutor. He principally ex¬
celled in drawing geometrical and perspective views
and plans of buildings, ancient and modern cities and
towns ; also landscapes, and every kind of natural and
artificial curiosities, which he executed with a pen in a
very peculiar style, excellently well adapted to the pur¬
pose. He travelled through several of the great cities
of Germany : and, notwithstanding all his merit, met
with so little encouragement, that he found it very dif¬
ficult to support himself. The earl of Arundel being
in Germany, took him under his protection, brought
him to England, and recommended him to the favour
of Charles I. He engraved a variety of plates from the
Arundel collection, and the portrait of the earl him¬
self on horseback. The civil wars which happened
soon after in England, ruined his fortune. He was ta¬
ken prisoner, with some of the royal party, and with
difficulty escaped j when he returned to Antwerp, aud
joined his old patron the earl of Arundel. He settled
in that city for a time, and published a considerable
number of plates : but his patron going to Italy soon
after for the benefit of his health, Hollar fell again in¬
to distress, and was obliged to work for the print and
booksellers of Antwerp at very low prices. At the Re¬
storation he returned to England ; where, though he
had sufficient employment, the prices he received for
his engravings were so greatly inadequate to the la¬
bour necessarily required, that he could but barely sub¬
sist, and the plague, with the succeeding fire of Lon¬
don, putting for some time an effectual stop to business,
his affairs were so much embarrassed, that he was never
afterwards able to improve his fortune. It is said that
he used to work for the booksellers at the rate of four-
pence an hour, and always had an hour glass before him.
He was so very scrupulously exact, that when obliged
to attend the calls of nature, and whilst talking, though
with the persons for whom he was working, and about
their own business, he constantly laid down the glass to
prevent the sand from running. Nevertheless, all his
great industry, of which his numerous works bear
ample testimony, could not procure him a sufficient
maintenance. It is melancholy to add, that on the
verge of his 7Qth year, be was attached with an execu¬
tion at his lodgings in Gardener’s lane, Westminster,
when be desired only the liberty of dying in his bed,
and that he might not be removed to any other prison
than the grave, a favour which it is uncertain whether
he obtained or not. He died, however, in 1677*—His
works amount nearly to 24,000 prints, according to
Vertue’s Catalogue, and the lovers of art are always
zealous to collect them. Generally speaking, they are
etchings performed almost.entirely with the point, and
their merits are thus characterized by Mr Strutt: Holkr
“ They possess great spirit, with astonishing freedom }|
and lightness, especially when we consider how highly Holocaust,
he has finished some of them. His views of abbeys, '
churches, ruins, &c. with his shells, muffs, and every
species of still life, are admirable; his landscapes fre¬
quently have great merit; and his distant views of
towns and cities are not only executed in a very accu¬
rate, but a very pleasing manner.” A somewhat colder
character is given of them by Mr Gilpin in his Essay
on Prints : “ Hollar gives us views of particular places,
which he copies with great truth, unornamented as he
found them. If we are satisfied with exact representa¬
tions, we have them nowhere better than in Hollar’s
works; but if we expect pictures, we must seek them
elsewhere. Hollar was an antiquarian and a draughts¬
man, but seems to have been little acquainted with
the principles of painting. Stiffness is his character¬
istic, and a painful exactness void of taste. His
larger views are mere plans. In some of his smaller,
at the expence of infinite pains, something of an ef¬
fect is sometimes produced. But in general, we con¬
sider him as a repository of curiosities, a record of anti¬
quated dresses, abolished ceremonies, and edifices now
in ruins.”
HOLLOA, in the sea language, an exclamation
of answer, to any person who calls to another to ask
some question, or to give a particular order. Thus
if the master intends to give any order to the people
in the main-top, he previously calls, Main top, hoay !
to which • hey answer, Holloa ! to show that they hear
him and are ready. It is also the answer in hailing a
ship at a distance. See Hailing.
HOLLY. See Ilex, Botany Index.
Sca-HoLLY. See Eryngium, Botany Index.
HOLM (S ax. htthnus, insula amnica'), denotes an
isle or fenny ground, according to Rede, or a river
island. And where any place is called by that name,
and this syllable is joined with any other in the names
of places, it signifies a place surrounded with water, as
the Flatholmes and Stepholmes in the Severn near Bris¬
tol ; but if the situation of the place is not near the
water, it may then signify a hilly place ; holm in Saxon
signifying also “ a hill or cliff.”
HOLOCAUST (formed from «*«?, “ whole”, and
“ I consume with fire)”, a kind of sacrifice,
wherein the whole offering is burnt or consumed by
fire, as an acknowledgment that God, the creator,
preserver, and lord of all, was worthy of all honour
and worship, and as a token of men’s giving themselves
entirely up to him. It is called also in Scripture a
burnt-offering. Sacrifices of this sort are often men¬
tioned by the heathens as well as Jews ; particularly by
Xenophon, Cyroped.Wb. viii. p.446. ed. Hutchins. 1738,
who speaks of sacrificing holocausts of oxen to Jupiter,
and of horses to the sun ; and they appear to have
been in use long before the institution of the other
Jewish sacrifices, by the law of Moses ; (see Job. i. 5.
xli. 8. and Gen. viii. 20. xxii. 13.). On this account,
the Jews, who would not allow the Gentiles to offer on
their altar any other sacrifices peculiarly enjoined by
the law of Moses, admitted them by the Jewish priests
to offer holocausts ; because these were a sort of sacri¬
fices prior to the law, and common to all nations. Du¬
ring
H O L [ 574 1 H O L
Holocaust, ring their subjection to the Romans, it was no uncom-
IJolofeiues. nion thins for those Gentiles to ofler sacrifices to the
 v ' Qod of Israel at Jerusalem. Holocausts were deemed
by the Jews the most excellent of all their sacrifices.
It is said that this kind of sacrifice was in common use
among the heathens, till Prometheus introduced the
custom of burning only a part, and reserving the re¬
mainder for his own use. See Sacrifice.
HOLOFERNES, lieutenant general of the armies
of Nabuchodonosor king of Assyria, who haying in a
remarkable encounter overcome Arphaxad king of the
Medes, sent to all the neighbouring nations with an
intention of obliging them this way to submit to
his empire, pretending that there could be no power
capable of resisting him. At the same time Holofer-
nes, at the head of a powerful army, passed the Eu¬
phrates, entered Cilicia and Syria, and subdued almost
all the people of these provinces.
Being resolved to make a conquest of Egypt, he ad¬
vanced towasds Judsea, little expecting to meet with
anv resistance from the Jews. In the mean time, he
was informed that they were preparing to oppose him •,
and Achior the commander of the Ammonites, who
had already submitted to Holofernes, and was with
some auxiliary troops in his army, represented to him
that the Hebrews were a people protected in a parti¬
cular manner by God Almighty, so long as they were
obedient to him ; and therefore he should not flatter
himself with expectations of overcoming them, unless
they had committed some ofl'ence against God, whereby
they might become unworthy of his protection. Holo¬
fernes, disregarding this discourse, commanded Achior
to be conveyed within sight of the walls of Bethulia,
and tied to a tree, and left there, whither the Jews
came and loosed him.
In the mean time Holofernes formed the siege of
Bethulia $ and having cut off the water which supplied
the city, and set guards at the only fountain which
the besieged had near the walls, the inhabitants were
soon reduced to extremity, and resolved to surrender
if God did not send them succours in five days. Ju¬
dith, being informed of their resolution, conceived the
design of killing Holofernes in his camp. She took
her finest clothes, and went out of Bethulia with her
maid-servant} and being brought to the general, she
pretended that she could no longer endure the sins and
excesses of the Jews, and that God had inspired her
with the design of surrendering herself to him. As
soon as Holofernes saw her, lie was taken with her
beauty} and some days after invited her to a great
feast, which he prepared for the principal officers of
bis army. But he drank so much wine, that sleep and
drunkenness hindered him from satisfying his passion.
Judith, who in the night was left alone in his tent, cut
off his head with his own sword} and departing with
her servant from the camp, she returned to Bethulia
with the head of Holofernes. As soon as it was day,
the besieged made a sally upon their enemies, who go¬
ing into their general’s tent, found his headless carcase
wallowing in its own blood. They then discerned that
Judith had deceived them, and fled with precipitation,
leaving the camp abounding with rich spoils } the Jews
pursued them, killed a great number of them, and re¬
turned loaded with booty.
There is a great diversity of opinions concerning the
time when this war between Holofernes and the Jews Uolofeme * j
happened. Some date it from the captivity of Baby- || 'r *■
Ion, in the reign of Manasseb, and pontificate of Elia- Holstein
kirn the high-priest 5 others place it at some time after
the captivity} and some doubt the truth of the whole
transaction. See the article Judith.
HOLOGRAPHUM (composed of lx*, “ all,”
and y^etcpa, “ I write”), in the civil law, something
written wholly in the hand-writing of the person who
signs it. The word is chiefly used in speaking of a
testament written wholly in the testator’s own hand.
The Romans did not approve of holographic tes¬
taments } and, though Valentinian authorised them by
a novel, they are not used where the civil law is in full
force.
HOLOSTEUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the triandria class } and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 22d order, CarijophyUei. See BoTAKY
Index,
HOLOTHURIA, a genus of the order vermes, be¬
longing to the class mollusca. See Helminthology
Index.
HOLSTEIN, a duchy of Germany, bounded by
the German ocean on the west} the Baltic, or the
gulf of Lubeck, on the east } the duchy of Meck¬
lenburg on the south-east 5 that of Bremen, with the
river Elbe, on the south-west, and Lauenburg, with
the territory of Hamburg, on the south. Its greatest
length is about 80 miles, and its breadth 60. The
diocese of Eutin, and the county of Ranzau, though
they make a part of the duchy of Holstein, yet being
lands belonging to the empire and circle, shall be de¬
scribed separately.
A great part of this country consists of rich marsh
land, which being much exposed to inundations both
from the sea and rivers, dikes have been raised at a
great expence to guard and defend them. The pa¬
stures in the marshes are so rich, that cattle are bred
in vast numbers and fattened in them, and great
quantities of excellent butter and cheese made of their
milk. They are also very fruitful in wheat, barley,
pease, beans, and rape-seed. In the more barren,
sandy, and heathy parts of the country, large flocks
of sheep are bred and fed : nor are orchards wanting,
or woods, 'especially of oak and beech ; nor turf,
poultry, game, and wild-fowl. Here is a variety
both of sea and river fish } and the beef, veal, mut¬
ton, and lamb, are very fat and palatable. Holstein
is also noted for beautiful horses. The gentry usually
farm the cows upon their estates to a Hollander, as
he is called, who for every cow pays from six to ten
rix-dollars } the owner providing pasture for them in
summer, and straw and hay in winter. It is no uncom¬
mon thing here to drain the ponds and lakes once
in three or four years, and sell the carp, lampreys,
pikes, and perch, found in them } then sow them lor
several years after with oats, or use them for pasturage}
and after that lay them under water again, and breed
fish in them. There are hardly any hills in the
country } but several rivers, of which the principal
are the Eyder, the Stor, and the Trave. The duchy
contains about 30 towns great and small } most part of
the peasants are under villenage, being obliged to
work daily for their lords, and not even at liberty to
quit their estates. The nobility and the proprietors^
/
H O L [ 575 ] H O L
cin of manors are possessed of the civil and criminal juris- hut he was deprived of this privilege when the Confe- Holsiein
 ' diction, with other privileges and exemptions. For- deration of the Rhine was organized in 1806. TniSlc
merly there were diets, but now they seem to he en- on the establishment of the new Germanic constitution’ Holyhead.
tirely laid aside : meetings, however, of the nobility he was re-admitted into the diet j and was allowed for'    
are still held at Kiel. The predominant religion here Holstein and Lauenburg three votes in the general
is Lutheranism, with superintendencies as in other assembly, and a place, the tenth in rank, at the ordi-
Lutheran countries. In several places the Jews are nary diet. The population of Holstein’ in 1818 a-
allowed the exercise of their religion. At Gluck- mounted to 360,000. The Danish court has lately
stadt and Altena are both Calvinist and Popish church- been endeavouring to make some improvements in the
ers ; and at Kiel a Greek Russian chapel. Besides interior administration of the duchj’.
the Latin schools in the towns, at Altena is a gymna- HOLT, Sir John, knight, eldest son of Sir Tho-
sium, and at Kiel an university. Notwithstanding this mas Holt, serjeant-at-law’, was born in 1642. He en-
country’s advantageous situation for commerce, there tered himself at Gray’s Inn in 1658; and applied to
are few manufactures and little trade in it. Hamburg the common law with so much industry, that he soon
and Lubeck supply the inhabitants with what they became a very eminent barrister. In the reign of
want from abroad ; from whence, and Altena they ex- James II. he was made recorder of London, which of-
port some grain, malt, grots, starch, buck-wheat, pease, fice he discharged with much applause for about a year
beaus, rape-seed, butter, cheese, sheep, swine, horned and a hall t but lost his place for refusing to expound
cattle, horses, and fish. The manufactures of the the law suitably to the king’s designs. On the arrival
duchy are chiefly carried on at Altena, Kiel, and of the prince of Orange, he was chosen a member of
Gluckstadt. The duchy of Holstein consists of the the convention parliament, which afforded him a good
ancient provinces ot Holstein, Stormar, Ditmarsh, and opportunity of displaying his abilities; so that, as soon
Wagria. It belongs partly to the king of Denmark, as the government was settled, he was made lord chief
and partly to the dukes of Holstein Gottorf and Ploen. justice of the court of king’s bench, and a privy coun-
Anciently the counts of Holstein were vassals of the seller. He continued chief justice for 22 years, with
dukes of Saxony ; but afterwards they received the in- great repute for steadiness, integrity, and thorough
vestiture of their territories from the emperor, or the knowledge in his profession. Upon great occasions he
bishops of Lubeck in the emperor’s name, though the in- asserted the law with intrepidity, though he thereby
vestiture was afterwards given by the emperor in person. ventured to incur by turns the indignation of both the
The king of Denmark appoints a regency over his part houses of parliament. He published some reports, and
of Holstein and the duchy of Slesvvick, which has its died in 1709.
office at Gluckstadt. The seat of the great duke’s Holt (Sax.) “ a wood whereby the names of
privy council and regency-court, together with the towns beginning or ending with holt, as Buck-holt, &e.
chief consistory, which is united to it, is at Kiel: there denote that formerly there was great plenty of wood in
are many inferior .courts and consistories, from which those places,
an appeal lies to the higher. In the duchy of Holstein, HOLY. See Holiness.
the government of the convents and nobility is alter- HOLY-GHOST, one of the persons of the holy
nately in the king and duke for a year, from Mi- Trinity. See Trinity.
chad mas to Michaelmas. The person in whom the Order of the Holy Ghost, the principal military
government is lodged administers it by his regency. order in France, instituted by Henry III. in 1569,
In some cases an appeal lies from this court to the Au- It consists of 100 knights, who are to make proof of
l;c council or chamber at Wetzlar : the convents, the their nobility for three descents. The king is the
nobility, and the proprietors of manors in the country, grand-master or sovereign ; and as such takes an oath on
have a civil and criminal jurisdiction over their estates. his coronation-day to maintain the dignity of the order.
The revenues of the sovereigns arise principally from The knights wear a golden cross, hung about their
their demesnes and regalia ; besides which, there is a necks by a blue silk ribbon or collar. But before
bind and several other taxes and imposts. The king they receive the order of the Holy-Ghost, that of St
usually keeps here some regiments of foot and one of Michael is conferred as a necessary degree; and for this
horse. The king, on account of his share in this coun- reason their arms are surrounded with a double collar,
try, styles himself duke of Holstein, Stormar, and Dit- HOLYHEAD, a town and cape of the isle of An-
marsh. The dukes both of the royal and princely glesea in Wales, and in the Irish channel, where people
house style themselves heirs of Norwaij, dukes of Sles- usually embark for Dublin, there being three packet-
ivick, Holstein, Stormar, and Ditmarsh, and counts of boats that sail for that city every Monday, Wednes-
Oldenhurg and Delmenhorst. In 1735, Duke Charles day, and Friday, wind and weather permitting. It is
Frederic of Holstein Gottorf founded an order of 276 miles from London, and has a very convenient
knighthood here, viz. that of St Anne, the ensign of harbour for the northern trade, when taken short by
which is a red cross, enamelled, and worn pendant at contrary winds. It is situated near the extremity of
a red ribbon edged with yellow—The principal places the isle, and is joined to the north-west part of it' by
of that part of the duchy belonging to the king of a stone bridge of one arch. It has a small market oil
Denmark and the duke of Ploen are Gluckstadt, Itz- Saturdays. The parish is about five or six miles long,
hoe, Rendsburg, and Ploen ; and that part belonging and two or three broad, bounded nearly by the sea.
to the great duke are Kiel, Oldenburg, Preetz, and The church stands above the harbour, within an old
Altena. quadrangular fortification, with a bastion at each cor-
The king of Denmark had originally a seat in the ner, built about 450. On a mountain near it is an-
German diet, in consequence of possessing this duchy ; other old fortification called Turris Munimentum,
which i
H O L [ 576 ] H O L
Holyhead, which is an old stone wall without mortar, and in its
Holy- centre is a small turret, and contains a well of water.
_ Islaad. Holyhead was frequently formerly visited by Irish ro-
verS) an([ was defended as a place of consequence.
There are several remains of old fortifications and
Druidical antiquities in its neighbourhood, as well as
chapels of religious worship. The parish church of
Holyhead was built in the reign of Edward III. and
is in the form of a cross, with a porch and steeple very
antique. There was an old chapel near the church,
now converted into a school-house. A salt-house was
erected on an island in the harbour in Queen Anne’s
reign, but it is now in ruins. The town is little more
than a fishing town, rendered considerable by being the
place of passage to Ireland. It has three good inns.
The passage hence to Ireland is in general about twelve
hours. There is no fresh water here except from rain,
nor any bread sold but what comes from Ireland.
A bath and assembly-room were erected here in I77°*
Under the mountains that overhang the town is a large
cavern in the rock, supported by natural pillars, called
the Parliament-house, accessible only by boats, and the
tide runs into it. If this harbour was properly re¬
paired, and ware-houses built, it would be very conve¬
nient for the Irish to import such of their goods as pay
English duty, it being but a few hours sail from Dublin.
Besides, the Dublin merchants might come over with the
packets to see their goods landed. The commodities are,
butter, cheese, bacon, wild-fowl, lobsters, crabs, oysters,
razor-fish,shrimps, herrings,cod-fish, whitings, whiting-
pollacks, cole-fish, sea-tenches, turbots, soles, flounders,
rays, and plenty of other fish. On the rocks the herb
grows of which they make kelp, a fixed salt used in
making glass, and in alum works. In the neighbour¬
hood there is a large vein of white fullers earth and
another of yellow, which might be useful to fullers.
On the isle of Skerries, nine miles to the north, is a
light-house, which may be seen 24 miles off. Large
flocks of puffins are often seen here. Population 3005
in 1815.
HOLY-Island, a small island lying on the coast of
England, 10 miles south-east of Berwick, in Northum¬
berland. Bede calls it a semi-island, being, as he observes,
twice an island and twice continent in one day 5 for
at the flowing of the tide, it is encompassed by water;
and at tbe ebb, there is an almost dry passage, both
for horses and carriages, to and from the main land j
from which, if measured on a straight line, it is distant
about two miles eastward ; but on account of some
quicksands passengers are obliged to make so many de¬
tours, that the length of way is nearly doubled. The
water over these flats at spring-tides is only seven feet
deep.—This island was by the Britons called Inis Me-
dicante} also Landisfarne, from the small rivulet of
Lindi or Landia, which here runs into the sea, and the
Celtic word fahren or “ recess and on account of
its being the habitation of some of the first monks in
this country, it afterwards obtained its present name
of Holy-island. It measures from east to west about
two miles and a quarter, and its breadth from north
to south is scarcely a mile and a half. At the north¬
west part there runs out a spit of land of about a mile in
length. The monastery is situated at the southermost
extremity $ and at a small distance north of it stands the
village. On this island there is plenty of fish and
fowlbut the air and soil are bad. There is not a HoIt. *
tree on the island. The village, which stands on a Island |
rising ground, consists but of a few scattered houses, (1
chiefly inhabited by fishermen $ and it has two inns.
The north and east coasts are formed of perpendicular
rocks, the other sides sink by gradual slopes to the
sands. There is a commodious harbour, defended by
a block-house ; which last was surprised and taken in
1715, but was soon invested and retaken.
Holy-island, though really part of Northumberland,
belongs to Durham ; and all civil disputes must be de¬
termined by the justices of that county.—It was a
very ancient episcopal seat. Aidan the first bishop,
after presiding in it 14 years, died and was buried here
A. D. 651. Finan, his successor, built a wooden
church, thatched with reeds, but before the end of the
century covered with lead by Bishop Eadbert. St
Cuthbert, who from a poor shepherd became monk of
Melrose 15 years, was prior here 12 more, when he
retired to one of the barren Farn rocks, from whence
he was called to this see, which he held only two
years, and returned to his retirement, where he died,
and was buried at the east end of his oratory, where
his stone coffin is still shown. His body was found
fresh 11 years after his death. Lindisfarne was ruined
by the Danes, A. D. 793, when the monks carried
his body about for seven years, and at last settled at
Chester-le-street, whither the see was translated, and
where it continued many years. On a second destruc¬
tion of the monastery by the Danes they were remo¬
ving to liippon, but stopped by a miracle at Durham,
where the saint continued till the Reformation, when
his body was found entire, and privately buried in a
wooden coffin, as some pretend, near the clock, but more
probably in the ground under where his shrine stood.
The entrochi found among the rocks at Lindisfarne
are called St Cuthbert’s beads, and pretended to be
made by him in the night. Eighteen bishops sat here
till the removal of the see to Chester, which had eight
more till the removal to Durham, A. D. 995* Lin¬
disfarne became a cell to that Benedictine monastery,
valued at 48I. per ann. The north and south walls of
the church are standing, much inclined j part of the
west end remains, but the east is down. The columns
of the nave are of four different sorts, 12 feet high and
5 feet diameter, massy and richer than those of Dur¬
ham $ the bases and capitals plain, supporting circular
arches. Over each arch are large windows in pairs,
separated by a short column, and over these are smaller
single windows. In the north and south walls are some
pointed arches. The length of the body is 138 feet,
breadth 18 feet, and with the two aisles 36 feet $ but it
may be doubted whether there ever was a transept.
One arch of the centre tower remains adorned, as is its
entrance from the nave, with Saxon zigzag. Somewhat
to the east is the base of a cross, and to the west tbe
present parish-church.
Holy-Rood Day, a festival observed by the Roman
Catholics, in memory of the exaltation of our Saviour’s
cross. See Cross and Exaltation.
Holy-Well, a town of North Wales, in the county
of Flint. It is a place of great note, for the well of
St Winnifred, who was reputed a virgin martyr ; and it
is much frequented by people that come to bathe in it,
as well as by popish pilgrims out of devotion. The
spring
H O M [ 577 ] H O M
fio]l tyell spring gushes forth with such impetuosity, that at a
small distance it turns several mills. Over the spring
H 3* is a chapel built upon pillars, and on the windows is
painted the history of St Winnifred’s life. There is a
moss about the well, which some foolishly imagine to
be St Winnifred’s hair. W. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 54.
21.
HOMAGE, in Law, is the submission, loyalty, and
service, which a tenant promised to his lord when
he was first admitted to the land which he held of
the lord in fee : also that owing to a king, or to any
superior.
HOMBERG, William, a celebrated physician,
chemist, and philosopher, was the son of a Saxon gen¬
tleman, and born in Batavia, in the East Indies, in
1652. His father afterwards settling at Amsterdam,
William there prosecuted his studies; and from thence
removed to Jena, and afterwards to Leipsic, where he
studied the law. In 1642, he was made advocate at
Magdeburg, and there applied himself to the study of
experimental philosophy. Some time after he travelled
into Italy ; and applied himself to the study of medi¬
cine, anatomy, and botany, at Padua. He afterwards
studied at Bologna; and at Home learned optics,
painting, sculpture, and music. He at length travel¬
led into France, England, and Holland ; obtained the
degree of doctor of physic at Wirtemberg ; travelled
into Germany and the North ; visited the mines of
Saxony, Bohemia, Hungary, and Sweden; and re¬
turned to France, where he acquired the esteem of the
learned. He was on the point of returning into Ger¬
many, when M. Colbert being informed of his merit,
made him such advantageous offers, as induced him to
fix his residence at Paris. M. Homberg, who was al¬
ready well known for his phosphorus, for a pneumatic
machine of bis own invention more perfect than that
of Guericke, for his microscopes, for his discoveries in
chemistry, and for the great number and variety of bis
curious observations, was received into the academy of
sciences in 1691, and had the laboratory of that aca¬
demy, of which he was one of the principal ornaments.
The duke of Orleans, afterwards regent of the king¬
dom, at length made him his chemist, settled upon him
a pension, gave him a most superb laboratory, and in
1704 made him bis first physician. He had abjured
the Protestant religion in 1682, and died in 1715.
The memoirs of the academy of sciences, and other
journals, contain many curious and learned disqui¬
sitions of this author. He bad begun to give the ele¬
ments of chemistry in the memoirs of the academy,
and the rest were found among his papers fit for print¬
ing.
Homberg, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
Upper Rhine, and landgravate of Hesse, seated ten
miles north of Frankfort, and gives title to one of the
branches of the house of Hesse, who is its sovereign.
E. Long, 8. 32. N. Lat. 50. 15.
Homberg, a town of France, in the department of
Mont Tonnerre, and chief place of a canton, which
contains above 4000 inhabitants. E. Long. 7. 21.
N. Lat. 49. I I.
HOME, Henry, Lord Karnes, an eminent Scot¬
tish lawyer, and author of many celebrated works on
various subjects, was descended of a very honourable
and ancient family, and born in the year 1696.
Vol. X. Part II. f
Lord Karnes’s grandfather, Henry Home, was a Home,
younger son of Sir John Home of Renton, who held y——^
the high office of lord justice-clerk, or chief crimi¬
nal judge of Scotland, in the year 1663. -^e re*
ceived the estate of Karnes from his uncle George,
brother to the then lord justice-clerk. The family
of Renton is descended from that of the earls of
Home, the representatives of the ancient princes of
Northumberland, as appears from the records of the
Lion Office.
The county of Berwick in Scotland has the honour
of having given birth to this great and useful member
of society. In early youth he was lively, and eager in
the acquisition of knowledge. He never attended a
public school ; but was instructed in the ancient and
modern languages, as well as in several branches of
mathematics, and the arts necessarily connected with
that science, by Mr Wingate, a man of considerable
parts and learning, who spent many years as preceptor
or private tutor to Mr Home.
After studying, with acuteness and diligence, at the
university of Edinburgh, the civil law, and the muni¬
cipal law of his own country, Mr Home early per¬
ceived that a knowledge of these alone is not sufficient
to make an accomplished lawyer. An acquaintance with
the forms and practical business of courts, and especially
of the supreme court, as a member of which he was to
seek for fame and emolument, he considered as essential¬
ly necessary to qualify him to he a complete banister.
He accordingly attended for some time the chamber
of a writer to the signet, where he had an opportunity
of learning the styles of legal deeds, and the modes of
conducting different species of business. This wise
step, independently of bis great genius and unwearied
application, procured him, after bis admission to the
bar, peculiar respect from the court, and proportional
employment iu his profession of an advocate. Who¬
ever peruses the law-papers composed by Mr Home
when a young man, will perceive an uncommon ele¬
gance of style, besides great ingenuity of reasoning,
and a thorough knowledge of the law and constitution
of his country. These qualifications, together with the
strength and vivacity of bis natural abilities, soon rais¬
ed him to be an ornament to the Scottish bar; and, on
the 2d day of February 1752, he was advanced to the
bench as one of the judges of the court of session, under
the title of Lord Karnes.
Before this period, however, notwithstanding the tin-
avoidable labours of his profession, Mr Home had fa¬
voured the world with several useful and ingenious
works. In the year 1728,116 published Remarkable
Decisions of the Court of Session from 1716 to 1728,
in one volume folio.—In 1732 appeared Essays upon
several subjects in law7, viz. Jus tertii; Bcntjicium ce-
dendarum actionum ; Vinco Vincentem ; and Prescrip¬
tion ; in one volume 8vo. This first produce of his
original genius, and of his extensive views, excited not
only the attention, hut the admiration of the judges,
and of all the other members of the college of justice.
This work was succeeded, in the year I74I» ■D*1" '
cisions of the Court of Session from its first institu¬
tion to the year 1740, abridged and digested under
proper heads, in a form of a Dictionary, in two volumes
folio : a very laborious work, and of the, greatest uti¬
lity to every practical lawyer. In 1747 appeared Essays
4 D upon
H O M [ 578 1 H O M
Tionie. upon several subjects concerning Britisli antiquities,
—-y— 1 viz. I. Introduction of the feudal law into Scotland.
2. Constitution of parliament. 3. Honour, Dignity.
4. Succession, or Descent j with an appendix upon he¬
reditary and indefeasible right, composed anno I745>
and published 1747, in one volume 8vo. In a preface
to this work, Lord Karnes informs us, that in the years
1745 and 1746, when the nation was in great suspense
and distraction, he retired to the country ; and in order
to banish as much as possible the uneasiness of his mind,
he contrived the plan, and executed this ingenious per¬
formance.
Though not in the order of time, we shall continue
the list of all our author’s writings on law, before
we proceed to his productions on other subjects. In
175-7, ^ie published The Statute Law of Scotland a-
bridged, with historical notes, in one volume 8vo a most
useful and laborious work. In the year 1759’ ^ie Pre*
sented to the public a new work under the title of Histo¬
rical Law Tracts, in one volume 8vo. It contains 14
interesting tracts, viz. History of the Criminal Law :—
History of Promises and Covenants History of Pro¬
perty:—History of Securities underand for Payment of
Debt:—History of the Privilege which an Heir-appa-
rent in a feudal holding has to continue the Possession
of his Ancestor.—History of Regalities, and of the Pri¬
vilege of repledging History of Courts :—History of
Brieves :—History of Process in absence :—History of
Execution against Moveables and Land for Payment
of Debt:—History of Personal Execution for Payment
of Debt:—History of Execution for obtaining Pay¬
ment after the Death of the Debtor :—History of the
limited and universal Representation of Heirs :—Old
and New Extent. In 1760, he published, in one vo¬
lume folio, The Principles of Equity ; a work which
shows both the fertility of the author’s genius and his
indefatigable application. In 1766, he gave to the pub¬
lic another volume in folio of Remarkable Decisions of
the Court of Session, from 1730 to 1752. In 1777,
appeared his Elucidations respecting the Common and
Statute Law of Scotland, in one volume 8vo. This
book contains many curious and interesting remarks
upon some intricate and dubious points which occur in
the law of Scotland. In 1780, he published a volume
in folio of Select Decisions of the Court of Session from
1752 to 1768.
From this sketch of Lord Karnes’s compositions and
collections with a view to improve and elucidate the
laws of Scotland, the reader may form some idea of
his great industry, and of his anxious desire to promote
the honour and welfare of his country. It remains
to be remarked, that in the supreme court there, the
law-writings of Lord Karnes are held in equal estima¬
tion, and quoted with equal respect, as those of Coke
or Blackstone in the courts of England.
Lord Karnes’s mind was very much inclined to me¬
taphysical disquisitions. When a young man, in order
to improve himself in his favourite study, he corre¬
sponded with the famous Berkeley bishop of Cloyne,
Dr Butler bishop of Durham, Dr Samuel Clark, and
many othtr ingenious and learned men both in Bri¬
tain and Ireland. The letters of correspondence, we
are happy to learn, have been carefully preserved by
his son and heir George Home-Drummond, Esq. of
Blair-Drummond^
The year 1751 gave birth to the first fruits of his k0[M
lordship’s metaphysical studies, under the title of Essays r--
on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion, in
two parts. Though a small volume, it was replete with
ingenuity and acute reasoning, excited general attention,
and gave rise to much controversy. It contained, in
more explicit terms than perhaps any other work of a
religious theist then known in Scotland, the doctrine
which has of late made so much noise under the appel¬
lation of philosophical necessity. The same thing had
indeed been taught by Hobbes, by Collins, and by the
celebrated David Hume, Esq. hut as those authors either
were professed infidels, or were supposed to be such, it
excited, as coming from them, no wonder, and provo¬
ked for a time very little indignation. But when a wri¬
ter, who exhibited no symptoms of extravagant scepti¬
cism, who insinuated nothing against the truth of reve¬
lation in general, and who inculcated with earnestness
the great duties of morality and natural religion, advan¬
ced at the same time so uncommon a doctiine as that of
necessity; a number of pens were immediately drawn
against him, and for a while the work and its author
were extremely obnoxious to a great part of the Scot¬
tish nation. On the other hand, there were some, and
those not totally illiterate, who, confounding necessity
with predestination, complimented Mr Home on his ma¬
sterly defence of the established faith : and though be¬
tween these two schemes there is no sort of resemblance,
except that the future happiness or misery of all men is,
according to both, certainly foreknown and appointed
bv God j yet we remember, that a professor in a dissent¬
ing academy so far mistook the one for the other, that
he recommended to his pupils the Essays on Morality
and Natural Religion, as containing a complete vindi¬
cation of the doctrine of Calvin. For this mistake he
was dismissed from his office, and excluded from the
communion of the sect to which he belonged. Lord
Karnes, like many other great and good men, continued
a Necessarian to the day of his death j but in a subse¬
quent edition of the Essays, he exhibited a remarkable
proof of his candour and liberality of sentiment, by al¬
tering the expressions, which, contrary to his intention,
bad given such general ofl’ence.
In 1761, he published an Introduction to the art 0)
Thinking, in one volume i2mo. This small but va¬
luable book was originally intended for the instruc¬
tion of his own family. The plan of it is both curious,
amusing, and highly calculated to catch the attention
and to improve the minds of youth. It consists of
maxims collected from Rochefoucault and many other
authors. To illustrate these maxims, and to rivet
their spirit and meaning in the minds of young persons,
his lordship has added to most of them beautiful stories,
fables, and historical anecdotes.
In the department of belles lettres, his Elements vj
Criticism appeared in 1762, in three volumes 8vo.
This valuable work is the first, and a most success¬
ful attempt to shew, that the art of criticism is found¬
ed on the principles of human nature. Such a plan,
it might be thought, should have produced a dry and
phlegmatic performance. Lord Karnes, on the cort-
trary, from the sprightliness of his manner of treating
every subject he handled, has rendered the Elements
of Criticism not only highly instructive, but one of the
most entertaining books in our language. Before this
H O M C 579 ] H O M
work was published, Rollin’s Belles Lettres, a dull per-
formance, from which a student could derive little ad^
vantage, was universally recommended as a standard ;
hut, after the Elements of Criticism were presented to
the public, Rollin instantly vanished, and gave place
to greater genius and greater utility. With regard to
real instruction and genuine taste in composition of
every kind, a student, a gentleman, or a scholar, can
in no language find such a fertile field of information.
Lord Karnes, accordingly, had the happiness of seeing
the good effects of his labours, and of enjoying for
twenty years a reputation which he so justly merited.
A still farther proof of the genuine and various pur¬
suits of this active mind was given in the year 1772,
when his lordship published a work in one volume
8vo, under the title of The Gentleman Farmer, being
an attempt to improve Agriculture by subjecting it to the
test of rational principles. Our limits do not permit us
to give details ; but with regard to this book, we
must inform the public, that all the intelligent farmers
in Scotland uniformly declare, that, after perusing
Young, Dickson, and a hundred other writers on
agriculture, Lord Karnes’s Gentleman Farmer contains
the best practical and rational information on the va¬
rious articles of husbandry which can any where be
obtained. As a practical farmer, Lord Karnes has
given many obvious proofs of his skill. After he suc¬
ceeded in right of his lady, to the ample estate of
Blair-Drummond in the county of Perth, he formed a
plan for turning a large moss, consisting of at least
1500 acres, into arable land. Elis lordship had the
pleasure, before he died, to see the plan successfully,
though only partially executed. The same plan was
afterwards carried on in a much more rapid manner by
his son George Drummond, Esq. But as this is not a
proper place for details of this nature, we must refer
the reader to the article Agriculture •, where a par¬
ticular account of this extraordinary, but extensively
useful, operation is given.
In the year 1773, Lord Karnes favoured the world
with Sketches of the History of Man, in 2 vols qlo.
This work consists of a great variety of facts and ob¬
servations concerning the nature of man j the produce
of much and profitable reading. In the course of his
studies and reasonings, he amassed a vast collection of
materials. These, when considerably advanced in
years, he digested under proper heads, and submitted
them to the consideration of the public. He intended
that this book should be equally intelligible to women
as to men ; and, to accomplish this end, when he had
occasion to quote ancient or foreign books, he uniform¬
ly translated the passages. The Sketches contain much
useful information*, and, like all his lordship’s other
performances, are lively and entertaining.
We now come to Lord Karnes’s last work, to which
he modestly gives the title of Loose Hints upon Educa- Howe.
tion, chiefly concerning the culture of the heart. It was — v"-—
published in the year 1781, in one vol. 8vo, when the
venerable and astonishing author was in the 85th year
of his age. Though his lordship chose to call them
Loose Hints, the intelligent reader will perceive in this
composition an uncommon activity of mind at an age
so far advanced beyond the usual period of human life,
and an earnest desire to form the minds of youth to
honour, to virtue, to industry, and to a veneration of
the Deity.
Besides the books we have enumerated, Lord Karnes
published many temporary and fugitive pieces in differ¬
ent periodical works. In the Essays Physical and
Literary, published by a society of gentlemen in Edin¬
burgh, we find compositions of his lordship On the
Laws of Motion, On the Advantages of Shallow Plough¬
ing, and on Evaporation ; all of which exhibit evident
marks of genius and originality of thinking.
How a man employed through life in public business,
and in business of the first importance, could find leisure
for so many different pursuits, and excel in them (a),
it is not easy for a meaner mind to form even a concep¬
tion. Much, no doubt, is to be attributed to the supe¬
riority of his genius ; but much must likewise have been
the result of a proper distribution of his time. He rose
early; when in the vigour of life at four o’clock, in
old age at six ; and studied all morning. When the
court was sitting, the duties of his office employed him
from eight or nine till twelve or one ; after which, if
the weather permitted, he walked for two hours with
some literary friends, and then went home to dinner.
Whilst he was on the bench, and we believe when he
was at the l^tr, he neither gave nor accepted invitations
to dinner during the term or session ; and if any friend
came uninvited to dinner with him, his lordship display¬
ed his usual cheerfulness and hospitality, but always re¬
tired with his clerk as soon as he had drunk a very few
glasses of wine, leaving his company to be entertained
by his lady. The afternoon was spent as the morning
had been, in study. In the evening he went to the
theatre or the concert, from which he returned to the
society of some men of learning, with whom he sat late,
and displayed such talents for conversation as are not
often found. It is observed by a late celebrated author,
that “ to read, write, and converse, in due proportions^
is the business of a man of letters ; and that he who
hopes to look back hereafter with satisfaction upon past
years, must learn to know the value of single minutes,
and endeavour to let no particle of time fall useless to
the ground.” It was by practising these lessons that
Lord Karnes rose to literary eminence, in opposition to
all the obstacles which the tumult of public business
could place in his way.
To give a proper delineation of the public and pri-
4 D 2 vate
\
(a) Upon reflecting on the studiousness of Lord Karnes’s disposition, and his numerous literary productions,
the reader will naturally recal to his mind a striking similarity between his lordship and the laborious Pliny the
Elder. In a letter from Pliny the Younger to Macer, the following passage occurs, which is equally ap¬
plicable to both : LLonne videtur tibi, recordanti quantum legerit, quantum scripsent, nec in ojficiis u/hs, nec in
amicitia principum fuisse ?- which is thus translated by Melmoth : “ When you reflect on the books he has read
and the volumes he has written, are you not inclined to suspect, that he never was engaged in the affairs of the
public, or the service of his prince ?”
H O M [ 5^0 ] H O M
Home, vate character ot Lord Karnes, would far exceed our
—V—-'limits. The writer of this article, however, who had
the honour of an intimate acquaintance with this great
and good man for more than twenty years, must be in¬
dulged in adding a few facts which fell under his own
observation. < , .
Lord Karnes was remarkable for public spirit, to
which he conjoined activity and great exertion. He
for a long tract of time had the principal management
of all the societies and boards for promoting the trade,
fisheries, and manufactures, in Scotland. As condu¬
cive to those ends, he was a strenuous advocate for
making and repairing turnpike roads through every
part of the country. He had likewise a chief lead in
the distribution and application of the funds arising
from the estates in Scotland which had unfortunately
been annexed to the crown. He was no less zealous
in supporting, both by his writings and personal in¬
fluence, literary associations. He was in some mea¬
sure the parent of what was called the Physical and Li¬
terary Society. This society was afterwards incorpo¬
rated into the Royal Society of Edinburgh, which re¬
ceived a charter from the crown, and which is daily
producing marks of genius, as wrell as works of real
utility.
As a private and domestic gentleman, Lord Karnes
was admired by both sexes. The vivacity of his wit,
and of his animal spirits, even when advanced in years,
rendered his company not only agreeable, but greatly
solicited by the literati, and courted by ladies of the
highest rank and accomplishments. He told very few
stories 5 and rarely, if ever, repeated the same story to
the same person. From the necessity of retailing anec¬
dotes, the miserable refuge of those who, without ge¬
nius, attempt to shine in conversation, the abundance
of his own mind set him free $ for his wit or his learn¬
ing always suggested what the occasion required. He
could with equal ease and readiness combat the opinions
of a metaphysician, unravel the intricacies of law, talk
with a farmer on improvements in agriculture, or esti¬
mate w'ith a lady the merits of the dress in fashion. In¬
stead of being jealous of rivals, the characteristic of little
minds, Lord Karnes suffered and encouraged every
symptom of merit that he could discover in the scholar,
or in the lowest mechanic. Before he succeeded to the
estate of Blair Drummond, his fortune was small. Not¬
withstanding this circumstance, he, in conjunction with
Mrs Drummond, his respectable and accomplished
spouse, did much more service to the indigent than
most families of greater opulence. If the present ne¬
cessity was pressing, they gave money. They did more :
When they discovered that male or female petitioners
were capable of performing any art or labour, both
parties exerted themselves in procuring that species of
work which the poor people could perform. In cases
of this kind, which were very frequent, the lady took
charge of the women and his lordship of the men.
From what has been said concerning the various and
numerous productions of his genius, it is obvious that
there could be few idle moments iu his long protract¬
ed life. His mind was incessantly employed ; either
teeming with new ideas, or pursuing active and labo¬
rious occupations. At the same time, with all this
intellectual ardour, one great feature in the character
of Lord Karnes, besides his literary talents and his
5
public spirit, was a remarkable innocency of mind. Ii«
He not only never indulged in detraction, but when Homer.
any species of scandal was exhibited in bis company, ' v"-1
he either remained silent, or endeavoured to give a dif¬
ferent turn to the conversation. As natural conse¬
quences of this amiable disposition, he never meddled
with politics, even when parties ran to indecent lengths
in this country ; and what is still more remarkable, he
never wrote a sentence, notwithstanding his numerous
publications, without a direct and a manifest intention
to benefit his fellow creatures. In his temper he was
naturally warm, though kind and aflectionate. In
the friendships lie formed, he was ardent, zealous, and
sincere. So far from being inclined to irreligion, as
some ignorant bigots insinuated, few men possessed a
more devout habit of thought. A constant sense of
Deity, and a veneration for Providence, dwelt upon
his mind. From this source arose that propensity
which appears in all his writings, of investigating final
causes, and tracing the wisdom of the Supreme Author
of nature. But here we must stop. Lord Karnes, to the
great regret of the public, died on the 27th day of
December 1782. As he had no marked disease but
the debility necessarily resulting from extreme old age,
a few days before his death he went to the Court of
Session, addressed all the judges separately, told them
he was speedily to depart, and took a solemn and an
affectionate farewell.
Home, John, a late eminent Scottish dramatic wri¬
ter. See Supplement.
HOMER, the prince of the Greek poets, flourish¬
ed, according to Dr Blair, about 900 B. C. accord¬
ing to Dr Priestley 850, according to the Arundelian
marbles 300, after the taking of Troy ; and agreeable
to them all about 400 years before Plato and Aristotle.
Seven cities disputed the glory of having given him
birth, viz. Smyrna, Rhodes, Colophon, Salamis, Chios,
Argos, and Athens ;
Smyrna,Rhodes,Colophon, Salamis,Chios, Argos, Athena;
Orbis de patria ceriat, Homere, tua.
We have nothing that is very certain in relation to the
particulars of his life. The most regular account is
that which goes under the name of Herodotus j and
though it is generally supposed to be a spurious piece,
yet as it is ancient, was made use of by Strabo, and ex¬
hibits that idea which the later Greeks, and the Romans
in the age of Augustus, entertained of Homer, we must
content ourselves with giving an abstract of it.
A man of Magnesia, whose name was Menalippus,
went to settle at Cumse, where he married the daugh¬
ter of a citizen called Homyres, and had by her a
daughter called Critheis. The father and mother dy¬
ing, the young woman was left under the tuition of
Cleonax her father’s friend, and sufl'ering herself to be
deluded, was got with child. The guardian, though
his care had not prevented the misfortune, was how¬
ever willing to conceal it; and therefore sent Critheis
to Smyrna, which was then building, 18 years after
the founding of Cumae, and about 168 after the taking
of Troy. Critheis being near her time, went one day
to a festival which the town of Smyrna was celebra¬
ting on the banks of the river Meles; where her pains
coming upon her, she was delivered of Homer, whom
she called Melesigenes, because he was born on the
banks
H O M [ 581 ] H O M
cr. banks of that river. Having nothing to maintain her,
—' she was forced to spin, and a man of Smyrna called
Phernias, who taught literature and music, having of¬
ten seen Critheis, who lodged near him, and being
pleased with her housewifery, took her into his house
to spin the wool he received from his scholars for their
schooling. Here she behaved herself so modestly and
discreetly, that Phemius married her ; and adopted her
son, in whom he discovered a wonderful genius, and
the best natural disposition in the world. After the
death of Phemius and Critheis, Homer succeeded to
his father-in-law’s fortune and school ; and was admi¬
red, not only by the inhabitants of Smyrna, but by
strangers, who resorted from all parts to that place of
trade. A shipmaster called Menles, who was a man of
learning and a lover of poetry, was so taken with Ho¬
mer, that he persuaded him to leave his school, and to
travel with him. Homer, who had then begun his
poem of the Iliad, and thought it of great consequence
to see the places he should have occasion to treat of, em¬
braced the opportunity. He embaiked with Mentes,
and during their several voyages never failed carefully
to note down all that he thought worth observing. He
travelled into Egypt; from whence he brought into
Greece the names of their gods, the chief ceremonies
of their worship, and a more improved knowledge in
the arts than what prevailed in his own country. He
visited Africa and Spain ; in his return from whence
he touched at Ithaca, where he was much troubled
with a rheum falling upon his eyes. Mentes being in
haste to take a turn to Leucadia his native country,
left Homer well recommended to Mentor, one of the
chief men of the island of Ithaca, who took all possible
care of him. There Homer was informed of many
things relating to Ulysses, which he afterwards made
use of in composing his Odyssey. Mentes returning to
Ithaca, found Homer cured. They embarked toge¬
ther j and after much time spent in visiting the coasts
of Peloponnesus and the islands, they arrived at Colo¬
phon, where Homer was again troubled with the de-
fluxion upon his eyes, which proved so violent, that he
is said to have lost his sight. This misfortune made
him resolve to return to Smyrna, where he finished his
Iliad. Some time after, the ill posture of his affairs
obliged him to go to Cumae, where he hoped to have
found some relief. Here his poems were highly ap¬
plauded : but when he proposed to immortalize their
town, if they would allow him a salary, he was answer¬
ed, that “ there would be no end of maintaining all
the or blind men and hence got the name
of Homer. He afterwards wandered through several
places, and stopped at Chios, where he married, and
composed his Odyssey. Some time after, having add¬
ed many verses to his poems in praise of the cities of
Greece, especially of Athens and Argos, he went to
Samos, wdiere he spent the winter, singing at the houses
of the great men, with a train of boys after him. From
Samos he went to lo, one of the Sporades, with a de¬
sign to continue his voyage to Athens ; but landing by
the way at Chios, he fell sick, died, and was buried on
the sea shore.
The only incontestable works which Homer has left
behind him are the Iliad and Odyssey. The Batracho-
myomachia, or battle of the frogs and mice, has been
disputed. The hymns have been disputed also, and at¬
tributed by the scholiasts to Cyntethus the rhapsodist : Homer,
but neither Thucydides, Lucian, nor Pausanias, have v—■
scrupled to cite them as genuine. Many other pieces
are ascribed to him : epigrams, the Eartiges, the Ce-
cropes, the destruction of Oechalia, of which only the
names are remaining.
Nothing was ever comparable to the clearness and
majesty of Homer’s style 5 to the sublimity of his
thoughts; to the strength and sweetness of bis verses.
All his images are striking; his descriptions just and
exact; the passions so well expressed, and nature so just¬
ly and finely painted, that he gives to every thing mo¬
tion, life, and action. But he more particularly excels
in invention, and in the different characters of his he¬
roes, which are so varied, that they affect us in an in¬
expressible manner. In a word, the more be is read
by a person of good taste, the more he is admired.
Nor are his works to be esteemed merely as entertain¬
ing poems, or as the monuments of a sublime and va¬
ried genius. He was in general so accurate with re¬
spect to costume, that he seldom mentioned persons or
things that W'e may not conclude to have been known
during the times of which he writes ; and it w?as Mr
Pope’s opinion, that his account of people, princes, and
countries, was purely historical, founded on the real
transactions of those times, and by far the most valua¬
ble piece of history and geography left us concerning
the state of Greece in that early period. His geogra¬
phical divisions of that country were thought so exact,
that we are told of many controversies concerning the
boundaries of Grecian cities which have been decided
upon the authority of his poems.
Alcibiades gave a rhetorician a box on the ear for
not having Homer’s writings in his school. Alexander
was ravished with them, and commonly placed them
under his pillow with his sword : he inclosed the Iliad
in the precious casket that belonged to Darius ; “ in
order (said he to bis courtiers) that the most perfect
production of the human mind might be inclosed in the
most valuable casket in the world.” And one day see¬
ing the tomb of Achilles in Sigaea, “ Fortunate-hero !
(cried he), thou hast had a Homer to sing thy victo¬
ries !” Lycurgus, Solon, and the kings and princes of
Greece, set such a value on Horner’s works, that they
took the utmost pains in procuring correct editions of
them, the most esteemed of which is that of Aristarchus.
Didymus was the first who wrote notes on Homer ;
and Eustathius, archbishop of Thessalonica, in the 12th
century, is the most celebrated of his commentators.
Mr Pope has given an elegant translation of the Iliad,
adorned with the harmony of poetic numbers; and
Mad. Dacier has translated both the Iliad and Odyssey
in prose.
Those who desire to know the several editions of
Homer, and the writers who have employed themselves
on the works of that great poet, may consult Fabricius,
in the first volume of bis Bibk'otheca Greece.
A very singular discovery, however, which was made
a few years ago in Russia, deserves to be here mention¬
ed, together with the circumstances that attended it.
Christian Frederic Matthau, who had been educated by
the learned Ernesti, and did credit to the instructions
of that celebrated master by the great erudition that he
displayed, being invited to settle at Moscow, and to as¬
sist in a plan of literature for which his abilities and ac¬
quisitions -
H O M
[ 582 ]
H O M
Ho'tter.
quisitions eminently qualified him } on his arrival at that
j city was informed, equally to his astonishment and sa¬
tisfaction, that a very copious treasure of Greek manu¬
scripts was deposited in the library of the Holy Synod,
which no person in that country had either the abilities
to make use of, or the curiosity to examine. Struck
with the relation of a circumstance so unexpected, and
at the same time so peculiarly agreeable to his classical
taste, he immediately seized the opportunity that was
fortunately offered him, to explore this repository of
hidden treasure. After having examined several curi¬
ous books, he discovered a manuscript copy of the
works of Homer, written about the conclusion of the
14th century, but evidently a transcript from a very an¬
cient and most valuable copy, which, besides the Iliad
and the Odyssey, contains also 16 of the hymns, which
have been long published under the name of Homer.
Nor was this all. Twelve lines of a lost hymn to Bac¬
chus, and the hymn to Ceres, which was also lost, were
preserved in this curious and long unnoticed manuscript.
The hymn to Ceres appears to be entire, excepting a
few lines towards the close : and it is surely remarkable,
that a Greek poem, attributed to Homer, which had
been lost for ages, should be at length discovered in
Muscovy, the rudest and most unclassical country in
Europe. M. Matthtei, exulting in an acquisition so
unexpected, and at the same time so valuable, commu¬
nicated it, with singular disinterestedness, to his learn¬
ed friend M. Ruhnkenius, with whose talents and ex¬
traordinary erudition he was well acquainted, that this
gentleman might present it to the world without those
delays which would probably have retarded the publica¬
tion of it at Moscow. He was rather induced to em¬
ploy M. Ruhnkenius in the publication of this curious
and beautiful remnant of antiquity, because he knew
that this gentleman had been particularly engaged in
the study of the hymns of Homer, in order to give the
public a complete edition of them. The hymn to Ce¬
res, and the fragment of the hymn to Bacchus, were
printed in 1780 at Leyden, under the care of M. Ruhn-
kenhis, who has added some very valuable notes and
observations on the hymn to Ceres, which tend to illus¬
trate its beauties, and to throw a light on some of its
obscurities. The learned editor observes, that nothing
was more distant from his expectations than the disco¬
very of this hymn to Ceres. He knew indeed that a
poem bearing that title, and ascribed to Homer, existed
in the second century ; but as it had long been consi¬
dered as irretrievably lost, he had formed no hopes of
ever seeing it rescued from the obscurity to which it had
been consigned. He acknowledges, that he has many
doubts with respect to the high and illustrious origin
ascribed to this hymn : but as no positive external evi¬
dence can be produced to determine the point, he
chooses to rest his argument on what appears to him the
more certain ground of internal proof •, and observes,
that though the poem be exquisitely beautiful, yet that
it is evidently deficient in some of Homer’s more strik¬
ing and predominant characteristics. It wants his ener¬
gy and spirit; that vigour, that inspiration, which ani¬
mate and give an irresistible power, as well as an en¬
chanting beauty, to the poems of that sublime and ini¬
mitable bard. This opinion, as we have already seen,
hath been given by other critics of all the hymns of
3
Homer. But though M. Ruhnkenius is not inclined
to attribute to Homer the hymn to Ceres, he yet ac¬
knowledges, that the structure of its language is found- Hwmcidt.
ed on the model of that great poet, and he hesitates not ''“-v''-
to give it the honour of very high antiquity. He is of
opinion, that it was written immediately after Homer,
or at least in the age ef Hesiod } and he congratulates
the age on the discovery of so curious a poem, rescued
by mere accident from the darkest retreats of oblivion,
and perhaps but at a slight distance from inevitable per¬
dition. He deems it to be an acquisition, not only cal¬
culated to gratify the curiosity of the connoisseurs in
classic antiquity, or to entertain those lovers of Greek
poetry whose studies are made subservient to a refined
and elegant species of amusement, but he also esteems
it to be of particular use to the critic, as it tends to il¬
lustrate some obscure passages both in the Greek and
Latin poets.
Homer, Omer, or Chomcr, a Jewish measure, con¬
taining the tenth part of the epha. See CoRUS and
Measure.
HOMESOKEN. See Hameseckek.
HOMICIDE, signifies in general the taking away
of any person’s life. It is of three kinds 5 justifiable,
excusable, and felonious. The first has no share of
guilt at all j the second very little ; hut the third is
the highest crime against the law of nature that man is
capable of committing.
I. Justifiable homicide is of divers kinds.
I. Such as is owing to some unavoidable necessity,
without any will, intention, or desire, and without any
inadvertence or negligence, in the party killing, and
therefore without any shadow of blame ; as, for in¬
stance, by virtue of such an office as obliges one, in the
execution of public justice, to put a malefactor to death,
who hath forfeited his life by the laws and verdict of
his country. This is an act of necessity, and even ot
civil duty j and therefore not only justifiable but com¬
mendable, where the law requires it. But the law must
require it, otherwise it is not justifiable: therefore wan¬
tonly to kill the greatest of malefactors, a felon, or a
traitor, attainted or outlawed, deliberately, uncompel¬
led, and extrajudicially, is murder. And farther, if
judgment of death be given by a judge not authorised
by lawful commission, and execution is done according¬
ly, the judge is guilty of murder. Also such judg¬
ment, when legal, must be executed by the proper of¬
ficer, or his appointed deputy ; for no one else is ;e-
quired by law to do it, which requisition it is that justi¬
fies the homicide. If another person doth it of his own
head, it is held to be murder: even though it be the
judge himself. It must farther he executed, snvato
juris ordine; it must pursue the sentence of the court.
If an officer beheads one who is adjudged to be hang¬
ed, or vice versa, it is murder : for he is merely mini¬
sterial, and therefore only justified when he acts under
the authority and compulsion of the law. But if a she¬
riff changes one kind of punishment for another, he then
acts by his own authority, which extends not to the
commission of homicide; and besides, this licence might
occasion a very gross abuse of his power. The king in¬
deed may remit part of a sentence, as in the case of trea¬
son, all but the beheading : but this is no change, na
introduction of a new punishment; and in the case of
felony,
!r
Vlii*
H O M E 583 1 H O M
Hei'ide. felony, where the judgment is to be hanged, the king
' (it hath been said) cannot legally order even a peer to
be beheaded.
Again: In some cases homicide is justifiable, rather
by the permission, than by the absolute command, of the
law: either for the advancement of public/w.yfza!, which
without such indemnification would never be carried
ort with proper vigour; or, in such instances where it
is committed for the prevention of some atrocious crime,
which cannot otherwise be avoided.
2. Homicides, committed for the advancement of
public justice, are, 1. Where an officer, in the execu¬
tion of his office, either in a civil or criminal case, kills
a person that assaults and resists him. 2. If an officer,
or any private person, attempts to take a man charged
with felony, and is resisted ; and, in the endeavour to
take him, kills him. 3. In case of a riot, or rebellious
assembly, the officers endeavouring to disperse the mob
are justifiable in killing them, both at common law, and
by the riot act, 1 Geo. I. c. 5. 4. Where the prison¬
ers in a gaol, or going to gaol, assault the gaoler or
officer, and he in his defence kills any of them, it is
justifiable, for the sake of pi eventing an escape. 5. If
trespassers in forests, parks, chases, or warrens, will not
surrender themselves to the keepers, they may be slain ;
by virtue of the statute 21 Edward I. stat. 2. de male¬
factor ibus in parcis, and 3 and 4 W. and M. c. 10.
But, in all these cases, there must be an apparent ne¬
cessity on the officer’s side; viz. that the party could
not be arrested or apprehended, the riot could not be
suppressed, the prisoners could not be kept in hold, the
deer-stealers could not but escape, unless such homicide
were committed: otherwise, without such absolute ne¬
cessity, it is not justifiable. 6. If the champions in a
trial by battle killed either of them the other, such ho¬
micide was justifiable, and was imputed to the just judg¬
ment of God, who was thereby presumed to have de¬
cided in favour of the truth.
3. In the next place, such homicide as is committed
for the prevention of any forcible and atrocious crime, is
justifiable by the law of nature ; and also by the law of
England, as it stood so early as the time of Brae ton,
and as it is since declared by stat. 24 Hen. VIII. c. 5.
If any person attempts a robbery or murder of another,
or attempts to break open a house in the night-time
(which extends also to an attempt to burn it), and shall
he killed in such attempt, the slayer shall be acquitted
and discharged. This reaches not to any crime unac¬
companied with force, as picking of pockets; or to the
breaking open of any house in the day-time, unless it
carries with it an attempt of robbery also. So the Jew¬
ish law, which punished no theft with death, makes ho¬
micide only justifiable in case of house-break-
^ xii. ing : “ if a thief he found breaking up, and he be
smitten that he die, no blood shall be shed for him :”
but if the sun be risen upon him, there shall blood be
shed for him ; for he should have made full restitution.
At Athens, if any theft was committed by night, it
was lawful to kill the criminal, if taken in the fact :
and, by the Roman law of the twelve tables, a thief
might be killed by night with impunity ; or even by
day, if he armed himself with any dangerous weapon :
which amounts very nearly to the same as is permitted
by our own constitutions.
The Roman law also justifies homicide, when com¬
mitted in defence of the chastity either of one’s self or iiomicittf.
relations : and so also, according to Selden, stood the —~y——u
law in the Jewish republic. The English law likewise
justifies a woman killing one who attempts to ravish
her: and so too the husband or lather may justify kill¬
ing a man, who attempts a rape upon his wife or
daughter; hut not if he takes them in adultery by
consent; lor the one is forcible and felonious, but not
the other. And there is no doubt but the forcibly at¬
tempting a crime, of a still more detestable nature,
may be equally resisted by the death of the unnatural
aggressor. lor the one uniform principle that runs
through our own, and all other laws, seems to be
this : That where a crime, in itself capital, is endea¬
voured to he committed by force, it is lawful to repel
that force by the death of the party attempting. But,
we must not carry this doctrine to the same visionary
length that Mr Locke does ; who holds, “ that ail
manner of force without right upon a man’s person,
puts him in a state of war with the aggressor; and, of
consequence, that, being in such a state of war, he
may lawfully kill him that puts him under this unnatu¬
ral restraint.” However just this conclusion may be
in a state of uncivilized nature, yet the law of Eng¬
land, like that of every other well-regulated communi¬
ty, is too tender of the public peace, too careful of the
lives of the subjects, to adopt so contentious a system ;
nor will sufier with impunity any crime prevented
by death, unless the same, if committed, would also be
punished by death.
In these instances ofjustifiable homicide, it may be
observed, that the slayer is in no kind of fault whatso¬
ever, not even in the minutest degree ; and is there¬
fore to be totally acquitted and discharged, with com¬
mendation rather than blame. But that is not quite
the case in excusable homicide, the very name whereof
imports some fault, some error, or omission ; so trivial,
however, that the law excuses it from the guilt of felo¬
ny, though in strictness it judges it deserving of some
little degree of punishment.
II. Excusable homicide is of two sorts ; either per
infortunium, by misadventure ; or se defendendo, upon
a principle of self-preservation. We will first see where¬
in these two species of homicide are distinct, and then
wherein they agree.
1. Homicide per infortunium, or misadventure, is
where a man, doing a lawful act, without any inten¬
tion of hurt, unfortunately kills another; as vvhere a
man is at work with a hatchet, and the head thereof
flies off and kills a stander-by; or where a person, qua¬
lified to keep a gun, is shooting at a mark, and unde-
signedly kills a man : for the act is lawful, and the ef¬
fect is merely accidental. So where a parent is mode¬
rately correcting his child, a master his apprentice or
scholar, or an officer punishing a criminal, and happens
to occasion his death, it is only misadventure; for the
act of correction was lawful : but if he exceeds the
bounds of moderation, either in the manner, the instru¬
ment, or the quantity of punishment, and death ensues,
it is manslaughter at least, and in some cases (accord¬
ing to the circumstances) murder ; for the act,of immo¬
derate correction is unlawful. Thus by an edict of the
emperor Constantine, when the rigour of the Roman
law with regard to slaves began to relax and soften, a
master was allowed to chastise his slave, with, rods and
imprisonment,
H O M [ 584 ] H O M
Homicide, imprisonment, and if death accidentally ensued, he was
v ■■ ■ -> guilty of no crime j but if he struck him with a club or
a stone, and thereby occasioned his death, or if in any
other yet grosser manner immoderate suojure utatur,
tunc reus homicidii sit.
But to proceed. A tilt or tournament, the martial
diversion of our ancestors, was however an unlawful
act j and so are boxing and sword-playing, the succeed¬
ing amusement of their posterity : and therefore, if a
knight in the former case, or a gladiator in the latter,
be killed, such killing is felony of manslaughter. But
if the king command or permit such diversion, it is said
to be only misadventure ; for then the act is lawful :
In like manner as, by the laws both of Athens and
Rome, he who killed another in the pancratium, or
public games, authorised or permitted by the state, was
not held to be guilty of homicide. Likewise to whip
another’s horse, whereby he runs over a child and kills
him, is held to be accidental in the rider, for he has
done nothing unlawful 5 but manslaughter in the person
who whipped him, for the act was a trespass, and at
best a piece of idleness, of inevitably dangerous conse¬
quence. And in general, if death ensues in consequence
of an idle, dangerous, and unlawful sport, as shooting
or casting stones in a town, or the barbarous diversion
of cock-throwing j in these and similar cases, the slayer
is guilty of manslaughter, and not misadventure only ;
for these are unlawful acts.
2. Homicide in self-defence, or sc defendendo, upon a
sudden affray, is also excusable rather than justifiable,
by the English law. This species of self-defence must
be distinguished from that just now mentioned, as cal¬
culated to hinder the perpetration of a capital crime j
which is not only a matter of excuse, but of justification.
But the self-defence which we are now speaking of, is
that whereby a man may protect himself from an as¬
sault, or the like, in the course of a sudden brawl or
quarrel, by killing him who assaults him. And this
is what the law expresses by {\\e wn'>Y& chance-medley, ov
(as some rather choose to write it) chaud-medley; the
former of which in its etymology signifies a casual af¬
fray, the latter an affray in the heat of blood or pas¬
sion : both of them of pretty much the same import 5
but the former is in common speech too often errone¬
ously applied to any manner of homicide by misadven¬
ture } whereas it appears by the statute 24 Ken. VIII,
c. 5. and our ancient books, that it is properly applied
to such killing as happens in self-defence upon a sudden
rencounter. The right of natural defence does not im¬
ply a right of attacking: for, instead of attacking one
another for injuries past or impending, men need only
have recourse to the proper tribunals of justice. They
cannot therefore legally exercise this right of preventive
defence, but in sudden and violent cases 5 when certain
and immediate suffering would be the consequence of
waiting for the assistance of the law. Wherefore, to
excuse homicide by the plea of self defence, it must
appear that the slayer had no other possible means of
escaping from his assailant.
In some cases this species of homicide (upon chance-
medley \n self-defence) differs hut little from manslaugh¬
ter, which also happens frequently upon chance medley
in the proper legal sense of the word. But the true
criterion between them seems to be this ; when both
parties are actually combating at the time when the
mortal stroke is given, the slayer is then guilty of man- Homicy(i
slaughter •, but if the slayer hath not begun to fight,r—
or (having begun) endeavours to decline any farther
struggle, and afterwards, being closely pressed by his
antagonist, kills him to avoid bis own destruction, this
is homicide excusable by self-defence. For which rea¬
son the law requires, that the person, who kills another
in his own defence, should have retreated as far as he
conveniently or safely can, to avoid the violence of the
assault, before he turns upon bis assailant $ and that
not fictitiously, or in order to watch his opportunity,
but from a real tenderness of shedding bis brother’s
blood. And though it may be cowardice in time of
war between two independent nations, to flee from an
enemy; yet between two fellow subjects, the law coun¬
tenances no such point of honour : because the king
and his courts are the vindices injuriarum, and will
give to the party wronged all the satisfaction he de¬
serves. In this the civil law also agrees with ours, or
perhaps goes rather farther ; “ qui cum aljter Uteri se
non possunt, damni culpam dederint, innoxii sunt.’1'1 I be
party assaulted must therefore flee as far as he conve¬
niently can, either by reason of some wall, ditch, or
other impediment; or as far as the fierceness of the
assault will permit him for it may be so fierce as not
to permit him to yield a step, without manifest danger
of his life, or enormous bodily harm j and then in his
defence he may kill his assailant instantly. And this
is the doctrine of universal justice, as well as of the
municipal law.
And, as the manner of the defence, so is also the
time to he considered : for if the person assaulted does
not fall upon the aggressor till the aflray is over, or
when he is running away, this is revenge, and not de¬
fence. Neither, under the colour of self-defence, will
the law permit a man to screen himself from the guilt
of deliberate murder : for if two persons, A and B,
agree to fight a duel, and A gives the first onset, and
B retreats as far as he safely can, and then kills A,
this is murder ; because of the previous malice and
concerted design. But if A upon a sudden quarrel as¬
saults B first, and, upon B’s returning the assault, A
re ally and bona fide flies ; and, being driven to the
wall, turns again upon B and kills him ; this may be
se defendendo, according to some of our writers; though
others have thought this opinion too favourable : inas¬
much as the necessity, to which he is at last reduced,
original I v arose from his own fault. Under this ex¬
cuse of self-defence, the principal civil and natural re¬
lations are comprehended : therefore, master and ser¬
vant, parent and child, husband and wife, killing an
assailant in the necessary defence of each other re*
spectively, are excused ; the act of the relation assist¬
ing being construed the same as the act of the paily
O O
himself".
There is one species of homicide se defendendo, where
the party slain is equally innocent as he who occasions
his death : and yet this homicide is also excusable from
the great universal principle of self-preservation, which
prompts every man to save his own life preferable to
that of another, where one of them must inevitably pe¬
rish. As, among others, in that case mentioned by
Lord Bacon, where two persons, being shipwrecked,
and getting on the same plank, but finding it not able
to save them both, one of them thrusts the other irotn
H O M [ 585 j H O M
Horc< de* whereby lie is drowned. He who thus preserves his
'”"u—■ own life at the expence of another man’s, is excusable
through unavoidable necessity, and the principle of self-
defence $ since their both remaining on the same weak
plank is a mutual though innocent attempt upon, and
an endangering of, each other’s life.
Let us next take a view of those circumstances
wherein these two species of homicide, by misadventure
and self-defence, agree ; and these are in their blame
and punishment. For the law sets so high a value up¬
on the life of a man, that it always intends some misbe¬
haviour in the person who takes it away, unless by the
command or express permission of the law. In the case
ot misadventure, it presumes negligence, or at least a
want of sufficient caution, in him who was so unfortunate
as to commit it; who therefore is not altogether fault¬
less. And as to the necessity which excuses a man who
kills another se defendenclo. Lord Bacon intitles it 7ie-
cessitas culpabilisy and thereby distinguishes it from the
former necessity of killing a thief or a malefactor. For
the law intends that the quarrel or assault arose from
some unknown wrong, or some provocation, either in
word or deed : and since in quarrels both parties may
he, and usually are, in some fault; and as it scarce can
be tried who was originally in the wrong, the law will
not hold the survivor entirely guiltless. But it is clear,
in the other case, that where I kill a thief who breaks
into my house, the original default can never be upon
my side. The law besides may have a farther view, to
make the crime of homicide more odious, and to cau¬
tion men how they venture to kill another upon their
own private judgment, by ordaining, that he who
slays his neighbour, without an express warrant from
the law so to do, shall in no case be absolutely free
from guilt.
Nor is the law of England singular in this respect.
Even the slaughter of enemies required a solemn pur¬
gation among the Jews; which implies, that the death
of a man, however it happens, will leave some stain
behind it. And the Mosaical law appointed certain
cities of refuge for him “ who killed his neighbour un¬
awares ; as if a man goetli into the wood with his
neighbour to hew wood, and his hand fetcheth a stroke
with the ax to cut down a tree, and the head slippeth
from the helve, and lighteth upon his neighbour that
he die, lie shall flee into one of those cities and live.”
But it seems he was not held wholly blameless, any
more than iu the English law; since the avenger of
blood might slay him before he reached his asylum, or
if he afterwards stirred out of it till the death of the
high priest. In the imperial law likewise casual homi¬
cide was excused, by the indulgence of the emperor
signed with his own sign manual, adnotatione princi-
pis ; otherwise, the death of a man, however commit-
tod, was in some degree punishable. Among the
Greeks, homicide by misfortune was expiated by vo¬
luntary banishment for a year. In Saxony, a fine is
paid to the kindred of the slain ; which also, among the
western Goths, was little inferior to that of voluntary
homicide : and in France, no person is ever absolved in
cases of this nature, without a largess to the poor, and
the charge of certain masses for the soul of the party
killed.
The penalty inflicted by our laws is said by Sir Ed¬
ward Coke to have been anciently no less than death ;
. Vol. X. Part II. f
which, however, is with reason denied by later and
more accurate writers. It seems rather to have consist¬
ed in a forfeiture, some say of all the goods and chat¬
tels, others of only a part of them, by way of fine or
weregild: which was probably disposed of, as in
France, in pios usus, according to the humane super¬
stition of the times, for the benefit of his soul who
was thus suddenly sent to his account with all his im¬
perfections on his head : But that reason having long
ceased, and the penalty (especially if a total forfei¬
ture) growing more severe than was intended, in pro¬
portion as personal property has become more consider¬
able, the delinquent has now, and has had as early as
our records will reach, a pardon and writ of restitution
of his goods as a matter of course and right, only pay¬
ing for suing out the same. And, indeed, to prevent
this expence, in cases where the death has notoriously
happened by misadventure or in self desence, the judges
will usually permit (if not direct) a general verdict of
acquittal.
III. Felonious homicide is an act of a very different
nature from the former, being the killing of a human
creature, of any age or sex, without justification or
excuse. This may be done either by killing one’s self,
or another man : for the consideration of which, see
the articles SELF-Murder, Murder, and Manslaugh¬
ter.
HOMILY, in ecclesiastical writers, a sermon or dis¬
course upon some point of religion, delivered in a plain
manner, so as to be easily understood by the common
people. I he word is Greek, cpuXtx ; lormed of
ccetus,, “ assembly or council.”
The Greek homily, says M. Fleury, signifies a fa¬
miliar discourse, like the Latin sermo ; and discourses
delivered in the church took these denominations, to
intimate, that they were not harangues or matters of
ostentation and flourish, like those of profane orators,
but familiar and useful discourses, as of a master to his
disciples, or a father to his children.
All the homilies of the Greek and Latin fathers are
composed by bishops. We have none of Tertullian,
Clemens Alexandrinus, and many other learned per¬
sons; because, in the first ages, none but bishops were
admitted to preach. The privilege was not ordinarily
allowed to priests till toward the fifth century. St
Chrysostom was the first presbyter that preached sta¬
tedly. Origen and St Augustine also preached ; but
it was by a peculiar license or privilege.
Photius distinguishes homily from sermon; in that the
homily was performed in a more familiar manner, the
prelate interrogating and talking to the people, and
they in their turn answering and interrogating, him, so
that it was properly a conversation ; whereas the sermon
was delivered with more form, and in the pulpit, after
the manner of the orators.
The practice of compiling homilies, which were to
be committed to memory, and recited by ignorant or
indolent priests, commenced towards the close of the
8th century, when Charlemagne ordered Paul Deacon
and Alcuin to form homilies or discourses upon the Gos¬
pels and Epistles, from the ancient doctors of the
church. This gave rise to that famous collection in-
titled the Homilarium of Charlemagne, and which being
followed as a model by many productions of the same
kind, composed by private persons, from a principle of
4 E ‘ r pious
Homicide,
Homily.
Homily
0
Honan.
HON [
pious zeal, contributed much (says Mosheim) to nou¬
rish the indolence, and to perpetuate the ignorance of
a worthless clergy.
There are still extant several fine homilies, composed
by the ancient fathers, particularly St Chrysostom and
St Gregory.
Clementine Homilies, in ecclesiastical history, are
nineteen homilies in Greek, published by Cotelerius,
with two letters prefixed $ one of them written in the
name of Peter, the other in the name of Clement, to
James bishop of Jerusalem *, in which last letter they
are intitled Clement’s Epitome of the Preaching and
Travels of Peter. According to Le Clerc, these ho¬
milies were composed by an Ebionite in the second
century j but Montfaucon supposes that they were
forged long after the age of St Athanasius. Dr Lard-
ner apprehends, that the Clementine homilies were the
original or first edition of the Recognitions j and that
they are the same with the work censured by Euse¬
bius under the title of Dialogues of Peter and Ap-
pian.
HOMINE REPLEVIANDO, a writ for the bailing of
a man out of prison when he is confined without com¬
mandment of the king or his judges, or for any cause
that is repleviable. But this writ is now seldom used ;
a writ of habeas corpus being sued out on the necessary
occasions.
HOMMOC, a name given by mariners to a hillock
or small eminence of land, resembling the figure of a
cone, and appearing on the sea coast of any country.
HOMO, Man, is ranked by Linnaeus under the or¬
der of primates $ and characterised by having four pe-
rallel fore teeth both in the upper and lower jaw, and
two mammae on the breast. The species, according to
this author, ate two, viz. the homo sapiens, and the
homo troglodytes.
He subdivides the homo sapiens into five varieties,
viz. the American, the European, the Asiatic, the
African, and what he calls the monstrous. See Man.
The troglodytes, or orang-outang, is a native of
Ethiopia, Java, and Amboina. His body is white ; he
walks erect, and is about one-half the ordinary human
size. He generally lives about 25 years. He conceals
himself in caves during the day, and searches for his
prey in the night. He is said to be exceedingly saga¬
cious, but is not endowed with the faculty of speech.
See Troglodytes and Simia, Mammalia Index.
HOMOGENEOUS, or Homogeneal (composed
of the Greek •^05, “ like,” and “ kind”), is a
term applied to various subjects, to denote, that they
consist of similar parts, or of parts of the same nature
and kind j in contradistinction to heterogeneous, where
the parts are of difl'erent natures, &c.
HOMOLOGATION, in the civil law, the act of
confirming or rendering a thing more valid and solemn,
by publication, repetition, or recognition thereof. The
word comes from the Greek eftoXeymt, “ consent, as¬
sent j” formed of similis, “ like,” and A0y«f, of
Mytni, die ere, “ to say j” q. d. to say the same thing,
to consent, agree.
HOMOLOGOUS, in Geometry, an appellation
given to the corresponding sides and angles of similar
figures, as being proportional to each other.
HONAN, a province of China, bounded on the
noith by that of Petcheli and Chansi, on the west by
586 ] HON
Chansi, on the south by Houquang, and on the east by Hent», 1
Chantong. Every thing that can contribute to render Homtetooi
a country delightful is found united in this province ;
the Chinese therefore call it Tong-hoa, or the middle
flower: it is indeed situated almost in the centre of
China, The ancient emperors, invited by the mildness
of the climate and the beauty of the country, fixed their
residence here for some time. The abundance of its
fruits, pastures, and corn, the effeminacy of its inhabi¬
tants (who are accounted extremely voluptuous), and
lastly, the cheapness of provisions, have no doubt pre¬
vented trade from being so flourishing here as in the
other provinces of the empire. The whole country is
flat excepting towards the west, where there arises a
long chain of mountains, covered with thick forests j
and the land is in such a high state of cultivation, that
those who travel through it imagine they are walking
in an immense garden.—Besides the river Hoangho,
which traverses this province, it is watered by a great
number of springs and fountains 5 it has also a valuable
lake, which invites to its banks a prodigious number cf
women, because its water has the property of commu¬
nicating a lustre to silk, which cannot be imitated.
Exclusive of forts, castles, and places of strength, this
province contains eight fou or cities of the first class,
and 102 of the second and third. In one of these cities
named Hanyang, is found a kind of serpent, the skin of
which is marked with small white spots $ the Chinese
physicians steep it in wine, and use it afterwards as an
excellent remedy against the palsy.
Honan-Fou, a city of the above province, situated
amidst mountains and between three rivers. The Chi¬
nese formerly believed this city to be the centre of the
earth, because it was in the middle of their empire.
Its jurisdiction is very extensive; for it comprehends
one city of the second class and thirteen of the third:
one of these cities named Teng-fong-hien, is famous on
account of the tower erected by the celebrated Tcheou-
kong for an observatory ; there is still to be seen in it
an instrument which he made use of to find the shadow
at noon, in order to determine the latitude. This astro¬
nomer lived above a thousand years before the Christian
era, and the Chinese pretend that he invented the ma¬
riners compass.
HONDEKOOTER, Melchior, a famous Dutch
painter, bornt at Utrecht, excelled in painting animals,
and especially birds. His father and grandfather were
of the same profession, and their subjects the same. He
was trained up to the art by his father ; but surpassed
not only him, but even the best of his cotemporaries, in
a very high degree. Till he was seventeen years of
age, he continued under the direction of his father,
and accustomed himself to paint several sorts of birds;
but particularly he was pleased to represent cocks,
hens, ducks, chickens, and peacocks, which he de¬
scribed in an elegant variety of actions and attitudes.
After his father’s death, which happened in 1653,
he received some instructions from his uncle John Bap¬
tist Weeninx ; but his principal and best instructor was
nature, which he studied with intense application.—
His pencil was wonderfully neat and delicate; bus
touch light; his colouring exceedingly natural, lively,
and remarkably transparent; and the feathers of his
fowls were expressed with such a swelling softness, as
might have readily and agreeably deceived the eye of any
spectator*
w
HON [ 587 ] HON
toot- spectator. It is reported that he had trained up a
cock to stand in any attitude he wanted to describe,
and that it was his custom to place that creature near
Ejr' his easel; so that at the motion of his hand the bird
would fix itself in the proper posture, and would con¬
tinue in that particular position without the smallest
perceptible alteration for several hours at a time. The
landscapes which he introduces as the back grounds of
his pictures are adapted with peculiar judgment and
skill, and admirably finished $ they harmonize with his
subject, and always increase the force and the beauty
of his principal objects. His touch was very singular,
in imitating the natural plumage of the fowls he paint¬
ed j which not only produced a charming effect, but
also may prove serviceable to an intelligent observer,
to assist him in determining which are the genuine works
of this master, and which are impositions. His pictures
sell at a high price, and are much sought after. He
died at Utrecht in 1695, aged 59.
HONDURAS, a province of North America, in
New Spain, lying on the North Sea, being about 370
miles in length, and 2CO in breadth ; it was discover¬
ed by Christopher Columbus in the year 1501. The
English have been possessed of the logwood country
on the bay of Honduras a great while, and cut large
quantities every year. The Mosquito native Americans
live in the eastern parts j and being independent of the
Spaniards, have entered into treaties with the English,
and serve them in several capacities. This province is
watered by several rivers, which enrich the country by
their inundations ; and it is very fertile in Indian corn.
It is said there are some mines of gold and silver in this
province. Valladolid is the capital town.
HONE, a fine kind of stone, used for setting razors,
pen knives, and other cutting instruments.
HONEY, a sweet vegetable juice, collected by the
bees from the flowers of various plants, and deposited
in the cells of the comb •, from which it is extracted
either by spontaneous percolation through a sieve in a
warm place, the comb being separated and laid there¬
on, or by expression. That which runs spontaneously
is purer than that which is expressed, a quantity of
the wax and other matters being forced out along with
it by the pressure. The best sort of honey is of a thick
consistence, a whitish colour inclining to yellow, an
agreeable smell, and pleasant taste : both the colour
and flavour are said to differ in some degree, accord¬
ing to the plants which the bees collect it from. It
is supposed thaj: honey is merely the juice of the flower
perspiring, and becoming inspissated thereon, and that
the bee takes it up with its proboscis, and carries it
to be deposited in its waxen cells, with which the
young bees are to be fed in summer, and the old ones
in winter-, but it is certain, that honey can be pro¬
cured by no other method of collecting this juice than
by the bees. The honey wrought by the young
bees, and that which is permitted to run from the
comb without heat or pressure, is white and pure, and
called virgin honey. The honey of old bees, and that
which is forced from the comb by heat or pressure, is
yellow, from the wax. Honey produced where the
air is clear and hot, is better than that where the air
is variable and cold.—The honey of Narbonne in
France, where rosemary abounds, is said to have a
very manifest flavour of that plant, and to be imitable
by adding to other honey an infusion of rosemary
flowers.
Honey, considered as a medicine, is a very useful
detergent and aperient, powerfully dissolving viscid
juices, and promoting the expectoration of tough
phlegm. In some particular constitutions it has an
inconvenience of griping, or of proving purgative,
which is said to be in some measure prevented by pre¬
viously boiling the honey. This, however, with all
constitutions, is by no means effectual ; and the cir¬
cumstance mentioned has had so much weight with
the Edinburgh college, that they do not now employ
it in any preparation, and have entirely rejected the
mella medicata, substituting syrups in their place : but
there can be no doubt that honey is very useful in gi¬
ving form to different articles, although there be some
individuals with whom it may disagree. In order,
however, to obtain the good effects of the honey it¬
self, it must be used to a considerable extent, and as
an article of diet. The following remarkable instances
of the good effects of honey in some asthmatio cases,
given by Mr Monro in his Medical and Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, deserve to be here inserted. “ The late
Dr John Hume, one of the commissioners of the sick
and hurt of the royal navy, was for many years vio¬
lently afflicted with the asthma. Having taken many
medicines without receiving relief, he at last resolved
to try the effects of honey, having long had a great
opinion of its virtues as a pectoral. For two or three
years he ate some ounces of it daily, and got entirely
free of his asthma, and likewise of a gravelly complaint
with which he had long been afflicted. About two
years after he had recovered his health, when he was
sitting one day in the office for the sick and hurt, a
person labouring under a great difficulty of breathing,
who looked as if he could not live many days, came to
him, and asked him by what means he had been cured
of his asthma ? Dr Hume told him the particulars of
his own case, and mentioned to him the means by
which he had found relief. For two years after he
heard nothing of this person, who was a stranger to
him, and had seemed so bad that he did not imagine
he could have lived many days, and therefore had
not even asked him who he was*, but at the end of
that period, a man seemingly in good health, and de¬
cently dressed, came to the sick and hurt office, and
returned him thanks for his cure, which he assured
him had been entirely brought about by the free use
of honey.”
Honey Deiv, a sweet saccharine substance found
on the leaves of certain trees, of which bees are very
fond, by the husbandmen supposed to fall from the
heavens like common dew. This opinion hath been
refuted, and the true origin of this and other saccha¬
rine dews shown by the Abbe Boissier de Sauvages, in
a memoir read before the Society of Sciences at Mont¬
pelier. “ Chance (says the abbe) afforded me an op¬
portunity of seeing this juice in its primitive form on
the leaves of the holm oak : these leaves were covered
with thousands of small round globules or drops,
which, without touching one another, seemed to point
out the pore from whence each of them had proceed¬
ed. My taste informed me, that they were as sweet
as honey ; the honey-dew on a neighbouring bramble
did not resemble the former, the drops having run to-
4 E 2 gether,
Honey,
Honey-
Dew.
HON' [ 588 ] HON
Honey- getlier, owing either to the moisture of the air which
Dew. had diluted them, or to the heat which had expanded
—"'V them. The dew was become more viscous, and lay in
large drops, covering the leaves j in this form it is
usually seen.
“ The oak had at this time two sorts of leaves : the
old, which were strong and firm ; and the new, which
were tender, and newly come forth. The honey-dew
was found only on the old leaves, though these were
covered by the new ones, and by that means shelter¬
ed from any moisture that could fall from above. I
observed the same on the old leaves of the bramble,
while the new leaves were quite free from it. An¬
other proof that this dew proceeds from the leaves is,
that other neighbouring trees not furnished with a
juice of this kind had no moisture on them : and par¬
ticularly the mulberry, which is a very particular cir¬
cumstance, for this juice is a deadly poison to silk¬
worms. If this juice fell in the form of a dew, mist,
or fog, it would wet all the leaves without distinction,
and every part of the leaves, under as well as upper.
Heat may have some share in its production : for
though the common heat promotes only the transpira¬
tion of the more volatile and fluid juices, a sultry heat,
especially if reflected by clouds, may so far dilate the
vessel as to produce a more viscous juice, such as the
honey-dew. .
“ The second kind of honey-dew, which is the chief
resource of bees after the spring flowers and dew by
transpiration on leaves are past, owes its origin to a
small insect called a vine-fretter; the excrement ejec¬
ted with some force by this insect makes a part of the
most delicate honey -known in nature (see Aphis).
These vine-fretters rest during several months on the
barks of particular trees, and extract their food by
piercing that bark, without hurting or deforming the
tree. These insects also cause the leaves of some trees
to curl up, and produce galls upon others. They
settle on branches that are a year old. The juice, at
first perhaps hard and crabbed, becomes, in the bowels
of this insect, equal in sweetness to the honey obtain¬
ed from the flowers and leaves of vegetables ; except¬
ing that the flowers may communicate some of their
essential oil to the honey, and this may give it a pe¬
culiar flavour, as happened to myself by planting a
hedge of rosemary near my bees at Sauvages : the
honey has tasted of it ever since, that shrub continuing
long in flower.
“ I have observed two species of vine-fretters, which
live unsheltered on the bark of young branches j a
larger and a lesser. The lesser species is of the colour
of the bark upon which it feeds, generally green. It
is chiefly distinguished by two horns, or straight, im¬
moveable, fleshy substances, which rise perpendicular¬
ly from the lower sides of the belly, one on each side.
This is the species which lives on the young branches
of bramble and elder. The larger species is double the
Size of the other ; is of a blackish colour j and instead
of the horns which distinguish the other, has in the
same part of the skin a small button, black and shining
like jet.
“ The buzzing of bees in a tuft of holm-oak, made
me suspect that something very interesting brought so
many of them hither. I knew that it was not the
season for expecting honey-dew, nor was it the place
where it is usually found \ and was surprised to find
the tuft of leaves and branches covered with drops
which the bees collected with a humming noise. The
form of the drops drew my attention, and led me to
the following discovery. Instead of being round like
drops which had fallen, each formed a small longish
oval. I soon perceived from whence they proceeded.
The leaves covered with these drops of honev were
situated beneath a swarm of the larger black vine-
fretters } and on observing these insects, I perceived
them from time to time raise their bellies, at the ex¬
tremity of which there then appeared a small drop of
an amber colour, which they instantly ejected from
them to the distance of some inches. I found by ta¬
sting some of these drops which I had catched on my
hand that it had the same flavour with what had be¬
fore fallen on the leaves. I afterwards saw the smaller
species of vine-fretters eject their drops in the same
manner. This ejection is so far from being a matter
of indifference to these insects themselves, that it seems
to have been wisely instituted to procure cleanliness in
each individual, as well as to preserve the whole swarm
from destruction $ for pressing as they do one upon
another, they would otherwise soon be glued together,
and rendered incapable of stirring. The drops thus
spurted out fall upon the ground, if not intercepted
by leaves or branches ; and the spots they make on
stones remain some time, unless washed off by rain.
This is the only honey-dew that falls j and this never
falls from a greater height than a branch where these
insects can cluster.
“ It is now easy to account for a phenomenon which
formerly puzzled me greatly. Walking under a lime-
tree in the king’s garden at Paris, I felt my hand wet¬
ted with little drops, which I at first took for small
rain. The tree indeed should have sheltered me from
the rain, but I escaped it by going from under the tree.
A seat placed near the tree shone with these drops.
And being then unacquainted with any thing of this
kind, except the honey-dew found on the leaves of
some particular trees, I was at a loss to conceive how
so glutinous a substance could fall from the leaves in
such small drops: for I knew that rain could not over¬
come its natural attraction to the leaves till it became
pretty large drops $ but I have since found, that the
lime-tree is very subject to these vine-fretters.
“ Bees are not the only insects that feast upon this
honey ; ants are equally fond of it. Led into this opi¬
nion by what naturalists have said, I at first believed
that the horns in the lesser species of these vine-fret¬
ters had in their extremity a liquor which the ants
went in search of: but I soon discovered that what
drew the ants after them came from elsewhere, both
in the larger and lesser species, and that no liquor is
discharged by the horns. There are two species of
ants which search for these insects. The large black
ants follow' those which live on the oaks and chesnut;
the lesser ants attend those on the elder. But as the
ants are not, like the bees, provided with the means
of sucking up fluids j they place themselves near the
vine-fretters, in order to seize the drop the moment
they see it appear upon the anus j and as the drop re¬
mains some time on the small vine-fretters before they
can cast it off, the ants have leisure to catch it, and
thereby prevent the bees from having any share : but
Bi»ey
Dew
1
Hr mi
HON C 589 ] HON
U ?y- the vine-fretters of the oak and chesnnt being stronger,
I v and perhaps more plentifully supplied with juice, dart
^ ^ the drop instantly, so that the larger ants get very little
__ of it.
“ The vine-fretters finding the greatest plenty of
juice in trees about the middle of summer, afford also
at that time the greatest quantity of honey j and this
lessens as the season advances, so that in the autumn
the bees prefer to it the flowers then in season. Though
these insects pierce the tree to the sap in a thousand
places, yet the trees do not seem to suffer at all from
them, nor do the leaves lose the least of their verdure.
The husbandman therefore acts injudiciously when he
destroys them.”
HoNEY-Guide, a curious species of cuckow. See
Cuculus, Ornithology Index.
Honey-Locust^ or Tkree-thorned Acaciu. See (Jle-
DITSIA, Botany Index.
Honey-Suckle. See Lonicera, Botany Index.
HONFLEUR, a considerable sea-port town of
France, in the department of Calvados, with a good
harbour, and trade in bone-lace, and with 9600 inha¬
bitants. It is seated on the river Seine, in E. Long.
O. 19. N. Lat. 25. 49.
HONI SOIT Q,UI MAL Y TENSE, q. d. “ Evil to him
that thinks evil j” the motto of the most noble order of
the knights of the Garter. See Garter.
HONITON, a very pleasant market and borough
town in Devonshire, situated 156 miles west of London,
and 16 east of Exeter. It contained 2735 inhabitants in
1811. It has one church on a hill full half a mile from
the town, and a chapel and free grammar school in the
town. It is well paved and lighted, and lakes of water
run through it. This place has suffered by fires greatly
in 1747 and 1765. The market is on Saturday, and
one fair in July} its manufactures are serge, and rich
bone-lace and edgings. It was a corporation chartered
by James II. but reverted to its old constitution on
the revolution, and is now governed by a portreeve who
is chosen annually. It first returned members the 28th
F.dw. I.
HONORIACI, in antiquity, an order of soldiery
under the eastern empire, who introduced the Goths,
Vandals, Alani, Suevi, &c. into Spain. Didymus
and Verinianus, two brothers, had, with great vigi¬
lance and valour, defended the passages of the Pyre¬
neans against the Barbarians for some time, at their
own expence} but being at length killed, the emperor
Constantins appointed the honoriaci to defend those pas¬
sages, who, not contented to lay them open to all the
nations of the north then ravaging the Gauls, joined
themselves to them.
HONOUR, a testimony of esteem or submission,
expressed by words, actions, and an exterior behavi¬
our, by which we make known the veneration and re¬
spect we entertain for any one on account of his dig¬
nity or merit. The word honour is also used in gene¬
ral for the esteem due to virtue, glory, and reputation.
It is also used for virtue and probity themselves, and for
an exactness in performing whatever we have promised ;
and in this last sense we use the term, a man of honour.
But honour is more particularly applied to two differ¬
ent kinds of virtue} bravery in men, and chastity in
women.—Virtue and Honour were deified among the
ancient Greeks and Romans, and had a joint temple
5
consecrated to them at Rome } but afterwards each of Honour,
them had separate temples, which were so placed that
no one could enter the temple of Honour without passing
through that ot Virtue; by which the Romans were con¬
tinually put in mind, that virtue is the only direct path
to true glory. Plutarch tells us, that the Romans, con¬
trary to their usual custom, sacrificed to Honour un¬
covered: perhaps to denote, that wherever honour is, it
wants no covering, but shows itself openly to the world.
The Spanish historians relate a memorable instance
of honour and regard to truth. A Spanish cavalier
in a sudden quarrel slew a Moorish gentleman, and fled.
His pursuers soon lost sight of him, for he had unper*
ceived thrown himself over a garden wall. The owner,
a Moor, happening to be in his garden, was addressed
by the Spaniard on his knees, who acquainted him
with his case, and implored concealment. “ Eat this,”
said the Moor (giving him half a peach), “ you now
know that you may confide in my protection.” He
then locked him up in his garden apartment, telling
him as soon as it was night he would provide for his
escape to a place of greater safety. The Moor then
went into his house, where he had but just seated himself,
when a great crowd, with loud lamentations, came to
his gate, bringing the corpse of his son, who had just
been killed by a Spaniard. When the first shock of
surprise was a little over, he learnt from the descrip¬
tion given, that the fatal deed was done by the very
person then in his power. He mentioned this to no
one ; but as soon as it was dark retired to his garden,
as if to grieve alone, giving orders that none should
follow him. Then accosting the Spaniard, he said,
“ Christian, the person you have killed is my son ; his
body is now in my house. You ought to softer ; but
you have eaten with me, and I have given you my
faith, which must not be broken.” He then led the
astonished Spaniard to his stables, mounted him on
one of his fleetest horses, and said, “ Fly far while
the night can cover you ; you will be safe in the morn¬
ing. You are indeed guilty of my son’s blood : but
God is just and good ; and I thank him I am innocent
of yours, and that my faith given is preserved.”
This point of honour is most religiously observed by
the Arabs and Saracens, from whom it was adopted
by the Moors of Africa, and by them wms brought
into Spain. The following instance of Spanish honour
may still dwell in the memory of many living, and de¬
serves to be handed down to the latest posterity. In the
year 1746, when we were in hot war with Spain, the
Elizabeth of London, Captain William Edwards, co¬
ming through the gulf from Jamaica, richly laden,
met with a most violent storm, in which the ship sprung
a leak, that obliged them, for the saving of their lives,
to run into the Havannah, a Spanish port. The cap¬
tain went on shore, and directly waited on the gover¬
nor, told the occasion of his putting in, and that he
surrendered the ship as a prize, and himself and his
men as prisoners of war, only requesting good quarter.
“ No, Sir ,” replied the-Spanish governor, “ if we had
taken you in fair war at sea, or approaching our
coast with hostile intentions, your ship would then have
been a prize, and your people prisoners ; but when,
distressed by a tempest, you come into our ports for
the safety of your lives, we, the enemies, being men,
are bound as such by the laws of humanity to afford
relief
HON
Honour, relief to distressed men who ask it of us. We cannot
— v   even against our enemies take advantage of an act of
God. You have leave therefore to unload your ship,
if that he necessary, to stop the leak } you may refit
her here, and traffic so far as shall be necessary to pay
the charges ; you may then depart, and I will give
■you a pass to be in force till you are beyond Bermuda.
if after that you are taken, you will then be a lawful
prize but now you are only a stranger, and have a
granger’s right to safety and protection.” The ship
accordingly departed, and arrived safe in London.
A remarkable instance of the like honour is record¬
ed of a poor unenlightened African negro, in Captain
Snelgrave’s account of his voyage to Guinea. A New
England sloop, trading there in 1752, left a second
mate, William Murray, sick on shore, and sailed with¬
out him. Murray was at the house of a black named
Cudjoe, with whom he had contracted an acquaintance
during their trade. He recovered ; and the sloop be¬
ing gone, he continued with his black friend till some
other opportunity should offer of his getting home.
In the mean time a Dutch ship came into the road,
and some of the blacks coming on board her were
treacherously seized and carried off as their slaves. The
relations and friends, transported with sudden rage,
ran into the house of Cudjoe, to take revenge by kill¬
ing Murray. Cudjoe stopt them at the door, and de¬
manded what they wanted. “ The white men,” said
they, “ have carried away our brothers and sons, and
we will kill all white men. Give us the white man you
have in your house, for we will kill him.” “ Nay,”
said Cudjoe, “ the white men that carried away your
relations are bad men, kill them when you can take
them j but this white man is a good man, and you
must not kill him.”—“ But he is a white man,” they
cried : “ and the white men are all bad men, we will
kill them all.” “ Nay,” says he, “ you must not
kill a man that has done no harm, only for being white.
This man is my friend, my house is his po?t, I am his
soldier, and must fight for him ; you must kill me be¬
fore you can kill him. What good man will ever come
again under my roof, if I let my floor be stained with
a good man’s blood ?” The negroes seeing his resolu¬
tion, and being convinced by his discourse that they
were wrong, w'ent away ashamed. In a few days Mur¬
ray ventured abroad again wdth his friend Cudjoe,
when several of them took him by the hand, and told
him, “ They were glad they had not killed him; for
as he was a good (meaning innocent) man, their God
would have been very angry, and would have spoiled
their fishing.”
Honour, in the beat/ has a meaning materi¬
ally different from the above, and which it is easier to
illustrate than define. It is, however, subject to a sy¬
stem of rules, called the law of honour, constructed by
people of fashion, calculated to facilitate their inter¬
course with one another, and for no other purpose.
Consequently, nothing is considered as inconsistent with
honour, but what tends to incommode this intercourse.
Hence, as Archdeacan Paley states the matter, pro-
f’aneness, neglect of public worship or private devotion,
cruelty to servants, rigorous treatment of tenants or
other dependents, want of charity to the poor, inju¬
ries done to tradesmen by insolvency or delay of pay¬
ment, with numberless examples of the same kind, are
HON
accounted no breaches of honour; because a man is
not a less agreeable companion for these vices, nor w—
the worse to deal with in those concerns which are
usually transacted between one gentleman and another.
—Again, the law of honour being constituted bv
men occupied in the pursuit of pleasure, and for
the mutual conveniency of such men, will be found,
as might be expected from the character and de¬
sign of the law-makers, to be, in most instances, fa¬
vourable to the licentious indulgence of the natural
passions. Thus it allows of fornication, adultery,
drunkenness, prodigality, duelling, and revenge in the
extreme ; and lays no stress upon the virtues opposite
to these.
Honour or Rank.—The degrees of honour which
are observed in Britain may be comprehended under
these two heads, viz. nobiles majores, and nobiles minores.
Those included under the first rank are, archbishops,
dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, bishops, and batons;
which are all distinguished by the respective ornaments
of their escutdieons : and those of the last are baronets,
knights, esquires, and gentlemen. There are some au¬
thors who will have baronets to be the last under the
first rank ; and their reason is, because their honour is
hereditary, and by patent, as that of the nobility. See
Commonalty and Nobility.
Honours of War, in a siege, is, when a governor,
having made a long and vigorous defence, is at last
obliged to surrender the place to the enemy for want
of men and provisions, and makes it one of his princi¬
pal articles to march out with the honours of war; that
is, with shouldered arms, drums beating, colours flying,
and all their baggage, &c.
Military Honours. All armies salute crowned heads
in the most respectful manner, drums beating a march,
colours and standards dropping, and officers saluting.
Their guards pay no compliment, except to the princes
of the blood; and even that by courtesy, in the absence
of the crowned head.
To the cortimander in chief the whole line turns out
without arms, and the camp-guards beat a march, and
salute. To generals of horse and foot, they beat a
march, and salute. Lieutenant-generals of ditto, three
ruffs, and salute. Major-generals of ditto, two rufis,
and salute. Brigadiers of ditto, rested arms, one rufl',
and salute. Colonels of ditto, rested arms, and no beat¬
ing. Centinels rest their arms to all field-officers, and
shoulder to every officer. All governors, that are not
general officers, shall, in all places where they are go¬
vernor, have one ruff, with rested arms ; but for those
who have no commission as governors, no drum shall
beat. Lieutenant-governors shall have the main-guard
turned out to them with shouldered arms.
Prussian Honours of War, chiefly imitated by most
powers in Europe, are,
To the king, all guards beat the march, and all of¬
ficers salute. Field-marshals received with the march,
and saluted in the king’s absence. General ot borie
or foot, four rufl’s ; but if he commands in chief, a
march and salute. Lieutenant-generals of horse or loot,
commanding or not, guards beat three ruffs. Major-
generals of horse and foot, two ruffs. Officers, when
their guards are under arms, and a general makes a sig¬
nal, must rest to him, but not beat; when not got un¬
der arms, and a signal made, only stand by their arms.
Village-
[ 59° 1
HON C 59i ] H O O
,)r. Village-guards go under arms only to tlie king, field-
—^ marshals, generals of horse and foot, and to the general
of the day. Generals guards go under arms only to the
king, field-marshals, and the general over whom they
mount. Commanding officers of regiments and batta¬
lions, their own quarter and rear guards to turn out}
but not to other field-officers, unless they are of the day.
Generals in foreign service, the same.
Honours paid by Centineh. Field-marshals $ two
centinels with ordered firelocks, at their tent or quar¬
ters. Generals of horse or foot; two centinels, one with
his firelock shouldered, the other ordered. Lieutenant-
generals; one, with firelock ordered. Major-generals j
one, with firelock shouldered.
The first battalion of guards go under arms to the
king only; not to stand by, nor draw up in the rear of
their arms to any other j nor to give centinels to fo¬
reigners. Second and third battalions draw up behind
their arms to their princes, and to field-marshals 5 but
when on grenadier guards or out-posts, they turn out,
as other guards do, to the officers of the day. They
give one centinel with shouldered arms to the princes
of the blood, and to field-marshals when they lie alone
in garrisons.
Court of Honour. See Court of Cuivalry.
Fountain of Honour. The king is so styled, as be¬
ing the source of honours, dignities, &c. See Prero¬
gative.
It is impossible that government can be maintained
without a due subordination of rank ; that the people
may know and distinguish such as are set over them, in
order to yield them their due respect and obedience ;
and also that the officers themselves, being encouraged
by emulation and the hopes of superiority, may the bet¬
ter discharge their functions; and the law supposes, that
no one can be so good a judge of their several merits
and services as the king himself who employs them. It
has therefore entrusted him with the sole power of con¬
ferring dignities and honours, in confidence that he will
bestow them upon none but such as deserve them. And
therefore all degrees of nobility, of knighthood, and
other titles, are received by immediate grant from the
’crown } either expressed in writing, by writs or letters
patent, as in the creation of peers and baronets 5 or by
corporeal investiture, as in the creation of a simple
knight.
From the same principle also arises the prerogative
of erecting and disposing of offices 5 for honours and
offices are in their nature convertible and synonymous.
All offices under the crown carry in the eye of the law
an honour along with them ; because they imply a su¬
periority of parts and abilities, being supposed to be
always filled with those that are most able to execute
them. And, on the other hand, all honours in their
original had duties or offices annexed to them : an earl,
comes, was the conservator or governor of a county, and
a knight, viiles, was hound to attend the king in his
wars. For the same reason therefore that honours are
in the disposal of the kibg, offices ought to be so like¬
wise ; and as the king may create new titles, so may
be create new offices; but with this restriction, that he
cannot create new offices with new fees annexed to
them, nor annex new fees to old offices ; for this would
be a tax upon the subject, which cannot be imposed but
by act of parliament. Wherefore, in 13 Hen. IV. a
new office being created by the king’s letters patent Honour
for measuring cloths, with a new fee for the same, the 1)
letters patent were, on account of the new fee, revoked H°od-
and declared void in parliament. .
Upon the same or a like reason, the king has also
the prerogative of conferring privileges upon private
persons. Such as granting place or precedence to any
of his subjects, as shall seem good to his royal wisdom :
or such as converting aliens, or persons born out of the
king’s dominions, into denizens ; whereby some very
considerable privileges of natural-born subjects are con¬
ferred upon them. Such also is the prerogative of erect¬
ing corporations; whereby a number of private persona
are united and knit together, and enjoy many li¬
berties, powers, and immunities, in their political capa¬
city, which they were utterly incapable of in their na¬
tural.
Maids of Honour, are young ladies in the queen’s
household, whose office is to attend the queen when she
goes abroad, &c. In England they are six in number,
and their salary 300I. per annum each.
Honour is particularly applied in our customs to the
more noble kind of seignories or lordships, whereof other
inferior lordships or manors hold or depend. As a ma¬
nor consists of several tenements, services, customs, &c.
so an honour contains divers manors, knights-fees, &c.
It was also formerly called beneficium or royal fee, be¬
ing always held of the king in capite.
HoNOUR-Point, in Heraldry, is that next above the
centre of the escutcheon, dividing the upper part into
two equal portions.
HONOURABLE, a title conferred on the younger
sons of earls, the sons of viscounts and barons ; as also
on such persons as have the king’s commission, and up¬
on those who enjoy places of trust and honour.
HONOURARY, something done or conferred up¬
on any one, to do him honour. See the article Ho¬
nour.
Honourary is sometimes understood of a person who
bears or possesses some post or title, only for the name’s
sake, without doing any thing of the functions belong¬
ing to it, or receiving any advantage from it: thus we
say honourary counsellors, bonourary fellows, &c.
Honourary is also used for a lawyer’s fee, or a salary
given to public professors in any art or science.
HOOD, Robin, a famous outlaw and deer-stealer,
who chiefly barbeured in Sherwood forest in Notting¬
hamshire. He was a man of family, which by bis pedi- -
gree appears to have had some title to the earldom of
Huntingdon ; and played his pranks about the latter
end of the 12th century. He was famous for archery
and for his treatment of all travellers who came in his
way : levying contributions on the rich, and relieving
the poor. Falling sick at last, and requiring to be
blooded, be is said to have been betrayed and bled to
death. He died in IS^; and was buried at Kirklees
in Yorkshire, then a Benedictine monastery, where his
gravestone is still shown.
Hood. See Chaperon and Cowl.
Hood, in falconry, is a piece of leather, where¬
with the head of a hawk, falcon, or the like, is cover¬
ed.
Hood Island, one of the Marquesas Islands, in the
South sea. It was discovered in April 1774 by Captain
Cook, who gave it that name from the person who first
saw
H O O
[ 592 ]
H O O
Hood-
l>land
II
Hookah.
saw tlie land. It is the most northerly of the cluster,
and lies in S. Lat. 9. 26. W. Long. 139. 13.
HOOF, the horny substance that covers the feet of
divers animals, as oxen, horses, &c.
HooF-bovnd. See Farriery Index.
HOOGLY, the name of a province, city, and river
of Hindostan. See Hughley.
HOOGUESTRATTEN, a town of the Nether-
lands, with 1360 inhabitants, 24 miles south-west from
Bois le Due, and 30 miles north-east from Antwerp.
HOOK, in angling, &c. See FisniNG-hook.
Hooks, in building, &c. are of various sorts ; some
of iron and others of brass, viz. I. Armour-hooks,
which are generally of brass, and are to lay up arms
upon, as guns, muskets, half-pikes, pikes, javelins, &c.
2. Casement-hooks. 3. Chimney-hooks, which are made
both of brass and iron, and of different fashions: their
use is to set the tongs and fire-shovel against. 4. Cur¬
tain-hooks. 5. Hooks for doors, gates, &c, 6. Dou¬
ble line-hooks, large and small. 7. Single line-hooks,
large and small. 8. Tenter-hooks of various sorts. See
Tenter.
Hooks of a ship, are all those forked timbers which
are placed directly upon the keel, as well in her run as
in her rake.
Can-HooKs, those which being made fast to the end
of a rope with a noose (like that which brewers use to
sling or carry their barrels on), are made use of for
slings.
Foot-HooKS, in a ship, the same with futtocks.
Xoof-HooKs, a tackle with two hooks ; one to hitch
into a cringle of the main or fore-sail, in the bolt-rope
at the leech of the sail by the clew •, and the other is
to hitch into a strap, which is spliced to the chess-tree.
Their use is to pull down the sail, and succour the
tackles in a large sail and stiff gale, that all the stress
may not bear upon the tack. It is also used when the
tack is to be seized more secure, and to take off or put
on a bonnet or drabler.
HoOK-PinS, in Architecture, are taper iron pins,
only with a hook-head, to pin the frame of a roof or
floor together.
HOOKAH, among the Arabs and other nations of
the East, is a pipe of a singular and complicated con¬
struction, through which tobacco is smoked : out of a
small vessel of a globular form, and nearly full of wa¬
ter, issue two tubes, one perpendicularly, on which is
placed the tobacco j the other obliquely from the side
of the vessel, and to that the person who smokes applies
lus mouth j the smoke by this means being drawn
through water, is cooled in its passage and rendered
more grateful . one takes a whiff, draws up a large
quantity of smoke, puffs it out of his nose and mouth in
an immense cloud, and passes the hookah to his neigh¬
bour ; and thus it goes round the whole circle The
hookah is known and used throughout the east ; but in
those parts of it where the refinements of life’prevail
greatly, every one has his hookah sacred to himself;
and it is frequently an implement of a very costly na¬
ture, being of silver, and set with precious stones ; in
the better kind, that tube which is applied to the mouth
is very long and pliant ; and for that reason is termed
the snake : people who use it in a luxurious manner, fill
the vessel through which the smoke is drawn with rose
water, and it thereby receives some of the fragrant qua¬
lity of that fluid.
HOOKE, Robert, a very eminent English mathe-'
matician and philosopher, was the son of Mr John
Hooke minister of Freshwater, in the isle of Wight,
where he was born in 1635. He very early discover¬
ed a genius for mechanics, by making curious toys
with great art and dexterity. He was educated under
Dr Bushby in Westminster school; where he not only
acquired a competent share of Greek and Latin, toge-
ther with an insight into Hebrew and some other Ori¬
ental languages, but also made himself master of a con¬
siderable part of Euclid’s elements. About the year
1653, he went to Christ-church in Oxford, and in
1655 was introduced to the Philosophical Society there;
where, discovering his mechanical genius, he was first
employed to assist Dr Willis in his operations in che¬
mistry, and afterwards recommended to the honourable
Robert Boyle, whom he served several years in the
same capacity. He was also instructed in astronomy
about this time by Dr Seth Ward, Savilian professor
of that science; and from henceforward distinguished
himself by many noble inventions and improvements
of the mechanic kind. He invented several astronomi¬
cal instruments, for making observations both at sea
and land ; and was particularly serviceable to Mr
Boyle in completing the invention of the air-pump.
Sir John Cutler having founded a mechanic school in
1664, he settled an annual stipend on Mr Hooke for
life, intrusting the president, council, and fellows, of
the Royal Society to direct him with respect to the
number and subjects of his lectures ; and on the nth
of January 1664-5, l)e was elected by that society
curator of experiments for life, with an additional sa¬
lary. In 1666 lie produced to the Royal Society a
model for rebuilding the city of London destroyed by
fire, with which the society was well pleased ; but
although the lord mayor and aldermen preferred it
to that of the city surveyor, it was not carried
into execution. It is said, by one part of this mo¬
del of Mr Hooke’s, it was designed to have all the
chief streets, as from Leaden-hall to Newgate, and
the like, to lie in exact straight lines, and all the
other cross streets turning out of them at right angles,
with all the churches, public buildings, markets,
&c. in proper and convenient places. The rebuild¬
ing of the city according to the act of parliament
requiring an able person to set out the ground to the
proprietors, Mr Hooke was appointed one of the
surveyors ; in which employment he got most part
of his estate, as appeared pretty evident from a large
iron chest of money found after his death, locked
down with a key in it, and a date of the time, which
showed it to have been so shut up above 30 years.—
Mr Oldeuburgh, secretary to the Royal Society, dying
in 1677, Mr Hooke was appointed to supply his
place, and began to take minutes at the meeting in
October, but did not publish the Transactions. In
the beginning of the year 1687, his brother’s daugh¬
ter, Mrs Grace Hooke, who had lived with him
several years, died ; and he was so aflected with
grief at her death, that he hardly ever recovered it,
but was observed from that time to become less
active, more melancholy, and even more cynical than
Hookah.
Hooke "T"
H o O [ 593 ] H O O
• ever. At the same time, a chancery suit in which
he was concerned with Sir John Cutler, on account
of his salary for reading the Cutlerian lectures, made
him very uneasy, and increased his disorder. In 1691,
he was employed in forming ..the plan of the hospital
near Hoxton, founded by Robert Ask alderman of
London, who appointed Archbishop Tillotson one of
his executors j and in December the same year, Hooke
was created doctor of physic, by a warrant from that
prelate. In June 1696, the chancery suit with Sir John
Cutler was determined in his favour, to his inexpressible
satisfaction. His joy on that occasion was found in his
diary thus expressed ; domshlgissa : that is, Deo, Op-
timo, Maximo, sit honor, laus, gloria, in scecula sceculo-
rvm. Amen. “ I was born on this day of July 1635,
and God hath given me a new birth : may I never for¬
get his mercies to me ! while he gives me breath may
I praise him !”
In the same year 1696, an order was granted to him
for repeating most of his experiments at the expence of
the Royal Society, upon a promise of his finishing the
accounts, observations, and deductions from them, and
of perfecting the description of all the instruments con¬
trived by him ; but his increasing illness and general
decay rendered him unable to perform it. He conti¬
nued some years in this wasting condition ; and thus
languishing till he was quite emaciated, he died March
3d 1702, at his lodgings in Gresharn college, and was
buried in St Helen’s church, Bishopsgate street; his
corpse being attended by all the members of the Royal
Society then in London.
Dr Hooke’s character, in some respects, was not one
of the most amiable. In his person he exhibited but a
mean appearance, being short of stature, very crooked,
pale, lean, and of a meagre aspect, with lank brown
hair, which he wore very long, and hanging over his
face. Suitable to his person, his temper was penurious,
melancholy, mistrustful: and, though possessed of great
philosophical knowledge, he had so much ambition,
that he would be thought the only man who could in¬
vent or discover j and thus it has been asserted by some,
that he frequently laid e,1aim to the inventions and dis¬
coveries of others, while he boasted of many of his own
which he never communicated. On the contrary his
admirers have retorted the charge, and have blamed
others with claiming the discoveries of this philosopher.
Without deciding on this point, which seems at least
somewhat doubtful, we shall leave our readers to judge
for themselves, after recommending to their perusal
the history of the inventions claimed by Dr Hooke at
the end of this article, and the note under the article
Watch, both drawn up, we believe, by Professor Ro¬
bison. In the religious part of his character he was so
far exemplary, that he always expressed a great vene¬
ration for the Deity \ and seldom received any remark¬
able benefit in life, or made any considerable discovery
m nature, or invented any useful contrivance, or found
out any difficult problem, without setting down his ac¬
knowledgement to God, as many places in his diary
plainly show. He frequently studied the sacred writ¬
ings in the original ; for he was acquainted with the
ancient languages, as well as with all parts of the ma¬
thematics.— He wrote, 1. Lectiones Cutieriance, or Cut¬
lerian Lectures. 2. Micrograpkia, or Descriptions of
minute bodies made by magnifying glasses. 3. A de>
Vql. Xr Part II. f
scription of helioscopes. 4. A description of some me¬
chanical improvements of lamps and water-poises,
quarto. 5. Philosophical collections. After his death
were published, 6. Posthumous works collected from
his papers by Richard Waller secretary to the Royal
Society. J
Chronological History of Inventions and Discoveries by
Dr Hooke.
1656, Barometer, a weather-glass.
I^57, A scapement, for maintaining the vibration
of a pendulum.—And not long after,^ the regulating
or balance-spring for watches.
1658, The double barrelled air-pump.—The co¬
nical pendulum.—His first emoloyment of the coni¬
cal pendulum was no less ingenious and scientific than
it was original. He employed it to represent the
mutual gravitation of the planets; a fact which he
had most systematically announced. He had shewn,
that a force, perfectly analogous to gravity on this
earth, operated on the surface of the moon and of Ju¬
piter. Considering the numerous round pits on the
surface of the moon, surrounded with a sort of wall,
and having a little eminence in the middle, as the pro¬
duction of volcanoes, he inferred, that the ejected matter
fell back again to the moon, as such matter falls back
again to the earth. He saw Jupiter surrounded with an
atmosphere, which accompanied him; and therefore pres¬
sed on him, as our air presses on the earth:—He inferred,
that it was the same kind of power that maintained the
sun and other planets in a round form. He inferred a
force to the sun from the circulation round him, and
he called it a gravitation; and said that it was not the
earth which described the ellipse, but the centre of gra¬
vity of the earth and moon. He therefore made a co¬
nical pendulum, whose, tendency to a vertical position
represented the gravitation to the sun, and which was
projected at right angles to the vertical plane ; and
shewed experimentally, how the different proportions of
the projectile and centripetal tendencies produced vari¬
ous degrees of eccentricity in the orbit. He then add¬
ed another pendulum, describing a cone round the first,
while this described a cone round the vertical line, in
order to see what point between them described the
ellipse. The results of the experiment were intricate
and unsatisfactory ; but the thought was ingenious.
He candidly acknowledged, that he had not discovered
the true law of gravitation which would produce the
description of an ellipse round the focus, owing to his
want of due mathematical knowledge ; and therefore
left this investigation to his superiors. Sir Isaac New¬
ton was the happy man who made the discovery, after
having entertained the same notions of the forces which
connected the bodies of the solar system, before he had
any acquaintance with Dr Hooke, or knew of his spe¬
culations.
1660, 1 he engine for cutting clock and watch-wheels,
—The chief phenomena of capillary attraction.—The
freezing of water a fixed temperature.
1663, The method of supplying air to a diving
bell. The number of vibrations made by a musical
chord.
1664, His Micrographia was, by the council of the
Royal Society, ordered to be printed ; but in that work
are many just notions respecting respiration, the com-
4 F position
Hooke.
H O O [
position of tlie atmosphere, ami the nature of light,
which were afterwards attributed as discoveries to i a-
yow and others, who, though we are far from suppo¬
sing that they stole their discoveries fx*om Dr Hooke,
were certainly anticipated by him.
1666, A quadrant by reflection.
1667, The marine barometer.—The gage for sound¬
ing unfathomable depths.
"1668, The measurement of a degree of the meridi¬
an, with a view to determine the figure of the earth,
by means of a zenith sector.
1669, The fact of the conservatio virium vtvarum,
and that in all the productions and extinctions of mo¬
tion, the accumulated forces were as the squares of the
final or initial velocities. This doctrine he announces
in all its generality and importance, deducing from it
all the consequences which John Bernoulli values him¬
self so highly upon, and which are the chief facts ad¬
duced by Leibnitz in support of his doctrine of the
forces of bodies in motion. But Hooke was perfectly
aware of their entire correspondence with the Cartesian
or common doctrine, and was one of the first in apply¬
ing the celebrated 39th proposition of Newton’s Prin-
cipia to his former positions on this subject, as a mathe¬
matical demonstration of them.
1673, That the catenarea was the best form of an
arch.
1674, Steam engine on Newcomen’s principle.
1679, That the air was the sole source of heat in
burning: That combustion is the solution of the inflam¬
mable vapour in air; and that in this solution the air
gives out its heat and light. That nitre explodes and
causes bodies to burn without air, because it consists
of this air accompanied by its heat and light in a con¬
densed or solid state, and air supports flame, because
it contains the same ingredients that gunpowder doth,
that is, a nitrous spirit : That this air dissolves some¬
thing in the blood while it is exposed to it in the lungs
in a very expanded surface, and when saturated with
it, can no longer support life nor flame ; but in the act
of solution, it produces animal heat: That the arterial
and venal blood differ on account of this something be¬
ing wanting in one of them. In short, the fundamen¬
tal doctrines of modern chemistry are systematically
delivered by Dr Hooke in his Micrographia, publish¬
ed in 1664, and his Lampas, published in 1677.
1680, He first observed the secondary vibration*
of elastic bodies, and their connection with harmonic
sounds. A glass containing rvater, and excited by a
fiddlestick, threw the water into undulations, which
were square, hexagonal, octagonal, &c. shelving that it
made vibrations subordinate to the total vibration j and
that the fundamental sound was accompanied by its
octave, its twelfth, &c.
1681, He exhibited musical tones by means of tooth¬
ed wheels, whirled round and rubbed with a quill,
which dropped from tooth to tooth, and produced tones
proportioned to the frequency of the cracks or snaps.
1684, He read a paper before the Royal Society,
in which he affirms, that some years before that period
he had proposed a method of discoursing at a distance,
not by sound but by sight. He then proceeds to de¬
scribe a very accurate and complete telegraph, equal,
perhaps, in all respects to those now in use. But some
years previous to 1684, M. Amontons had not invent-
a
594 1
ed his telegraph
H O O
 o--r / 80 ^iat» tfi°ugh the marquis of Wor- Hookf. |«
cester unquestionably gave the first hint of this instru¬
ment, Dr Hooke appears to have first brought it to
perfection. See TELEGRAPH j and a book, published
1726, entitled Philosophical Experiments and Obser¬
vations of the late eminent Dr Robert Hooke.
To him also we are indebted for many other disco¬
veries of lesser note ; such as the wheel barometer, the
universal joint, the manometer, screw divided quadrant,
telescopic sights for astronomical instruments, repre¬
sentation of a muscular fibre by a chain of bladders, ex¬
periments shewing the inflection of light, and its at¬
traction for solid bodies, the curvilineal path of light
through the atmosphere.
Hooke, Nathaniel, author of an esteemed Roman
history and other performances. Of this learned gen¬
tleman the earliest particulars to be met with are fur¬
nished by himself, in the following modest but man¬
ly address to the earl of Oxford, dated Oct. 7*
“ My Lord, the first time I had the honour to waittf/VM*
upon your lordship since your coming to London,
your lordship had the goodness to ask me, what way
of life I was then engaged in ? A certain mauvmse '
honte hindered me at that time from giving a direct
answer. The truth is, my lord, I cannot be said at
present to be in any form of life, but rather to live
extempore. The late epidemical distemper seized me,
I endeavoured to be rich, imagined for a while that I
was, and am in some measure happy to find myself at
this instant but just worth nothing. If your lordship,
or any of your numerous friends, have need of a ser¬
vant with the bare qualifications of being able to read
and write, and to be honest, I shall gladly undertake
any employments your lordship shall not think me
unworthy of. I have been taught, my lord, that nei¬
ther a man’s natural pride, nor his self-love, is unequal
judge of what is fit for him ; and I shall endeavour to
remember, that it is not the short part we act, but the
manner of our performance, which gains or loses us the
applause of Him who is finally to decide of all human
actions. My lord, I am just now employed in trans¬
lating from the French, a History of the Life of the
late Archbishop of Cambray ; and I was thinking to
beg the honour of your lordship’s name to protect a
work which will have so much need of it. The ori¬
ginal is not yet published. ’Tis written by the author
of the Discourse upon F.pic Poetry, in the new edi¬
tion of Telemaque. As there are some passages in the
book of a particular nature, I dare not solicit your
lordship to grant me the favour I have mentioned, till
yon first have perused it. The whole is short, aud
pretty fairly transcribed. If your lordship could find
a spare hour to look it over, I would wait upon your
lordship with it, as it may possibly be no unpleasing
entertainment. I should humbly ask your lordship s
pardon for so long an address in a season of so much
business. But when should I be able to find » time in
which your lordship’s goodness is not employed ? l am
with perfect respect and duty, my lord, your lordship’s
most obliged, most faithful, and most obedient humble
servant, Nathaniel Hooke.” The translation here
spoken of was afterwards printed in l2mo, From
this period till his death, Mr Hooke enjoyed the con¬
fidence and patronage of men not less distinguished by
virtue than by titles. In 17 .. he published a trans¬
lation
H O O [ 595 ] H O O
3, Utlou of Ramsay’s Travels of Cyrus, in 4to ; in 1733
—' he revised a Translation of “ The History ol the Con¬
quest of Mexico by the Spaniards, by Thomas Town¬
send, Esq.” printed in 2 vols 8vo j and in the same
year he published, in 410, the first volume of “ The
Roman History, from the building of Rome to the
ruin of the Commonwealth ; illustrated with maps and
other plates.” In the dedication to this volume, Mr
Hooke took the opportunity of “ publicly testifying
his just esteem for a worthy friend, to whom he had
been long and much obliged,” by telling Mr Pope,
that the displaying of his name at the head of those
sheets was “ like the hanging out a splendid sign, to
catch the traveller’s eye, and entice him to make trial
of the entertainment the place affords. But, (he pro¬
ceeds), when I can write under my sign, that Mr
Pope has been here, and was content, who will ques¬
tion the goodness of the house ?” The volume is in¬
troduced by “ Remarks on the History of the Seven
Roman Kings, occasioned by Sir Isaac Newton’s ob¬
jections to the supposed 244 years duration of the
royal state of Rome.” His nervous pen was next em¬
ployed in digesting ** An Account of the conduct of
the Dowager-duchess of Marlborough, from her first
coming to court to the year 1710, in a Letter from
herself to Lord in *1742,” 8vo. His reward on
this occasion was considerable } and the reputation he
acquired by the performance much greater. The cir¬
cumstances of this transaction are thus related by Dr
Maty, in his Memoirs of Lord Chesterfield, vol. i.
p. 116. “ The relict of the great duke of Marlbo¬
rough, being desirous of submitting to posterity her
political conduct, as well as her lord’s, applied to the
earl of Chesterfield for a proper person to receive her
information, and put the memoirs of her life into, a
proper dress. Mr Hooke was recommended by him
for that purpose. He accordingly waited upon the
duchess, while she was still in be , oppressed by the
infirmities of age. But, knowing who he was, she
immediately got herself lifted up, and continued speak¬
ing during six hours. She delivered to him, without
any notes, her account in the most lively as well as
the most connected manner. As she was not tired her¬
self, she would have continued longer the business of
this first sitting, had not she perceived that Mr Hooke
was quite exhausted, and wanted refreshment as well as
rest. So eager was she for the completion of the
work, that she insisted upon Mr Hooke’s not leaving
her house till he had finished it. This was done in a
short time } and her Grace was so well pleased with
the performance, that she complimented the author
with a present of 5000I. a sum which far exceeded his
expectations. As soon as he was free, and permitted
to quit the house of his benefactress, he hastened to
the earl, to thank him for his favour, and communi¬
cated to him his good fortune. The perturbation of
mind he was under, occasioned by the strong sense of
his obligation, plainly appeared in his stammering out
his acknowledgments : and he, who had succeeded so
well as the interpreter of her Grace’s sentiments, could
scarcely utter his own.” The second volume of his
Roman History appeared in 1745 > when Mr Hooke
embraced the fair occasion of congratulating his wor¬
thy friend the earl of Marchmont, on “ that true
glory, the consenting praise of the honest and the
wise,” which his lordship had so early acquired, lo
the second volume Mr Hooke added “ The Capitoline
Marbles, or Consular Calenders, an ancient Monument
accidentally discovered at Rome in the year 1545, du¬
ring the Pontificate of Paul III.” In 1758 Mr Hooke
published Observations on, I. The Answer of M.
I’Abhe de Vertot to the earl of Stanhope’s Inquiry
concerning the Senate of ancient Rome : dated Decem¬
ber 1716. II. A Dissertation upon the Constitution
of the Roman Senate, by a Gentleman : published in
1743. HI. A Treatise on the Roman Senate, by Dr
Conyers Middleton: published in 1747* IV* An Es¬
say on the Roman Senate, by Dr Thomas Chapman :
published in 1750 j which he with great propriety in¬
scribed to Mr Speaker Onslow. The third volume
of Mr Hooke’s Roman History to the end ol the Gal¬
lic war, was printed under his inspection before his
last illness ; but did not appear till after his death,
which happened in 1764. The fourth and last volume
was published in 1771* Hr Hooke left two sons 5 ol
whom one is a divine of the church of England ; the
other, a doctor of the Sorbonne, and professor of astro¬
nomy in that illustrious seminary.
HOOKER, John, alias Vowell, was born in
Exeter, about the year 1524, the second son of Ro¬
bert Hooker, who in 1529 was mayor of that city.
He was instructed in grammar learning by Dr More-
man, vicar of Menhinit in Cornwall, and thence re¬
moved to Oxford j but to what college is uncertain.
JIaving left the university, he travelled to Germany,
and resided some time at Cologne, where he kept ex¬
ercises in law, and probably graduated. Thence he
went to Strasburg, where he studied divinity under
the famous Peter Martyr. He now returned to Eng¬
land, and soon after visited France, intending to pro¬
ceed to Spain and Italy ; but was prevented by a de¬
claration of war. Returning therefore again to Eng¬
land, he fixed his residence in his native city, where,
having married, he was in 1554 elected chamberlain,
being the first person who held that office, and in
1571 represented his fellow-citizens in parliament. He
died in the year 1601, and was buried in the cathedral
church at Exeter. He wrote, among other works, 1.
Order and usage of keeping of parliaments in Ireland.
2. The events of comets or blazing stars, made upon
the sight of the comet Pagonia, which appeared in No¬
vember and December 1577. 3. An addition to the
chronicles of Ireland from 154^ *° 15^^i *n se_
cond volume of Hoi inshed’s chronicle. 4. A descrip¬
tion of the city of Exeter, and of the sondrie assaults
given to the same; Holinsh. Chron. vol. iii. 5* A
book of ensigns. 6. Translation of the history of the
conquest of Ireland from the Latin of Giraldus Cam-
brensis; in Holinsh. Chron. vol. ii. 7. Synopsis cho-
rographicay or an historical record of the province of
Devon j never printed.
Hooker, Richard, a learned divine, was born at
Heavy-tree, near Exeter, in the year 1553* ^ome
of his ancestors were mayors ol that city, and he was
nephew to John Hooker the historian. By this uncle
he was first supported at the university of Oxford, with
the addition of a small pension from Dr Jewel, bishop
of Salisbury, who in 1561 g°t him admitted one of the
clerks of Corpus-Christi college. In 1573 was eJect*
ed scholar. In 1577 he took the degree of master of
4 F 2 arts.
H O O [ 596 ] . HOP
arts, ami was admitted fellow the same year. In July
1579, he was appointed deputy professor of the Hebrew
language. In October, in the same year, he was lor
some trivial misdemeanor expelled the college, but was
immediately restored. In 1581 he took orders j and,
being appointed to preach at St Paul’s cross, he came
to London, where he was unfortunately drawn into a
marriage with Joan Churchman, the termagant daugh¬
ter of his hostess. Having thus lost his fellowship, he
continued in the utmost distress till the year 15^4*
when he was presented by John Cheny, Esq. to the
rectory of Drayton-Beaucham in Buckinghamshire. In
this retirement he was visited by Mr Edwin Sandys,
and Mr George Cranmer, his former pupils. They
found him, with a Horace in his hand, tending some
sheep in the common field, his servant having been or¬
dered home by his sweet Xantippe. They attended him
to his house j but were soon deprived of his company
by an order, from his wife Joan, for him to come and
rock the cradle. Mr Sandys’s representation to his
father, of his tutor’s situation, procured him the mas¬
tership of the Temple. In this situation he met
with considerable molestation from one Travers, lec¬
turer of the Temple, and a bigotted Puritan, who in
the afternoon endeavoured to confute the doctrine de¬
livered in the morning. From this disagreeable situa¬
tion he solicited Archbishop Whitgift to remove him to
some country retirement, where he might prosecute
his studies in tranquillity. Accordingly in 1591, he
obtained the rectory of Boscomb in Wiltshire, toge¬
ther with a prebend in the church of Salisbury, of
which he was also made sub-dean. In 1594 he was
presented to the rectory of Bishopsbourne in Kent,
where he died in the year 1600. He was buried in
his own p-rish-church, where a monument was erect¬
ed to his memory by William Cooper, Esq. He was
a meek, pious, and learned divine. He wrote, 1. Ec¬
clesiastical politie, in eight books folio. 2. A discourse
of justification, &c. with two other sermons, Oxford
1612, 410. Also several other sermons printed with
the Ecclesiastical Politie.
Hooker, in naval architecture, a vessel much used
by the Dutch, built like a pink, but rigged and masted
like a hoy.—Hookers will lie nearer a wind than ves¬
sels with cross-sails can do. They are from 50 to 200
tons burden, and with a few hands will sail to the
East Indies.
HOOP, a piece of pliant wood, or iron, bent into
a circular form, commonly used for securing casks, &c.
Driving a Hoop, a boyish exercise, of good effect in
rendering the limbs pliable, and for strengthening the
nerves.
HOOPER, John, bishop of Worcester, and a mar¬
tyr in the I rotestant cause, was born in Somersetshire,
and educated at Oxford, probably in Merton-college.
In 1518 he took the degree of bachelor of arts, and
afterwards became a Cistercian monk ; but at length,
disliking Irts fraternity, he returned to Oxford, and
there became infected with Lutheranism. In 1539 he
was made chaplain and house-steward to Sir John Arun¬
del, who afterwards suffered with the protector in the
reign of Edward VI. But that very catholic knight, as
Wood calls him, discovering his chaplain to he a here-
iic, Hooper was obliged to leave the kingdom. After
continuing seme time in trance, h$ retained to Eng¬
land, and lived with a gentleman called Seintloiv 5 but Hpopci
being again discovered, he escaped in the habit of a j)
sailor to Ireland 5 thence embarked for the continent, ^0P8-
and fixed his abode in Switzerland.—When King Ed- '"““Y'”"
ward came to the crown, Mr Hooper returned once
more to his native country. In 1550, by his old pa¬
tron Sir John Arundel’s interest with the earl of War¬
wick, he was consecrated bishop of Gloucester $ and in
1552 was nominated to the see of Worcester, which he
held in commendam with the former. But Queen Mary
had scarce ascended the throne, before his lordship was
imprisoned, tried, and, not choosing to recant, condemn¬
ed to the flames. He suffered this terrible death at
Gloucester, on the 9th of February 1554, be*ng then
near 60 years of age. He was an avowed enemy to
the church of Rome, and not perfectly reconciled to
what he thought remnants of Popery in the church of
England. In the former reign he had been one of
Bonner’s accusers, which sufficiently accounts for his
being one of Queen Mary’s first sacrifices to the holy
see. He was a person of good parts and learning, as
may be found in Fox’s Book of Martyrs.
Hooper, George, a very learned writer, bishop of
Bath an d Wells, was well skilled in mathematics, and
in the eastern learning and languages. He sat in those
sees above 25 years, often refused a seat in the privy
council, and could not be prevailed upon to accept of
the bishopric of London on the death of Bishop Comp¬
ton. He wrote, 1. The church of England free from
the imputation of Popery. 2. A discourse concerning
Lent. 3. New danger of Presbytery. 4. An enquiry
into the state of the ancient measures. 5. De Valenti-
nianorum herccsi conjecture?. 6. Several sermons j and
other works.
HOOPING-cough. See Medicine Index.
HOOPOE. See Upupa, Ornithology Index.
HOP, in Botany. See Humulus, Botany Index.
Hops were first brought into England from the Ne¬
therlands in the year 15 24. They are first mentioned
in the English statute book in the year 1552, viz. in
the 5 and 6 of Edw. VI. cap. 5. And by an act of
parliament of the first year of King James I. anno 1603,
cap. 18. it appears, that hops were then produced iu
abundance in England.
The hop being a plant of great importance in the
article of brewing, we shall consider what relates to the
culture and management of it, under the following
heads:
Of Soil. As for the choice of their hop grounds,
they esteem the richest and strongest grounds the most
proper; and if it be rocky within two or three feet
of the surface the hops will prosper well $ but they
will by no means thrive on a stiff clay or spongy wet
land.
The Kentish planters account new land best for
hops •, they plant their hop gardens with apple-trees at
a large distance, and with cherry-trees between j and
when the land hath done its best for hops, which they
reckon it will in about 10 years, the trees may begin
to bear. The cherry-trees last about 30 years ; and by
that time the apple-trees are large, they cut down the
cherry-trees.
The Essex planters account a moory land the most
proper for hops.
As to the situation of a hop-ground, one that in¬
clines
HOP
times to the south or west Is the most eligible ; but if
" it be exposed to the north-east or south-west winds, there
should be a shelter of some trees at a distance, because
the north-east winds are apt to nip the tender shoots in
the spring; and the south-west winds frequently break,
and blow down the poles at the latter end of the sum¬
mer, and very much endanger the hops.
In the winter-time provide your soil and manure for
the hop-ground against the following spring.
If the dung be rotten, mix it with two or three parts
of common earth, and let it incorporate together till
you have occasion to make use of it in making your
hop hills j but if it be new dung, then let it be mixed
as befoie till the spring in the next vear, for new dung
is very injurious to hops.
Dung of all sorts was formerly more commonly
made use of than it is now, especially when rotted and
tinned to mould, and they who have no other manure
must use it 5 which if they do, cows or hogs dung, or
human ordure mixed with mud, may be a proper com¬
post, because hops delight most in a manure that is
cool and moist,
7 Icmting. Hops require to be planted in a situation
«o open, as that the air may freely pass round and be¬
tween them, to dry up and dissipate the moisture, where¬
by they will not be subject to fire-blasts, which often
destroy the middles of large plantations while the out¬
sides remain unhurt.
As for the preparation of the ground for planting, it
should, in the preceding winter, be ploughed and har¬
rowed even 5 and then lay upon it 111 heaps a good
quantity of fresh rich earth, or well rotted dung and
earth mixed together, sufficient to put half a bushel in
every hole to plant the hops in, unless the natural
ground be very fresh and good.
The hills where the hops are to be planted should
be eight or nine feet asunder, that the air may freely
pass between them ^ for in close plantations they are
very subject to what the bop-planters call firs-
blast.
If the ground is intended to he ploughed with horses
between the hills, it will be best to plant them in squares
checquerwise ; but if the ground is so small that it may
be done with the breast-plough or spade, the holes
should be ranged in a quincunx form. Which way so¬
ever you make use of, a stake should be stuck down at
all the places where the hills are to be made.
Persons ought to be very curious in the choice of
the plants as to the kind of hop 5 for il the hop-garden
be planted with a mixture of several sorts of hops that
ripen at several times, it will cause a great deal of trou¬
ble, and be a great detriment to the owner.
The two best sorts are the white and the gray bind ;
tiie latter is a large square hop, more hardy, and is
the more plentiful bearer, and ripens later than the
former.
I here is also another sort of the white bind, which
ripens a week or ten days before the common j but
this is tenderer, and a less plentiful bearer j but it has
this advantage, that it comes first to market.
But if three grounds, or three distant parts of one
ground, be planted with these three sorts, there will
be this conveniency, that they.may be picked succes¬
sively us they become ripe. The sets should be five
E 597 3
HOP
or six inches long, with three or more joints or buds on Hop
them. ■ t •
If there be a sort of bop you value, and would in¬
crease plants and sets from, the superfluous binds may
be laid down when the hops are tied, cutting off the
tops, and burying them in the bill j or when 'the bops
are dressed, all the cuttings may be saved ; for almost
every part will grow, and become a good set the next
spring.
As to the seasons of planting bops, the Kentish
planters best approve the months of October and
March, both which sometimes succeed very well j but
the sets are not to be bad in October, unless from
some ground that is to be destroyed j and likewise there
is some danger that the sets may be rotted, if the win¬
ter prove very wet j therefore the most usual time of
procuring them is in March, when the hops are cut
and dressed.
As to the manner of planting the sets, there should
be five good sets planted in every bill, one in the mid¬
die, and the rest round about sloping, the tops meeting
at the centre; they must stand even with the surface
of the ground ; let them be pressed close with the hand,
and covered with fine earth, and a stick should be
placed on eacli side the hill to secure it.
The ground being thus planted, all that? is to be
done more during that summer, is to keep the bills
clear from weeds, and to dig up the ground about the
month of May, and to raise a small bill round about the
plants. In June you must twist the young bind or
branches together into a bunch or knot ; for if they
are tied up to small poles the first year, in order to
have a few bops from them, it will not countervail the.
weakening of the plants.
A mixture of compost or dung being prepared for
your hop-ground, the best time for laying it on, if the
weather prove dry, is about Michaelmas, that the wheels
of the dung-cart may not injure the hops, nor furrow
the. ground : if this be not done then, you must be
obliged to wait till the frost lias hardened the ground,
so as to bear the dung-cart; and this is also the time
to carry on your new poles, to recruit those that are
decayed, and to be cast out every year.
If you have good store of dung, the best way will be
to spread it in the alleys all over the ground, and to
dig it in the winter following. The quantity they will
require will be 40 loads to an acre, reckoning about
30 bushels to the load.
If you have not dung enough to cover all the ground
in one year, you may lay it on one part one year, and
on the rest in another, or a third ; for there is no occa¬
sion to dung the ground after this manner oftener than
once in three years.
I hose who have hut a small quantity of dung, usu¬
ally content themselves with laying on about twenty
loads upon an acre every year ; this they lay only on
the hills, either about November, or in the spring;
which last some account the best time, when the hops
are dressed, to cover them after they are cut; but if it
be done at this time, the compost or dung ought to be
very well rotted and fine.
Dressing. As to the dressing of the hops, when the
hop-ground is dug in January or February, the earth
about the hills, and very near them, ought to be taken
away.
Hops-
HOP
[ 598 ] HOP
away with a spade, that you may come the more con¬
veniently at the stock to cut it.
About the end of February, if the hops were plant¬
ed the spring before, or if the ground be weak, they
ought to be dressed in dry weather ; but else, if the
ground be strong and in perfection, the middle of
March will be a good time : and the latter end of
March, if it be apt to produce over-rank binds, or
the beginning of April, may be soon enough.
Then having with an iron picker cleared away all the
earth out of the hills, so as to clear the stock to the
principal roots, with a sharp knife you must cut off all
the shoots which grew up with the binds the last year;
and also all the young suckers, that none be left to run
in the alley, and weaken the hill. It will be proper
to cut one part of the stock lower than the other, and
also to cut that part low that was left highest the pre¬
ceding year. By pursuing this method you may expect
to have stronger buds, and also keep the hill in good
order.
In dressing those hops that have been planted the
year before, you ought to cut off both the dead tops
and the young suckers which have sprung up from the
sets, and also to cover the stocks with fine earth a fin¬
ger’s length in thickness.
The poling. About the middle of April the hops
are to be poled, when the shoots begin to sprout up ;
the poles must be set to the hills deep into the ground,
with a square iron picker or crow, that they may the
better endure the winds $ three poles are sufficient for
one hill. These should be placed as near the hill as may
be, with their bending tops turned outwards from the
hill, to prevent the binds from entangling ; and a space
between two poles ought to be left open to the south to
admit the sun-beams.
The poles ought to be in length 16 or 20 feet,
more or less according as the ground is in strength;
and great care must be taken not to overpole a young
or weak ground, for that will draw the stock too much
and weaken it. If a ground be overpoled, you are not
to expect a good crop from it; for the branches which
bear the hops will grow very little till the binds have
over-reached the poles, which they cannot do when the
poles are too long. Two small poles are sufficient for
a ground that is young.
If you wait till the sprouts or young binds are grown
to the length of a foot, you will be able to make a bet¬
ter judgment where to place the largest poles $ but if
you stay till they are so long as to fall into the alleys,
it will be injurious to them, because they will entangle
one with another, and will not clasp about the pole
readily.
Maple or aspen poles are accounted the best for
hops, on which they are thought to prosper best, be¬
cause of their warmth ; or else, because the climbing
of the hop is promoted by means of the roughness
of the bark. But for durability, ashen or willow poles
are preferable; but chesnut poles are the most durable
of all.
If after the hops are grown up you find any of
them have been under-poled, taller poles may be pla¬
ced near those that are too short to receive the binds
from them.
The tying. As to the tying of hops, the buds that
do not clasp of themselves to the nearest pole when
they are grown to three or four feet high, must be Hops.
guided to it by the hand, turning them to the sun,v v—
whose course they will always follow. They must be
bound with withered rushes, hut not so close as to hin¬
der them from climbing up the pole.
This you must continue to do till all the poles are
furnished with binds, of which two or three are enough
for a pole ; and all the sprouts and binds that you have
no occasion for are to be plucked up j but if the
ground be young, then none of these useless binds
should be plucked up, but should be wrapt up together
in the middle of the hill.
When the binds are grown beyond the reach of your
hands, if they forsake the poles, you should make use
of a stand-ladder in tying them up.
Towards the latter end of May, when you have
made an end of tying them, the ground must have
the summer dressing: this is done by casting up with
the spade some fine earth into every hill j and a month
after this is done, you must hoe the alleys with a
Dutch hoe, and make the hills up to a convenient
bigness.
Gathering. About the middle of July hops begin to
blow, and will be ready to gather about Bartholomew
Tide. A judgment may be made of their ripeness by
their strong scent, their hardness, and the brownish co¬
lour of their seed.
When by these tokens they appear to be ripe, they
must be picked with all the expedition possible j for if
at this time a storm of wind should come, it would do
them great damage by breaking the branches, and
bruising and discolouring the hops ; and it is very well
known that hops, being picked green and bright, will
sell for a third part more than those which are disco¬
loured and brown.
The most convenient way of picking them is into a
long square frame of wood, called a bin, with a cloth
hanging on tenter hooks within it, to receive the hops
as they are picked.
The frame is composed of four pieces of wood join¬
ed together, supported by four legs, with a prop at
each end to bear up another long piece of wood pla¬
ced at a convenient height over the middle of the bin ;
this serves to lay the poles upon which are to be
picked.
The bin is commonly eight feet long, and three
feet broad ; two poles may be laid on it at a time, and
six or eight persons may work at it, three or four on
each side.
It will be best to begin to pick the hops on the east
or north side of your ground, if you can do it conve¬
niently $ this will prevent the south-west wind from
breaking into the garden.
Having made choice of a spot of the ground con¬
taining 11 hills square, place the bin upon the hill
which is in the centre, having five hills on each side ;
and when these hills are picked, remove the bin into
another piece of ground of the same extent, and so pro¬
ceed till the whole hop-ground is finished.
When the poles are drawn up to be picked, you
must take great care not to cut the binds too near the
hills, especially when the hops are green, because it will
make the sap to flow excessively.
The hops must be picked very clean, i. e, free from
leaves and stalks j and, as there shall be occasion, two
or
HOP [ 599 ] HOP
or three times in a day the bin must be emptied into a
•J hop-bag made of coarse linen cloth, and carried imme¬
diately to the oast or kiln in order to be dried j for if
they should be long in the bin or bag, they will be apt
to heat and be discoloured,
If the weather be hot, there should no more poles
be drawn than can be picked in an hour, and they
should be gathered in fair weather, if it can be, and
when the hops are dry ; this will save some expence in
firing, and preserve their colour better when they are
dried.
The crop of hops being thus bestowed, you are to
take care of the poles against another year, which are
best to be laid up in a shed, having first stripped off the
haulm from them ; but if you have not that conveni-
ency, set up three poles in the form of a triangle, or
six poles (as you please) wide at bottom ; and having
set them into the ground, with an iron picker, and
bound them together at the top, set the rest of your
poles about them ; and being thus disposed, none but
those on the outside will be subject to the injuries of
the weather, for all the inner poles will be kept dry,
unless at the top ; whereas, if they were on the ground,
they would receive more damage in a fortnight than by
their standing all the rest of the year.
Drying. The best method of drying hops is with
charcoal on an oast or kiln, covered with hair-cloth, of
the same form and fashion that is used for drying malt.
There is no need to give any particular directions for
making these, since every carpenter or bricklayer in
those countries where hops grow, or malt is made, knows
how to build them.
The kiln ought to be square, and may be of 10, 12,
14, or 16 feet over at the top, where the hops are
laid, as your plantation requires, and your room will
allow. There ought to be a due proportion between
the height and breadth of the kiln and the beguels of
the steddle where the fire is kept, viz., if the kiln be
12 feet square on the top, it ought to be nine feet
and a half square, and so proportionable in other di¬
mensions.
The hops must be spread even upon the oast a foot
thick or more, if the depth of the curb will allow it $
but care is to be taken not to overload the oast if the
hops be green or wet.
The oast ought to be first warmed with a fire before
the hops are laid on, and then an even steady fire must
be kept under them 5 it must not be too fierce at first,
lest it scorch the hops, nor must it be suffered to sink
or slacken, but rather be increased till the hops be
nearly dried, lest the moisture or sweat which the fire
has raised fall back or discolour them. When they
have lain about nine hours they must be turned, and in
two or three hours more they may be taken off the
oast. It may be known when they are well dried by
the brittleness of the stalks and the easy falling off of
the hop leaves.
It is found by experience that the turning of hops,
though it be after the most easy and best manner, is
not only an injury or waste to the hops, but also an ex¬
pence of fuel and time, because they require as much
fuel and as long a time to dry a small quantity, by
turning them, as a large one. Now this may be pre¬
vented by having a cover (to be let down and raised
at pleasure) to the upper bed whereon the hops lie.
This cover may also be tinned, by nailing single tin
plates over the face of it; so that when the hops begin
to dry, and are ready to burn, i. e. when the greatest
part of their moisture is evaporated, then the cover may
be let down within a foot or less of the hops (like a
reverberatory), which will reflect the heat upon them,
so that the top will soon be as dry as the lowermost,
and every hop be equally dried.
Begging- As soon as the hops are taken off the
kiln, lay them in a room for three weeks or a month
to cool, give, and toughen; for if they are bagged im¬
mediately they will powder, but if they lie a while
(and the longer they lie the better, provided they be
covered close with blankets to secure them from the
air) they may be bagged with more safety, as not be¬
ing liable to be broken to powder in treading; and this
will make them bear treading the better, and the harder
they are trodden the better they will keep.
The common method of bagging is as follows : they
have a hole made in an upper floor, either round or
square, large enough to receive a hop-bag, which con¬
sists of four ells and a half of ell-wide cloth, and also
contains ordinarily two hundred and a half of hops j
they tie a handful of hops in each lower corner of the
bag to serve as handles to it; and they fasten the
mouth of the bag, so placed that the hoop may rest
upon the edges of the hole.
Then he that is to tread the hops down into the
bag, treads the bag on every side, another person con¬
tinually putting them in as he treads them till the bag
is full j which being well filled and trodden, they unrip
the fastening of the bag to the hoops, and let it down,
and close up the mouth of the bag, tying up a handful
of hops in each corner of the mouth, as was done in
the lower part.
Hops being thus packed, if they have been well
dried, and laid up in a dry place, will keep good seve¬
ral years; but care must be taken that they be neither
destroyed nor spoiled by the mice making their nests in
them.
Produce. The charge of an acre of hop-ground in
most parts of England where hops are cultivated, is
computed thus : three pounds for the husbandry, four
pounds for the wear of the poles, five pounds for pick¬
ing and drying, one pound ten shillings for dung, one
pound for rent, though in some places they pay four or
five pounds an acre yearly for the rent of the land, and
ten shillings for tythe ; in all 15I. a year. The hop-
planters in England reckon that they have but a mo¬
derate return, when the produce of an acre of hops
does not sell for more than 30I. They frequently
have fifty, sixty, eighty, or a hundred pounds $ and in
a time of general scarcity considerably more : so that,
upon the whole, if the total charge of an acre of hops
is computed at fifteen pounds a-year, and its average
produce at thirty pounds, the clear profit from an acre
will be fifteen pounds a-year. But the plantation of
hops has lately so much increased, and the average
produce so much exceeded the consumption, that hops
have been with many planters rather a losing than a
very profitable article.
Uses. In the spring-time, while the bud is yet ten¬
der, the tops of the plant being cut off, and boiled, are
ate like asparagus, and found very wholesome, and ef¬
fectual to loosen the body j the heads and tendrils are
good,
HOP [ 600 ] H O R
good to pui'ify the blood in the scurvy, and most cuta¬
neous diseases ; decoctions of the flowers, and syrups
thereof, are of use against pestilential fevers; juleps
and apozems are also prepared with hops for hypo¬
chondriacal and hysterical affections, and to promote
the menses.
A pillow stuffed with hops and laid under the head,
is said to procure sleep in fevers attended with a deli¬
rium. But the principal use of hops is in the brew¬
ery, for the preservation of malt liquors ; which by the
superaddition of this balsamic, aperient, and diuretic
bitter, become less viscid, less apt to turn sour, more
detergent, more disposed to pass off by urine, and in
general more salubrious. They are said to contain an
agreeable odoriferous principle, which promotes the
vinous fermentation. When slightly boiled or infused
in warm water, they increase its spirituosity.
Laws relating to Hops. By 9 Anne, cap. 121. an
additional duty of 3d. a pound is laid on all hops im¬
ported, over and above all other duties; and hops
landed before entry and payment of duty, or without
warrant for landing, shall be forfeited and burnt; the
ship also shall be forfeited, and the person concerned in
importing or landing shall forfeit 5I. a hundred weight;
7 Geo. II. cap. 19. By 9 Anne, cap. 12. there shall
be paid a duty of id. for every pound of hops grown
in Great Britain, and made fit for use, within six
months after they are cured and bagged ; and hop-
grounds are required to be entered on pain of 40s. an
acre. Places of curing and keeping are also to be en¬
tered, on pain of 50I. which may be visited by an offi¬
cer at any time without obstruction, under the penalty
of 2ol. All hops shall, within six weeks after gather¬
ing, be brought to such places to be cured and bagged,
on pain of 5s. a pound. The rebagging of foreign
hops in British bagging for sale or exportation, incurs
a forfeiture of 10I. a hundred weight; and defrauding
the king of his duty by using twice or oftener the same
bag, with the officer’s mark upon it, is liable to a pe¬
nalty of 40I. The removal of hops before they have
been bagged and weighed, incurs a penalty of 50I.
Concealment of hops subjects to the forfeiture of 20I.
and the concealed hops; and any person who shall pri¬
vately convey away any hops, with intent to defraud
the king and owner, shall forfeit 5s. a pound. And
the duties are required to be paid within six months
aUer curing, bagging, and weighing, on pain of double
duty, two-thirds to the king, and one-third to the in¬
former. No common brewer, &c. shall use any bitter
ingredient instead of hops, on pain of 20I. Hops
which have paid the duty may be exported to Ireland ;
but by 6 Geo, II. cap. 1, there shall be no drawback ;
and by 7 Geo. II. cap. 19. no foreign hops shall be
landed in Ireland. Notice of bagging and weighing
shai; be sent in writing to the officer, on pain of col.
6 Geo. cap. 21. And by 14 Geo. III. cap. 68. the
officer shall, on pain of 5I. weigh the bags or pockets,
and mark on them the true weight or tare, the planter’s
name and place of abode, and the date of the year
in which such hops were grown ; and the altering or
forging, or obliterating such mark, incurs a forfeiture
ot 1 ol.—The owners of hops shall keep at their oasts,
&c. just weights and scales, and permit the officer to
use them on pain of 20I. 6 Geo. cap. 21. And bv
10 Geo. III. cap. 44. a penalty of 100I, is inflicted
3
Hops
for false scales and weights. The owners are allowed
to use casks instead of bags, under the same regulations,
6 Geo. cap. 21. If any person shall mix with hops Horapoltl
any drug to alter the colour or scent, he shall forfeit »
5I. a hundred weight. If any person shall unlawfully
and maliciously cut hop binds growing on poles in any
plantation, he shall be guilty of felony without benefit
of clergy. 6 Geo. II. cap. 37.
HOPE, in Ethics, is the desire of some good, attend¬
ed with a belief of the possibility at least, of obtaining
it, and enlivened with joy, greater or less, according to
the greater or less probability of our possessing the ob¬
ject of our hope. Alexander, preparing for his Asian
expedition, distributed his hereditary dominions among
his friends; allotting to some villages, to others bo¬
roughs, to others cities ; and being asked what he had
reserved for himself, replied, Hope.
Hope, Good, Cape of. See Good Hope.
HOPEA, a genus of plants belonging to the polya-
delphia class. See Botany Index.
HOPLITES, HoPLiTiE (formed of sttAov, armour'),
in antiquity, were such of the candidates at the Olympic
and other sacred games as ran races in armour.
One of the finest pieces of the famous Parrhasius
was a painting which represented two hoplites ; the
one running, and seeming to sweat large drops ; the
other laying his arms down, as quite spent and out of
breath.
HOPLITODROMOS, (formed of otcXdi, armour;
and I ruti), in the ancient gymnastic sports, a
term applied to such persons as went through those
toilsome and robust exercises in complete armour ; by
which the exercise became much more violent, and the
wearing of armour in the time of battle much more
easy.
HOPLOMACHI, 07rX6ftz%oi, (composed of ot\m,
armour, and p.ci-/lop.xi, I fight'), in antiquity, were a spe¬
cies of gladiators who fought in armour ; either com¬
pletely armed from head to foot, or only with a cask
and cuirass.
HOPPER, a vessel in which seed-corn is carried at
the time of sowing.
The word is also used for that wooden trough in a
mill, into which the corn is put to be ground.
HOR, a mountain, or mountainous tract of Arabia
Petrsea, situated in that circuit which the Israelites
took to the south and south-east of Edom in their way
to the borders of Moab : on this mountain Aaron
died. The inhabitants were called Horites. This tract
was also called Seir, either from a native Horite, or
from Esau, by way of anticipation from bis hairy
habit of body ; whose posterity drove out the Ho¬
rites.
HORiE. See Hours.
HORyEA, in antiquity, solemn sacrifices, consist¬
ing of fruits, &c. offered in spring, summer, autumn,
and winter ; that heaven might grant mild and tem¬
perate weather. These, according to Meursius, were
offered to the goddesses called i. e. Hours, who
were three in number, attended upon the Sun, presided
over the four seasons of the year, and had divine wor¬
ship paid them at Athens.
HORAPOLLO, or Horus Apollo, a gramma¬
rian of Pauaplus in Egypt, according to Suidas, who
first taught at Alexandria, and then at Constantinople
under
hob, [6oi] HOB
apollo under the reign of Theodosius. There are extant, un-
|| der his name, two books on the hieroglyphics of the
ord. Egyptians: which Aldus first published in Greek in
1505, in folioj and they have often been published
siace, with a Latin version and notes. It is not cer¬
tain, however, that the grammarian of Alexandria
was the author of these books} they being rather
thought to belong to another Horapollo of more an¬
cient date : on which head, see Fabricius's Bibliotheca
Grceca.
HORATII, three Roman brothers, who, under the
reign of Tullus Hostilius, fought against the three
Curiatii, who belonged to the Alban army. Two of
the Horatii were first killed } but the third, by his ad¬
dress, successively slew the three Curiatii, and by this
victory rendered the city of Alba subject to the Ro¬
mans. See Rome.
HORATIUS, surnamed Codes from his losing an
eye in combat, was nephew to the consul Horatius
Pulvillus, and descended from one of the three bro¬
thers who fought against the Curiatii. Porsenna,
laying siege to Rome, drove the Romans from Janicu-
lum ; and pursued them to the wooden bridge over the
Tiber, which joined the city to Janiculum. Largius,
Herminius, and Horatius Codes, sustained the shock
of the enemy on the bridge, and prevented their en¬
tering the city with the Romans } but Largius and
Herminius having passed the bridge, Horatius Codes
was left alone, and repulsed the enemy till the bridge
was broken under him : he then threw himself armed
into the Tiber, swam across the river, and entered Rome
in triumph.
Horatius, Quintus Flaccus, the most excellent of
the Latin poets of the lyric and satirical kind, and
the most judicious critic in the reign of Augustus, was
the grandson of a freedman, and was born at Venu-
sium 64 B. C. He had the best masters in Rome,
after which be completed his education at Athens.
Having taken up arms, he embraced the party of Bru¬
tus and Cassius, but left his shield at the battle of Phi¬
lippi. Some time after he gave himself up entirely
to the study of polite literature and poetry. His ta¬
lents soon made him knowm to Augustus and Mecae-
nas, who had a particular esteem for him, and loaded
him with favours. Horace also contracted a strict
friendship with Agrippa, Pollio, Virgil, and all the
other great men of his time. He lived without ambi¬
tion, and led a tranquil and agreeable life with his
friends } but was subject to a defluxion in his eyes.
He died at the age of 57. There are still extant bis
Odes, Epistles, Satires, and Art of Poetry ; of which
there have been a great number of editions. The best
are those of the Louvre, in 1642, folio} of Paris 1691,
quarto; of Cambridge, 1699} ant^ ^ia*- w*th Bentley’s
emendations, printed at Cambridge in 1711.
HORD, in Geography, is used for a company of
wandering people, which have no settled habitation,
but stroll about, dwelling in waggons or under tents,
to be ready to shift as soon as the herbage, fruit, and
the present province, is eaten bare : such are several
tribes of the Tartars, particularly those who inhabit
beyond the Wolga, in the kingdoms of Astracan and
Bulgaria.
A hord consists of 50 or 60 tents, ranged in a cir¬
cle, and leaving an open place in the middle. The in-
Vol. X. Part IL f
habitants m each hord usually form a military company
or troop, the eldest whereof is commonly the captain,
and depends on the general or prince of the whole na¬
tion.
HORDEUM, Barley, a genus of plants belonging
to the triandria class ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 4th order, Gramina. See Botany
Index.
HORDICALIA, or Hordicidia, in antiquity, a
religious feast held among the Romans, wherein they
sacrificed cattle big with young. This feast fell on
April 15th, on which day they sacrificed 30 cows with
calf to the goddess Tellus or the Earth ; part of them
were sacrificed in the temple of Jupiter. The calves
taken out of their bellies were burnt to ashes at first by
the pontifices, afterwards by the eldest of the vesta'l
virgins.
HOREB, or Oreb, a mountain of Arabia Petrsea,
contiguous to and on the south side of Mount Sinai ;
the scene of many miraculous appearances.
HORESTI (Tacitus), a people of Britain, beyond
Solway frith. Now Eskdale (Camden).
HORITES, an ancient people, who at the begin¬
ning dwelt in the mountains of Seir beyond Jordan
(Gen, xiv. 6.). Ihey had princes, and were power-
ful, even before Esau made a conquest of their coun-
try, {id. xxxvi. 20—30.). The Horites, the descend¬
ants of Seir, and the Edomites, seem afterwards to
have been confounded, and to have composed but one
people (Deut. ii. 2. xxxiii. 2. and Judg. v. 4.). They
dwelt in Arabia Petrsea, and Arabia Deserta, to the
south-east of the promised land. We find the Hebrew
word D'Tirt, Chorim, which in the book of Genesis is
translated Hontes, to be used in an appellative sense
in several other passages of scripture, and to signify
nobles, or great and powerful men (1 Kings xxi. S. 11.
and Neb. ii. 16. iv. 14. v. 7. vi. 17. vii. 5. xii. 17. Eccl.
x. 17. Isa. xxxiv. 12. Jer. xxvii. 20. xxxix. 6.) ; and
it is very probable that the Greeks derived from hence
their heroes, in like manner as they derived Anax “ a
king,” from the sons of Anak, the famous giant in
Palestine.
HOREHOUND, the name of a plant. See Mar-
rubium, Botany Index.
HORIZON, or Horison, in Geography and Astro-
nojny, a great circle of the sphere, dividing the world
into two parts or hemispheres ; the one upper and
visible, the other lower and hid. The word is pure
Greek, which literally signifies “ bounding or
terminating the sight}” being formed of e^u, termi-
110, dtfinio, “ I bound, I limit whence it is also
calledj6«*Vor, “ finisher.” See Astronomy and Geo¬
graphy.
The horizon is either rational or sensible.
Rational, true, or astronomical Horizon, which is
also called simply and absolutely the honz-on, is a great
circle, whose plane passes through the centre of the
earth, and whose poles are the zenith and nadir. It
divides the sphere into twm equal parts or hemi¬
spheres.
Sensible, visible, or apparent Horizon, is a lesser cir¬
cle of the sphere, which divides the visible part of the
sphere from the invisible. Its poles, too, are the ze¬
nith and nadir: and consequently the sensible horizon is
parallel to the rational; and it is cut at right angles,
4 $ and
Ho rd.
II
Horizon.
 v *
Horizon
ti
Horn.
H O R [ 602 ] H O R
and Into two equal parts, by the verticals.—The sensi¬
ble horhson Is divided into eastern and western. The
eastern or ortive horizon, is that part of the horizon
wherein the heavenly bodies rise. The ivestern or oc-
cidual horizon, is that wherein the stars set. The al¬
titude or elevation of any point of the sphere, is an
arch of a vertical circle intercepted between it and the
sensible horizon.
By sensible horizon is also frequently meant a circle,
which determines the segment of the surface of the
earth, over which the eye can reach j called also the
physical horizon. In this sense we say, a spacious han-
zon, a narrow scanty horizon.
HORIZONTAL, something that relates to the
horizon, is taken in the horizon, or on a level with
the horizon.—We say, a horizontal planet horizontal
line, &c.
Horizontal Dial, is that drawn on a parallel to the
horizon : having its gnomon, or style, elevated accord¬
ing to the altitude of the pole of the place for which
it is designed. Horizontal dials are, of all others, the
most simple and easy. The manner of describing them,
see under the article Dial.
Horizontal Line, in Perspective, is a right line
drawn through the principal point, parallel to the ho¬
rizon : or, it is the intersection of the horizontal and
perspective planes. See Perspective.
Horizontal Plane, is that which is parallel to the
horizon of the place, or nothing inclined thereto.
The business of levelling is to find whether two points
be in the horizontal plane ; or how much the deviation
is. See Levelling.
Horizontal Plane, in 'Perspective, is a plane pa¬
rallel to the horizon, passing through the eye, and cut¬
ting the perspective plane at right angles.
Horizontal Projection. See Geography Index.
Horizontal Range, or Level Range, of a piece of
ordnance, is the line it describes, when directed paral¬
lel to the horizon or horizontal line. See Gunnery,
passim.
Horizontal Moon. See Moon, Astronomy Index.
Horizontal Speculum. See Speculum.
HORMINUM, Clary, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the didynamia class ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 52d order, Verticillatce. See Bo¬
tany Index.
HORN, in Physiology, a hard substance growing
on the heads of divers animals, particularly the cloven¬
footed quadrupeds j and serving them both as weapons
of offence aad defence.
The horn of animals is of the same nature as their
gelatinous matter j and is only that matter charged with
a less quantity of water, and a larger quantity of earth,
and sufficiently condensed to have a firm and solid con¬
sistence. By digesting horn with water in Papin’s di¬
gester, it may be entirely converted into jelly.
Horn is a perfectly animalised matter, and furnishes
in distillation the same principles as all animal matters •
that is, at first a pure phlegm, with a degree of heat
not exceeding that of boiling water j then a volatile al¬
kaline spirit, which becomes more and more penetrat¬
ing and strong j a fetid, light, and thin oil 3 a con¬
crete volatile salt, which forms ramifications upon the
sides of the receiver ; much air 5 fetid oil, which be¬
comes more and more black and thick 5 and lastly, it
leaves in the retort a considerable quantity of almost Horn,
incombustible coal, from which, after its incineration,
scarcely any fixed alkali can be obtained.
Animal oil, and particularly that which is drawn first
in the distillation of horn, is susceptible of acquiring
great thinness and volatility by repeated distillations,
and is then called the oil of dippel.
The horns of stags, and of other animals of that kind,
are the most proper to furnish the animal oil to be rec¬
tified in the manner of dippel ; because they yield the
largest quantity. ,lhese horns also differ from the horns
of other animals in this, that they contain a larger
quantity of the same kind of earth which is in bones 3
hence they seem to possess an intermediate nature be¬
twixt horns and bones.
HarPs-HoRN. See Hart's-Horn.
Horns make a considerable article in the arts and
manufactures. Bullocks horns, softened by the fire,
serve to make lanthorns, combs, knives, ink-horns to¬
bacco-boxes, &c.
Dyeing of HoRN.—B\adk is performed by steeping
brass in aquafortis till it be returned green :' with this
the horn is to be washed once or twice, and then put
into a warmed decoction of logwood and water. Green
is begun by boiling it, &c. in alum-water ; then with
yerdigrise, ammoniac, and white-wine vinegar 3 keep¬
ing it hot therein till sufficiently green. Red is begun
by boiling it in alum-water 5 and finished by decoction
in a liquor compounded of quick-lime steeped in rain
water, strained, and to every pint an ounce of Brazil¬
wood added. In this decoction the bone, &c. is to be
boiled till sufficiently red.
Dr Lewis informs us that horns receive a deep black
stain from solution of silver. It ought to be diluted to
such a degree as not sensibly to corrode the subject 3
and applied two or three times, if necessary, at consi¬
derable intervals, the matter being exposed as much as
possible to the sun, to hasten the appearance and deep¬
ening of the colour.
Dyeing or staining Horn to imitate Tortoise-shell.—
The horn to be dyed must be first pressed into proper
plates, scales, or other flat form 3 and the following
mixture prepared. Take of quick-lime two parts, and
of litharge one part 3 temper them together to the
consistence of a soft paste with soap-ley. Put this paste
over all the parts of the horn, except such as are pro¬
per to be left transparent, in order to give it a nearer
resemblance of the tortoise-shell. The horn must re¬
main in this manner covered with the paste till it be
thoroughly dry 3 when, the paste being brushed off,
the horn will be found partly opaque and partly trans¬
parent, in the manner of tortoise-shell 3 and when put
over a foil, of the kind of latten called assidue, will be
scarcely distinguishable from it. It requires some de¬
gree of fancy and judgement to dispose of the paste in
such a manner as to form a variety of transparent parts,
of different magnitudes and figures, to look like the
effect of nature: and it will be an improvement to add
semitransparent parts 5 which may be done by mixing
whiting with some of the paste to weaken its operation
in particular places; by which spots of a reddish brown
will be produced, which if properly interspersed, espe¬
cially on the edges of the dark parts, will greatly in¬
crease both the beauty of the work, and its similitude
with the real tortoise-shell.
Horn
HOB, I 603 ] HOB
-lorn. Horn is also a sort of musical instrument of the wind
■V" kind; chiefly used in hunting, to animate and bring
together the dogs and the hunters. The term ancient¬
ly was, wind a horn, all horns being in those times
compassed ; but since straight horns are come in fashion,
they say blow a horn, and sometimes sound a horn.—.
There are various lessons on a horn } as the recheat,
double recheat, royal recheat, running or farewell re¬
cheat, &c. See IIecweat.
The French horn is no other than a wreathed or
contorted trumpet. It labours under the same defects
as the trumpet itself; but these have of late been so pal¬
liated, as to require no particular selection of keys for
this instrument. In the beginning of the year 1773, a
foreigner, named Spandau, played in a concert at the
opera-house a concerto, part whereof was in the key of
C, with the minor-third ; in the performance of which
all the intervals seemed to be as perfect as in any wind-
instrument. This improvement was effected by putting
his right hand into the bottom or bell of the instrument,
and attempering the sounds by the application of his
fingers to different parts of the tube.
The Hebrews made use of horns, formed of rams
horns, to proclaim the jubilee j whence the name Ju¬
bilee.
Cape-HoRN. See Terra del Fevgo.
HoRN-Beam. See Carpinus, Botany Index.
Horn-BUL See Buceros, Ornithology Index.
HoRN-Blende, a species of mineral. See Mineral¬
ogy Index.
Human Horns. In Dr Charles Leigh’s natural hi-
,story of Lancashire, Cheshire, and the Peak in Derby¬
shire, is the print of a woman with two horns on her
head. When she was 28 years of age an excrescence
grew upon her head like a wen, which continued 30
years, and then grew into two horns. After four years
she cast them, and in their place grew two others. Af¬
ter four years she cast these also ; and the horns which
were on her head in 1668 (the time when the account
was written) were then loose. Her picture and one of
' her horns are in Ashmole’s museum. In the university
library at Edinburgh is preserved a horn which was cut
Jfom the head of Elizabeth Love, in the 50th year of
her age. It grew three inches above the ear, and was
growing seven years.
Horn Distemper, a disease incident to horned cattle,
affecting the internal substance of the horn commonly
called the pith, which it insensibly wastes, and leaves
the horn hollow. The pith is a spongy bone, the
.cells of which are filled with an unctuous matter. It
is furnished with a great number of small blood vessels,
is overspread with a thin membrane, and appears to be
united by sutures with the bones of the head. Accord¬
ing to an account of this distemper, published by Dr
Tofts in the Memoirs of the American Academy, vol. i.
the said spongy bone is sometimes partly, and sometimes
entirely wasted. The horn loses its natural heat, and a
degree of coldness is felt upon handling it. The dis¬
temper, however, is seldom suspected without a particu¬
lar acquaintance with the other symptoms, which are a
dulness in the countenance of the beast, a sluggishness
in moving, a failure of appetite, an inclination to lie
down, and, when accompanied with an inflammation of
brain, a giddiness and frequent tossing of the head.
Ihe limbs are sometimes affected with stiffness, as in a
rheumatism j in cows the milk often fails, the udder is Horn
hard, and in almost all cases there is a sudden wasting ||
of the flesh. As soon as the distemper is discovered, an H°i ne’
opening into the diseased horn should be immediately '■“"""V—~
made ; which may be done with a gimlet of a mode¬
rate size, in such a part of the horn as is most favour¬
able for the discharge. It is recommended as most pru¬
dent to bore at first two or three inches above the head.
If it is found hollow, and the gimlet passes through to
the opposite side, and no blood discharges from the aper¬
ture, it may be best to bore still lower, and as near the
head as it shall be judged that the hollowness extends.
This opening is affirmed to be a necessary measure, and
often gives immediate relief. Care must be taken to
keep it clear, as it is apt to be clogged by a thin fluid
that gradually dozes out and fills up the passage. Some
have practised sawing off the horn ; but, according to
the best observations, it succeeds no better than bor¬
ing. From the cases Dr Tofts has seen, he is led
to conclude that injections are in general unnecessary j
that, when the distemper is early discovered, no more
is required than a proper opening into the horn, keep¬
ing it sufficiently clear for the admission of fresh air, the
removal of the compression, and the discharge of float¬
ing matter. But when the distemper has reached the
brain, so as to produce great inflammation, it is much
to be doubted whether any method of cure will suc¬
ceed.
HoRN-Fish, Gar-Jish, or Sea-needle. See Esox, Ich¬
thyology Index.
Horn-JFirk, in fortification, an outwork of two
demi-bastions joined by a curtain. See Fortifica¬
tion.
HORNBY, a town of England, in Lancashire,
seated on a branch of the river Lime, with a handsome
parochial chapel, ihe inhabitants amounted 10420
in 1811, and are chiefly employed in the cotton manu¬
facture. W. Long. 2. 33. N. Lat. 54. 3.
HORN-castle, a town of England, in Lincoln¬
shire. It had a castle, as the name imports ; from the
architecture of which, and the Roman coins that are
sometimes dug up here, it is thought to have been a
camp or station of the Romans. The town is well
built, and is almost surrounded with water. It is a
signiory of 13 lordships, in which are several chapels.
Horn-castle contained in 1811, 2622 inhabitants, who
are principally occupied in the manufacture of leather.
It has a market on Saturdays, and fairs in June and
August.
HORNDON, a town of Essex in England. It stands
near a rivulet, that at a small distance from hence falls
into the Thames. Population 378m 1811. E. Long,
o. 30. N. Lat. 51. 20.
HORNE, George, an English prelate of great
eminence, was born in the vicinity of Maidstone, in
the county of Kent, in the year 1730. Hi's,father was
rector of Otham, and having for some time acted in the
capacity of a tutor at Oxford, was well qualified to su¬
perintend the education of his son George. Ijjbyvever,
that he might not be spoiled by too long a residence at
home, he was, by the advice of a friend, sent to Maid¬
stone school at the age of 13, where he continued un¬
der an eminent teacher for two years, and acquired
some knowledge of oriental literature, particularly the
Hebrew, and went to Oxford in his 15th year. Here
4 G 2 he
H O H [ 604 ] H O H
be indefatigably laboured to store bis mind with almost
every branch of useful learning, and resolved to make
polite literature subservient to the knowledge and illus¬
tration of the Scriptures. He studied the Hebrew more
attentively, and was wisely exhorted to abandon the
method of Buxtorf, so encumbered with that load ot
rubbish, the masoretic punctuation. The rectitude of
his conduct, and the vivacity of bis conversation, gain¬
ed him the esteem of every person with whom he was
acquainted. In the year 1749 he was made B. A. and
next year was elected to a fellowship-in Magdalen col-
ledge, without any solicitation upon his part.
About this time he became a proselyte to what are
cal led the mysteries of chiefly through
the influence of Mr William Jones. £Iis mind, at the
age of 19, was completely fettered by those doctrines,
believing that it was the design of Sir Isaac Newton
and Dr Clarke, to subvert the theology of the Scrip¬
tures, and introduce the stoical antma mundi into the
place of the God of the universe ! Under the influence
of such an infatuated whim, it is not astonishing that he
should endeavour to discredit the system of Newton.
He obtained the degree of M. A. in the year 1752>
when he engaged in a controversy on the subject of the
cherubim, in the Gentleman’s Magazine, subscribing
himself Ingenuus. With a view to recommend the
writings of Hutchinson, he published “ A fair, candid,
and impartial state of the case between Sir Isaac New¬
ton and Mr Hutchinson; in which is shewn, how far a
system of physics is capable of mathematical demonstra¬
tion ; how far Sir Isaac’s, as such a system, has that de¬
monstration ; and consequently, what regard Mr Hut¬
chinson’s claim may deserve to have paid it.” In the
year 1753 Mr Horne entered into holy orders, and ac¬
quired high reputation as a public speaker, as his com¬
positions were excellent, and his elocution graceful.
While preaching before the university, he introduced
some of his peculiar notions, which again led him into
controversy. A piece made its appearance, entitled
“ A word to the Hutchinsonians ; or, remarks on three
extraordinary sermons, lately preached before the uni¬
versity of Oxford, by Dr Patten, Mr Wetherell, and
Mr Horne.” To this our author replied in his “ A-
pology for certain gentlemen in the university of Ox¬
ford, aspersed in a late anonymous pamphlet,” &c.
The vindication of the hint to the Hutchinsonians, was
supposed to be the production of Dr Kennicott, who
became afterwards so famous for his labours in collating
Hebrew manuscripts, and his valuable edition of the
Hebrew Bible. He (Mr Horne) was chosen proctor
of the university in 1758, and on the honourable termi¬
nation of his authority was created B. D. When Mr
(afterwards Dr) Kennicott, gave the world proposals
for collating the text of the Hebrew Bible, for the pur¬
pose of correcting the original, and preparing for a new
translation, Mr Horne was very much alarmed. He
falsely apprehended that the adoption of such a measure
would overwhelm the sacred text with licentious criti¬
cism j ota which account he published, in 1760, “ A
view of Mr Kennieott’s method of correcting the He¬
brew text, with three queries formed thereon, and
humbly submitted to the consideration of the learned
and Christian world.” But an acquaintance which
thus began in hostility was converted afterwards into
genuine friendship, which continued through the whole
of life.
In 1764, Mr Horne was created D. D. although as
yet advanced to no conspicuous station. On the death
of Dr Jenner, the president of Magdalen college, Dr
Horne was appointed to succeed him in a post at once
honourable and valuable, in the beginning of 1768,
after which we are informed that he exchanged a single
for a married life. Next year he published “ Conside¬
rations on the life and death of St John the Baptist,
being the substance of several sermons preached by him
before the university.” In 1771, he was chosen chap¬
lain in ordinary to his majesty, which he held for ten
years. In 1772, when a number of clergymen had
formed the resolution of petitioning parliament for re¬
lief as to the subscribing the liturgy and thirty-nine ar¬
ticles, Dr Horne determined, if possible, to defeat their
object, for which purpose he published “ Considerations
on the projected reformation of the church of England,
in a letter to Lord North.”
He now set about the finishing of his greatest work,
which had occupied his attention for almost 20 years.
This was his “ Commentary on the Book of Psalms,”
which appeared in 1776, in 2 vols quarto. It exhibits
profound erudition, a great genius, and fervent piety ;
and is perused with much pleasure and advantage by
every judge of merit. In the same year he was chosen
vice-chancellor of the university, which he held to the
latter end of the year 1780. On the publication of
Dr Adam Smith’s letter, containing an account of the
death of Mr David Hume, Dr Horne, in the year
1777, publicly animadverted upon it, in “ A letter to
Adam Smith, L L. D. on the life, death, and philo-'
sophy of his friend David Hume, Esq. by one of the
people called Christians.” In this work he exposes the
absurdities of the Scotch philosopher’s performance, to
the contempt of the religious world, with clear and
conclusive reasoning, and keen but good-humoured
irony. In 1779, Dr Horne published “Discourses on
various subjects and occasions,” in two volumes octavo,
which have procured the approbation of all descriptions
of readers.
As vice-chancellor of the university he became ac¬
quainted with Lord North, to whose interest, joined
with that of Lord Hawkesbury, he was indebted, ia
1781, for the deanery of Canterbury. His time was
now divided between this city and Oxford, and the
conscientious discharge of every part of his complex
duty made him universally beloved. In 1784 he pub¬
lished letters on infidelity, similar to his reply to .Dr
Adam Smith. The books against which he levelled
his ridicule are , “ An apology for the life and writings
of David Hume, Esq.Hume’s “ Dialogues on natu¬
ral religion An essay on suicide by the same author,
and a treatise entitled “ Doubts of the Infidels.” In
the year 1790, when Dr Bagot was translated to the
see of St Asaph, Dr Horne was appointed to succeed
him in the see of Norwich. His last literary labours
were “ Observations on the case of the Protestant dis¬
senters with reference to the corporation and test acts,”
1790; and “ A charge intended to have been deliver¬
ed to the clergy of the diocese of Norwich,” at his first
visitation, 1791. When he was raised to the episcopal
dignity, his health, always delicate, began rapidly t©
decline v
H O R , Hi
H-ne decline j but from the waters of Bath he received great
U relief, to which place he repaired a third time in the
] nsey. harvest of 1791. On his way he was seized with a
w stroke of the palsy, and after languishing for a few
weeks, he died at Bath on the 17th of January 1792,
in the 62d year of his age.
He was powerfully animated in his last moments by
those hopes which spring from the promises of the gos¬
pel, and the inexpressible satisfaction of a well-spent
life. His erudition was extensive, his piety sincere,
and his whole life exemplary. His charity, both of a
public and private nature, was very extensive, and if
not in debt at the end of the year, he was perfectly sa¬
tisfied. His posthumous works are, vols iii. and iv. of
“ Discourses on several subjects and occasions j” a vo¬
lume of sermons; and “ Cautions to the readers of Mr
Law.”
HORNERS, those people whose business it is to
prepare various utensils of the horns of cattle. The
horners were a very ancient and considerable fraterni¬
ty in the city of London some hundred years ago. In
the reign of Edward II. they complained to parlia¬
ment, that by foreigners buying up the horns in Eng¬
land, they were in danger of being ruined, and this
business lost to the nation. For this reason was made
the statute 6 Edw. IV. by which the sale of horns to
foreigners (except such as the said horners refused) was
prohibited ; and the wardens had power granted them
to search all the markets in London, and twenty-four
miles round, and to inspect Sturbridge and Ely fairs,
to prevent such practices, and to purchase horns at sta¬
ted prices. But on plausible pretences this law was re¬
pealed in the reign of James I. and thereupon the old
evil revived. The horners again applied to parlia¬
ment, and King Edward’s statute was renewed (except¬
ing as to the inspection of the fairs), and still remains
in force. The importation of unwrought horns into
this country is also prohibited. In 1750, there were
exported to Holland 514,500 lantern leaves, besides
powder flasks. There was formerly a duty of 20 shil¬
lings a thousand, under which in 1682 were exported
76,650 ; but in the reign of George I. this duty was
taken off, and these and all other manufactures made
of horns may be exported free. The present company
of horners was incorporated January 12. 1638; and
consists of a master, two wardens, and nine assistants,
without livery or hall. They have a warehouse in
Spitalfields, to which the horns are sent as brought
from town and country-markets, and thence regularly
divided, the widows and orphans of deceased members
having equal shares.
HORNET, a species of wasp. See Vespa, Ento¬
mology Index.
HORNING, in Scots Law, a writing issuing from
the signet, in his majesty’s name, at the instance of a
creditor against his debtor, commanding him to pay or
perform within a certain time, under pain of being de¬
clared rebel, and by a caption put in prison.
HORNSEY, a town in Yorkshire, 188 miles north
from London, and 15 from Hull. It is almost surround¬
ed by a small arm of the sea ; and the church having
a high stbeple, is a noted sea-mark. Not many years
ago there was a street here called Hornsey-beck, which
was washed away by the sea, except a house or two.
'Hie inhabitants amounted to 704 in 1811.
05 ] H O It!
HoRNSEY, a town of Middlesex, five miles north of Hornsey
London. It is a long straggling place, situated in a j|
low valley, but extremely pleasant, having the new ri- Horbto-
ver winding through it. Its church, of which High- , Slllll>‘
gate is a hamlet, is supposed to be built with the stones
that came from Lodge-Hill, the bishop of London’s
hunting-seat in bis park here ; it having been his ma¬
nor from the most ancient times. About a mile nearer
this is a coppice of young trees, called Hornsey wood)
at the entrance of which is a public-house, which com¬
mands a fine prospect, and is a great resort of the citi¬
zens of London. In 1811, Hornsey contained 3349
inhabitants.
HORNPIPE, a commot) instrument of music in
Wales, consistiijg of a wooden pipe, with holes at sta¬
ted distances, and a horn at each end : the one to col¬
lect the wind blown into it by the month, and the
other to carry off the sounds as modulated by the per¬
former.
Hornpipe is also the name of an English air, pro¬
bably derived from the above instrument. The mea¬
sure of this air is triple time, with six crotchets in a
bar; four of which are to be beat with the hand down
and two up.
HOROGRAPHY, the art of making or construct¬
ing dials ; called also dialling, horologiography, gno-
monica, sciatherica, photosciatherica, &c.
HOROLOGIUM, (composed of u^et,
hora, “ time, hour,” and A#y«f, “ speech, discourse,”)
a common name among ancient writers for any instru¬
ment or machine for measuring the hours; see Chro¬
nometer).—Such are our clocks, watches, sun-dials,
&c. See Clock, Watch, Dial, and Clepsydra.
Modern inventions, and gradual improvements, have
given birth to some new terms that come properly un¬
der this head, and annexed new meanings to others to¬
tally different from what they had originally. All
chronometers that announced the hour by striking on.
a bell, were called clocks: thus, we read of pocket-
clocks, though nothing could seem more absurd than
to suppose that a clock, according to the modern idea,
should be carried in the pocket. In like manner, all
clocks that did not strike the hour were called watches
or time-pieces; and the different parts of a striking
clock were distinguished by the watch-part and the
clock-part; the former meaning that part which mea¬
sures the time, and the latter the part which proclaims
the hours. In the report of Sir Isaac Newton to the
house of commons, anno 1713, relative to the long!-.
tude act, he states the difficulties of ascertaining the
longitude by means of a watch : yet it is obvious, from
several circumstances, that his remarks were directly
to he understood of a time-piece regulated by a pendu¬
lum ; for his objections are founded on the known
properties of the pendulum, some of which differ essen¬
tially from the properties of the balance and spring.
It is also to be remembered, that all the attempts of
Huygens for finding the longitude were by means of
pendulum clocks that did not strike the hour, and con¬
sequently, according to the language ofthe times, were
called watches. At this time such machines for mea¬
suring time as are fixed in their place are oalled clockst
if they strike the hour: if they do not strike the hour,
they are called time-pieces ; and when constructed with
oiore^ care, for a more accurate measure of time, they
are;
Hoiolo-
gium
ii
Horse.
H O R [ 606 ] H O R
Some artists of late have affect- Hadadezer king of Shobah (2 Sam. viii. 4. 5.), took
1700 horses, and lamed all belonging to the chariots of
only 100 chariots. The judges and
are called 7'egulators
ed to call such watches as were constructed for astrono¬
mical and nautical observations by the name of time-
f pieces, probably to intimate that they possess the advan¬
tages of those constructed with a pendulum.
Mr John Harrison first gave the name of time-keeper
to his watch, for the performance of which he recei¬
ved from parliament the sum of 20,oqo1. See Longi¬
tude.
For the account of the principles of this machine, see
Time-keeper. And for the chief improvements that
have been made for the more accurate measure of time,
see Pallets, Pendulum, and Scapement.
HOROPTER, in Optics, is a right line drawn
through the point where the two optic axes meet, pa¬
rallel to that which joins the centres of the two eyes,
or the two pupils.
HOROSCOPE, in Astrology, the degree or point of
the heavens rising above the eastern point of the hori¬
zon at any given time when a prediction is to be made
of a future event: as, the fortune of a person then born,
the success of a design then laid, the weather, &c.
The word is composed of hora, “ hour,” and the
verb cKOTriu, video, “ I behold.”
Such was at one time the infatuation concerning ho¬
roscopes, that Albertus Magnus, Cardan, and others,
are said to have had the temerity to draw that of Jesus
Christ.
Horoscope is also used for a scheme or figure of the
twelve houses, i. e. the twelve signs of the zodiac,
wherein is marked the disposition of the heavens for
any given time. Thus we say, to draw a horoscope,
construct a horoscope, &c. We call it, more peculiar¬
ly, calculating a nativity, when the life and fortune of
a person are the subject of the prediction $ for they
draw horoscopes of cities, great enterprises, &c. See
House.
HOROSCOPY. See Divination, N° 2.
HORREA, in Roman antiquity, were public maga¬
zines of corn and salt-beef, out of which the soldiers
were furnished on their march in the military roads of
the empire. Horrta was also the name which thev gave
to their granaries.
HORROX, Jeremiah, an eminent English astro¬
nomer in the 17th century, was born at Texteth near
Liverpool in Lancashire in 1619. He died, to the
great loss of that science and of the world, in the 23d
year of his age, after he had just finished his Venus in
Sole visa ; which, with some other works, were publish¬
ed byvDr Wallis, in quarto.
HORROR, strictly signifies} such an excess of fear
as makes a person tremble. . See Fear, Fright, and
Terror. In medicine, it denotes a shivering and sha¬
king of the whole body, coming by fits. It is common
at the beginning of all fevers, but is particularly re¬
markable in those of the intermittent kind.
Horror oj" a Vacuum, was an imaginary principle
among the ancient philosophers, to which they ascribed
the ascent of water in pumps, and other similar pheno¬
mena, which are now known to be occasioned by the
weight of the air.
HORSE. See Equus, Mammalia Index.
Horses were very rare in Judoea till Solomon’s time.
Before him we find no horsemen mentioned in the ar¬
mies of Israel. David having won a great battle against
J
war, reserving only 100
princes of Israel used generally to ride on mules or asses.
After David’s time, horses were more common in the
country of Judah, &c. Solomon is the first king of
Judah who had a great number of horses, and he kept
them rather for pomp than for war \ for we do not read
that he made any military expeditions. He had, says
the Scripture (1 Kings iv. 26.), 40,000 stalls of horses
for his chariots, and 12,000 horsemen distributed in his
fortified places (1 Kings x. 26.). He had his horses
from Egypt (ibid. ver. 28, 29.) $ and there was not a
set which did not cost him more than 600 shekels,
which make of our money about 90I. Moses had for¬
bidden the king of the Hebrews to keep a great num¬
ber of horses (Deut. xvii. 16.), lest at any time be
should be inclined to carry the people back into
Egypt.
We read in the second book of Kings (xxiii. 17.),
that Josiah took away the horses which the kings of
Judah his predecessors had consecrated to the sun. We
know the sun was worshipped overall the east, and that
the horse, the swiftest of tame beasts, was consecrated
to this deity, who was represented as riding in a cha¬
riot drawn by the most beautiful and swiftest horses in
the world, and performing every day his journey from
east to west, in order to communicate his light to man¬
kind. Xenophon describes a solemn sacrifice of horses,
which was made with ceremony to the sun : they were
all the finest steeds, and were led with a white chariot,
crowned, and consecrated to the same god. We may
believe that the horses which Josiah removed out of the
court of the temple, were appointed for the like sacri¬
fices. The rabbins inform us, that these horses were
every morning put to the chariots dedicated to the sun,
whereof there is mention made in the same book j and
that the king, or some of his officers, got up and rode
to meet the sun in its rising, as far as from the eastern
gate of the temple to the suburbs of Jerusalem. Others
are of opinion, that the horses mentioned in the book of
Kings were of wood, stone, or metal, erected in the
temple in honour of the sun: Others, that they were
horses which none were permitted to ride or fasten to
the yoke, but were free, and left to themselves, like
those which Julius Caesar let loose and set at liberty af¬
ter his passage of the Rubicon.
Horses were used both amongst the Greeks and Ro¬
mans in war, but were not originally very numerous;
for as each horseman provided his own horse, few would
be able to bear the expence. Horses for a considerable
time were managed by the voice alone, or by a switch,
without bridle, saddle, or stirrups. Their harness was
skins of beasts, or sometimes cloth. Both horses and
men amongst the Greeks underwent a severe probation
before their admission into the cavalry.—Horse-races
wei'e common amongst the Greeks and Romans, and
the place where they ran or breathed their coursers was
called hippodromus.
Management of a Horse upon and after a Journey.
See that his shoes be not too strait, or press his feet, but
be exactly shaped ; and let him be shod some days be¬
fore you begin a journey, that they mav be settled to
his feet.
Observe that he is furnished with .a bitt proper for
him,
H O K [ 607 ] HOB.
mse. him, and by no means too heavy, which may incline
him to carry low, or to rest upon the hand when he
/*■ grows weary, which horsemen call making use of his
fifth leg.
The mouth of the bitt should rest upon his bars
about half a finger’s-breadth from his tushes, so as not
to make him frumble his lips; the curb should rest in
the hollow of his beard a little above the chin; and if
it gall him, you must defend the place with a piece of
buff or other soft leather.
Take notice that the saddle do not rest upon his wi¬
thers, reins, or back-bone, and that one part of it do
not press his back more than another.
Some riders gall a horse’s sides below the saddle with
their stirrup-leathers, especially if he be lean ; to hin¬
der it, you should fix a leather strap between the points
of the fore and hind-bows of the saddle, and make the
stirrup-leather pass over them.
Begin your journey wTith short marches, especially
if your horse has not been exercised for a long time ;
suffer him to stale as often as you find him inclined :
and not only so, but invite him to it ; but do not ex¬
cite your mares to stale, because their vigour will be
thereby diminished.
It is advisable to ride very softly, for a quarter or
half an hour before you arrive at the inn, that the
horse not being too warm, nor out of breath, when
put into the stable, you may unbridle him : but if your
business obliges you to put on sharply, you must then
(the weather being warm) let him be walked in a man’s
hand, that he may cool by degrees ; otherwise, if it be
very cold, let him be covered with cloths, and walked
up and down in some place free from wind ; but in
case you have not the conveniency of a sheltered walk,
stable him forthwith, and let his whole body he rubbed
and dried with straw.
Although some people will have their horses legs
rubbed down with straw as soon as they are brought
into the stable, thinking to supple them by that
means ; yet it is one of the greatest errors that can be
committed, and produces no other effects than to draw
down into the legs those humours that are always stir¬
red up by the fatigue of the journey ; not that the
rubbing of horses legs is to be disallowed ; on the con¬
trary, we highly approve of it, only would not have
it done at their first arrival, but when they are perfectly
cooled.
Being come to your inn, as soon as your horse is
partly dried, and ceases to beat in the flanks, let him
be unbridled, his bitt washed, cleansed, and wiped, and
let him eat his hay at pleasure.
If your horse be very dry, and you have not given
him water on the road, give him oats washed in good
mild ale.
The dust and sand will sometimes so dry the tongues
and mouths of horses, that they lose their appetites :
in such case, give them bran well moistened with wa¬
ter to cool and refresh their mouths; or wash their
mouths and tongue with a wet sponge, to oblige them
to eat.
The foregoing directions are to be observed after
moderate riding 5 but if you have rode excessively hard,
unsaddle your horse, and scrape off the sweat with a
sweating-knife, or scraper, holding it with both hands,
and going always with the hair; then rub his head and
eats with a large hair-cloth, wipe him also between the Horse,
fore legs and hind legs ; in the meanwhile, his body t——v—
should be rubbed all over with straw, especially under
his belly and beneath the saddle, till he is thoroughly
dry.
That done, set on the saddle again ; cover him ; and
if you have a warm place, let him be gently led up and
down in it for a quarter of an hour ; but if not, let him
dry where he stands.
Or you may unsaddle him immediately ; scrape off
the sweat; let the ostler take a little vinegar in his
mouth and squirt it into the horse’s; then rub his
head, between the fore and hind legs, and his whole
body, till he is pretty dry ; let him not drink till he is
thoroughly cool, and has eaten a few oats ; for many,
by drinking too soon, have been spoiled. Set the
saddle in the sun or by a fire, in order to dry the
pannels.
When horses are arrived at an inn, a man should,
before they are unbridled, lift up their feet, to see
whether they want any of their shoes, or if those they
have do not rest upon their sides ; afterwards he should
pick and clear them of the earth and gravel which may
be got betwixt their shoes and soles.
If you water them abroad, upon their return from
the river cause their feet to be stopped with cow-
dung, which will ease the pain therein ; and if it be in
the evening, let the dung continue in their feet all
night, to keep them soft and in good condition ; but if
your horse have brittle feet, it will be requisite to anoint
the fore feet, at the on-setting of the hoofs, with but¬
ter, oil, or hog’s grease, before you water him in the
morning, and in dry weather they should be also greased
at noon.
Many horses, as soon as unbridled, instead of eat¬
ing, lay themselves down to rest, by reason of the
great pain they have in their feet, so that a man is apt
to think them sick: but if he looks to their eyes, he
will see they are lively and good ; and if he offers them
meat as they are lying, they will eat it very willingly ;
yet if he handles their feet, he will find them extreme¬
ly hot, which discovers their suffering in that part.
You must therefore see if their shoes do not rest upon
their soles, which is somewhat difficult to be certainly
known without unshoeing them ; but if yon take off
their shoes, then look to the inside of them, and you
may perceive that those parts which rest upon the
soles are more smooth and shining than the others ;
in this case you are to pare their feet in those parts,
and fix on their shoes again, anointing the hoofs, and
stopping the soles with scalding hot black pitch or
tar.
After a long day’s journey, at night feel your horse’s
back, if he be pinched, galled, or swelled (if you do
not immediately discover it, perhaps you may after sup¬
per), there is nothing better than to rub it with good
brandy and the white of an egg. If the galls are be¬
tween the legs, use the same remedy; but if the ostler
rubs him well between the legs, he will seldom be gal¬
led in that part.
In order to preserve horses after travel, take these
few useful instructions. When you are arrived from a
journey, immediately draw the two heel-nails of the
fore feet ; and, if it be a large shoe, then four : two
or three days after, you may blood him in the neck,
and
HOR [608] HOR
aird feed Iiun for 10 or 12 days only with wet bran,
without giving him any oats j but keep him well ht-
tered. ...
The reason why you are to draw the heel-nails, is
because the heels are apt to swell, and if they are not
thus eased, the shoes would press and straiten them
too much : it is also advisable to stop them with cow-
dung for a while j but do not take the shoes off, nor
pare the feet, because the humours are drawn down by
that means.
The following bath will be very serviceable for pre¬
serving your horse’s legs. Take the dung of a cow
or ox, and make it thin with vinegar, so as to be of
the consistence of thick broth; and having added a
handful of small salt, rub his fore legs from the knees,
and the hind legs from the gambrels, chafing them
well with and against the hair, that the remedy may
sink in and stick to those parts, that they may be all
covered over with it. Thus leave the horse till morn¬
ing, not wetting his legs, but giving him his water that
evening in a pail; next morning lead him to the river,
or wash his legs in well water, which is very good, and
will keep them from swelling.
Those persons, who, to recover their horses feet,
make a hole in them, which they fill with moistened
cow dung, and keep it in their fore feet during the
space of a month, do very ill; because, though the con¬
tinual moisture that issues from the dung occasions the
growing of the hoof, yet it dries and shrinks it so ex¬
cessively when out of that place, that it splits and breaks
like glass, and the foot immediately straitens. . For it
is certain, that cow-dung (contrary to the opinion of
nianv people) spoils a horse’s hoof: it does indeed mois¬
ten the sole, but it dries up the hoof, which is of a dif¬
ferent nature from it. In order, therefore, to recover
a horse’s feet, instead of cow-dung, fill a hole with blue
wet clay, and make him keep his fore-feet in it for a
month.
Most horses that are fatigued or over-rid, and made
lean by long journeys, have their flanks altered with¬
out being pursy, especially vigorous horses that have
worked too violently.
There is no method better to recover them, than to
give each of them in the morning half a pound of ho¬
ney very well mingled with scalded bran j and when
they readily eat the half pound, give them the next
time a whole one, and afterwards two pounds, every
day, continuing this course till your horses are empty,
and purge kindly with it; but as soon as you perceive
that their purging ceases, forbear to give them any
more honey.
You may administer powder of liquorice in the
scalded bran for a considerable time ; and to cool their
blood, it will not be improper to let them have three
or four glysters.
In case the horse be very lean, it is expedient to
give him some wet bran, over and above bis propor¬
tion of oats ; and grass is also extraordinary beneficial,
if he be not pursy.
If it be a mare, put her to a horse; and if she never
bad a foal before, it will enlarge her belly.
Sometimes excessive feeding may do horses more
barm than good, by rendering them subject to the
farcy. You should therefore be cautious in giving
3
them too great a quantity at a time, and take a little Horse,
blood from them now and then.
When a horse begins to drink water heartily, it is a
certain sign that he will recover in a short time. As to
the method of giving him water during a journey, ob¬
serve the following rules :
All the while you are upon a journey, let your horse
drink of the first good water you come to, after seven
o’clock in the morning if it be in summer-time, and
after nine or ten in winter.
That is accounted good water which is neither too
quick and piercing, nor too muddy and stinking.
This is to be done, unless you would have him gal¬
lop a long time after drinking j for if so, you must for¬
bear.
Though it is the custom in England to run and
gallop horses after drinking, which we call ivatering-
courses, to bri.rig them (as they say) into wind j yet
says M. deSolleysel, it is the most pernicious practice
that can be imagined for horses, by which many are
rendered pursy.
WThile a horse is drinking, draw up his head five or
six times, making him move a little between every
draught $ and notwithstanding he be warm, and sweat
very much, yet if he is not quite out of breath, and
you have still four or five miles to ride, he will be bet¬
ter after drinking a little, than if he had drank none
at all : it is true, indeed, that if the horse is very warm,
you should, at coming out of the water, redouble your
pace, to make him go at a gentle trot, to warm the
water in his belly.
You ought to let him drink after this manner du¬
ring the whole time of your journey •, because, if when
you happen to bait he be hot or sweaty, you must
not let him drink for a long time, as it would en¬
danger his life j and when bis bridle is taken olF, his
excessive thirst will binder him from eating, so that he
will not oft’er to touch his meat for an hour or two,
which perhaps your occasion will not allow you for a
baiting time, and not to have any food will render him
unfit for travel.
If you meet with any ford before you come to your
inn, ride the horse through it two or three times, but
not up to his belly : this will not only cleanse his legs,
but the coldness of the water will bind up the humours,
and prevent them from descending.
If your horse has been very warm, and you have not
had the conveniency of watering him upon the road, he
will, when unbridled, eat but very little ; therefore he
should have his oats given him washed in ale or beer,
or only some of them, if you intend to feed him again
after he has drank.
Some are of opinion, that horses are often spoiled by
giving them oats before their water $ because they say
the water makes the oats pass too soon, and out of the
stomach undigested. But M. de Solleysel affirms, that
though it be the common custom not to do it till after,
yet it is proper to feed with oats both before and alter,
especially if the horse he warm, and has been hard rode;
for he will be a great deal the better for it, and in no
danger of becoming sick.
Breeding of Hobses. W hen the stallion is chosen,
and all the mares intended for him are collected toge->/a< fl**
tber, there must he another stone horse, to discover
which
H O R [ 609 ] H O R
we. wliicli of the mares are in heat, and, at the same time,
v—- contribute to inflame them. All the mares are to be
brought successively to this stone-horse, which should
also be inflamed, and suffered frequently to neigh. As
he is for leaping every one, such as are not in heat keep
him off, whilst those which are so suffer him to ap¬
proach them. But instead of being allowed to satisfy
his impulse, he must be led away, and the real stallion
substituted in his stead. This trial is necessary for as¬
certaining the true time of the mare’s heat, especially
of those which have not yet had a colt ; for with re¬
gard to such as have recently foaled, the heat usually
begins nine days after their delivery $ and on that very
day they may be led to the stallion to be covered j and
nine days after, by the experiment above mentioned, it
may be known whether they are still in heat. If they
are, they must be covered a second lime ; and thus suc¬
cessively every ninth day while their heat continues : for
when they are impregnated, their heat abates, and in a
few days ceases entirely.
But that every thing may be done easily and con¬
veniently, and at the same time with success and
advantage, great attention, expence, and precaution,
are requisite. The stud must be fixed in a good soil,
and in a suitable place, proportioned to the number of
mares and stallions intended to be used. This spot
must be divided into several parts, inclosed with rails
or ditches well fenced ; in the part where the pasture
is the richest, the mares in fold, and those with colts
by their sides, are to be kept. Those which are not
impregnated, or have not yet been covered, are to be
separated, and kept with the fillies in another close,
where the pasture is less rich, that they may not grow
too fat, which would obstruct the progress of genera¬
tion. Lastly, the young stone colts or geldings are to
be kept in the driest part of the fields, and where the
ground is most unequal j that by running over the un¬
even surface, they may acquire a freedom in the mo¬
tion of their legs and shoulders. This close where the
stone colts are kept, must be very carefully separated
from the others, lest the young horses break their
bounds, and enervate themselves with the mares. If
the tract be so large as to allow of dividing each of
these closes into two parts, for putting oxen and horses
into them alternately, the pasture will last much lon¬
ger than if continually eaten by horses : the ox impro¬
ving the fertility, whereas the horse lessens it. In each
of these closes should be a pond j standing water being
better than running, which often gripes them j and if
there are any trees in the ground, they should be left
standing, their shade being very agreeable to the horses
in great heats *, but all stems or stumps should be grub¬
bed up, and all holes levelled, to prevent accidents. In
these pastures your horses should feed during the sum¬
mer; but in the winter the mares should be kept in
the stable and fed with hay. The colts also must be
housed, and never suffered to feed abroad in winter,
except in very fine weather. Stallions that stand in the
stable should be fed more with straw than hay j and
moderately exercised till covering time, which gene¬
rally lasts from the beginning of April to the end of
June. But during this season they should have no
other exercise, and be plentifully fed, but with the same
food as usual. Before the stallion is brought to the
Vol. X. Part II. t
mares, he should be dressed, as that will greatly in- Horse,
crease his ardour. The mare must also be curried, and v 1
have no shoes on her hind feet, some of them being
ticklish, and will kick the stallion. A person holds
the mare by the halter, and two others lead the stallion
by long reins; when he is in a proper situation, ano¬
ther assistant carefully directs the yard, pulling aside
the mare’s tail, as a single hair might hurt him dan¬
gerously. It sometimes happens that the stallion does
not complete the work of generation, coming from the
mare without making any injection ; it should there¬
fore be attentively observed, whether, in the last mo¬
ments of the copulation the dock of the stallion’s tail
has a vibrating motion ; for such a motion always ac¬
companies the emission of the seminal lymph. If he
has performed the act, he must on no consideration be
suffered to repeat it ; but be led away directly to the
stable, and there kept two days. For, however able a
good stallion may be of covering every day during the
three months, it is much better to let him be led to a
mare only every other day : his produce will be greater,
and he himself less exhausted. Luring the first seven
days, let four different mares be successively brought to
him ; and the ninth day let the first be again brought,
and so successively while they continue in heat; but as
soon as the heat of any one is over, a fresh mare is to
be put in her place, and covered in her turn every nine
days ; and as several retain even at the first, second, or
third time, it is computed that a stallion, by such ma¬
nagement, may, during the three months, cover 15 or
18 mares, and beget 10 or 12 colts. These animals
have a very large quantity of the seminal lymph ; so
that a considerable portion of it is shed during the
emission. In the mares likewise is an emission, or ra¬
ther distillation of the seminal lymph, during the whole
time they are horsing ; ejecting a viscid whitish lymph,
called the heats, which ceases on conception. This
ichor the Greeks called hippomunes; and pretended
that philtres might be made of it, one remarkable ef¬
fect of which was, to render a horse frantic with lust.
This hippomanes is very different from that found in
the secundines of the foal, which M. Laubenton first
discovered, and has so accurately described its nature,
origin, and situation. The ejection of this liquor is
the most certain sign of the mare’s heat; but it is also
known by the inflation of the lower part of the vulva,
by her frequent neighings, and attempts to get to the
horses. After being covered, nothing more is requi¬
site than to lead her away to the field. The first foal
of a mare is never so strongly formed as the succeed¬
ing; so that care should betaken to procure for her,
the first time, a larger stallion, that the defect of the
growth may be compensated by the largeness of the
size. Particular regard should also be had to the differ¬
ence or congruity of the fashion of the stallion and
the mare; in order to correct the faults of the one by
the perfections of the other : especially never to make
any disproportionate copulations, as of a small horse
with a large mare, or a large horse with a small
mare; as the produce of such copulation would be
small, or badly proportioned. It is by gradations that
we must endeavour to arrive at natural beauty ; for
instance, to give to a mare a little too clumsy, a well-
made horse and finely shaped ; to a small mare, a horse
4H
H O R [ 610 ] H O R
Howe. a little higher j to a mare which is faulty in her fore-
—v——' hand, a horse with an elegant head and noble chest,
&c.
It has been observed, that horses fed in dry and light
grounds, produce temperate, swift, and vigorous foals,
with muscular legs and a hard hoof j while the same
bred in marshes and moist pastures have produced
foals with a large heavy head, a thick carcase, clumsy
legs, bad hoofs, and broad feet. These differences pro¬
ceed from the air and food, which is easily understood ;
but what is more difficult to be accounted for, and still
more essential than what we have hitherto observed, is,
to be continually crossing the breed to prevent a dege¬
neracy.
In coupling of horses, the colour and size should be
suited to each other, the shape contrasted, and the breed
crossed by an opposition of climates j but horses and
mares foaled in the same stud should never be joined.
These are essential articles, but there are others which
should by no means be neglected ; as that no short-
docked mares be suffered in a stud, because from their
being unable to keep off’the flies, they are much more
tormented by them than others which have a long
sweeping tail j and their continual agitation from the
sting of these insects occasions a diminution in the
quantity of their milk, and has a great influence on the
constitution and size of the colt, which will be vigorous
in proportion as its dam is a good nurse. Care must al¬
so be taken, that the stud mares he such as have been
always brought up in pastures, and never over-worked.
Mares which have always been brought up in the sta¬
ble on dry food, and afterwards turned to grass, do not
breed at first: some time is required for accustoming
them to this new aliment.
Though the usual season for the heat of mares be
from the beginning of April to the end of June, yet
it is not uncommon to find some among a large num¬
ber that are in heat before that time : but it is ad¬
visable to let this heat pass over without giving them
to the stallion, because they would foal in winter •, and
the colts, besides the inclemency of the season, would
have bad milk for their nourishment. Again, if the
mares are not in heat till after the end of June, they
should not be covered that season ; because the colts
being foaled in summer, have not time for acquiring
strength sufficient to repel the injuries of the following
winter.
Many, instead of bringing the stallion to the mare,
turn him loose into the close, where all the mares are
brought together j and there leave him to choose such
as will stand to him. ’Ibis is a very advantageous me¬
thod for the mares : they will always take horse more
certainly than in the other j but the stallion, in six
weeks, will do himself more damage than in several
years by moderate exercise, conducted in the manner
we have already mentioned.
_ When the mares are pregnant, and their belly be¬
gins to swell, they must be separated from those that
are not, lest they hurt them. They usually go 11 months
and some days, and foal standing, whereas most other
quadrupeds lie down. Those that cannot foal without
great difficulty, must be assisted ; the foal must be pla¬
ced in a proper situation $ and sometimes, if dead,
drawn out with cords. The head of the colt usually
2
presents itself first, as in all other animals : at its coming fjonr
out of the matrix, it breaks the secundines or integu- y—
ments that inclose it, which is accompanied with a
great flux of the lymph contained in them ; and at the
same time one or more solid lumps are discharged,
formed by the sediment of the inspissated liquor of the
allantoides. This lump, which the ancients called the
hippomanes of the colt, is so far from being, as they ima¬
gined, a mass of flesh adhering to the head of the colt,
that it is separated from it by a membrane called am¬
nios. As soon as the colt is fallen, the mare licks it,
but without touching the hippomanes, which points out
another error of the ancients, who affirmed that she in¬
stantly devours it.
The general custom is to have a mare covered nine
days after her foaling, that no time may he lost j but
it is certain, that the mare having, by this means, both
her present and future foal to nourish, her ability is
divided, and she cannot supply both so largely as she
might one only. It would therefore be better, in order
to have excellent horses, to let the mares be covered
only every other year; they would last the longer, and
bring foals more certainly j for, in common studs, it is
so far from being true that all mares which have been
covered bring colts every year, that it is considered
as a fortunate circumstance if half or at most two-thirds
of them foal.
Mares, when pregnant, will, admit of copulation 5
but it is never attended with any superfoetation. They
usually breed till they are 14 or 15 years of age ; and
the most vigorous till they are above 18. Stallions,
when well managed, will engender till the age of 20,
and even beyond 5 but it must be observed, that such
horses as are soonest made stallions, are also the soonest
incapable of generation : thus the large horses, which
acquire strength sooner than the slender, and are there¬
fore often used as stallions as soon as they are four
years old, are incapable of generation after they are
sixteen.
Gelding of Horses. See Castration, Farriery
Index.
Draught-Horse, in farming, a sort of coarse-made
horse destined for the service of the cart or plough. la
the choice of these horses for what is called the sloi»
draught, they are to he chosen of an ordinary height;
for otherwise, when put into the cart, one draws un¬
equally with the other. The draught-horse should be
large bodied and strong loined, and of such a dispo¬
sition, as rather to he too dull than too brisk, and ra¬
ther to crave the whip than to draw more than is need¬
ful. Mares are the fittest for this use for the farmer,
as they will he kept cheap, and not only do the work,
but be kept breeding, and give a yearly increase of a
foal. They should have a good head, neck, breast, and
shoulders j for the rest of the shape, it is not of much
consequence. Only, for breeding, the mare should have
a large belly •, for the more room a foal has in the dam,
the better proportioned it will be. Draught-horses
should be always kept to that employ. Some p»t
them to the saddle on occasion, but it does them great
harm, alters their pace, and spoils them for labour. The
draught horse ought to have a large broad head, be¬
cause horses of this shaped head are less subject than
others to diseases of the eyes. The ears should be
small,
.At:
H o R [ 611 ] H O R
ir«c, straight and upright j the nostrils large and open,
u v  1 l’e breathe with the more freedom. A horse
with a full and bold eye always promises well. On the
other hand, a sunk eye and an elevated brow are bad
sign-’. The horse is esteemed fittest for this purpose
also, that has a large and round buttock, which nei¬
ther sinks down nor cuts. He must have a firm and
strong tail, and the dock must be thick and well fur¬
nished with hair, and placed neither very high nor ve¬
ry low. The legs should be rather fiat and broad than
round ; the roundness of the leg being a fault in a
horse destined to labour that will soon ruin him. As
to the hinder legs, the thighs should be fleshy and
long, and the whole muscle which shows itself on the
outside of the thigh should he large and very thick.
No country can bring a parallel to the size and strength
of our horses destined for the draught. In London
there are instances of single horses that are able to
draw on a plain, for a small space, the weight of three
tons, and which can with ease, and for continuance,
draw half that weight. The pack horses of Yorkshire
usually carry a burden of 42olb. over the highest hills
of the north, as well as the most level roads : but the
most remarkable proof of the strength of our British
horses is derived from that our mill horses j some of
which will at one load carry 13 measures, which at a
moderate computation of 70 lb. each, will amount to
910 lb. Nothing is so essential to the health of these
serviceable creatures as cleanliness j if they are fed
ever so well, and not kept clean, they, will be subject
to numerous diseases.
The servant who has the care of them ought to be
up very early, and to clean the racks and^ mangers
from all filth. The currying of them ought to be care¬
fully performed every morning, but not in the stable,
for the dust to fall upon the other horses, as it is too
often done. After the horses are dusted, they should
daily twist a whisp of straw hard up, and wetting it in
water, rub the legs, shoulders, and body with it.
Many of the diseases of draught-horses, which are not
owing to nastiness, are owing to had water j such as
is too raw, too muddy, or too cold, being improper.
If there be any running stream in the neighbourhood,
they should always be led to that to water every day
in summer j but in winter, well-water is warmish, and
is better for them. If there be a necessity of giving
them well-water in summer, it must be drawn up some
hours before the time, and exposed to the sunbeams in
tubs or troughs ; marsh-water or that of lowland
ditches is worst of all. When the labouring horse has
drunk Ins water, he should have his oats given him,
and these should be carefully sifted, and the manger
dusted first. It is a common practice, as soon as a horse
is come in from his work, to rub down his legs with
a hard whisp of hay ; but the best judges of horses ab¬
solutely condemn this, and observe, that this rubbing
of the legs after hard labour brings down humours into
them, and makes them stiff.
The rubbing itself is wholesome, but the doing it
when the creature is hot is the mischief $ while a horse
is in a sweat it is a great relief and refreshment to him
to have his body rubbed down, but when he is cold is
the proper time to rub his legs. The racks are to be
well supplied with hay, and the horses should be left
to rest and eat, about two hours, and then led to wa- Horse,
ter j after this their oats should be given them, and ' ■■■■
they should then go to work again.
In the evening, when the labour of the day is over,
the first thing to be done is to examine the feet, and
see if any thing is amiss about the shoes 5 and what
earth or gravel is lodged in the foot, between the shoe
and the sole, is to be picked out, and some fresh cow-
dung put in its place, which will cool and refresh the
part.
A very material thing for the preservation of all
sorts of cattle, but of none so much as draught-horses,
is fresh and clean litter.
HoRSE-Chesnut. See iEscULUS, Botany Index.
Horse-Guards. See Guards.
Horse-Hunting. See Hunter.
HoRSE-Measure is a rod of box to slide out of a cane,
with a square at the end, being divided into hands and
inches to measure the height of horses.
Horse Muscle. See Mytilus, Conchology Index.
Bacc-HoRsE. See Racing.
HoRSE-Radis/i. See Cochlearia, Botany Index.
Horse-Shoe, a cover or defence for the sole of a
horse’s foot. See Farriery Index.
HoRSE-Shoe-head) a disease in infants, wherein the
sutures of the skull are too open, or too great a vacuity
is left between them; so that the aperture shall not be
totally closed up, or the cranium in that part not be so
hard as the rest for some years after. This openness
is found to be increased upon the child’s catching cold.
When the disease continues long, it is reputed a sign
of weakness and short life. In this case it is usual to
rub the head now and then with warm rum or brandy,
mixed with the white of an egg and palm-oil. Some¬
times the disorder arises from a collection of waters in
the. head called a hydrocephalus.
Stone-HoRSE. See Stallion.
HoRSE-Tail. See Equisetum, Botany Index.
Horse- Vetch. See Hippocrepis, Botany Index.
JFir-HoRSE. The proper rules for choosing a horse
for service in war, are these: he should be tall in sta¬
ture, with a comely head, and out-swelling forehead.
His eye should be bright and sparkling, and the white
part of it covered by the eye-brow. The ears should
be small, thin, short, and pricking ; or if long, they
should he moveable with ease, and well carried. The
neck should be deep, and the breast large and swelling ;
the ribs bending, the chine broad and straight, and
the buttocks round and full. The tail should be high
and broad, neither too thick nor too thin ; the thigh
swelling j the leg broad and flat, and the pastern short.
When such a horse is chosen, he must be kept high
during the time of hia teaching, that he may be full
of vigour. His food must be sweet hay, and good clean
oats, or two parts of oats and one part of beans or
pease, well dried and hardened. The quantity should be
half a peck in the morning, and the same quantity at
noon and in the evening. Upon his resting days he is
to be dressed between five and six in the morning, and
watered at seven or eight. In the evening he is to be
dressed at four, and watered about five, and he must al¬
ways have provender given him after watering j he must
be littered about eight, and then must have food given
him for all night. The night before he is ridden, all
4 II 2 his
H O R [ 612 ] HOB
liia hay is to be taken away about nine o’clock, and
he must have a handful or two of oats about four in tne
morning j when he has eaten these, he is to be turned
upon the snaffle, and rubbed very well with dry cloths j
then saddled, and made fit for his exercise. VVlien he
has performed this, he is to be brought sweating into
the stable, and rubbed down with dry whisps. When
this has been done, the saddle is to be taken off, and
he is to be rubbed down with dry cloths; the housing
cloth is then to be laid on : and the saddle being again
laid on, he is to be walked gently about till thorough¬
ly cool. After this, he must stand without meat two
or three hours, then he must be fed j and in the after¬
noon he is to be rubbed and dressed as before, and wa¬
tered in the usual manner.
Horse- Worm, in Natural History, a species of fly-
worm, called also bott, produced of eggs deposited by a
two-winged fly of the shape and size of the humble bee
in the intestines of horses. See Botts, Iarriery
Index.
River-HoRSE. See Hippopotamus, Mammalia
Index.
Horse is also used in the military language, to ex¬
press the cavalry j or the body of soldiers who serve on
horseback.
The horse includes horse guards, horse grenadiers,
and troopers. Dragoons are also frequently compre¬
hended under this name, though they fight on foot:
of these there are now 18 regiments j besides three re¬
giments of dragoon-guards raised in 1685. See Gra-
nadier, Dragoons, and Guards.
Master of the Horse. See Master.
Light-HoRSE, are regiments of cavalry, mounted on
light swift horses, whose men are small and lightly ac¬
coutred. They were first raised in 1757- The deno¬
mination arose hence, that anciently they were lightly
armed, in comparison of the royal guards, which were
armed at all points.
Hungarian Horse. See Hussars.
Horse is also a term used in various arts and manu¬
factories, for something that helps to sustain their work
from the ground, for the more commodious working
at it.
The horse used by tanners and skinners, also call¬
ed the leg, is a piece of wood cut hollow and round¬
ish, four or five feet long, and placed aslope j upon
which they pare their skins to get off the dirt, hair,
flesh, &c.
Horse is also used in carpentry, for a piece of wood
jointed across two other perpendicular ones, to sustain
the boards, planks, &c. which make bridges over small
rivers j and on divers other occasions.
Horse, in sea-language, is the name of a rope reach¬
ing from the middle of a yard to its extremity, or what
is called the yard-arm, and depending about two or
three feet under the yard, for the sailors to tread upon
whilst they are loosing, reefing, or furling the sails, rig¬
ging out the studding-sail booms, &c. In order, there¬
fore, to keep the horse more parallel to the yard, it is
usually suspended to it at proper distances, by certain IT<»'
ropes called stirrups, which hang about two feet under " v
the yard, having an eye in their lower ends through
which the horse passes.
Horse is also a thick rope, extended in a perpendi¬
cular direction near the fore or after-side of a mast, for
the purpose of hoisting or extending some sail upon it.
When it is fixed before a mast, it is calculated for the
use of a sail called the square-sail, whose yard being
attached to the horse, by means of a traveller, or bull’s
eye, which slides up and down occasionally, is retained
in a steady position, either when the sail is set, or
whilst it is hoisting or lowering. When the horse is
placed abaft or behind a mast, it is intended for the
try-sail of a snow, and is accordingly very rarely fixed
in this position, except in those sloops of war which
occasionally assume the form of snows, in order to de¬
ceive the enemy.
Horse is also a cant name introduced into the ma¬
nagement of lotteries, for the chance or benefit of a
ticket or number for one or more days, upon condi¬
tion, if it be drawn a prize within the time covenanted
for, of returning to the seller an undrawn ticket—To
determine the value of a horse-, multiply the amount
of the prizes in the lottery by the time the horse is
hired for j and from the product subtract the amount
of the number of prizes by the value of an undrawn
ticket into the time of the horse: the remainder being
divided by the number of tickets into the whole time
of drawing, the quotient is the value of the horse. See
Lottery.
HonsE-Bread. See Bread.
Horse-Dung, in Gardening, is of great use in ma¬
king hot beds, for the raising all sorts of early crops
as salading, cucumbers, melons, asparagus, &c. for
which purposes no other kind of dung will do so well.
Horse-dung ferments the strongest; and if mixed with
litter and sea-coal ashes in a due proportion, will con¬
tinue its heat much longer than any other sort of dung
whatsoever \ and afterward, when rotted, becomes an
excellent manure for most sorts of land : more espe¬
cially for such as are of a cold nature. For stiff’ clayey
laud, horse-dung mixed with sea-coal ashes, and the
cleansing of streets, will cause the parts to separate
much sooner than any other compost : so that where
it can be obtained in plenty, it is always to be recom¬
mended for such lands. See Dung.
Animated HoRSE-Hairs, a term used to express a
sort of long and slender water-worm, of a blac kish co¬
lour, and so much resembling a horse-hair, that it is
generally by the vulgar supposed to be the hair fallen
from a horse’s mane into the water as he drinks, and
there animated by some strango power. Dr Lister has
at large confuted this absurd opinion, in the Philoso¬
phical Transactions.
HoRSE-Hair JForms. See Amphisbalna.
HoRSE-Hoeing Husbandry. See Agriculture, N®
489.
HORSEMANSHIP;
[ 613 ]
HORSEMANSHIP;
Or, The Art of Hiding, and of Training and Managing, Horses
Sect. I. The Method of preparing Horses to be mount¬
ed.
.gofTHOUGH all horses are generally bought at an
j ses. "*■ age when they have already been backed, they
ushould lie begun and prepared for the rider with the
same care, gentleness, and caution, as if they had ne¬
ver been handled or backed, in order to prevent acci¬
dents, which might arise from skittishness or other
causes: and as it is proper that they should be taught
the figure of the ground they are to go upon when
they are at first mounted, they should be previously
trotted in a longe on circles, without any one upon
them.
e The manner of doing this is as follows : Put an easy
Pf -ok«'% eaves son upon the horse’s nose, and make him go for-
Bi tions wards round you, standing quiet, and holding the
longc; and let another man, if you find it necessary,
follow him with a whip. All this must be done very
gently, and but a little at a time : for more horses are
spoiled by overmuch work, than by any other treat¬
ment whatever ; and that by very conti-ary effects : for
sometimes it drives them into vice, madness, and de¬
spair, and often stupifies and totally dispirits them.
The first obedience required in a horse is going for¬
wards; till he perform this duty freely, never even
think of making him rein hack, which would inevi¬
tably make him restive : as soon as he goes forwards
readily, stop and caress him. You must remember in
this, and likewise in every other exercise, to use him
to go equally well to the right and left ; and •when he
obeys, caress him and dismiss him immediately. If a
horse that is very young takes fright and stands still,
lead on another horse before him, which probably will
induce him instantly to follow. Put a snaffle in his
mouth ; and when he goes freely, saddle him, girting
him at first very loose. Let the cord, which you
hold, be long and loose ; but not so much so as to
endanger the horse’s entangling his legs in it. It must
be observed, that small circles, in the beginning, would
constrain the horse too much, and put him upon de¬
fending himself. No bend must be required at first;
never suffer him to gallop false ; but whenever he at¬
tempts it, stop him without delay, and then set him
off afresh. If he gallops of his own accord, and true,
permit him to continue it ; but if he does it not volun¬
tarily, do not demand it of him at first. Should he
fly and jump, shake the cord gently upon his nose
without jerking it, and he will fall into his trot again.
If he stands still, plunges, or rears, let the man who
holds the- whip make a noise with it; but never touch
him till it be absolutely necessary to make him go on.
When you change hands, stop and caress him, and en-
tice him by fair means to come up to you ; for by pre¬
senting yourself, as some do, on a sudden before horses,
and frightening them to the other side, you run a great Instructions
risk of giving them a shyness. If he keeps his head concerninfr
too low, shake the cavesson to make him raise it; boPjIRl^egr
and in whatever the horse does, whether he walks,
trots, or gallops, let it be a constant rule that the
motion be determined, and really such as is intended,
without the least shuffling, pacing, or any other irre¬
gular gait.
Sect. II. The Method of placing the Rider and render-
tng him firm on Horseback^ with some occasional In-
stmictions for Riders and the Horses.
It is necessary that the greatest attention, and the
same gentleness that is used in teaching the horses,
be observed likewise in teaching the rider, especially
at the beginning. Every method and art must be
practised to create and preserve, both in man and
horse, all possible feeling and sensibility ; contrary to
the usage of most riding-masters, who seem industriously
to labour at abolishing these principles both in the one
and the other. As so many essential points depend upon
the manner in which a man is at first placed on horse¬
back, it ought to be considered and attended to with
the strictest care and exactness.
The absurdity of putting a man, who perhaps has
never before been upon a horse, on a rough trotting
horse, on which he is obliged to stick with all the
force of his arms and legs, is too obvious to need men¬
tioning. This rough work, all at once, is plainly as
detrimental at first, as it is excellent afterwards in pro¬
per time. No man can be either well or firmly seated
on horseback, unless he be master of the balance of
his body, quite unconstrained, with a full possession
of himself, and at his ease ; none of which requisites
can he enjoy, if his attention be otherwise engaged ;
as it must wholly be in a raw, unsuppled, and un¬
prepared lad, who is put at once upon a rough horse ;
in such a distressful state, he is forced to keep himself
on at any rate, by holding to the bridle (at the ex¬
pence of the sensibility both of his own hand and the
horse’s mouth), and by clinging with his levs, in
danger of his life, and to the certain deprivation of a
right feeling in the horse.
The first time a man is put on horseback, it ought
to be upon a very gentle one. He never should be
made to trot, till he is quite easy in the walk ; nor
gallop, till he is able to trot properly. The same must
be observed in regard to horses ; they should never be
made to trot till they are obedient, and their mouths
are well formed on a rvalk, nor be made to gallop,
till the same be effected on a trot. When he is ar¬
rived at such a degree of firmness in his seat, the more
he trots, and the more lie rides rough horses, the bet¬
ter. This is not only the best method, but also the
easiest and the shortest: by it a man is soon made suffi¬
ciently
6x4
Instruc- ciently a horseman for a soldier: but by the other
tions con* detestable methods that are commonly used, a man,
cetning instead of improving, contracts all sorts of bad habits,
!jI)^ldersand rides worse and worse every day-, the horse too
til—becomes daily more and more unfit for use. In pro¬
ceeding according to the manner proposed, a man is
rendered firm and easy upon the horse, both his own
and the horse’s sensibility is preserved, and each in a
situation fit to receive and practise all lessons eftec-
tually.
Among the various methods that are used of pla¬
cing people on horseback, few are directed by reason.
Before you let the man mount, teach him to know,
and always to examine, if the curb be well placed,
(that is, when the horse has a bit in his mouth, which
at first he should not, but only a snaffle, till the rider
is firm in his seat, and the horse also somewhat taught) ;
likewise to know if the nose-band be properly tight;
the throat-band loosish ; and the mouth-piece neither
too high nor too low in the horse’s mouth, hut right¬
ly put, so as not to wrinkle the skin nor to hang lax 5
the girts drawn moderately, hut not too tight; and
the crupper and the breast-plate properly adjusted.
A very good and careful hand may venture on a bit at
first, and succeed with it full as well as by beginning
with a snaffle alone : on colts, indeed, it is better, in
all schools whatsoever, to avoid any pressure of the
bars just at first, which a cnrb, though ever so deli¬
cately used, must in some degree occasion. When
the bridle, &c. have been well looked to, let the man
approach the horse gently near the shoulder 5 then
taking the reins and a handful of the mane in his left
hand, let him put his foot softly in the left stirrup, by
pulling it towards him, lest he touch the horse with
his toe ; then raising himself up, let him rest a moment
on it with his body upright, but not stiff; and after
that, passing his right leg clear over the saddle without
rubbing against any thing, let him seat himself gently
down. He must be cautious not to take the reins too
short, for fear of making the horse rear, run, or fall
back, or throw up his head ; but let him hold them of
an equal length, neither tight nor slack, and with the
little finger betwixt them. It is fit that horses should
be accustomed to stand still to he mounted, and not to
stir till the rider pleases. All soldiers should be in¬
structed to mount and dismount equally well on both
sides, which may be of great use in times of hurry and
confusion. Then place the man in his saddle, with
his body rather back, and his head held up with ease,
without stiffness ; seated neither forwards, nor very far
backwards ; with the breast pushed out a little, and
the lower part of the body likewise a little forwards ;
the thighs and legs turned in without constraint, and
the feet in a straight line, neither turned in nor out.
By this position, the natural weight of the thighs has a
proper and sufficient pressure of itself, and the legs are
in readiness to act when called upon ; they must hang
down easy and naturally ; and be so placed, as not to
be wriggling about, touching and tickling the horse’s
sides, but always near them iu case they should be want¬
ed, as well as the heels.
The body must be carefully kept easy and firm, and
without any rocking when in motion ; which is a had
habit very easily contracted, especially in galloping.
The left elbow must be gently leant against the body,
Sect. II,
a little forwards ; unless it be so rested, the hand can- instme.
not be steady, but will always be checking, and conse- lions con.
quently have pernicious effects on the horse’s mouth, ceding
And the hand ought to be of equal height with the^1^*80
elbow; if it w'ere lower, it would constrain and con-. ^ rsej
fine the motion of the horse’s shoulders ; but, as the
mouths of horses are different, the place of the hand
also must occasionally difl’er: a leaning, low, heavy,
fore-hand, requires a high hand ; and a horse that
pokes out his nose, a low one. The right-band arm
must be placed in symmetry with the left ; only let
the right hand be a little more forward or backward,
higher or lower, as occasion may require, in order that
both hands may be free ; both arms must be a little
bent at the elbow, to prevent stiffness.
A soldier’s right band should be kept unemployed
in riding ; it carries the sword, which is sufficient
business for it.
There remains one farther observation, that ought
not to be omitted, about the hand, that it must be
kept clear of the body ; i. e. about two inches and a
half forwards from it, with the nails turned opposite
to the belly, and the wrist a little rounded with ease ;
a position not less graceful than ready for slackening,
tightening, and moving the reins from one side to the
other, as may be found necessary.
When the men are well placed, the more rough
trotting they have without stirrups the better; but
with a strict care always, that their position be pre¬
served very exactly. In all cases, great care must be
taken to binder their clinging with their legs ; in
short, no sticking by hands or legs is ever to be al¬
lowed of at any time. If the motion of the horse be
too rough, slacken it, till the rider grows by degrees
more firm ; and when he is quite firm and easy on his
horse in every kind of motion, stirrups may be given
him ; but he must never leave off trotting often with¬
out any.
The stirrups must he neither short nor long ; but of
such a length, that when the rider, being well placed,
puts his feet into them (about one-third of the length
of each foot from the point of it), the points may be
between two and three inches higher than the heels.
The rider must not bear upon his stirrups, but only
let the natural weight of his legs rest on them : For
if he bears upon them he would be raised above and
out of his saddle ; which he should never be, except in
charging sword in hand, with the body inclined for¬
wards at the very instant of attacking. Spurs may
be given as soon as the rider is grown familiar with
stirrups $ or even long before, if his legs are well pla¬
ced.
A hand should always be firm, hut delicate: a
horse’s mouth should never be surprised by any sudden
transition of it, either from slack to tight, or from
tight to slack. Every thing in horsemanship must be
effected by degrees, but at the same time with spirit
and resolution. The hand which by giving and ta¬
king properly, gains its point with the least force, is
the best ; and the horse’s mouth, under this same
hand’s directions, will also consequently be the best,
supposing equal advantages in both from nature. This
principle of gentleness should be observed upon all oc¬
casions in every branch of horsemanship. Sometimes
the right hand may be necessary, upon some trouble¬
some
HORSEMANSHIP.
>iiti
{liii
cao
s, t. II.
HORSEMANSHIP.
I rue- some horses, to assist the leit; hat the seldomer this is
ti con- done, the better 5 especially in a soldier, who has a
< 'ing sword to carry, and to make use of.
an loises! sna®e must on all occasions be uppermost;
u ,   is to say, the reins of it must be above those of
the bridle, whether the snaffle or the bit he used se¬
parately, or whether they be both used together.
When the rider knows enough, and the horse is suffi¬
ciently prepared and settled to begin any work to¬
wards suppling, one rein must be shortened according
to the side worked to ; but it must never be so much
shortened, as to make the whole strength rest on that
rein alone : for, not to mention that the work would
be false and bad, one side of the horse’s mouth would
by that means be always deadened; whereas, on the
contrary, it should always be kept fresh by its own
play, and by the help of the opposite rein’s acting
delicately in a somewhat smaller degree of tension ;
the joint effect of which produces in a horse’s mouth
the proper, gentle, and easy, degree of appui or bear¬
ing.
A coward and a madman make alike bad riders,
and are both alike discovered and confounded by the
superior sense of the creature they are mounted upon,
who is equally spoilt by both, though in very different
ways. I he coward, by suffering the animal to have
his own way, not only confirms him in his bad habits,
but creates new ones in him : and the madman, by
false and violent motions and corrections, drives the
horse, through despair, into every bad and vicious trick
that rage can suggest.
It is very requisite in horsemanship, that the hand
and legs should act in correspondence with each other
in every thing; the latter always subservient and as¬
sistant to the former. Upon circles, in walking, trot-
ting, or galloping, the outward leg is the only one to be
used, and that only for a moment at a time, in order to
set off the horse true, or put him right if he be false ;
and as soon as that is done, it must be taken away
again immediately : but if the horse be lazy, or other¬
wise retains himself, both legs must be used and pressed
to his sides at the same time together. The less the
legs are used in general, the better. Very delicate
good riders, with horses they have dressed themselves,
will scarcely ever want their help. By the term out-
wai'd is understood the side which is more remote from
the centre ; and by inward is meant the side next to
the centre. In reining back, the rider should be care¬
ful not to use his legs, unless the horse backeth on his
shoulders; in which case they must be both applied
gently at the same time, and correspond with the hand.
If the horse refuse to back at all, the rider's legs must
be gently approached, till the horse lifts up a leg, as
if to go forwards ; at which time, when that leg is in
the air, the rein of the same side with that leg which
is lifted up will easily bring that same leg backwards,
and accordingly oblige the horse to back ; but if the
horse offers to rear, the legs must be instantly removed
away. The inward rein must be tighter on circles, so
that the horse may bend and look inwards ; and the
outward one crossed over a little towards it; and both
held in the left hand.
Let the man and horse begin on very slow motions,
that they may have time to understand and reflect on
6l
what is taught them ; and in proportion as the effects instmc-
of the reins are better comprehended, and the manner tioss ton-
of working becomes more familiar, the quickness of eerning
motion must be increased. Every rider must learn to
feel, without the help of the eye, when a horse goes ^
false, and remedy the fault accordingly : this is an in¬
telligence, which nothing but practice, application, and
attention, can give, in the beginning on slow motions.
A horse may not only gallop false, but also trot and
walk false. If a horse gallops false, that is to say, if
going to the right he leads with the left leg, or if
going to the left he leads with the right; or in case
he is disunited, 1. e. if he leads with the opposite leg
behind to that which he leads with before ; stop him
immediately, and put him off again properly. The me¬
thod of effecting this, is by approaching your outward
leg,.and putting your hand outwards; still keeping
the inward rein the shorter, and the horse’s head in¬
wards, if possible ; and if he should still resist, then
bend and pull his head outwards also ; but replace it.
again, bent properly inwards, the moment he goes off
true. A horse is said to be disunited to the right,
when going to the right, and consequently leading
with the right leg before, he leads with the left be¬
hind ; and is said to be disunited to the left, when go¬
ing to the left, and consequently leading with the left
leg before, he leads with the right behind. A horse
may at the same time be both false and disunited ; in
correcting both which faults, the same method must
be used. He is both false and disunited to the right,
when in going to the right he leads with the left leg
before, and the right behind ; notwithstanding that
hinder leg be with propriety more forward under his
belly than the left, because the horse is working to the
right : And he is false and disunited to the left, when
in going to the left he leads with the right leg before
and the left behind ; notwithstanding, as above, that
hinder leg he with propriety more forward under his-
belly than the right, because the horse is working to
the left.
In teaching men a right seat on horseback, the
greatest attention must be given to prevent stiffness,
and sticking by force in any manner upon any oc¬
casion : stiffness disgraces every right work ; and stick¬
ing serves only to throw a man (when displaced) a
great distance from his horse by the spring he must
go off with : whereas by a proper equilibrating posi¬
tion of the body, and by the natural weight only of
the thighs, he cannot but be firm and secure in his
seat.
As the men become more firm, and the horses more
supple, it is proper to make the circles less, but not
too much so, for fear of throwing the horses forwards
upon their shoulders.
Some horses, when first the bit is put into their
mouths, if great care be not taken, will put their heads
very low. With such horses, raise your right hand
with the bndoon in it, and play at the same time with
the bit in the left hand, giving and taking.
On circles, the rider must lean his body inwards ;
unless great attention be given to make him do it, he
will be perpetually losing his seat outwards. It is
scarce possible for him to be displaced, if he leans his
body properly inwards.
Sect..
6I6 HORS EM
Of Suppling . .
Horses. Sect. III. The Method of suppling Horses with Men
upon them} by the Epaule en dedans, Sfc. with
and xvithout a Longe, on Circles and on straight
Lines.
When a horse Is well prepared and settled in all
his motions, and the rider firm, it will be proper then
to proceed on towards a farther suppling and teaching
of both.
In setting out upon this new work, begin by bring¬
ing the horse’s head a little more inwards than before,
pulling the inward rein gently to you by degrees.
When this is done, try to gain a little on the shoul¬
ders, by keeping the inward rein the shorter, as be¬
fore, and the outward one crossed over towards the
inward one. The intention of these operations is
this : The inward rein serves to bring in the head, and
procures the bend *, whilst the outward one, that is a
little crossed, tends to make that bend perpendicular
and as it should be, that is to say, to reduce the nose
and the forehead to be in a perpendicular line with
each other } it also serves, if put forwards, as well as
also crossed, to put the horse forwards, if found neces¬
sary ; which is often requisite, many horses being apt
in this and other works rather to lose their ground
backwards than otherwise, when they should rather
advance ; if the nose were drawn in towards the breast
beyond the perpendicular, it would confine the motion
of the shoulders, and have other bad effects. All other
bends, besides what are above specified, are false. The
outward rein, being crossed, not in a forward sense,
but rather a little backwards, serves also to prevent
the outward shoulder from getting too forwards, and
makes it approach the inward one j which facilitates
the inward leg’s crossing over the outward one, which
is the motion that so admirably supples the shoulders.
Care must be taken, that the inward leg pass over the
outward one, without touching it : this inward leg’s
crossing over must be helped also by the inward rein,
which you must cross towards and over the outward
rein every time the outward leg comes to the ground,
in order to lift and help the inward leg over it: at
any other time, but just when the outward leg comes
to the ground, it would be wrong to cross the inward
rein, or to attempt to lift up the inward leg by it j
nay, it would be demanding an absolute impossibility,
and lugging about the reins and horse to no purpose :
because in this case, a very great part of the horse’s
weight resting then upon that leg, would render such
an attempt not only fruitless, but also prejudicial to
the sensibility of the mouth, and probably oblige him
to defend himself j and, moreover, it would put the
horse under a necessity of straddling before, and also of
leading with the wrong leg, without being productive
of any suppling motion whatsoever.
When the horse is thus far familiarly accustomed to
what you have required of him, then proceed to effect
by degrees the same crossing in his hinder legs. By
bringing in the fore legs more, you will of course en¬
gage the hinder ones in the same work j if they resist,
the rider must bring both reins more inward ; and, if
necessary, put back also, and approach his inward leg to
the horse j and if the horse throws out his croup too
far, the rider must bring both reins outwards, and, if
5
A N S H I P. Sect. Ill >
absolutely necessary, he must also make use of his out-ofSupplin iof'
ward leg, in order to replace the horse properly : ob- Horsts. Ini'
serving that the croup should always be considerably -v—.
behind the shoulders, which in all actions must go first; ^
and the moment that the horse obeys, the rider must
put his hand and leg again in their usual position.
Nothing is more ungraceful in itself, more detrimen¬
tal to a man’s seat, or more destructive of the sensibi¬
lity of a horse’s sides, than a continual wriggling un¬
settledness in a horseman’s legs, which prevents the
horse from ever going a moment together true, steady,
or determined.
A horse should never be turned, without first moving
a step forwards : and when it is doing, the rider must
not lift his elbow, and displace himself j a motion only
of the hand from the one side to the other being suffi¬
cient for that purpose. It must also be a constant rule,
never to suffer a horse to be stopped, mounted, or dis¬
mounted, but when he is well placed. The slower the
motions are when a man or horse is taught any thing,
the better.
At first, the figures worked upon must be great,
and afterwards made less by degrees, according to the
improvement which the man and horse make ; and the
cadenced pace also, which they work in, must be ac¬
cordingly augmented. The changes from one side to
the other must be in a bold determined trot, and at
first quite straight forwards, without demanding any
side-motion on two pstas, which is very necessary to
require afterwards when the horse is sufficiently sup¬
pled. By two pistes is meant, when the fore parts and
binder parts do not follow, but describe two different
lines.
In the beginning, a longe is used on circles, and
also on straight lines, to help both the rider and the
horse •, but afterwards, when they are grown more in¬
telligent, they should go alone. At the end of the
lesson, rein back ; then put the horse, by a little at a
time, forwards, by approaching both legs gently to
his sides, and playing with the bridle : if he rears, push
him out immediately into a full trot. Shaking the ca-
vesson on the horse’s nose, and also putting one’s self
before him and rather near to him, will generally make
him back, though he otherwise refuse to do it : and
moreover a slight use and approaching of the rider’s
legs, will sometimes be necessary in backing, in order
to prevent the horse from doing it too much upon his
shoulders •, but the pressure of the legs ought to be very
small, and taken quite away the moment that he puts
himself enough upon his haunches. If the horse does
not back upon a straight line properly, the rider must
not be permitted to have recourse immediately to his
leg, and so distort himself by it; but first try, if crossing
over bis band and reins to which ever side may be ne¬
cessary, it will not alone sufficient: which most fre¬
quently it will; if not, then employ the leg.
After a horse is well prepared and settled, and goes
freely on in all his several paces, he ought to be in all
his works kept, to a proper degree, upon his haunches,
with his hinder legs well placed under him $ whereby
he will be always pleasant to himself and his rider, will
be light in hand, and ready to execute whatever may
be demanded ol bim, with facility, vigour, and quick¬
ness.
The common method that is used of forcing a horse
sidewise,
f Ct. IV. J H O H S E M
f the sidewise, is a most glaring absurdity, and very Imrtful
fc d to the to the animal in its consequences ; for, instead of sup-
’ 11, &cc', pling him, if obliges him to stiffen and defend himself,
^ ^ and often makes a creature that is naturally benevo¬
lent, restive, frightened, and vicious.
For horses who have very high and long fore-hands,
and who poke out their noses, a running snaffle is of
excellent use} but for such as bore and keep their
heads low, a common one is preferable j though any
horse’s head indeed may be kept up also with a run¬
ning one, by the rider’s keeping his hands very high
and forwards : but whenever either is used alone with¬
out a bridle upon horses that carry their heads low
and that bore, it must be sawed about from one side to
the other.
This lesson of the epaitle en dedans should be taught
to such people as are likely to become useful in help¬
ing to teach men and to break horses; and the more
of such that can be found the better ; none others should
ever be suffered upon any occasion to let their horses
look any way besides the way they are going. But all
horses whatever, as likewise all men who are designed
for the teaching others, must g® thoroughly and per¬
fectly through this excellent lesson, under the direc¬
tions of intelligent instructors, and often practise it
too afterwards j and when that is done, proceed to
and be finished by the lessons of head and tail to the
wall.
Sect. IV. Of the Head to the Wall, and of the Croup
to the Wall.
This lesson should be practised immediately after
that of the epaule en dedans, in order to place the horse
properly the way he goes, &c. The difference between
the head to the wall, and the croup to the wall, con¬
sists in this : in the former, the fore-parts are more re¬
mote from the centre, and go over more ground j in
the latter, the hinder parts are more remote from the
centre, and consequently go over more ground : in
both, as likewise in all other lessons, the shoulders
must go first. In riding-horses, the head to the wall
is the easier lesson of the two at first, the line to be
worked upon being marked by the wall, not far from
his head.
The motion of the legs to the right is the same as
that of the epaule en dedans to the left, and so vice versa ;
but the head is always bent and turned differently : in
the epaule en dedans, the horse looks the contrary way
to that which he goes ; in this, he looks the way he is
going.
In the beginning, very little bend must be required :
too much at once would astonish the horse, and make
him defend himself: it is to be augmented by degrees.
If the horse absolutely refuses to obey, it is a sign that
either he or his rider has not been sufficiently prepared
by previous lessons. It may happen that weakness or
a hurt in some part of the body, or sometimes temper,
though seldom, may be the cause of the horse’s de¬
fending himself: it is the rider’s business to find out
from whence the obstacle arises $ and if he finds it to
be from the first-mentioned cause, the previous lessons
must be resumed again for some time ; if from the se¬
cond, proper remedies must be applied j and if from
Vor.. X. Part II. f
ANSHIP. 617
the last cause, when all fair means that can be tried ofthe
have failed, proper corrections with coolness and judge- Head to the
ment must be used. Wall, &c.
In practising this lesson to the right, bend the v
horse to the right with the right rein ; helping the
left leg over the right (at the time when the right
leg is just come to the ground), with the left rein
crossed towards the right, and keeping the right shoul¬
der back with the right rein towards your body, in or¬
der to facilitate the left leg’s crossing over the right j
and so likewise vice versa to the left, each rein help¬
ing the other by their properly mixed effects. In
working to the right, the rider’s left leg helps the
hinder parts on to the right, and his right leg stops
them if they get too forwards; and so vice versa to
the left: but neither ought to be used, till the hand
being employed in a proper manner has failed, or finds
that a greater force is necessary to bring about wdiat
is required than it can effect alone: for the legs
should not only be corresponding with, but also subser¬
vient to, the hand j and all unnecessary aids, as well
as all force, ought always to be avoided as much as
possible.
In the execution of all lessons, the equilibre of the
rider’s body is of great use to the horse ; it ought al¬
ways to go with and accompany every motion of the
animal; when to the right, to the right: and when to
the left, to the left.*
Upon all horses, in every lesson and action, it must
be observed, that there is no horse but has his own
peculiar appui or degree of bearing, and also a sensi¬
bility of mouth, as likewise a rate of his own, which
it is absolutely necessary for the rider to discover and
make himself acquainted with. A bad rider always
takes off at least the delicacy qf both, if not absolutely
destroys it. The horse will inform his rider when he
has got his proper bearing in the mouth, by playing
pleasantly and steadily with his bit, and by the spray
about his chaps. A delicate and good hand will not
only always preserve a light appui, or bearing, in its
sensibility ; but also of a heavy one, whether naturally
so or acquired, make a light one. The lighter this
appui can be made, the better j provided that the
rider’s hand corresponds with it $ if it does not, the
more the horse is properly prepared, so much the
worse. Instances of this inconvenience of the best of
appuis, when the rider is not equally taught with the
horse, may be seen every day in some gentlemen, who
try to get their horses bitted as they call it, without
being suitably prepared themselves for riding them :
the consequence of which is, that they ride in danger
of breaking their necks j till at length, after much
hauling about, and by the joint insensibility and igno¬
rance of themselves and their grooms, the poor animals
gradually become mere senseless unfeeling posts j and
thereby grow, what they call, settled. When the pro¬
per appui is found, and made of course as light as pos¬
sible, it must not be kept duly fixed without variation,
but be played with ; otherwise one equally continued
tension of reins would render both the rider’s hand and
the horse’s mouth very dull. The slightest and fre¬
quent giving and taking is therefore necessary to keep
both perfect.
Whatever pace or degree of quickness you work in,
4 I (be
6i8
H O R S E M
To make (be It ever so fast, or ever so slow), it must be ca-
Horses denced j time is as necessary for a horseman as for a
*tand musician.
. ^c- . This lesson of the head and of the tail to the wall,
must be taught every soldier : scarce any manoeuvre
can be well performed without it. In closing and open¬
ing of files, it is almost every moment wanted.
Sect. V. TAe Method of making Horses stand Fire,
Noises, Alarms, Sights, &c.
In order to make horses stand fire, the sound of
drums, and all sorts of different noises, you must use
them to it by degrees in the stable at feeding time ; and
instead of being frightened at it, they will soon come
to like it as a signal for eating.
With regard to such horses as are afraid of burning
objects, begin by keeping them still at a certain di¬
stance from some lighted straw cai'ess the horse ; and
in proportion as his fright diminishes, approach gra¬
dually the burning straw very gently, and increase the
size "of it. By this means he will very quickly be
brought to be so familiar with it, as to walk undaunted
even through it.
As to horses that are apt to lie down in the water,
if animating them, and attacking them vigorously,
should fail of the desired effect, then break a straw-
bottle full of water upon their heads, and let the water
run into their ears, which is a thing they apprehend
very much.
All troop-horses must be taught to stand quiet and
still when they are shot oft’ from, to stop the moment
you present, and not to move after firing till they are
required to do it ; this lesson ought especially to be
observed in light troops : in short, the horses must be
taught to be so cool and undisturbed, as to suffer the
rider to act upon him with the same freedom as if he
was on foot. Patience, coolness, and temper, are the
only means requisite for accomplishing this end. Be¬
gin by walking the horse gently, then stop and keep
him from stirring for some time, so as to accustom
hifri by degrees not to have the least idea of moving
without orders : if he does, then back him ; and when
you stop him, and he is quite still, leave the reins quite
loose.
To use a horse to fire-arms, first put a pistol or a
carabine in the manger with his feed : then use him
to the sound of the lock and the pan ; after which,
when you are upon him, show the piece to him, pre¬
senting it forwards, sometimes on one side, sometimes
on the other : when he is thus far reconciled, proceed
to flash in the pan j after which, put a small charge
into the piece, and so continue augmenting it by de¬
grees to the quantity which is commonly used: if he
seems uneasy, walk him forward a few steps slowly j
and then stop, back, and caress him. Horses are
often also disquieted and unsteady at the clash, and
drawing, and returning of swords j all which they must
be familiarized to by little and little, by frequency and
gentleness.
It is very expedient for all cavalry in general, but
particularly for light cavalry, that their horses should
be very ready and expert in leaping over ditches, hedges,
gates, &c. The leaps, of whatever sort they are, which
the horses are brought to in the beginning, ought to
A N S H I P. ' Sect. VI.
be very small ones •, the riders must keep their bodies of Reinhif
back, raise their hands a little in order to help the Back, fitc.
fore-parts of the horse up, and be very attentive to ‘ " » —
their equilibre. It is best to begin at a low bar co¬
vered with furze, which pricking the horse’s legs, if
he does not raise himself sufficiently, prevents his con¬
tracting a sluggish and dangerous habit of touching,
as he goes over, which any thing yielding and not
pricking would give him a custom of doing. Let the
ditches you first bring horses to be narrow j and in
this, as in every thing else, let the increase be made by
degrees. Accustom them to come up to every thing
which they are to leap over, and to stand coolly at it
for some time •, and then to raise themselves gently up
in order to form to themselves an idea of the distance.
When they leap well standing, then use them to walk
gently up to the leap, and to go over it without first
halting at it } and after that practice is familiar to
them, repeat the like in a gentle trot, and so by de¬
grees faster and faster, till at length it is as familiar to
them to leap flying on a full gallop as any other way :
all which is to be acquired with great facility by calm
and soft means, without any hurry.
As horses are naturally apt to be frightened at the
sight and smell of dead horses, it is advisable to habi¬
tuate them to walk over and leap over carcases of
dead horses : and as they are particularly terrified at
this sight, the greater gentleness ought consequently to
be used.
Horses should also be accustomed to swim, which
often may be necessary upon service j and if the men
and horses both are not used to it, both may be fre¬
quently liable to perish in the water. A very small
portion of strength is sufficient to guide a horse, any¬
where indeed, but particularly in the water, where they
must be permitted to have their heads, and be no-ways
constrained in any shape.
The unreasonable rage in Britain of cutting off all
extremities from horses, is in all cases a very pernicious
custom. It is particularly so in regard to a troop-
horse’s tail. It is almost incredible, how much they
suft’er at the picket for want of it: constantly fretting,
and sweating, kicking about and laming one another,
tormented, and stung oft' their meat, miserable, and
helpless ; while other horses, with their tails on, brush
off’all flies, are cool and at their ease, and mend daily;
whilst the docked ones grow every hour more and more
out of condition.
Sect. VI. The Method of reining back,—and of mov¬
ing forwards immediately after;—oj Fiofing,—of
Pillars, &c.
Never finish your work by reining back with horses
that have any disposition towards retaining themselves;
but always move them forwards, and a little upon the
haunches also, after it, before you dismount, (unless
they retain themselves very much indeed, in which case
nothing at all must be demanded from the haunches).
This lesson of reining back, and piafing, is excellent to
conclude with, and puts a horse well and properly upon
the haunches: It may be done, according as horses are
more or less suppled, either going forwards, backing,
or in the same place : if it is done well advancing, or
at most on the same spot, it is fully sufficient for a sol¬
dier’s
S :t. VII. HORSEMANSHIP.
enuring dier’ii horse: For to pinfe in backing, is rather too
] ,tive- pjncl) to be expected in the hurry which cannot but at-
* '^c'. tend such numbers botli of men and horses as must be
taught together in regiments. This lesson must never
be attempted at all, till horses are very well suppled,
and somewhat accustomed to be put together j other¬
wise it will have very bad consequences, and create res-
tiveness. If they refuse to back, and stand motionless,
the rider’s legs must approach with the greatest gentle¬
ness to the horse’s sides ; at the same time that the hand
is acting on the reins to solicit the horse’s backing.
This seldom fails of procuring the desired effect, by
raising one of the horse’s fore-legs, which being in the
air, has no weight upon it, and is consequently very
easily brought backwards by a small degree of tension
in the reins. When this lesson is well performed, it is
very noble and useful, and has a pleasing air j it is an
excellent one to begin teaching scholars with.
The lesson is particularly serviceable in the pillars,
for placing scholars well at first. Very few regimental
riding-houses have pillars, and it is fortunate they have
not; for though, when properly made use of with skill,
they are one of the greatest and best discoveries in
horsemanship j they must be allowed to be very dan¬
gerous and pernicious, when they are not under the di¬
rection of a very knowing person.
Sect. VII. The Method of curing llestiveness, Vices,
DeJ ences, Starting, &c.
WHENEVER a horse makes resistance, one ought, be¬
fore remedy or correction is thought of, to examine
very minutely all the tackle about him, if any thing
hurts or tickles him, whether he has any natural or ac¬
cidental weakness, or in short any the least impediment
in any part. For want of this precaution, many fatal
disasters happen : the poor dumb animal is frequently
accused falsely of being restive and vicious j is used ill
without reason and, being forced into despair, is in a
manner obliged to act accordingly, be his temper and
inclination ever so well disposed. It is very seldom the
case, that a horse is really and by nature vicious ; but
if such be found, he will despise all caresses, and then
chastisements become necessary.
Correction, according as you use it, throws a horse
into more or less violent action, which, if he be weak,
he cannot support: but a vicious strong horse is to be
considered in a very different light, being able both
to undergo and consequently to profit by all lessons j
and is far preferable to the best natured weak one
upon earth. Patience and attention are never failing
means to reclaim such a horse : in whatsoever manner
he defends himself, bring him back frequently with
gentleness (not however without having given him
proper chastisement if necessary) to the lesson which
he seems most averse to. Horses are by degrees made
obedient, through the hope of recompense and the fear
of punishment: how to mix these two motives judici¬
ously together, is a very difficult matter j it requires
much thought and practice j and not only a good head,
but a good heart likewise. The coolest and best natu¬
red rider will always succeed best. By a dexterous use
of the incitements above mentioned, you will gradual¬
ly bring the horse to temper and obedience j mere
force, and want of skill and coolness, would only tend Of Curing
to confirm him in bad tricks. If he be impatient or Restive-
choleric, never strike him, unless he absolutely refuse ne*s. Stc.
to go forward ; which you must resolutely oblige him ' v"" ' f
to do, and which will be of itself a correction, by pre¬
venting his having time to meditate and put in execu¬
tion any defence by retaining himself. Resistance in
horses, you must consider, is sometimes a mark of
strength and vigour, and proceeds from spirit, as well
as sometimes from vice and weakness. Weakness fre¬
quently drives horses into viciousness, when any thing
wherein strength is necessary is demanded from them ;
nay, it inevitably must: great care therefore should
always be taken to distinguish from which of these
two causes any remedy or punishment is thought of.
It may sometimes be a bad sign when horses do not
at all defend themselves, and proceed from a sluggish
disposition, a want of spirit, and of a proper sensibili¬
ty. Whenever one is so fortunate as to meet with a
horse of just the right spirit, activity, delicacy of feel¬
ing, with strength and good nature, he cannot be che¬
rished too much j for such a one is a rare and inesti¬
mable jewel, and, if properly treated, will in a manner
do every thing of himself. Horses are oftener spoilt
by having too much done to them, and by attempts
to dress them in too great an hurry, than by any other
treatment.
If after a horse has been well suppled, and there are
no impediments, either natural or accidental, if he still
persist to defend himself, chastisements then become
necessary : but whenever this is the case, they must not
be frequent but always firm, though always as little
violent as possible ; for they are both dangerous and
very prejudicial when frequently or slightly played
with, and still more so when used too violently.
It is impossible, in general, to be too circumspect in
lessons of all kinds, in aids, chastisements, or caresses.
Soom have quicker parts, and more cunning, than
others. Many will imperceptibly gain a little every
day on the rider. Various, in short, are their disposi¬
tions and capacities. It is the rider’s business to find
out their different qualities, and to make them sensible
how much he loves them, and desires to be loved by
them } but at the same time that he does not fear
them, and will be master.
Plunging is a very common defence among restive
and vicious horses: if they do it in the same place, or
backing, they must, by the rider’s legs and spurs
firmly applied, be obliged to go forwards, and their
heads kept up high. But if they do it flying for¬
wards, keep them back, and ride them gently and
very slow for a good while together. Of all bad tem¬
pers and qualities in horses, those which are occa¬
sioned by harsh treatment and ignorant riders are the
worst.
Rearing is a bad vice, and, in weak horses especial¬
ly, a very dangerous one. W hilst the horse is up, the
rider must yield his hand $ and when the horse is de¬
scending, he must vigorously determine him forwards:
if fehis be done at any other time but whilst the horse
is coming down, it may add a spring to his rearing, and
make him fall backwards. W7ith a good hand on them,
horses seldom persist in this vice j for they are them¬
selves naturally much afraid of falling backwards. If
4 I 2 this
620
Rales for
Bad
Horsemen.
Thomson's
Rules.
HORSEMANSHIP.
Sect. VIII, kt
this method fails, you must make the horse kick up be¬
hind, by getting somebody on foot to strike him behind
with a whip j or, if that will not effect it, by pricking
him with a goad.
Starting often proceeds from a defect in the sight ;
which therefore must be carefully looked into. What¬
ever the horse is afraid of, bring him up to it gently j
if you caress him every step he advances, he will go
quite up to it by degrees, and soon grow familiar with
all sorts of objects. Nothing but great gentleness can
correct this fault 5 for if you inflict punishment, the
apprehension of chastisement becomes prevalent, and
causes more starting than the fear of the object. If you
let him go by the object, without bringing him up to
it, you increase the fault, and confirm him in his fear:
the consequence of which is, he takes his rider perhaps
a quite contrary way from what he was going, becomes
his master, and puts himself and the person upon him
every moment in great danger.
With such horses as are to a very great degree fear¬
ful of any objects, make a quiet horse, by going before
them, gradually entice them to approach nearer and
nearer to the thing they are afraid of. If the horse,
thus alarmed, be undisciplined and headstrong, he will
probably run away with his rider $ and if so, his head
must be kept up high, and the snaffle sawed backwards
and forwards from right to left, taking up and yield¬
ing the reins of it, as also the reins of the bit: but this
latter must not be sawed backwards and forwards like
the snaffle, hut only taken up and yielded properly. No
man ever yet did, or ever will stop a horse, or gain any
one point over him, by main force, or by pulling a dead
weight against him.
Sect. VIII. Rules for bad Horsemen.
In the first place, every horse should be accustomed
to stand still when he is mounted. One would imagine
this might be readily granted ; yet we see how much
the contrary is practised. When a gentleman mounts
at a livery-stable, the groom takes the horse by the bit,
which he bends tight round his under jaw : the horse
striving to go on, is forced back j advancing again, he
frets, as he is again stopped short, and hurt by the man¬
ner of holding him. The rider, in the mean time,
mounting without the bridle, or at least holding it but
slightly, is 'helped to it by the groom, who being
thoroughly employed by the horse’s fluttering, has at
the same time both bridle and stirrup to give. This
confusion would be prevented, if every horse was taught
to stand still when he is mounted. Forbid your groom,
therefore, when he rides your horse to water, to throw
himself over him from a horse-block, and kick him with
his leg, even before he is fairly upon him. This wrong
manner of mounting is what chiefly teaches your horse
the vicious habit against which we are here warning.
On the other hand, a constant practice of mounting in
the proper manner, is all that is necessary to prevent a
horse’s going on till the rider is quite adjusted in the
saddle.
The next thing necessary therefore is, that the rider
should mount properly. The common method is to
stand near the croup or hinder part of the horse, with
the bridle held very long in the right hand. By this
manner of holding the bridle before you mount, you Rules foi
are liable to be kicked ; and when you are mounted, Bad
your horse may go on some time, or play what gambols ^0fte)|Ue»- fcitu
he pleases, before the rein is short enough in your hand , -I
to prevent him. It is common likewise for an awkward
rider, as soon as his foot is in the stirrup, to throw him¬
self with all his force to gain his seat *, which he can¬
not do, till he hath first overbalanced himself on one side
or the other : he will then wriggle into it by degrees.
The way to mount with ease and safety is, to stand ra¬
ther before than behind the stirrup. In this posture take
the bridle short, and the mane together in your left
hand, helping yourself to the stirrup with your right,
so that your toe may not touch the horse in mounting.
While your left foot is in the stirrup, move on your
right, till you face the side of the horse, looking across
over the saddle. Then with your right hand grasp the
hinder part of the saddle 5 and with that and your left,
which holds the mane and bridle, lift yourself upright
on your left foot. Remain thus a mere instant on your
stirrup, only so as to divide the action into two motions.
While you are in this posture, you have a sure hold
with both hands, and are at liberty, either to get safe¬
ly down, or to throw your leg over and gain your seat.
By this deliberate motion, likewise, you avoid, what
every good horseman would endeavour to avoid, put¬
ting your horse into a flutter.
When you dismount, hold the bridle and mane to¬
gether in your left hand, as when you mounted j put
your right hand on the pommel of the saddle, to raise
yourself j throw your leg back over the horse, grasp
the hinder part of the saddle with your right hand,
remain a moment on your stirrup, and in every respect
dismount as you mounted 5 only what was your first
motion when you mounted, becomes the last in dis¬
mounting. Remember not to bend your right knee
in dismounting, lest your spur should rub against the
horse.
It may be next recommended to hold your bridle at
a convenient length. Sit square, and let not the pur¬
chase of the bridle pull forward your shoulder j but
keep your body even, as it would be if each hand held
a rein. Hold your reins with the whole grasp of your
hand, dividing them with your little finger. Let your
hand be perpendicular j your thumb will then be up¬
permost, and placed on the bridle. Bend your wrist a
little outward : and when you pull the bridle, raise
your hand toward your breast, and the lower part of
the palm rather more than the upper. Let the bridle be
at such a length in your hand, as, if the horse should
stumble, you may be able to raise his head, and support
it by the strength of your arms, and the weight of your
body thrown backward. If you hold the rein too
long, you are subject to fall backward as your hors«
rises.
If, knowing your horse perfectly well, you think a
tight rein unnecessary, advance your arm a little (but
not your shoulder) towards the horse’s head, and keep
your usual length of rein. By this means, you have a
check upon your horse, while you indulge him.
If you ride with a curb, make it a rule to hook on
the chain yourself; the most quiet horse may bring
his rider into danger, should the curb hurt him. If*
in fixing the curb, you turn the chain to the right,
the
S(t. VIII.
B s for the links will unfold themselves, and then oppose a
ad farther turning. Put on the chain loose enough to
He mea. liang down on the horse’s under lip, so that it may not
w ' rise and press his jaw, till the reins of the bridle are
moderately pulled.
If your horse has been used to stand still when he is
mounted, there will be no occasion for a groom to hold
him : but if he does, suffer him not to touch the reins,
but that part of the bridle which comes down the
cheek, of the horse. He cannot then interfere with
the management of the reins, which belongs to the
rider only ; and holding a horse by the curb (which is
ever painful to him) is evidently improper when he is
to stand still.
Another thing to be remembered is, not to ride
with your arms and elbows as high as your shoulders ;
not let them shake up and down with the motion of
the horse. The posture is unbecoming, and the weight
of the arms and of the body too if the rider does not
sit still) acts in continual jerks on the jaw of the horse,
which must give him pain, and make him unquiet, if
he has a tender mouth or any spirit.
Bad riders wonder why horses are gentle as soon as
they are mounted by skilful ones, though their skill
seems unemployed : the reason is, the horse goes at
his ease, yet finds all his motions watched; which
he has sagacity enough to discover. Such a rider
hides his whip, if he. finds his horse is afraid of it;
and keeps his legs from his sides, if he finds he dreads
the spur.
Avoid the ungraceful custom of letting your legs
shake against the sides of the horse : and as you are not
to keep your arms and elbows high, and in motion ;
so you are not to rivet them to your sides, but let them
fall easy. One may, at a distance, distinguish a gen¬
teel horseman from an awkward one : the first sits still,
and appears of a piece with his horse ; the latter seems
flying off at all points.
It is often said with emphasis, that such a one has
no seat on horseback ; and it means, not only that he
does not ride well, but that he does not sit on the right
part of the horse. To have a good seat, is to sit on
that part of the horse, which, as he springs, is the
centre of motion ; and from which, of course, any
weight would be with most difficulty shaken. As in
the rising and falling of a board placed in cequilibrio,
the centre will be always most at rest ; the true seat
will be found in that part of your saddle, into which
your body would naturally slide, if you rode without
stirrups : and is only to be preserved by a proper poise
of the body, though the generality of riders imagine
it is to be done by the grasp of the thighs and knees.
The rider should consider himself as united to his horse
in this point; and when shaken from it, endeavour to
restore the balance.
Perhaps the mention of the two extremes of a bad
seat may help to deseribe the true one. The one is,
when the rider sits very far back on the saddle, so that
his weight presses the loins ot the horse : the other,
when his body hangs forward over the pommel of the
saddle. The first may be seen practised by grooms,
when they ride with their stirrups affectedly short; the
latter, by fearful horsemen on the least flutter of the
horse. Every good rider has, even on the hunting
saddle, as determined a place for his thighs, as can be
621
determined lor him by the bars of a demi-peak. In- Rules for
deed there is no difference between the seat of either: Bad
only, as in the first you ride with shorter stirrups, ^orsemc*1,
your body will be consequently more behind your *' ^
knees.
To have a good seat yourself, your saddle must sit
well. To fix a precise rule might be difficult: it may
be a direction, to have your saddle press as nearly as
possible on that part which wTe have described as the
point of union between the man and horse ; however,
so as not to obstruct the motion of the horse’s shoul¬
ders. Place yourself in the middle or lowest part of
it : sit erect ; but with as little constraint as in your
ordinary sitting. The ease of action marks the gentle¬
man : you may repose yourself, but not lounge. The
set and studied erectness acquired in the riding-house,
by those whose deportment is not easy, appears ungen-
teel and unnatural.
If your horse stops short, or endeavours by rising
and kicking to unseat you, bend not your body for¬
ward, as many do in these circumstances : that motion
throws the breech backward, and you off your fork or
twist, and out of your seat ; whereas, the advancing
the lower part of your body, and bending back the
upper part and shoulders, is the method both to keep
your seat, and to recover it when lost. The bending
your body back, and that in a great degree, is the
greatest security in flying leaps ; it is a security too,
when your horse leaps standing. The horse’s rising
does not try the rider’s seat; the lash of his hind legs
is what ought chiefly to be guarded against, and is best
done by the body’s being greatly inclined back. Stif¬
fen not your legs or thighs ; and let your body be pli¬
able in the loins, like the coachman’s on his box. This
loose manner of sitting will elude every rough motion
of the horse ; whereas the fixture of the knees, so com¬
monly laid a stress on, will in great shocks conduce to
the violence of the fall.
Was the cricket-player, when the ball is struck with
the greatest velocity, to hold his hand firm and fixed
when he receives it, the hand would be bruised, or per¬
haps the bones fractured by the resistance. To ob¬
viate this accident, he therefore gradually yields his
hand to the motion of the ball for a certain distance ;
and thus by a due mixture of opposition and obedience,
catches it without sustaining the least injury. The case
is exactly the same in riding: the skilful horseman will
recover his poise by giving some way to the motion;
and the ignorant horseman will be flung out of his seat
by endeavouring to be fixed.
Stretch not out your legs before you ; this will push
you against the back of the saddle ; neither gather up
your knees like a man riding on a pack ; this throws
your thighs upwards : each practice unseats you. Keep
your legs straight down ; and sit not on the most fleshy
part of the thighs, but turn them inwards, so as to bring
in your knees and toes : and it is more safe to ride with
the ball of the foot pressing cn the stirrup, than with
the stirrup as far back as the heel: for the pressure of
the heel being in that case behind the stirrup, keeps
the thighs down.
When you find your thighs thrown upwards, widen
your knees to get them and the upper part of your
fork lower down on the horse. Grasp the saddle with
the hollow or inner part of your thighs, but not more
than
HORSEMANSHIP.
6 22
Rules for than just to assist the balance of your body : this will
Bad also enable you to keep your spurs from the horse’s
Horsemen. s|jegj an(J to bring your toes in, without that affected
w_~v aiJ(j useless manner of bringing them in practised by
many. Sink your heels straight down ; for while your
heels and thighs keep down, you cannot fall: this (aid¬
ed with the bend of the back) gives the security of a
seat, to those who bear themselves up in their stirrups
in a swift gallop, or in the alternate rising and falling
in a full trot.
Let your seat determine the length of your stirrups,
rather than the stirrups your seat. If more precision
is requisite, let your stirrups (in the hunting saddle)
be of such a length, as that, when you stand in them,
there may be the breadth of four fingers between your
seat and the saddle.
It would greatly assist a learner, if he would prac¬
tise riding in a large circle, as directed sect. ii. with¬
out stirrups 5 keeping his face looking on the outward
part of the circle so as not to have a full view of the
horse’s head, but just of that ear which is on the out¬
ward part of the circle j and his shoulder, which is to¬
wards the centre of the circle, very forward. By this
means you learn to balance your body, and keep a true
seat, independent of your stirrups: you may probably
likewise escape a fall, should you at any time lose them
by being accidentally shaken from your seat.
As the seat in some measure depends on the saddle,
it may not be amiss to observe, that because a saddle
with a high pommel is thought dangerous, the other
extreme prevails, and the pommel is scarce allowed to
be higher than the middle of the saddle. The saddle
should lie as near the back-bone as can be, without
hurting the horse; for the nearer you sit to his back,
the better seat you have. If it does so, it is plain the
pommel must rise enough to secure the withers from
pressure: therefore, a horse whose withers are higher
than common, requires a higher pommel. If, to avoid
this, you make the saddle of a more straight line, the
inconvenience spoken of follows; you sit too much
above the horse’s back, nor can the saddle form a pro¬
per seat. There should be no ridge from the but¬
ton at the side of the pommel, to the back part of
the saddle. That line also should be a little concave,
for your thighs to lie at ease. In short, a saddle
ought to be, as nearly as possible, as if cut out of the
horse.
When you want your horse to move forward, raise
his head a little, and touch him gently with your whip;
or else, press the calves of your legs against his sides.
If he does not move fast enough, press them with more
force, and so till the spur just touches him. By this
practice he will (if he has any spirit) move upon the
least pressure of the leg. Never spur him by a kick ;
but if it be necessary to spur him briskly, keep your
heels close to his sides, and slacken their force as he be¬
comes obedient.
When your horse attempts to be vicious, take each
rein separate, one in each hand, and advancing your
arms forward, hold him very short. In this case, it is
common for the rider to pull him hard, with his arms
low. But the horse by this means having his head low
too, has it more in his power to throw out his heels:
whereas, if his head be raised very high, and his nose
thrown out a little, which is consequent, he can nei-
Sect. VII] {ft'
ther rise before nor behind ; because he can give him- Rules for im1
self neither of those motions, without having his head Bad J
at liberty. A plank placed in cequilibrio^ cannot rise fIo>seniet
at one end unless it sinks at the other. w-v~— r‘
If your horse is headstrong, pull not with one con?
tinned pull, but stop, and back him often, just shaking
the reins, and making little repeated pulls till he obeys.
Horses are so accustomed to bear on the bit when they
go forward, that they are discouraged if the rider will
not let them do so.
If a horse is loose-necked, he will throw up his
head at a continued pull ; in which situation, the ri¬
der, seeing the front of his face, can have no power
over him. When your horse does thus, drop your
hand and give the bridle play, and he will of course
drop his head again into its proper place: while it is
coming down, make a second gentle pull, and you will
find his mouth. With a little practice, this is done
almost instantaneously ; and this method will stop, in
the distance of a few yards, a horse, which will run
away with those who pull at him with all their might.
Almost every one must have observed, that when a
horse feels himself pulled with the bridle, even when
he is going gently, he often mistakes what was designed
to stop him, as a direction to bear on the bit and to go
faster.
Keep your horse’s head high, that you may raise his
neck and crest; play a little with the rein, and move
the bit in his mouth, that he may not press on it in
one constant and continued manner: be not afraid of
raising his head too high ; he will naturally be too
ready to bring it down, and tire your arms with its
weight, on the least abatement of his mettle. When
you feel him heavy, stop him, and make him go back
a few paces: thus you break by degrees his propensity
to press on his bridle.
You ought not to be pleased (though many are)
with a round neck, and a head drawn in towards his
breast: let your horse carry his head bridling in, pro¬
vided he carries it high, and his neck arching upwards ;
but if his neck bends downwards, his figure is bad, his
sight is too near his toes, he leans on the bridle, and
you have no command over him. If he goes pressing
but lightly on the bridle, he is the more sure-footed,
and goes pleasanter ; as your wrist only may guide him.
If he hangs down his head, and makes you support
the weight of that and his neck with your arms bear¬
ing on his fore-legs, (which is called being on his shoul¬
ders), he will strike his toes against the ground, and
stumble.
If your horse is heavy upon the bit, tie him every
day, for an hour or two, with his tail to the manger,
and his head as high as you can make him lift it, by
a rein on each post of the stall, tied to each ring of the
snaffle bit.
Horse-breakers and grooms have a great propensity
to bring a horse’s head down, and seem to have no
seat without a strong hold by the bridle. They know
indeed, that the head should yield to the reins, and
the neck form an arch ; but do not take the propex
pains to make it an arch upward. A temporary effect
of attempting to raise a horse’s head, may perhaps be
making him push out his nose. They will here tell
you, that his head is too high already ; whereas it is
not the distance from his nose, but from the top of his
HORSEMANSHIP.
Se. VIII. HORSEMANSHIP. 623
j f0r head to the ground, which determines the head to be
J high or low. Besides, although the fault is said to be
Hoi 'ie^ in the manner of carrying the head, it should rather be
w said to be in that of the neck ; for if the neck was rais¬
ed, the head would be more in the position of one set
on a well formed neck.
The design therefore of lifting up the head, is to
raise the neck, and thereby bring in the head j for
even while the bridle makes the same line from the
rider’s hand to the bit, the horse’s nose may be either
drawn in, or thrust out, according as his neck is raised
or depressed. Instead of what has been here recom¬
mended, we usually see colts broke with their beads
cavessoned very low, their necks stiff, and not in the
least suppled. When the breaking-tackle is left off,
and they are mounted for the road, having more food
and rest, they frequently plunge, and a second break¬
ing becomes necessary. Then, as few gentlemen can
manage their own horses, they are put into the hands
of grooms, from whom they learn a variety of bad
habits.
If, on the other hand, your horse carries his head
(or rather his nose) too high, he generally makes some
amends by moving his shoulders lightly, and going
safely. Attend to the cause of this fault. Some horses
have their necks set so low on their shoulders, that they
bend first down, then upwards, like a stag’s. Some
have the upper line of their necks, from their ears to
their withers, too short. A head of this sort cannot
possibly bend inwards and form an arch, because the
vertebrae (or neck bones) are too short to admit of
flexure •, for in long and short-necked horses the num¬
ber of the vertebrae is the same. In some, the jaw is
so thick, that it meets the neck, and the head by this
means has not room to bend. On the other hand, some
have the under line from the jaw to the breast so short,
that the neck cannot rise.
In all these cases you may gain a little by a nice
hand with an easy bit; but no curb, martingale, or
other forcible method, will teach a horse to carry his
head or neck in a posture which nature has made un¬
easy to him. By trying to pull in his nose farther than
he can bear, you will add a bad habit to nature. You
could not indeed contrive a more effectual method to
make him continually toss bia nose up, and throw bis
foam over you.
The rule already given to ride a loose-necked horse,
will be a proper one for all light-mouthed horses ; one
caution being added, which is, always to search whe¬
ther his saddle or girths may not in some way pinch
him; and whether the bit may not hurt his lip by
being too high in his mouth : because, whenever he
frets from either of these causes, his head will not be
steady.
It is a common custom to be always pulling at the
bridle, as if to set off to advantage either the spirit of
the horse, or the skill of the rider. Our horses there¬
fore are taught to hold their heads low, and pull so as
to bear up the rider from the saddle standing in his
stirrups, even in the gentlest gallop: how very impro¬
per is this, we are experimentally convinced, when we
happen to meet with a horse which gallops otherwise.
We immediately sav, he canters excellently, and find the
ease and pleasure of his motion. When horses are de¬
signed for the race, and swiftness is the only thing con- Rules for
sidered, the method may be a good one. Bad
It is not to be wondered that dealers are always Horsemen,
pulling at their horses, that they have the spur con- v_"
stantly in their sides, and are at the same time conti¬
nually checking the rein : by this means they make
them bound, and champ the bit, while their rage has
the appearance of spirit. These people ride with their
arms spread, and very low on the shoulders of their
horses: this method makes them stretch their necks,
and gives a better appearance to their fore-hands ; it
conceals also a thick jaw, which, if the head was up,
would prevent its yielding to the bit; it hides like¬
wise the ewe-neck, which would otherwise show itself.
Indeed, if you have a horse unsteady to the bit, formed
with a natural heavy head, or one which carries his
nose obstinately in the air, you must find his mouth
where you can, and make the best of him.
Many horses are taught to start, by whipping them
for starting. How is it possible they can know it is
designed as a punishment P In the riding-house, you
teach your horse to rise up before, and to spring and
lash out his hinder legs, by whipping him when tied
between two pillars, with his head a little at liberty.
If he understood this to be a punishment for doing so,
he would not by that method learn to do it. He seems
to be in the same manner taught to spring and fly
when he is frightened. Most horses would go quietly
past an object they were beginning to fly from, if their
riders, instead of gathering up their bridles, and show¬
ing themselves so ready, should throw the reins loose
upon their necks.
When a horse starts at any thing on one side, most
riders turn him out of the road, to make him go up
to what he starts at: if he does not get the better of
his fear, or readily comply, he generally goes past the
object, making with his hinder parts, or croup, a
great circle out of the road; whereas, he should learn
to keep straight on, without minding objects on either
side.
If he starts at any thing on the left, hold his head
high, and keep it straight in the road, pulling it from
looking at the thing he starts at, and keeping your
right leg hard pressed against his side, towards his
flank : he will then go straight along the road. By
this method, and by turning his head a little more,
he may be forced with his croup close up to what
frightened him ; for as his head is pulled one way, his
croup necessarily turns the other. Always avoid a
quarrel with your horse, if you can: if he is apt to
start, you will find occasions enough to exercise his
obedience, when what he starts at lies directly in his
way, and you must make him pass ; if he is not sub¬
ject to start, you should not quarrel with him about a
trifle.
It must be observed, however, that this rule in go¬
ing past an object may perhaps be a little irregular in
a managed horse, which will always obey the leg :
but even such a horse, if he is really afraid, and not
restive, it may not be amiss to make look another
way ; unless the object be something you would par¬
ticularly accustom him to the sight of.
The case will also be different with a horse whose
fear is owing to his being not used to objects; but
such ■
624 '
Rules for such a one is not to be rode by any horseman to whom
Bad these rules are directed : the starting here meant arises
Horsemen. mere]y from the horse’s being pampered, and springing
VL-r--v liveliness.
The notion of the necessity of making a horse go
immediately up to every thing he is afraid of, and not
suffering him to become master of his ruler, seems to
be in general carried too far. It is an approved and
good method to conquer a horse’s fear of the sound of
a drum, by beating one near to him at the time of
feeding him : this not only familiarizes the noise to
him, but makes it pleasant, as a fore-runner of his
* See meat * j whereas, if he was whipped up to it, he might
Sectl T' perhaps start at it as long as he lived. Might not
this be applied to his starting at other things, and
show that it would be better to suffer him (provided
he does not turn back) to go a little from and avoid
an object he has a dislike to, and to accustom him to
it by degrees, convincing him, as it were, that it will
not hurt him ; than to punish him, quarrel with him,
and perhaps submit to his will at last, while you insist
on his overcoming his fear in an instant ? If he sees a
like object again, it is probable he will recollect his
dread, and arm himself to be disobedient.
We are apt to suppose that a horse fears nothing
so much as his rider j but may he not, in many cir¬
cumstances, be afraid of instant destruction ? of being
crushed P of being drowned ? of falling down a preci¬
pice ? Is it a wonder that a horse should be afraid of a
loaded waggon ? may not the hanging load seem to
threaten the falling on him ? There cannot be a rule
more general, than, in such a case, to shew him there
is room for him to pass. This is done by turning his
head a very little from the carriage, and pressing your
leg, which is farthest from it, against his side.
A horse is not to stop without a sign from his rider.
—Is it not then probable, that when driven up to a
carriage he starts at it, he conceives himself obliged
either to attack or run against it ? Can he understand
the rider’s spurring him with his face directed to it, as
a sign for him to pass it ? That a horse is easily alarmed
for his face and eyes (he will even catch back his
head from a hand going to caress him) ; that he will
not go with any force, face to face, even to another
horse (if in his power to stop) $ and that he sees per¬
fectly sideways,—may be useful hints for the treat¬
ment of horses with regard to starting.
Though you ought not to whip a horse for starting,
there can be no good effect from clapping his neck,
with your hand to encourage him. If one took any
notice of his starting, it should be rather with some
tone of voice which he usually understood as an ex¬
pression of dislike to what he is doing; for there is
opposition mixed with his starting, and ahorse will ever
repeat what he finds has foiled his rider.
Notwithstanding the directions above given, of not
pressing a horse up to a carriage he starts at; yet if
one which you apprehend will frighten him meets
you at a narrow part of the road, when you have
once let him know he is to pass it, be sure you remain
determined, and press him on. Do this more espe¬
cially when part of the carriage has already passed you :
for if, when he is frightened, he is accustomed te go
back, and turn round, he will certainly do it if he
finds, by your hand slackening, and legs not pressing,
Sect. VII] y
that you are irresolute1, and this at the most dangerous nuie|f iilti
point of time, when the wheels of the carriage take b8j 8*
him as he turns. Remember not to touch the curb HorceM< ltiM
rein at this time j it will certainly check him. It is
not known to every one, that the person who would
lead a horse by the bridle, should not turn his face to
him when he refuses to follow him : if, besides this, be
raises his arms, shows his whip, or pulls the bridle
with jerks, he frightens the horse, instead of persua¬
ding him to follow $ which a little patience may bring
about.
Ride with a snaffle j and use your curb, if you have
one, only occasionally. Choose yonr snaffle full and
thick in the mouth, especially at the ends to which
the reins are fastened. Most of them are made too
small and long j they cut the horse’s mouth, and
bend back over the bars of his jaw, working like
pincers.
The management of the curb is too nice a matter
to enter on here, farther than to prescribe great cau¬
tion in the use of it: a turn of the wrist, rather than
the weight of your arm, should be applied to it. Tbe
elasticity of a rod, when it hath hooked a fish, may
give you some idea of the proper play of a horse’s
head on his bridle j his spirit and his pliableness are
both marked by it.
A horse should never be put to do any thing in a
curb which he is not ready at: you may force him,
or pull his head any way with a snaffle ; but a curb
acts only in a straight line. It is true, that a horse
will be turned out of one track into another by a curb,
but it is because he knows it as a signal. When he is
put to draw a chair and does not understand the ne¬
cessity he is then under of taking a larger sweep when
he turns, you frequently see him restive, as it is then
called: but put him on a snaffle, or buckle the rein to
that part of the bit which does not curb him j and
the horse submits to be pulled about, till he under¬
stands what is desired of him. These directions
suppose your horse to have spirit, and a good mouth }
if he has not, you must take him as he is, and ride
him with such a bit as you find most easy to your¬
self. *
When you ride a journey, be not so attentive to
your horse’s nice carriage of himself, as to your en¬
couragement of him, and keeping him in good humour.
Raise his head j but if he flags, you may indulge him
with bearing a little more upon the bit than you
would suffer in an airing. If a horse is lame, tender-
footed, or tired, he naturally hangs upon his bridle.
On a journey, therefore, his mouth will depend greatly ^
on his strength and the goodness of his feet. Be then
very careful about his feet, and let not a farrier spoil
them. You will be enabled to keep them from
danger, by the directions given under the article
Farriery.
Very few, although practised in riding, know they
have any power over a horse but by the bridle ; or
any use for the spur, except to make him go forward.
A little experience will teach them a farther use. If
the left spur touches him (and he is at the same time
prevented from going forward), he has a sign, which
he will soon understand, to move sidewise to the right.
In the same manner to the left, if the right spur i*
closed to him : he afterwards, through fear of the
spur,
HORSEMANSHIP.
S ;t. VIII.
HORSEMANSHIP.
I es for spur, obeys a toucSi of the leg j in the same manner
!ad as a horse moves his croup from one side of the stall
H emen.. to tjJe otiJer) vv|ien any one stj-j^eg l,Im w;th his hand.
In short, his croup is guided by the leg, as his head is
by the bridle. He will never disobey the leg, unless
he becomes restive. By this means you will have a
far greater power over him j he will move sidewise, if
you close one leg to him j and straight forward, if
both : even when he stands still, your legs held near
him will keep him on the watch ; and with the
slightest unseen motion of the bridle upwards, he
will raise his head, and show his forehand to advan¬
tage.
On this use of the legs of the rider, and guidance
of the croup of the horse, are founded all the airs (as
the riding-masters express themselves) which are
taught in the manege j the passage, or side-motion of
troopers to close or open their files, and indeed all
their evolutions. But the convenience of some degree
of this discipline for common use is the reason of
mentioning it here. It is useful if a horse is apt to
stumble or start. If to the first, by pressing your legs
to his flank, and keeping up his head, he is made to
go light on his fore-legs, which is aiding and sup¬
porting him •, and the same if he does actually stum¬
ble, by helping him at the very instant to exert him¬
self, while as yet any part of him remains not irreco¬
verably impressed with the precipitate motion. Hence
this use of the hand and legs of the rider is called
giving aids to a horse ; for, as to holding up the weight
of a heavy unactive horse, by mere pulling, it is as
impossible as to recover him when falling down a pre¬
cipice.
A horse is supported and helped by the hands and
legs of his rider in every action they require of him j
hence he is said to perform his airs by the aids from
his rider.
The same manner is useful if a horse starts. For if
when he is beginning to fly to one side, you leg on
the side he is flying to, he stops his spring immedi¬
ately. He goes past what he started at, keeping
straight on, or as you choose to direct him ; and he will
not fly back from any thing if you press him with
both legs. You keep his haunches under him, going
62^
down a hill j help him on the side of a bank ; more Rules for
easily avoid the wheel of a carriage ; and approach Bad
more gracefully and nearer to the side of a coach or Horsemen.
horseman. When a pampered horse curvets irregularly, ' 
and twists his body to and fro, turn his head either
to the right or left, or both alternately (but without
letting him move out of the track), and press your leg
to the opposite side : your horse cannot then spring on
his hind-legs to one side, because your leg prevents
him ; nor to the other, because his head looks that
way, and a horse does not start and spring to the side
on which he looks. Here it may not be amiss to ob¬
serve the impropriety of the‘habit winch many riders
have, of letting their legs shake against the sides of
the horse : if a horse is taught, they are then con¬
tinually pressing him to violent action ; and if he is
not, they render him insensible and incapable of being
taught. Ihe fretting of a hot horse will hence be ex¬
cessive, as it can no otherwise be moderated than by
the utmost stillness of the seat, hands, and legs of the
rider.
Colts at first are taught to bear a bit, and by degrees
to pull' at it. If they did not press it, they could not
be guided by it. By degrees they find their necks
stronger than the arms of a man ; and that they are ca¬
pable of making great opposition, and often of foiling
their riders. Ihen is the time to make them supple
and pliant in every part. The part which of all others
requires most this pliancy is the neck. Hence the me¬
taphor of stiff-necked for disobedient, A horse cannot
move his head but with the muscles of his neck : this
may he called his helm; it guides his course, changes
and directs his motion.
The use of this pliancy in the different parts and
limbs of a horse has been already shown in a former
section. The present section being directed to the in¬
experienced horseman, it may suffice to add that his
idea of suppleness need only be, that of an ability and
readiness in a horse to move every limb, on a sign gi¬
ven him by the bands or legs of bis rider ; as also to
bend bis body, and move in a short compass, quick and
collected within himself, so as instantly to be able to
perform any other motion.
H O R
K iham. HORSHAM, a town of Sussex, seated near St Leo-
*" nard’s forest, 38 miles from London. It has its name
from Horsa, brother to Hengist the Saxon ; and is one
of the largest towns in the county. It has sent mem¬
bers to parliament ever since the 30th of Edw. I. and
is the place where the county-gaol is held, and often
the assizes. It is a borough by prescription, with the
title of two bailiff’s and burgage-holders within and with¬
out the borough, Sic. who elect the members of parlia¬
ment, and they are returned by the bailiffs chosen yearly
by a eourt-leet of the lord of the manor, who return four
candidates to the steward, and he nominates two of them
for the office. Here is a very fine church, and a well
endowed free-school. Great store of poultry is bought
up for London at its market on Saturday, and it has a
Voi. X. Part II. f
H O R
patent also for a monthly market. In 1811, the num- Horsham
her of inhabitants was 3839. |j
HORTALIGERS, in the grand signior’s court, up- Hoiteiisius.
holsterers, or tapestry-hangers, who go always a day’s
journey before the grand signior, to fix upon a proper
place for his tent, which they prepare first ; and after¬
wards those of the officers, according to their rank.
HORTENSIUS, Quintus, a celebrated Roman
orator, the contemporary of Cicero, pleaded with uni¬
versal applause at 19 years of age, and continued the
same profession during 48 years. But being at last
eclipsed by Cicero, he quitted the bar, and embraced
a military life : became a military tribune, prsetor,
and afterwards consul about 80 B. C. Cicero speaks
of him in such a manner as makes us regret the loss
4 K of
H O R [ 626 ] H O R
rtortensiiif, of his orations. Hortensius had a wonderful memory,
Hortus and delivered his orations without writing down a
Sicetr. 8{ngle word, or forgetting one particular that had been
v ' ~ advanced by his adversaries. He died very rich, a
little before the civil war, which he had endeavoured
by all possible means to prevent.
HORTICULTURE, the art of cultivating fruits,
flowers, and various esculent plants, being the same as
gardening. See Supplement.
HORTUS SICCUS, a Dry Garden 5 an appella¬
tion given to a collection of specimens of plants, care¬
fully dried and preserved.
The value of such a collection is very evident, since
a thousand minutiae may be preserved in well-dried
specimens of plants, which the most accurate engraver
would overlook. We shall therefore give two methods
of drying and preserving a hortus siccus; the first **
Sir Robert Southwell in the Philosophical Transactir •
N* 237.; and the other by Dr Hill, in his review of
the works of the Royal Society, with his objections to
Sir Robert’s method.
According to the former gentleman, the plants are
to be laid flat between papers, and then put between
two smooth plates of iron, screwed together at the
corners j and in this condition committed to a baker’s
oven for two hours. When taken out, they are to be
rubbed over with a mixture of equal parts of aquafor¬
tis and brandy 5 and after this to be fastened down on
paper with a solution of the quantity of a walnut of
gum tragacanth dissolved in a pint of water. See
Herbal.
To this the Doctor objects, that the heat of an oven
is much too uncertain to be employed in so nice an
operation ; and that the space of time ordered for con¬
tinuing the plants in it is of no information, unless
the degree of heat, and even the different nature
of the plant as to its succulency and the firmness
or tenderness of its fibres, be attended to ; there be¬
ing scarcely any two plants alike in these particulars:
consequently the degree and duration of heat sufficient
for one plant would destroy another. Beside which,
the acid used destroys the colour of many plants j and
never recovers that of others lost in the dyeing •, and
frequently after the plant is fixed down, rots both the
paper it is fixed to, and that which falls over it. Dr
Hill’s method is as follows. Take a specimen of a
plant in flower, and with it one of its bottom leaves if
it have any ; bruise the stalk if too rigid, or slit it if
too thick : spread out the leaves and flowers on pa¬
per, cover it with more paper, and lay a weight over
all. At the end of 18 hours take out the plants, now
perfectly flattened, and lay them on a bed of dry com¬
mon sand ; sift more dry sand over them to the depth
of two inches, and thus let them lie about three weeks :
the less succulent dry much sooner, but they take no
harm afterward. If the floor of a garret be covered in
spring with sand two inches deep, leaving space for
walking to the several parts, it will receive the col¬
lection of a whole summer ; the covering of sand be¬
ing sifted over every parcel as laid in, they need no
farther care from the time of laying them till they are
taken up to be stuck on paper. The cement used by
the Doctor is thus prepared: early in the spring, put
two ounces of camphor into three quarts of water in a
large bottle j shake it from time to time, and when the
first collected plants are ready for the fastening down, |i01lus
put into a pint of the water, poured off into an earth- Siccus
en vessel that will bear the fire, two ounces of com- ilorut,’
mon glue, such as is used by the carpenters, and the '
same quantity of ichthyocolla beat to shreds: let them
stand 36 hours, then gently boil the whole a few' mo¬
ments, and strain it off through a coarse cloth : this is
to be warmed over a gentle heat when it is to be used,
and the back of the plants smeared over with a paint¬
er’s brush : after this lay them on paper, and gently
press them for a few minutes, then expose them to the
air a little ; and finally lay them under a small weight
between quires of paper to be equally dried.
It is scarce to be conceived how strongly the water
becomes impregnated with the camphor by this simple
process : a part of it indeed flies off in the making of
the cement and the using of it: but enough remains
with the plants to prevent the breeding of insects in it.
He farther observes, that plants may be dried very well
without sand, by only putting them frequently into
fresh quires of paper, or a few', by only pressing them
between the leaves of a book : but the sand method pre¬
serves the colour best, and is done with least trouble.
Another method much better than that of the oven
is the flattening and drying the plant by passing a
common smoothing iron for linen over the papers be¬
tween which it is laid j but for nice things the most
perfect of all methods is that by a common sand heat,
such as is used for chemical purposes. The cold sand
is to be spread smooth upon this occasion, the plant
laid on it carefully flatted, and a thick bed of sand sift¬
ed over: the fire is then to be made, and the whole
process carefully watched until by a very gentle heat
the plant be carefully dried. The colour of the ten-
derest herb may by this manner be preserved ; and
flowers, that can no way else be preserved, may be ma¬
naged perfectly W’ell thus.
HORUS, a renowned deity of ancient Egypt. He
was an emblem of the sun. Plutarch (in his treatise
de Iside et Osiride') says, “ that virtue which presides
over the sun, whilst he is moving through space, the
Egyptians called Horv.y and the Greeks/f/?o//o.” Job
also calls Ur or Orus the sun—“ If I gazed upon the
sun (Ur, Orus') when he was shining, or on (Jdrecha)
the moon walking in brightness, and my heart hath
been secretly enticed (i. e. to worship), or my mouth
hath kissed my hand j this also were an iniquity to be
punished by the judge, for I should have denied the
God who is above.” Chap. xxxi. ver. 26, 27, 28.
The interpretation left by Hermapion of the hiero¬
glyphics engraved on the obelisk of Heliopolis (accord¬
ing to Ammianus Marcellinus), offers these remarkable
words : “ Horus is the supreme lord and author of
time.” These qualities, it is known, were chiefly at¬
tributed to Osiris : that they may apply, therefore, to
Horus, he must necessarily denote the star of the day
in certain circumstances j and this is what is explained
to us by the oracle of Apollo of Claros:
Learn that the first of the gods is Jao.
He is called invisible in winter, Jupiter in the spri ng,
The sun in summer, and towards the end of autumn
the tender Jao.
The star of the day, on attaining the summer solstice,
and called 'per cxcellentiam the Sun, is the same as Ho¬
rus.
H O R [ 627 ] H O S
1 uj. rus* I'1 ^*act» the Egyptians represented him borne on
Ui ——' lions, which signified his entrance into the sign of the
lion. They who presided over the divine institutions,
then placed sphynxes at the head of the canals and sa¬
cred fountains, to warn the people of the approaching
*f iraa/. inundation. Macrobius who informs us why the
lik Creeks gave Horus the name of Apollo, confirms this
sentiment: “ In the mysteries (says he) they discover
as a secret, which ought to be inviolable, that the sun
arrived in the upper hemisphere, is called Apollo.”
These testimonies concur in proving, that this emble¬
matical deity was no other than the star of day, passing
through the signs of summer.
These lights may lead us to the explication of the
sacred fable, which the priests published on the subject
of Horus ; for they enveloped in mystery every point
of their religion. Plutarch gives it at length in his
treatise of Isis and Osiris : The following are the prin¬
cipal traits. They said that he was the son of Osiris
and of Isis j that Typhon, after killing his brother
Osiris, took possession of the kingdom ; that Horus,
leaguing himself with Isis, avenged the death of his fa¬
ther, expelled the tyrant from his throne without de¬
priving him of life, and reigned gloriously in Egypt.
A person who has travelled ever so little in Egypt ea¬
sily discovers natural phenomena hid under the veil of
fable. In the spring, the wind khamsin frequently
makes great ravages there. It raises whirlwinds of
burning sand, which suffocate travellers, darken the
air, and cover the face of the sun in such a manner as
to leave the earth in perfect obscurity. Here is the
death of Osiris and the reign of Typhon. These hur¬
ricanes break out usually in the months of February,
March, and April. When the sun approaches the
sign of the lion, he changes the state of the atmosphere,
disperses these tempests, and restores the northerly
winds, which drive before them the malignant vapours,
and preserve in Egypt coolness and salubrity under a
burning sky. This is the triumph of Horus over Ty¬
phon, and his glorious reign. As the natural philoso¬
phers acknowledge the influence of the moon over the
state of the atmosphere, they united her with this god,
to drive the usurper from the throne. The priests con¬
sidering Osiris as the father of time, might bestow the
name of his son on Horus, who reigned three months in
H rr* the year. This, according to Mr Savary-f, is the na-
tpf, tural explication of this allegory. And all enlightened
4 men, he thinks, must have understood this language,
which was familiar to them. The people only, whose
feeble sight extends no farther than the exterior, with¬
out diving into the true meaning of things, might re¬
gard these allegorical personages as real gods, and de¬
cree prayers and offerings to them.
Jablonski, who has interpreted the epithet of Aru-
eri, which the Egyptians gave to Horus, pretends that
it signifies efficacious virtue. These expressions per¬
fectly characterise the phenomena which happened du¬
ring the reign of this god. It is in summer, in fact,
that the sun manifests all its power in Egypt. It is
then that he swells the waters of the rivers with rains,
exhaled by him in the air, and driven against the sum¬
mits of the Abyssinian mountains; it is then that the
husbandman reckons on the treasures of agriculture. It
was natural for them to honour him with the name of
Arueni or efficacious virtuet to mark these auspicious Hoius
effects. j|
HOSANNA, in the Hebrew ceremonies, a prayer ^0SP*fll:1D'
which they rehearsed on the several days of the feast' 1f
of tabernacles. It was thus called, because there was
frequent repetition therein of the word ioyani-r, servo,
nunc, or serva precor ; i. e. save us now ; or save us,
we pray.
There are divers of these hosannahs. The Jews call
them hoschannoth; i. e. the hosannas. Some are re¬
hearsed on the first day, others on the second, &c.
which they called hosanna of the first day, hosanna of
the second day, &c.
Hosanna Rabba, or Grand Hosanna, is a name they
give to their feast ot tabernacles, which lasts eight
days ; because during the course thereof, they are fre¬
quently calling for the assistance of God, the forgiveness
ot their sins, and his blessing on the new year; and to
that purpose they make great use of the hoschannoth,
or prayers above mentioned.—The Jews also applied
the term hosanna rabba, in a more peculiar manner,
to the seventh day of the feast of tabernacles ; because
they apply themselves more immediately on that day to
invoke the divine blessing, &c.
HOSE, from the Saxon Hosa, a stocking. See
Stocking.
HOSEA, the first in number of the minor Hebrew
prophets, as arranged in the Hebrew and Greek bibles,
although probably the third in a chronological sense.
He was the son of Beeri, but it is uncertain to what
tribe he belonged. He prophesied in the reigns of Uz-
ziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah,
and in the time of Jeroboam, who was king of Israel.
If he uttered predictions during 66 years, between 790
and 724 before Christ, then he discharged the office of
a sacred seer eight years during the reign of Jeroboam
II. 33 in the reign of Uzziah, the entire reigns of Jo¬
tham and Ahaz, and three years in the reign of Heze¬
kiah ; but could not have survived the taking of Sama¬
ria. He reproved the vices of kings as well as their
subjects, mixing threatenings of divine vengeance with
promises of pardon in consequence of repentance. His
style is concise, sententious, and abrupt. His short and
lively comparisons are numerous. He is sometimes dis¬
tinguished by great force of expression, has many beau¬
tiful passages, and in some parts is truly sublime. Dr
Newcome was of opinion that the chief difficulty in
understanding this prophet is owing to the corrupt read¬
ings which disfigure the printed text, and these he free¬
ly corrected from the collations of Dr Kennicott. On
the other hand, Dr Horsley protests earnestly against
Dr Newcome’s opinion, declaring that the corruptions
can be no cause of obscurity; but we must leave it to
our readers to determine which of these two great men
is in the right, from an attentive perusal of their own
works, assured that they will decide in favour of him who
furnishes the best helps for understanding this prophet.
HOSPINIAN, Rodolphus, one of the greatest
writers that Switzerland has given birth to. He was
born in 1547, at Altorf near Zurich ; obtained the
freedom of Zurich ; and was made provisor of the
abbey-school. Notwithstanding this employment, be
undertook a noble work of vast extent, which was a
History of the Errors of Popery. Though he could
4 K 2 not
H O S [ 628 ] H 0 S
ITospinian, no1 complete this work according to his plan, he pub-
Hospital. lished some considerable parts of it: what he publish-
ei| on the Eucharist, and another work called Concor¬
dia Discors, exceedingly exasperated the Lutherans.
He did not reply to them j but turning his arms against
the Jesuits, published Historia Jesuitica, &c. These
writings gained him preferment; he being appointed
archdeacon of Caroline church, and then minister of
the abbey-church. He died in 1626-, and there was
an edition of his works published at Geneva 1681, in
seven volumes in folio.
HOSPITAL, popularly Sfittal, a place or build¬
ing erected, out of charity, for the reception and sup¬
port of the poor, aged, infirm, sick, and otherwise help¬
less. The word is formed of the Latin hospes, “ host,
stranger.” See Host.
In the early ages of the church, the bishop had the im¬
mediate charge of all the poor, both sound and diseased,
as also of widows, orphans, strangers, &c.—When the
churches came to have fixed revenues allotted them, it
was decreed, that at least one-fourth part thereof should
go to the relief of the poor j and to provide for them
the more commodiously, divers houses of charity were
built, which are since denominated hospitals. They
were governed wholly by the priests and deacons, under
the inspection of the bishop. In course of time, sepa¬
rate revenues were assigned for the hospitals 5 and par¬
ticular persons, out of motives of piety and charity,
gave lands and money for erecting of hospitals. When
the church discipline began to relax, the priests, who
till then had been the administrators of hospitals, con¬
verted them into a sort of benefices, which they held
at pleasure, without giving account thereof to any
body *, reserving the greatest part of the income to
their own use ; so that the intentions of the founders
were frustrated.—To remove this abuse, the council of
Vienne expressly prohibited the giving any hospital to
secular priests in the way of a benefice •, and directed
the administration thereof to be given to sufficient and
responsible laymen, who should take an oath, like that
of tutors, for the faithful discharge thereof, and be ac¬
countable to the ordinaries.—This decree was execu¬
ted and confirmed by the council of Trent.
In Britain, hospitals are buildings properly endow¬
ed, or otherwise supported by charitable contributions,
for the reception and support of the poor, aged, infirm,
sick, or helpless.
A charitable foundation laid thus for the sustenance
and relief of the poor is to continue for ever. Any
person seized of an estate in fee, may, by deed inrol-
led in chancery, erect and found an hospital, and no¬
minate such heads and governors therein as he shall
think fit \ and this charitable foundation shall be in¬
corporated, and subject to the inspection and guidance'
of the heads and visitors nominated by the founder.
Likewise such corporations shall have, take, and pur¬
chase lands, so as not to exceed 200I. a year, provided
the same be not held of the king; and to make leases
reserving the accustomed yearly rent. See Corpora¬
tion.
HOSPITAL, Michael de l’, chancellor of France
in the 16th century, was one of the greatest men of
ins age, and had raised himself by degrees. He agreed
to an edict much severer against the Protestants than
he could have wished, to prevent the introduction of Hospital,
the inquisition. It was that of Komorantin. The Hospital!,,
speeches he made, in order to inspire a spirit of tolera-'““"v-'-'
tion, made him much suspected by the Roman Catho¬
lics, and extremely odious to the court of Rome. The
maxims of state upon which he regulated himself were
of great advantage to France, since he formed some
disciples who opposed, in proper time, the pernicious
attempts of the leaguers, and rendered them abortive.
His pacific views being disliked by Catharine de Me-
dicis, who had contributed to his advancement, she ex¬
cluded him from the council of war, and occasioned his
disgrace. He retired, however, of his own accord, in
1568 ; and spent the rest of his life at his country-seat
at Vignai, where he died in 1573, aged 68. His
poems are esteemed. He also published some excellent
speeches and memoirs.
Hospital, Wilham-Francis-Antony, Marquis of, a
great mathematician of France, was horn of an ancient
family in 1661. He was a geometrician almost from
his infancy; for one day being at the duke of Rohan’s,
where some able mathematicians were speaking of a
problem of Paschal’s which appeared to them extreme¬
ly difficult, he ventured to say, that he believed he
could solve it. They were amazed at such presump¬
tion in a boy of 15, for he was then no more; never¬
theless, in a few days he sent them the solution. He
entered early into the army, and was a captain of
horse ; but being extremely short-sighted, and exposed
on that account to perpetual inconveniences and errors,
he at length quitted the army, and applied himself en- ,
tirely to his favourite amusement. He contracted a
friendship for Malebranche, and took his opinion upon
all occasions. In 1693, he was received an honorary
member of the academy of sciences at Paris ; and he
published a work upon Sir Isaac Newton’s calculations,
entitled, VAnalyse des wfinimens petits. He was the
first in France who wrote upon this subject; and on
this account was regarded almost as a prodigy. He
engaged afterwards in another work of the mathemati¬
cal kind, in which he included Les Sections Coniques,
les Lieux Geometriques, la Construction des Equations,
ct Une Theorie des Courbes Mechaniques: but a little
before he had finished it, he was seized with a fever, of
which he died Feb. 2. 1704, aged 43. It was publish¬
ed after his death.
HOSPITALITY, the practice of entertaining
strangers. Hr Robertson, speaking of the middle ages,
says, “ Among people whose manners are simple, and
who are seldom visited by strangers, hospitality is a vir¬
tue of the first rank. This duty of hospitality was so
necessary in that state of society which took place during
the middle ages, that it was not considered as one of
those virtues which men may practise or not, according
to the temper of their minds and the generosity of then-
hearts. Hospitality was enforced by statutes, and those
who neglected the duty were liable to punishment.
The laws of the Salvi ordained that the moveables of
an inhospitable person should be confiscated, and his
house burnt. They were even so solicitous for the en¬
tertainment of strangers, that they permitted the land¬
lord to steal for the support of his guest.”
The hospitality of our British ancestors, particularly
of the great and opulent barons, hath been much ad¬
mired,
H O S [ 629 ] H O S
» italiiy, mired, and considered as a certain proof of the noble-
Z y—~J ness and generosity of their spirits. The fact is well
attested. The castles of the powerful barons were ca¬
pacious palaces, daily crowded with their numerous
retainers, who were always welcome to their plentiful
tables. They had their privy counsellors, their trea¬
surers, marshals, constables, stewards, secretaries, chap¬
lains, heralds, pursuivants, pages, henshmen or guards,
trumpeters, minstrels, and in a word all the officers of
a royal court. The etiquette of their families was an
exact copy of that of the royal household ; and some
of them lived in a degree of pomp and splendour little
inferior to that of the greatest kings. Richard Ne¬
ville, earl of Warwick, we are told, “ was ever had in
great favour of the commons of the land, because of
the exceeding household which he daily kept in all
countries wherever he sojourned or lay : and when he
came to London, he held such an house, that six oxen
were eaten at a breakfast; and every tavern was full of
his meat.” The earls of Douglas in Scotland, before
the fall of that great family, rivalled or rather exceed¬
ed their sovereigns in pomp and profuse hospitality. But
to this manner ot living it is highly probable these
great chieftains were prompted by a desire of increa¬
sing the number and attachment of their retainers, on
which, in those turbulent times, their dignity, and
even their safety, depended, as much as to the innate
generosity of their tempers. Those retainers did not
constantly reside in the lamilies of their lords ; but
they wore their liveries and badges, frequently feasted
in their halls, swelled their retinues on all great solem¬
nities, attended them in their journeys, and followed
them into the field of battle. Some powerful chief¬
tains had so great a number of these retainers constant¬
ly at their command, that they set the laws at defiance,
were formidable to their sovereigns, and terrible to
their fellow-subjects j and several laws were made
against giving and receiving liveries. But these laws
produced little effect in this period.
Hospitality was not confined to the great and opu¬
lent, but was practised rather more than it is at pre¬
sent by persons in the middle and lower ranks of life.
But this was owing to necessity, arising from the scar¬
city of inns, which obliged travellers and strangers to
apply to private persons for lodging and entertainment j
and those who received them hospitably acquired a
right to a similar reception. This was evidently the
case in Scotland in the first part of this period.
James I. A. D. 1424, procured the following act of
parliament. “ It is ordanit, That in all burrow townis,
and throuchfairis quhair commoun passages ar, that
thair he ordanit hostillaries and resettis, havand stables
and chalmers j and that men find with thame bread
and aill, and all uther Rule, alsweil for horse as men,
for resonable price.” But travellers had been so long
accustomed to lodge in private houses, that these pub¬
lic inns were quite neglected 5 and those who kept
them presented a petition to parliament, complaining,
“ That the liegis travelland in the real me, quhen they
cum to burrowis and throuchfairis, herbreis thame not
in hostillaries, hot with thair acquaintance and freindis.”
This produced an act prohibiting travellers to lodge in
private houses where there were hostlaries, under the
penalty of 40s. and subjecting those who lodged them
to the same penalty.
The inhabitants of the Highlands and the Western Hospitality
Isles were remarkable for their hospitality and kindness [|
to strangers, and still retain the same disposition. See Host.
Highlanders. ' v '
HOSPITALLERS, Hospitalarii, an order of
religious knights, who built an hospital at Jerusalem,
wherein pilgrims were received. To these Pope Cle¬
ment V. transferred the effects and revenues of the
Templars ; whom, by a council held at Vienne, he
suppressed for their many and great misdemeanours.
These hospitallers were otherwise called Knights of
St John of Jerusalem ; and are the same with those
whom we now call Knights of Malta.
HOSPITIUM, a term used in old writers either
for an inn or a monastery, built for the reception
of strangers and travellers. See Inn and Monas¬
tery.
HOSPODAR, a title borne by the princes of
Walachia and Moldavia, who receive the investiture
of their principalities from the grand signior. He
gives them a vest and standard 5 they are under his
protection, and obliged to serve him, and he even
sometimes deposes them ; but in other respects they
are absolute sovereigns within their own dominions.
HOST, Hospes, a term of mutual relation, ap¬
plied both to a person who lodges and entertains an ¬
other, and to the person thus lodged, &c.—The word
is formed of the Latin hospes, which some will have
thus called quasi hostium or ostium petens ; for ostium
was anciently written with an aspirate.—Thus the inn¬
keeper says, he has a good host, in speaking of the
traveller who lodges with him : and the traveller,
again, says, he has a kind host, in speaking of 1ms
landlord.
It must be observed then, that it was the custom
among the ancients, when any stranger asked for lod¬
ging, for the master of the house, and the stranger,
each of them to set a foot on their own side of the
threshold, and swear they would neither of them do
any harm to the other. It was this ceremony that
raised so much horror against those who violated the
law or right of hospitality on either side 5 inasmuch as
they were looked on as perjured.
Instead of hospes, the ancient Latins called it hostis ;
as Cicero himself informs us : though, iu course of
time, hostis came to signify an enemy so much was
the notion of hospitality altered.
Host is also used by way of abbreviation for host/a,
a victim or sacrifice offered to the Deity. In this
sense, host is more immediately understood qf the per¬
son of the Word incarnate, who was offered up an host
or hostia to the Father on the cross for the sins of
mankind. See Hostia.
Host, in the church of Rome, a name given to
the elements used in the eucharist, or rather to the
consecrated wafer; which they pretend to oiler up
every day a new host or sacrifice for the sins ot man¬
kind.—They pay adoration to the host, upon a false
presumption that the elements are no longer bread and
wine, but transubstantiated into the real body and blood
of Christ. See Transubstantiation.—Pope Gre¬
gory IX. first decreed a bell to be rung, as the signal
for the people to betake themselves to the adoration of
the host.—The vessel wherein the hosts are kept is call¬
ed the eiboru; being a large kind of covered chalice.
HOSTAGE*
HOT [6,
Hostage ‘HOSTAGE, a person given up to an enemy as
[} a security for the performance of the articles of a
Hot-beds, treaty.
'     HOSTIA, Host, in antiquity, a victim offered in
sacrifice to a deity.
The word is formed from hostis, “enemy,” it being
the custom to offer up a sacrifice before they joined
battle, to render the gods propitious ; or, after the
battle was over to give them thanks. Some choose to
derive the word from hostio, q. A.ferio, “ I strike.”
Isidore on this word remarks, that the name hostia was
given to those sacrifices which they offered before they
marched to attack an enemy, (antequam ad hostem
pergsrent) : in contradistinction from victima, which
were properly those offered after the victory.
Hostia also signified the lesser sorts of sacrifice, and
victima the larger. A. Gellius says, that every priest,
indifferently, might sacrifice the hostia^ but that the
victima could be offered by none but the conqueror
himself. But, after all, we find these two words pro¬
miscuously used one for the other by ancient writers.
We read of many kinds of hostice: as hosticepui'ce, which
were pigs or lambs ten days old j hostice prcecidancce,
sacrifices offered the day before a solemn feast j hostice
bidentes, sacrifices of sheep or other animals of two
years old ; hostice eximice, a sacrifice of the flower of
the flock ; hostice succedancce, sacrifices offered after
others which had exhibited some ill omen j hostile am-
barvales, victims sacrificed after having been solemn¬
ly led round the fields at the ambarvalia; hostice am-
burbiales, victims slain after ihe amburbium ; hostice
citneares or caviares, victims sacrificed every fifth year
by the college of pontiffs, in which they offered the part
of the tail called caviar; hostice prodigice, sacrifices in
which the fire consumed all, and left nothing for the
priests ; hostice piaculares, expiatory sacrifices ; hostice
ambegnce or ambiegnce, sacrifices of cows or sheep that
had brought forth twins j hostice harugce, victims of¬
fered to predict future events from j hostice mediates,
black victims offered at noon.
HOSTILITY, the action of an enemy, or a state
of warfare, The word is Latin, hostilitas, formed of
the primitive hostis, which signifies “ enemy $” and
which anciently signified “ stranger,” hospes.
HOT-beds, in Gardening, beds made with fresh
horse-dung, or tanners bark, and covered with glasses
to defend them from cold winds.
By the skilful management of hot-beds, we may imi¬
tate the temperature of warmer climates j by which
means, the seeds of plants brought from any of the
countries within the torrid zone may be made to flou¬
rish even under the poles.
The hot-beds commonly used in kitchen-gardens
are made with new horse-dung mixed with the litter
of a stable, and a few sea-coal ashes, which last are
of service in continuing the heat of the dung. This
should remain six or seven days in a heap 5 and being
then turned over, and the parts mixed well together
it should be again cast into a heap ; where it may coni
tinue five or six days longer, by which time it will
have acquired a due heat. These hot-beds are made
in the following manner: In some sheltered part of
the garden, dig out a trench of a length and width
proportionable to the frames you intend it for j and if
the ground be dry, about a foot or a foot and a half
30 ] HOT
deep j but if it be wet, not above six inches : then u0[ bed
wheel the dung into the opening, observing to stir ■ 'yl^
every part of it with a fork, and to lay it exactly even
and smooth on every part of the bed, laying the bot¬
tom part of the heap, which is commonly free from lit¬
ter, upon the surface of the bed : and if it be designed
for a bed to plant out cucumbers to remain for good,
you must make a hole in the middle of the place de¬
signed for each light about ten inches over, and six
deep, which should be filled with good fresh earth,
thrusting in a stick to show the places where the holes
are ; then cover the bed all over with the earth that
was taken out of the trench about four inches thick,
and put on the frame, letting it remain till the earth
be warm, which commonly happens in three or four-
days after the bed is made, and then the plants may
be placed in it. But if your hot-bed be designed for
other plants, there need be no holes made in the dungj
but after having smoothed the surface with a spade,
you should cover the dung about three or four inches
thick with good earth, putting on the frames and glas¬
ses as before. In making these beds, care must be
taken to settle the dung close with a fork j and if it be
pretty full of long litter, it should be trod down equally
on every part. During the first week or ten days af¬
ter the bed is made, you should cover the glasses but
slightly in the night, and in the day-time carefully
raise them, to let out the steam : but as the heat
abates, the covering should be increased 5 and as the
bed grows cold, new hot dung should be added round
the sides of it.
The hot-bed made with tanners bark is, however,
much preferable to that described above, especially
for all tender exotic plants and fruits, which require
an even degree of warmth to be continued for several
months, which cannot be effected with horse-dung.
The manner of making them is as follows : Dig a
trench about three feet deep, if the ground be drv j
but if wet, it must not be above a foot deep at most,
and must be raised two feet above the ground. The
length must be proportioned to the frames intended to
cover it j but it should never be less than ten or twelve
feet, and the width not less than six. The trench
should be bricked up round the sides to the above-
mentioned height of three feet, and filled in the spring
with fresh tanners bark that has been lately drawn out
of their vats, and has lain in a round heap, for the
moisture to drain out of it, only three or four days: as
it is put in, gently beat it down equally with a dung-
fork j but it must not be trodden, which would pre¬
vent its heating, by settling it too close: then put on
the frame, covering it with glasses ; and in about ten
days or a fortnight it will begin to heat; at which time
plunge your pots of plants or seeds into it, observing
not to tread down the bark in doing it. These beds
will continue three or four months in a good temper of
heat; and if you stir up the bark pretty deep, and mix
a load or two of fresh bark with the old when you find
the warmth decline, you will preserve its heat two or
three months longer. Many lay some hot horse-dung
in the bottom of the trench under the bark; but this
ought never to be practised unless the bed is wanted
sooner than the bark would heat of itself, and even
then there ought only to be a small quantity of dung at
the bottom.
The
HOT
Hi iou<e franies which cover these betls should be pro-
« portioned to the several plants they are designed to
Ho ntots. contain. If they are to cover the ananas or pine-
1 1 apple, the back part should be three feet high, and the
lower part 14 inches: if the bed be intended for taller
plants, the frame must be made of a depth proportion-
able to them ; but if it be for sowing of seeds, the
frame need not be above 14 inches high at the back,
and 7 in the front; by which means the heat will be
much greater.
Hot-House. See Stove and Hypocaustum.
HOTEL, a French term, anciently signifying a
house or dwelling place.—It is now more commonly
used for the palaces or houses of the king, princes, and
great lords. In this sense they say, the hotel de Conde,
hotel de Conti, hotel du Louvre, &c.
The grand prevot de Photel, is the first judge of the
officers of the king’s household. His jurisdiction is
much like that of lord steward of the household of the
king of England.
The hotel de ville is what we call a town-house or
town-hall.
Hotel, is likewise used for a large inn, also for a
large lodging-house ready furnished.
HOTTENTOTS, a people in the southern part of
Africa, whose country extends north by west from
the Cape of Good Hope beyond the mouth of Orange
river, and from that cape in an east-north-east direc¬
tion to the mouth of the great Fish river, which
parts it from Caffraria. According to Sanulus, this
coast, beginning at the Mountains of the Moon un¬
der the tropic of Capricorn in 23^° S. Eat. extends
north beyond the Cape to the coast of Zanguebar ;
having the Indian sea on the east, the Ethiopic on the
west, the southern ocean on the south $ and on the north
the kingdoms of Mattatan, Monomotapa, and the coast
of Zanguebar, or rather the Mountains of tile Moon,
which divide it from the rest of the continent.
The Europeans first became acquainted with this
country in the year 1493, when Bartholomew Diaz,
a Portuguese admiral, discovered the most southerly
point of Africa, now called the Cape of Good Hope, but
by him Cabos dos totos tormentos, or Cape of all
Plagues, on account of the storms he met with in the
neighbourhood; but John, then king of Portugal, ha¬
ving from the account of Diaz concluded that a pas¬
sage to the East Indies was now discovered, changed
the name to that of the Cape of Good Hope, which it
still retains. In 1497* was circumnavigated by
Vasco de Gama, who made a voyage to India that
way ; however, it remained useless to Europeans till
the year 1650, when Van Riebeck a Dutch surgeon
first saw the advantages that would accrue to the East
India company in Holland from a settlement at such
a convenient distance both from home and from India.
I he colony which he planted has ever since continued
in the hands of the Dutch, has greatly increased in
value, and is visited by all the European ships trading
to the East Indies. See GooD-Hope.
The country now7 possessed by the Dutch is of pret¬
ty considerable extent, and comprehends that part of
the African coast on the west called Terra de Natal.
It is naturally barren and mountainous ; but the in¬
dustry of the Dutch hath overcome all natural difficul-
C 631 ]
HOT
ties, and it now produces not only a sufficiency of all Hottentots
the necessaries of life for the inhabitants, but "also for ^ v—
the refreshment of all the Europeans who pass and re¬
pass that way.
The coast abounds in capes, bays, and roads. Thir¬
ty leagues to the east of the Cape of Good Hope, in
S. Lat. 34. 21. is another cape which runs out be-
yond 350, called by the Portuguese, who first doubled
it, Cabo dos Agulhas, or the Cape of Needles, on ac¬
count of some strange variations in the magnetical
needle observed as they came near it. Near this cape
is a flat shore, with plenty of fish : it begins in the
west near a fresh-water river, and, extending 15 leagues
in the main sea, ends in the east near Fish-bay. Cabo
Falso, so called by the Portuguese, who returning from
India mistook it for the Cape of Good Hope, lies to
the eastward between these two capes, about eight or
time leagues beyond that of Good Hope. Along the
coasts, on both sides of the Cape of Good Hope, are
many fine bays. Twenty-seven leagues to the north¬
west is Saldanha bay, so named from a Portuguese cap¬
tain shipwrecked on the coast. The largest and most
commodious is Table Bay, on the south, and near the
mountain of that name, six leagues in circumference,
with four fathoms water close to the beach. Opposite
to this bay is Bobu Eilan, or the island of Rabbits in
34. 30. S. Lat. 67 leagues east from the Cape of Good
Hope. Peter Both, in 1661, discovered a bay, which
he named Uleest, sheltered only from north winds, in
which is a small island, and on the west a rivulet of fresh
water extremely convenient for European mariners.
Twenty-five or thirty leagues farther east Both dis¬
covered Marshal Bay, afterwards named by the Portu¬
guese Seno Formosa. Next to this is Seno de Logo,
from its resemblance to a lake. There are several
roads in this bay, and an island called Hha dos Caos.
Cabo de S. Francisco, and Cabo das Serras, are mark¬
ed upon charts between these two bays. Near the
latter of these capes is Cabo de Arecito, and the
island Contento; and something more north-east is
St Christopher’s river, called San Christovano by the
Portuguese, and by the Hottentots Nagod. The
country beyond this river was called by the Por¬
tuguese, who discovered it on the day of our Lord’s
nativity, Terra de Natal. Between the Cape of
Good Hope and Cabo das Agulhas are the Sweet,
Salt, and Jagulina rivers, which run into the sea, and
Sweet-water river flows from the Table-mountain.
The most remarkable mountains in this country are,
Table-mountain, Devil’s Tower, Lion’s Head, and the
Tiger hills. The three first lie near Table-bay, and
surround Table-valley, where the Cape-town stands.
(See the article Goon-Hope'). Mr Forster, in his voy¬
age, informs us, that “ the extremity of Africa towards
the south is a mass of high mountains, of which the
outermost are craggy, black, and barren, consisting of
a coarse granite, which contains no heterogeneous parts,
such as petrified shells, &c. nor any volcanic produc¬
tions. The ground gradually rises on all sides towards
the three mountains which lie round the bottom of the
bay, keeping low and level only near the sea-side, and
growing somewhat marshy in the isthmus between False
and Table bays, where a salt rivulet falls into the lat¬
ter. The marshy part has some verdure, but inter¬
mixed
HOT [ 032 ] HOT
mixed with a great deal of sand. The higher
grounds, which, from the sea side, have a parched
and dreary appearance, are, however, covered with
an immense variety of plants, among which are a
prodigious number of shrubs, but scarce one or two
species that deserve the name of trees. There are al¬
so a few small plantations wherever a little run of wa¬
ter moistens the ground. The ascent of Table-mount
is very steep and difficult, on account of the number
of loose stones which roll away under the feet of the
traveller. About the middle of the mountain is a bold,
grand chasm, whose walls are perpendicular, and often
impending rocks piled up in strata. Some rills of
water ooze out of crevices, or fall from precipices in
drops, giving life to hundreds of plants and low
shrubs in the chasm, The summit of the mountain is
nearly level, very barren, and bare of soil $ several ca¬
vities, however, are filled with rain water, or contain
a small quantity of vegetable earth, from whence a
few odoriferous plants draw their nourishment. Some
antelopes, bowling baboons, solitary vultures, and toads,
are sometimes to be met with on the mountain. The
view from thence is very extensive and picturesque. The
bay seems a little pond or bason, and the ships in it
dwindled to little boats •, the town under our feet, and
the regular compartments of its gardens, look like the
work of children.
Most accounts of this country that have been pub¬
lished mention a surprising phenomenon which is an¬
nually to be seen on the top of Table-hill from Sep¬
tember to March ; namely, a white cloud hovering on
its top, and called by sailors the Devil's table-cloth. (See
the article GooD-Hope'). This cloud is said by some
to appear at first no bigger than a barley-corn ; then
increases to the size of a walnut, and soon after co¬
vers the whole top of the mount. But, according
to Mr Kolben, it is never less, even on its first appear¬
ance, than the size of a large ox, often bigger. It
bangs in several fleeces over the Table-hill and the
Wind or Devil’s-hill ; which fleeces, at last uniting,
form a large cloud that covers the summits of these
two hills. After this has rested for some time with¬
out change or motion, the wind bursts out suddenly
from it with the utmost fury. The skirts of the cloud
are white, but seem much more compact than the mat¬
ter of common clouds j the upper parts are of a leaden
colour. No rain falls from it, but sometimes it dis¬
covers a great deal of humidity j at which times it is
of a darker colour, and the wind issuing from it is broken,
raging by fits of short continuance. In its usual state,
the wind keeps up its first fury unabated for one, two,
three, or eight days ; and sometimes for a whole month
together. The cloud seems all the while undiminished,
though little fleeces are from time to time detached,
from it, and hurried down the sides of the hills, vanish¬
ing when they reach the bottom, so that during the
stoim the cloud seems to be supplied with new matter.
When the cloud begins to brighten up, these supplies
fail, and the wind proportionably abates. At length
the cloud grovying transparent, the wind ceases. Du’
ring the continuance of these south-east winds, the
Table-valley is torn by furious whirlwinds. If they
blow warm, they are generally of short duration j and
in this case the cloud soon disappears. This wind
rarely blows till after sunset, and never longer than till
5
towards midnight, though the cloud remains ; but .then jiQtUnt(H| ^
it is thin and clear : but when the wind blows cold, it —y^.
is a sure sign, that it will last for some time, an hour
at noon and midnight excepted j when it seems to
lie still to recover itself, and then lets loose its fury
anew.
The Europeans at the Cape consider the year as di¬
vided into two seasons, which they term monsoons ; the
wet monsoon or winter, and the dry one or summer.
The first begins with our spring in March j the latter
with September, when our summer ends. In the sum¬
mer monsoon reign the south-east winds already men¬
tioned j which though they clear and render the air
more healthy, yet make it difficult for ships outward
bound to enter Table-bay. In the bad season, the
Cape is much subject to fogs $ and the north-west
winds and rain make the inhabitants stay much at
home. But there are frequent intermissions and many
clear days till June and July j when it rains almost con¬
tinually, and from thence till summer. The weather
in winter is cold, raw and unpleasant j but never
more rigorous than autumn in Germany. Water ne¬
ver freezes to above the thickness of half a crown j and
as soon as the sun appears the ice is dissolved. The
Cape is rarely visited with thunder and lightning, ex¬
cepting a little near the turn of the seasons, which ne¬
ver does any hurt. During the continuance of the
south-east winds which rage in summer, the sky is free
of all clouds except that on the Table and Wind Hills,
already mentioned j but during the north-west winds,
the air is thick, and loaded with heavy clouds big with
rain. If the south-east winds should cease for any
length of time, the air becomes sickly by reason of the
sea weeds driving ashore and rotting hence the Eu¬
ropeans are at such times affected with headachs and
other disorders : but, on the other hand, the violence
of those winds subjects them to inflammation of their
eyes, &c.
The natives of this country are called Hottentots, in
their own language j a word of which it is vain to in¬
quire the meaning, since the language of this country
can scarce be learned by any other nation. The Hot¬
tentot language is indeed said to be a composition of
the most strange and disagreeable sounds, deemed by
many the disgrace of speech, without human sound or
articulation, resembling rather the noise of irritated
turkeys, the chattering of magpies, hooting of owls, and
depending on extraordinary vibrations, inflections, and
clashings of the tongue against the palate.—If this ac¬
count is true, however, it is obvious, that all the re¬
lations we have concerning the religion, &c. of the
Hottentots derived from themselves, must fall to the
ground, as nobody can pretend to understand a lan¬
guage in itself unintelligible. The manners and cu¬
stoms of those people, however, are easily observable,
whether they themselves give the relation or not $ and
if their language is conformable to them, it is no doubt
of a nature sufficiently wonderful.
Many accounts have been published concerning the
extreme nastiness and filthy customs of the Hottentots j
but from the observations of late travellers it appears,
that these have either been exaggerated, or that the
Hottentots (which is not improbable) have in some
measure laid aside their former manners. Hr Sparrman
describes them in much less disgustful terms, and M.
Vaillant
HOT
[ 633 ]
HOT
Me :ntat*.
Vaillant seems to have been charmed with their inno¬
cence and simplicity. According to the doctor, these
people are as tall as the generality of Europeans, though
more slender in their persons, which he attributes to
their scanty supply of food, and not accustoming them¬
selves to hard labour. The characteristic of the nation,
however, and which he thinks has not been observed by
any one before, is, that they have small hands and feet
in proportion to the other parts of their body. The
distance between the eyes appears greater than in Eu¬
ropeans, by reason of the root of the nose being very
low. The tip is pretty flat, and the iris of the eye has
generally a dark-brown cast, sometimes approaching to
black. Their skin is of a yellowish brown, something
like that of an European who has the jaundice in a high
degree j though this colour does not in the least appear
in the whites of the eyes. Their lips are thinner than
those of their neighbours the Negroes, Caffres, or Mo-
%ambiques. “ In fine (says our author), their mouths
are of a middling size, and almost always furnished with
a set of the finest teeth that can be seen j and, taken
together with the rest of their features, as well as their
carriage, shape, and every motion, in short their tout
ensemble indicates health and delight, or at least an air
of sans souci. This careless mien, however, discovers
marks at the same time both of alacrity and resolution *,
qualities which the Hottentots, in fact, can show upon
occasion.” The hair of the head is black and frizzled,
though not very close *, and has so much the appear¬
ance of wool, that it would he taken for it, were it not
for its harshness. They have but seldom any appear¬
ance of a heard, or hair upon other parts of their bo¬
dies j and when any thing of this kind happens to be
visible, it is always very slight.
A general opinion has prevailed, that the Hottentot
women have a kind of natural veil which covers the
sexual parts ; but this is denied by our author. “ The
women (says he) have no parts uncommon to the rest
of their sex : but the clitoris and nymphse, particularly
of those who are past their youth, are pretty much elon¬
gated , a peculiarity which has undoubtedly got foot¬
ing in this nation in consequence of the relaxation ne¬
cessarily produced by the method they have of besmear¬
ing their bodies, their slothfulness, and the warmth of
the climate.”
The Hottentots besmear all their bodies copiously
with fat mixed up with a little soot. “ This (says
our author) is never wiped off j on the contrary, I ne¬
ver saw them use any thing to clean their skins, ex¬
cepting that when in greasing the wheels of their wag¬
gons their hands were besmeared with tar and pitch,
they used to get it off very easily with cow-dung, at
the same time rubbing their arms into the bargain up
to the shoulders with this cosmetic •, so that as the dust
and other filth, together with their sooty ointment,
and the sweat of their bodies, must necessarily, not¬
withstanding it is continually wearing off, in some mea¬
sure adhere to the skin, it contributes not a little to
conceal the natural hue of the latter, and at the same
time to change it from a bright umber-brown to a
brownish yellow colour, obscured with filth and na¬
stiness.”—The doctor was enabled to discover the na¬
tural colour of the Hottentots by means of the nicety
•f some Dutch farmers wives, who had made their
Hottentot girls wash and scour their skins, that tbev
Vol. X. Part II. f
might be less filthy in looking after the children, or Hotteatois.
doing any other work that requireu cleanliness. Many n*
of the colonists, however, are of opinion, that this ope¬
ration of washing is no improvement to the look of a
Hottentot $ but that their natural yellow is fully as
disagreeable as the black or brown colour of the oint¬
ment j and that the washed skin of a native of this
country seems to be deficient in dress, like shoes that
want blacking. This the doctor does not pretend to
determine ; though, whatever may be supposed defi¬
cient in look, we should think must be made up in
cleanliness.
The Hottentots perfume their bodies, by daubing
them all over with the powder of an herb, the smell of
which is at once rank and aromatic, approaching to
that of the poppy mixed with spices. For this purpose
they use various species of the diosma, called by them
bucku, and which they imagine to be very efficacious in
the cure of disorders. One species of this plant, grow¬
ing about GoucPs river, is said to be so valuable, that
no more than a thimble-full of its powder is given in
exchange for a Iamb.
By the ointment of soot and grease stuck full of the
powder of bucku, a paste is formed which defends the
bodies ol the Hottentots in a great measure from the
action of the air; so that they require very few clothes,
and in fact go almost quite naked. The only cover¬
ing of the men consists of two leather straps, which
generally hang down the back from the chine to the
thighs, each of them in the form of an isosceles tri¬
angle, their points uppermost, and fastened to a belt
which goes round their waist, their bases not being
above three fingers broad ; so that the covering they
form is extremely trifling. These straps have very little
dressing bestowed upon them, so that they make a rat¬
tling noise as the Hottentot runs along ; and our author
supposes that they may produce an agreeable coolness
by fanning him. Besides this, the men have a bag or
flap made of skin which hangs down before, and is
fastened to the belt already mentioned. The hollow
part of this seems designed to receive that which with
us modesty requires to be concealed ; hut being only
fastened by a small part of its upper end to a narrow
belt, in other respects hanging quite loose, it is but a
very imperfect concealment; and when the wearer is
walking, or otherwise in motion, it is none at all. They
call this purse by the Dutch name of jackall, it being
almost always prepared of the skin of that animal, with
the hairy side turned outwards.
The women cover themselves much more scrupu¬
lously than the men, having always two, and very of¬
ten three coverings like aprons ; though even these seem
to be abundantly small for what we would term decency
in this country. The outermost of these, which is the
largest, measures only from about six inches to a foot in
breadth. All of them are made of a skin well prepa¬
red and greased, the outermost being adorned with glass
beads strung in different figures. The outermost reaches
about half-way down the thighs, the middle about a
third or one half less, and the third scarcely exceeds
the breadth of the hand. The first is said to he de¬
signed for ornament, the second as a defence for mo¬
desty, and the third to be useful on certain occasions,
which, however, are much less troublesome to the Hot¬
tentot than to the European females. Our author,
4 I* with
HOT [ 634 ] HOT
Ho'lentol'. with great prohabilit}^, supposes tliat it was the sight
■ -t-- 'of this innermost apron which misled the reverend Je¬
suit Tackard, who, on his return to Europe, first pro¬
pagated the stories concerning the natural veils or ex-
ciescences of the Hottentots.—A story was likewise
commonly believed, that the men in general had but
one testicle, and that such as were not naturally form¬
ed in this manner were artificially made so. But this
our author likewise denies ; and though he says that
such an operation might have been formerly performed
upon the males, yet it is not so now.
The other garments worn by the Hottentots are
formed of a sheep’s skin with the woolly side turned
inwards ; thus forming a kind of cloak, which is tied
forwards over the breast : though sometimes, instead of
a sheep’s skin, some smaller kind of fur is used as a
material. In warm weather they let this cloak hang
carelessly over their shoulders, so that it reaches down
to the calves of the legs, leaving the lower part of the
breast, stomach, and fore part of the legs and thighs
hare ; but in cold weather they wrap it round them ;
so that the fore part of the body is likewise pretty well
covered by it as far as the knees: But as one sheep-skin
is not sufficient for this purpose, they sew on a piece
on tiie top at each side with a thong or catgut. In
warm weather they sometimes wear the woolly side out¬
wards, but more frequently take off the cloak altoge¬
ther, and carry it under their arm. This cloak or
krosse serves them not only for clothes, but bedding
also *, and in this they lie on the hare ground, drawing
up their bodies so close, that the cloak is abundantly
sufficient to cover them.—The cloaks used by the wo¬
men differ little from those already described, except¬
ing only that they have a long peak on them, which
they turn up forming with it a little hood or pouch,
with the hairy side inwards. In this they carry their
little children, to which the mother’s breasts are now
and then thrown over the shoulders ; a custom common
among some other nations, where the breasts of the fe¬
males, by continual want of support, grow to an enor¬
mous length. The men commonly wear no covering
on their heads, though our author says he has seen one
or two who wore a greasy night-cap made of skin with
the hair taken off. Those who live nearest the colonists
have taken a liking to the European hats, and wear
them slouched all round, or with only one side turned
up. The women also frequently go hare-headed ;
though they sometimes wear a cap made in the shape
of a short truncated cone. This appears to he the sec¬
tion of some animal’s stomach, and is perfectly blacked
by soot and fat mixed up together. These caps are fre¬
quently prepared in such a manner as to look shaggy •,
others have the appearance of velvet •, and in our au¬
thor’s apprehension are not inelegant. Over this they
sometimes wear an oval wreath or kind of crown made
of a buffalo’s hide, with the hair outermost. It is
about four fingers breadth in height, and surrounds
the head so as to go a little way down upon the fore¬
head, and the same depth on the neck behind, without
covering the upper part of the cap above described.
The edges of this wreath, both upper and under, are
always smooth and even ; each of them set with a row
of small shells of the cypren kind, to the number of
more than 30, in such a manner, that, being placed
quite close to one another, their beautiful white
enamel, together with their mouths, are turned out-Hottentot; ItHi®1
wards. Between two rows of these shells run two
others parallel, or else waved and indented in various
ways. The Hottentots never adorn their ears or noses
as other savages do : though the latter are sometimes
marked with a black streak of soot ; at others, though
more rarely, with a large spot of red lead ; of which
last, on festivals and holidays, they likewise put a little
on their cheeks. The necks of the men are bare, but
those of the women are ornamented with a thong of
undressed leather, upon which are strung eight or
ten shells. These, which are about the size of beans,
have a white ground, with large black spots of differ¬
ent sizes : but as they are always made use of in a bur¬
nished state, the doctor is uncertain whether they be
of that kind which is described in the Systema Natura
under the name of nerita alhicilla, or exuvia. These
shells are sold at an enormous price, no less than a
sheep for each j as it is said that they come from the
more distant coast of Caffraria. Both men and women
are very fond of European beads, particularly the blue
and white ones of the size of a pea 5 of which they tie
several rows round the middle, and next to the girdles
which hold the coverings above mentioned. Besides
these ornaments, they use rings on their arms and legs,
most of them made of thick leather straps generally
cut in a circular shape •, which, by being beat and held
over the fire, are rendered tough enough to retain the
curvature that is given them. From these rings it
has been almost universally believed, that the Hotten¬
tots wrap guts about their legs in order to eat them
occasionally. The men wear from one to five or six
of these rings on their arms, just above the wrist, but
seldom on their legs. The matrons of a higher rank
have frequently a considerable number of them both on
their arms and ]egs; especially on the latter : so that
they are covered with them from the feet up to the
knees. These rings are of various thicknesses, from
that of a goose-quill to two or three times that size.
Sometimes they are made of pieces of leather forming
one entire ring ; so that the arms and feet must be put
through them when the wearer wishes to put them
on. They are strung upon the legs, small and great,
without any nicety ; but are so large, that they shake
and get twisted when the person walks. Kings of
iron or copper, hut especially ol brass, of the size of a
goose-quill, are considered as more genteel than those
of leather. However, they are sometimes worn along
with the latter, to the number of six or eight at a time,
particularly on the arms. The girls are not allowed
to use any rings till they are marriageable. The Hot¬
tentots seldom wear any shoes ; but such as they do
make use of are of the same form with those worn by
the African peasants, by the Esthonians, and Livo¬
nians, as well as by some Finlanders ; so that it is
impossible to say whether they are the invention of the
Dutch or the Hottentots themselves. They are made
of undressed leather, with the hairy side outward ; with¬
out any other preparation than that of being beat
and moistened. If it be a thick and stout hide, as
that of a buffalo, it is kept for some hours in cow-
dung, which renders it besides very soft and pliable.
Some kind of grease is afterwards used for the same
purpose. The shoes are then made in the following
manner. They take a piece of leather of a rectanga-
hot [ 635 ] HOT
Ho ntots. lar form, something longer and broader than the foot
w. 'of the person for whom the shoes are intended j the two
foremost corners are doubled up together, and sewed
down, so as to cover the fore-part of the foot; but
this seam may be avoided, and the shoes made much
neater at the toes, by fitting immediately over them a
cap taken from the membrane in the knee-joint of the
hind-leg of some animal. In order to make this piece
cf skin or leather rise up to the height of an inch on
both sides of the foot, and close it in neatly, it is
pierced with holes at small distances all round the
edge, as far as the hind-quarters j and through these
holes is passed a thong, by which the rim is drawn up
into gathers. In order to make strong hind-quarters,
the back part of the piece of leather is doubled inwards,
and then raised up and pressed along the heel. The
ends of the thong or gathering string are then threaded
on both sides through the upper edge of the hind¬
quarters, to the height of about two inches •, they are
then carried forwards in order to be drawn through two
of the above-mentioned holes on the inside of each
rim. Lastly, They are tied over the instep, or if it be
thought necessary to tie the shoe still faster, they are
carried crosswise over the instep, and so downwards
under the thong, which comes out from the hind quar¬
ters 5 then upwards again over the ancle, and even round
the leg itself if the wearer chooses. Shoes of this kind
are not without their advantages : they sit as neat upon
the foot as a stocking, and at the same time preserve
their form. They are easily kept soft and pliable by
constantly wearing them ; or if at any time they should
become somewhat hard, this is easily remedied by beat¬
ing and greasing them. They are extremely light and
cool, by reason that they do not cover so much of the
foot as a common shoe. They wear very well, as they
are without any seam, and the soles of the shoes are
both tough and yielding. These field shoes, as they
are called, being made of almost raw leather, are much
more durable than those of tanned leather, which are
burnt up by the African sands, and slip and roll about
in them j being also very ready to be torn in a rocky
soil, which is not the case with the others. The doctor
is of opinion, that these shoes would be particularly use¬
ful to sailors. ■»
The huts of the Hottentots are built exactly alike ;
and we may readily give credit to our author when he
tells us, that they are done in a style of architecture
which does not a little contribute to keep envy from
insinuating itself under the roofs. Some of these huts
are circular, and others of an oblong shape, resembling
a round bee-hive or vault j the ground-plot being
from 18 to 24 feet in diameter. The highest are so
low, that it is scarce ever possible for a middle-sized
man to.stand upright even in the centre of the arch ;
“ but (says our author) neither the lowness thereof, nor
that of the door, which is but just three feet high, can .
perhaps be considered as any inconvenience to an Hot¬
tentot, who finds no difficulty in stooping and crawl¬
ing upon all fours, and is at any time more inclined
to lie down than to stand. The fire-place is in the
middle of each hut, by which means the walls are not
so much exposed to danger from fire. From this situa¬
tion of the fire-place also the Hottentots derive this
additional advantage, that they can all sit or lie in a
circle round it, enjoying equally the warmth of the
fire. The door, low as it is, alone lets in day-light or Hoticntou.
lets out the smoke: and so much are these people ac- '1v~~' 1 '
customed to live in such smoky mansions, that their eyes
are never affected by it in the least, nor even by the
mephitic vapour of the fuel, which to Europeans would
be certain death.
The frame of the arched roof is composed of slen¬
der rods or sprays of trees. These being previously
bent into a proper form, are laid, either whole or
pieced, some parallel to one another, others crosswise $
after which they are strengthened by binding others
round them in a circular form with withies. All these
are taken principally from the cliffortia conoides, which
grows plentifully in this country near the rivers. Large
mats are then placed very neatly over this lattice work,
so as perfectly to cover the whole. The aperture which
is left for the door is closed occasionally by a skin or
piece of matting. These mats are made of a kind of
cane or reed in the following manner. The reeds be¬
ing laid parallel to one another, are fastened together
with sinews or catgut, or some kind of catgut which they
have had an opportunity of getting from the Europeans ;
so that they have it in their power to make them as
long as they please, and as broad as the length of the
reeds, which is from six to ten feet. The colonists
make use of the same kind of matting, next to the
tilts of their waggons, to prevent the sail-cloth from
being rubbed and worn, and likewise to help to keep
out the rain.
In a kraal, or Hottentot village, the huts are most
commonly disposed in a circle with the doors inwards j
by which means a kind of court-yard is formed, where
the cattle are kept at nights. The milk, as soon as
taken from the cow, is put to other milk which is
curdled, and kept in a leather sack with the hairy
side inwards, as being the more cleanly ; so that thus
the milk is never drunk sweet. In some northern di¬
stricts, where the land is dry and parched, both Hot¬
tentots and colonists are shepherds. When a Hot¬
tentot has a mind to shift his dwelling, he lays all the
mats, skins, and rods, of which it is composed, on the
backs of his cattle, which, to a stranger, makes a mon¬
strous, unwieldy, and even ridiculous appearance.
There is a species of Hottentots named BoshiesmeTi)
who dwell in the woody and mountainous parts, and
subsist entirely by plunder. They use poisoned ar¬
rows, which they shoot from bows about a yard long
and an inch in thickness in the middle, very much
pointed at both ends. Dr Sparrman does not know
the wood of which they are made, but thinks that
it is not very elastic. The strings were made, some
of sinews, and others of a kind of hemp, or the
inner bark of some vegetable ; but most of them in a ,
very slovenly manner. The arrows are about a foot
and a half long, headed with bone and a triangular
bit of iron j having also a piece of quill bound on
very strongly with sinews, about an inch and a half
from the top, in order to prevent it from being easily
drawn out of the flesh. The whole is lastly covered
over with a very deadly poison of the consistence of an
extract. Their quivers are two feet long and four
jnches in diameter j and are supposed by our author to
be made of the branch of a tree hollowed out, or more
probably of the bark of one of the branches taken off
whole, the bottom and cover being made of leather.
4 L a It
HOT [ 636 ] HOT
Hottentots It fs daubed on the outside with an unctuous substance
v—-< which grows hard when dry, and is lined about the
aperture with the skin of the yellow serpent, supposed
to be the most deadly in all that part ol the woild.
The poison they make use of is taken from the most
venomous serpents; and, ignorant as the Hottentots
are, they all know that the poison of serpents may be
swallowed with safety. See the article BoSHIESMEN.
In the year ^779> Lieutenant William 1 aterson,
who took a long and dangerous excursion from the
Cape along the western side of the continent, disco¬
vered a new tribe of Hottentots, whose living, he says,
is in the highest degree wretched, and who are ap¬
parently the dirtiest of all the Hottentot tribes. Their
dross is composed oi the skins ol seals and jackals, the
flesh of which animals they feed upon. Il a grampus
happens to be cast ashore, they remove their huts to
the place, and feed upon the carcase as long as it lasts,
though perhaps it may be half rotten by the heat of
the weather. They besmear their skins with the oil;
by which means they smell so exceedingly rank that
their approach may be thus perceived before they come
in sight. Their huts, however, are much superior to
those of the southern Hottentots already described;
being higher, thatched with grass, and furnished with
stools made of the back bones of the grampus./ They
dry their fish in the sun ; as the lieutenant found several
kinds of fish near their huts suspended from poles, pro¬
bably for this purpose. He found also several aromatic
plants which they had been drying.
With respect to the religion of the Hottentots, it
does not appear that they have any. On being ques¬
tioned on the subject of a Creator and Governor of
the universe, they answer that they know nothing of
the matter; nor do they seem willing to receive any
instruction. All of them, however, have the most firm
belief in the powers of magic; from whence it might
be inferred that they believe in an evil being analogous
to what we call the devil; but they pay no religious
worship to him, though from this source they derive
all the evil that happens, and among these evils they
reckon cold, rain, and thunder. So monstrously ig¬
norant are they, that many of the colonists assured Dr
Sparrman, that their Boshiesmec would abuse the thun¬
der with many opprobrious epithets, and threaten to
assault the flashes of lightning with old shoes, or any
thing that comes first to hand. Even the most intel¬
ligent among them could not be convinced by all the
arguments our author could use, that rain was not al¬
ways an evil, and that it would be an unhappy circum¬
stance if it were never to rain. “ A maxim (says he),
from a race of men in other respects really endowed
with some sense, and frequently with no small degree of
penetration and cunning, ought, methinks to he consi¬
dered as an indelible religious or superstitious notion
entertained by them from their infancy, rather than
as an idea taken up on due deliberation and consequent
conviction.”
As the Hottentots have so strong a belief in the
powers of magic, it is no wonder that they have abun¬
dance of witches and conjurers among them. These
will readdy undertake any thing, even to put a stop
to thunder and rain, provided they be well paid for
their pains ; and if it happen to thunder or rain longer
than the time they promised, they have alwayr for an
excuse, that a more powerful conjurer has put a stop Hotuntou. l! !
to their incantations. Many of the Hottentots be- s—y—^
lieve that all disorders incident to the human body are
cured by magic. The wizards are fond of encouraging
this idea: but at the same time take care to employ
both external and internal remedies. Among the for¬
mer may be reckoned a cure performed upon Captain
Cook in some of the South-sea islands, viz. that of
pinching, cuffing, and kneading the whole body of the
patient. To this, however, the Hottentot physician#
add that of pretending to suck out a bone from some
part of the patient’s body. After this it sometime#
happens that the sick person is relieved, and sometime#
not. In the latter case the operation is repeated ; and
if he dies, his friends lament that he was bewitched
beyond the power of any one to assist him. These
conjurers appear to he possessed of considerable slight
of hand. Our author was informed by a colonist, that
when he was a child, and playing with a bone of an ox
which he drew as a cart, it appeared to his great asto¬
nishment to he sucked out of a sick person’s back by
a wizard; and as far as he could remember, the pa¬
tient recovered soon after. These pretensions of the
wizards sometimes render them liable to persecutions;
and there is an instance of a chief named Paloo, who
ordered a general massacre among them, in hopes of cut¬
ting off the person who he believed had bewitched him¬
self, and afflicted him with sore eyes.
The superstition of the Hottentots never operates
in the way of making them afraid in the dark. They
seem, however, to have some ideas of a future state,
as they reproach their friends, when dead, with leaving
them so soon : at the same time admonishing them
from henceforth to demean themselves properly; by
which they mean, that their deceased friends should
not come back again and haunt them, nor allow them¬
selves to be made use of by wizards to bring any mis¬
chief on those that survive them.
There is a genus of insects (the mantis) which, it
has been generally thought, the Hottentots worship;
but our author is so far from being of this opinion,
that he tells us they have more than once eatched se¬
veral of them for him, and assisted him in sticking pins
through them as he did through other insects. “ There
is (says he), however, a diminutive species of this in¬
sect, which some think it would be a crime, as well
as very dangerous to do any harm to: but this we
have no more reason to look upon as any kind of reli¬
gious worship, than we have to consider in the same
light a certain superstitious notion prevalent among
many of the more simple people in our own country
(Sweden), who imagine that their sins will be forgiven
them, if they set a cock-chafer on its feet that has
happened to fall upon its back. The moon, according
to Kolbe, receives a kind of adoration from the Hot¬
tentots ; but the fact is, that they merely take the op¬
portunity of her beams, and at the same time of the
coolness of the night, to amuse themselves with dan¬
cing, and consequently have no more thoughts of wor¬
shipping her than the Christian colonists who are seen
at that time strolling in great numbers about the streets,
and parading on the stone steps with which their houses
are usually encircled. The conjurers themselves, ac¬
cording to our author, are generally freethinkers, who
have neither religion nor superstition of any kind.
Lieutenant
HOT [637
H«t not*. Lieutenant Paterson has given the following ac«
— ——'count of the Cadres, a nation whom no European but
himself had then seen, and who inhabit the country to
the north-east of the Cape as far down as 310 south la¬
titude.
The men are from five feet ten inches to six feet
high, and well proportioned j and in general manifest
great courage in attacking lions or other wild beasts.
The nation, at the time he visited them, was divided
into two parties, one to the northward, commanded by
a chief named Cha C/iaBea, or Tambushic, which latter
appellation he had obtained from his mother, a woman
of an Hottentot tribe named Tambukies. This man
was the son of a chief named Pharoa, who died about
three years before, and left two sons Cha Cha Bea, and
another named Dsirika, who claimed the supreme au¬
thority on account of his mother being of the Cafire
nation. This occasioned a contest between the two
brothers, in the course of which Cha Cha Bea was
driven out of his territories with a great number of his
party ; after which he took up his residence at a place
named Khouta, where he had an opportunity of en¬
tering into an alliance with the Boshiesmen.—The
Caffres are of a jet black colour, their eyes large,
and their teeth as while as ivory. The clothing of
both sexes is nearly the same ; consisting entirely of
the hides of oxen, which are made as pliant as cloth.
The men wear tails of different animals tied round
their thighs, pieces of brass in their hair, and large
rings of ivory on their arms : they are likewise adorn¬
ed with the hair of lions, feathers fastened on their
heads, &c. They use the ceremony of circumcision,
which is usually performed upon them when they are
nine years of age. They are very fond of dogs, which
they exchange for cattle, and will even give two bul¬
locks in exchange for one dog which pleases them.
They are expert in throwing lances, and in time of
war use shields made of the hides of oxen. Through¬
out the day the men occupy themselves in hunting,
fighting, or dancing *, the women being employed in
the cultivation of their gardens and corn. They seem
not to he destitute of the knowledge of agriculture, as
they cultivate several vegetables which do not natu¬
rally grow in their own country, viz., tobacco, water¬
melons, a small kind of ki/lney-beans, and hemp. The
ivomen also make their ba ikets, and the mats on which
they lie. The men are
cut their horns in such 0
ry fond of their cattle, and
manner as to be able to turn
them into any shape they please, and teach them to an¬
swer to a whistle. Mr Paterson is of opinion, that the
country they inhabit is greatly superior to any part of
Africa.
Of the Dutch settlements and policy at the Cape,
Mr Forster gives the following account.
“ The income of the governor here is very consi¬
derable : for, besides a fixed appointment, and the.
use of houses, gardens, proper furniture, and every
thing that belongs to his table, he receives about 10
dollars for every leagre of wine which the company
buy of the farmer in order to be exported to Batavia.
The company allows the sum of 40 dollars for each
leagre, of which the farmer receives but 24: what
remains is shared between the governor and second or
deputy; the former taking two-thirds, which some¬
times are said to amount to 4000 dollars per annum.
] HOT
The deputy-governor has the direction of the com¬
pany’s whole commerce here, and signs all orders to
the different departments under him, as well as the
governor to others. He and the fiscal have the rank
of upper koopman. The fiscal is at the head of the po¬
lice, and sees the penal laws put in execution : his in¬
come consists of fines, and of the duties laid on cer¬
tain articles of commerce ; but if he be strict in exact¬
ing them, he is universally detested. The sound policy
oi the Dutch has likewise found it necessary to place
the fiscal as a check, to overawe the other officers of
the company, that they may not counteract the inte¬
rests of their masters, or infringe the laws of the mo¬
ther-country. He is, to that end, commonly well
versed in juridical affairs, and depends solely upon the
mother-country. The major (at present Mr Von
Prehn, who received us with great politeness) has the
rank of koopman or merchant: this circumstance sur¬
prises a stranger, who, in all other European states, is
used to see military honours confer distinction and pre¬
cedence; and appears still more singular to one who
knows the contrast in this particular between Holland
and Russia, where the idea of military rank is annexed
to every, place, even that of a professor at the univer¬
sity. The number of regular soldiers at this colony
amounts to about 700, of which 400 form the gar¬
rison of the fort, near the Cape-town. The inhabi¬
tants capable of bearing arms form a militia of 4000
men, of whom a considerable part may he assembled
in a few hours, by means of signals made from alarm-
places in different parts of the country. We may from
hence make some estimate of the number of white
people in this colony, which is at present so extensive,
that the distant settlements are above a month’s jour¬
ney from the Cape : but these remote parts lie some¬
times more than a day’s journey from each other, are
surrounded by various nations of Hottentots, and too
frequently feel the want of protection from their own
government at that distance. The slaves in this colony
are at least in the proportion of five or more to one
white person. The principal inhabitants at the Cape
have sometimes from 20 to 30 slaves, who are in ge¬
neral treated with great lenity, and sometimes become
great favourites with their masters, who give them ver y
good clothing, but oblige them to wear neither shoes
nor stockings, reserving these articles to themselves.
The sla ves are chiefly brought from Madagascar, and a
little vessel annually goes from the Cape thither on that
trade ; there are, however, besides them, a number of
Malays and Bengalese, and some negroes. The colo¬
nists themselves are for the greatest part Germans, with
some families of Dutch and some of French Protestants.
The character of the inhabitants of the town is mixed.
They are industrious, hut fond of good living, hospita¬
ble, and social, though accustomed to hire their apart¬
ments to strangers for the time they touch at this settle¬
ment, and used to be complimented with rich presents
of stufls, &c. by the officers of merchant ships. They
have no great opportunities of acquiring knowledge,
there being no public schools of note at the Cape ;
their young men are therefore commonly sent to Hol¬
land for improvement, and their female education is
too much neglected. A kind of dislike to reading,
and the want of public amusements, make their conver¬
sation uninteresting, and too frequently turn it upon
scandal, „
Hottentots.
HOT [ 638 ] HOT
Hottentots, scandal, which is commonly carried to a degree of in-
> v——^ veteracy peculiar to little towns. I lie French, Fng-
lish, Portuguese, and Malay languages, are very com¬
monly spoken, and many of the ladies have acquired
them. This circumstance, together with the accom¬
plishments of singing, dancing, and playing a tune on
the lute, frequently united in an agreeable person,
make amends for the want of refined manners and de¬
licacy of sentiment. There are, however, among the
principal inhabitants, persons of both sexes, whose
whole deportment, extensive reading, and well-culti¬
vated understanding, would be admired and distinguish¬
ed even in Europe. Their circumstances are in gene¬
ral easy, and very often affluent, on account of the
cheap rate at which the necessaries of life are to be pro¬
cured : but they seldom amass such prodigious riches
here as at Batavia j and I was told the greatest private
fortune at the Cape did not exceed 100,000 dollars, or
about 25,000!. sterling.
“ The farmers in the country are very plain hospi¬
table people; but those who dwell in the remotest
settlements seldom come to town, and are said to be
very ignorant. This may easily be conceived, because
they have no better company than Hottentots, their
dwellings being often several days journey asunder,
which must in a great measure preclude all intercourse.
The vine is cultivated in plantations within the com¬
pass of a few days journey from the town; which were
established by the first colonists, and of which the
ground was given in perpetual property to them and
their heirs. The company at present never part with
tiie property of the ground, but let the surface to the
farmer for an annual rent, which, though extremely
moderate, being only 25 dollars for 60 acres, yet does
not give sufficient encouragement to plant vineyards.
The distant settlements, therefore, chiefly raise corn
and rear cattle ; nay, many of the settlers entirely
follow the latter branch of rustic employment, and
some have very numerous flocks. We were told there
were two farmers who had each 15,000 sheep, and
oxen in proportion ; and several who possessed 6000
or 8000 sheep, ot which they drive great droves to
town every year ; but lions and buffaloes, and the fa¬
tigue of the journey, destroy numbers of their cattle
before they can bring them so far. '1 hey commonly
take their families with them in large waggons covered
with linen or leather, spread over hoops, and drawn
by 8, 10, and sometimes 12 pair of oxen. They bring
butter, mutton-tallow, the flesh and skins of river-horses
(^hippopotamus), together with lion and rhinoceros skins,
to sell. They have several slaves, and commonly en¬
gage in their service several Hottentots of the poorer
sort, and (as we are told) of the tribe called Boshies-
MEN, Bosc/iemans, or Bushmen, wiio have no cattle of
their own, but commonly subsist by hunting, or by
committing depredations on their neighbours. The
opulent farmers set up a young beginner by intrusting
to his care a flock of 400 or 500 sheep, which he leads
to a distant spot, where he finds plenty of good grass
and water; the one-half of all the lambs which are
yeaned fall to his share, by which means he soon be¬
comes as rich as his benefactor.
“ Though the Dutch company seem evidently to
discourage all new settlers, by granting no lands in
piivate property j yet the products of the country
5
have of late years sufficed not only to supply the isles of Hottentots iiiiii?
France and Bourbon with corn, but likewise to furnish HoUinger.ffr’
the mother-country with several ship loads. These ex-
ports would certainly be made at an easier rate than at
present, if the settlements did not extend so far into the
country, from whence the products must be brought to
the Table-bay by land-carriage, on roads which are al¬
most impassable. The intermediate spaces of unculti¬
vated land between the different settlements are very
extensive, and contain many spots fit for agriculture;
but one of the chief reasons why the colonists are so
much divided and scattered throughout the country, is
to he met with in another regulation of the company,
which forbids every new settler to establish himself with¬
in a mile of another. It is evident, that if this settle¬
ment were in the hands of the commonwealth, it would
have attained to a great population, and a degree of
opulence and splendour of which it has not the least
hopes at present; but a private company of East India
merchants find their account much better in keeping
all the landed property to themselves, and tying down
the colonist, lest he should become too great and power¬
ful.
“ The wines made at the Cape are of the greatest
variety possible. The best, which is made at M. Vander
Spy’s plantation of Constantia, is spoken of in Europe,
more by report than from real knowledge ; 30 leagres
(or pipes) at the utmost are annually raised of this
kind, and each leagre sells for about 50I. on the spot.
The vines from which it is made were originally brought
from Shiraz in Persia. Several other sorts grow in the
neighbourhood of that plantation, which produce a
sweet rich wine, that generally passes for genuine Con¬
stantia in Europe. French plants of burgundy, mus-
cade, and frontignan, have likewise been tried, and
have succeeded extremely well, sometimes producing
wines superior to those of the original soil. An ex¬
cellent dry wine, which has a slight agreeable tartness,
is commonly drank in the principal families, and is
made of Madeira vines transplanted to the Cape. Se¬
veral low sorts, not entirely disagreeable, are raised in
great plenty, and sold at a very cheap rate ; so that
the sailors of the East India ships commonly indulge
themselves very plentifully in them whenever they come
ashore.
“ The products of the country supply with provisions
the ships of all nations which touch at the Cape. Corn,
flour, biscuit, salted beef, brandy, and wine, are to be
had in abundance, and at moderate prices ; and their
fresh greens, fine fruits, good mutton and beef, are ex¬
cellent restoratives to seamen who have made a long
voyage.”
HQTTINGER, John Henry, one of the most
learned and eminent of the Protestant divines of Swit¬
zerland, was born at Zurich, in the year 1620. He
discovered an invincible propensity to learning at a very
early period, and acquired the knowledge of languages
with astonishing facility. The trustees of the schools
had their attention attracted towards Hottinger by his
amazing progress in the knowledge of the Hebrew,
Greek, and Latin, whom they determined to send to
foreign universities at the public expence. In 1638
he studied for a short time at Geneva under the cele¬
brated Spanheim, and went afterwards to France. He
next visited Holland and Flanders, and became a stu¬
dent
HOT [ 639 ] H O U
}k nger. <3ent in the university of Groningen, where he attended
' the theological lectures of the renowned Francis Gomar,
and Professor Alting, and studied the Arabic language
tinder Professor Pasor. Being anxious, however, to en¬
joy still more advantages than this situation afforded, he
went to Leyden, where he became tutor to the chil¬
dren of Professor Golius, whose knowledge of oriental
languages was at that time unrivalled. By his instruc¬
tions and those of a Turk then at Leyden, Hottinger’s
knowledge of the Arabic became very extensive, and
Golius allowed him to copy many of the Arabic ma¬
nuscripts which he had in his possession. In 1641 he
was chosen chaplain to the embassy of the states-general
to Constantinople j but the magistrates of Zurich would
not allow him to accept of it, resolving that his talents
should be exerted for the glory and benefit of their
own public schools. They permitted him to visit Eng¬
land prior to his return home, where he contracted ha¬
bits of intimacy with some of the most distinguished li¬
terary characters. As soon as he returned to Zurich,
he was appointed professor of church-history, when no
more than 22 years of age ; and when 23, he was cho¬
sen professor of catechetical divinity and oriental lan¬
guages. About this period he married, and began his
career as an author, in which he persevered for twenty
years, with the most astonishing industry. In 1653 he
was appointed professor of rhetoric, and professor ex¬
traordinary of the divinity of the Old Testament, and
controversial theology.
So justly celebrated about this time was Hottinger as
a man of uncommon erudition, that his aid was earnest¬
ly requested by the elector palatine, to restore the fame
of the university of Heidelberg. The magistrates of
Zurich consented to lend him for three years. At Hei¬
delberg he was made professor of divinity, principal,
ecclesiastical counsellor, and rector. He wrote in fa¬
vour of the re-union of Lutherans and Calvinists ; but
he had no better success than all his predecessors in the
same attempt. He continued at Heidelberg, by per¬
mission of the magistrates of Zurich, till 1661. On
his return home, he was chosen president of the com¬
missioners who were appointed to revise the German
translation of the Bible. He was requested to accept
of professorships from the magistrates of Deventer, the
landgrave of Hesse, and the magistrates of Amsterdam
and Bremen j but the love of his country made him re¬
fect the whole. He was offered the divinity chair at
Leyden in 1667, but the magistrates would not part
with him. This made tl>e Dutch request him as a
loan, to which the magistrates agreed, from their re¬
spect for the states of Holland ; but while making pre¬
parations for his departure, he was unfortunately drown¬
ed in the river which runs through Zurich, while on
his way to an estate of his own about six miles from
that city.
Dr Hottinger was a man of extraordinary abilities,
both natural and acquired, having few equals for his
knowledge of oriental languages, and the antiquities of
the church. He had a most retentive memory, and his
literary industry was almost unexampled. His life was
comparatively short, being only 47 when he found a
watery grave, yet he was the author of no fewer than
40 volumes, on different subjects. He is frequently in¬
accurate, owing to the astonishing rapidity with which
he wrote. For a correct list of his publications, see Hettinger
Heidegger's Life of Hottinger. H
HOTTONIA, Water-violet, a genus of plants, IIo>ind- i
belonging to the pentandria class j and in the natural *
method ranking under the 21st order, Preciee. See
Botany Index.
HOUBBAKEN, Jacob, a celebrated engraver,
whose great excellence consisted in the portrait line.
His vvorks'are distinguished by an admirable softness and
delicacy of execution, joined with good drawing and
a fine taste. If bis best performances have ever been
surpassed, it is in the masterly determination of the fea¬
tures, which we find in the works of Nanteuil, Ede-
link, and Drevet; this gives an animation to the coun¬
tenance, more easily to be felt than described. His
works are pretty numerous ; and most of them being
for English publications, they are sufficiently known in
this country. In particular the greater and best part
of the collection of portraits of illustrious men, pub¬
lished in London by I. and P. Knapton, were by bis
hand.
HOVEDON, Roger de, born of an illustrious
family in Yorkshire, most probably at the town of that
name, now called Howden, some time in the reign of
Henry I. After he had received the first parts of edu¬
cation in his native country, he studied the civil and
canon law, which were then become most fashionable
and lucrative branches of learning. He became domes¬
tic chaplain to Henry II. who employed him to transact
several ecclesiastical affairs $ in which he acquitted him¬
self with honour. But his most meritorious work was
his annals of England, from A. D. 731, when Bede’s
ecclesiastical history ends, to A. D. 1202. This work,
which is one of the most voluminous of our ancient his ¬
tories, is more valuable for the sincerity with which it
is written, and the great variety of facts which it con¬
tains, than for the beauty of its style, or the regularity
of its arrangement.
HOUGH, Ham, in the manege, the joint of the
hind leg of a beast, which connects the thigh to the
leg. See Ham.
To Hough, or cut the Houghs, is to ham-string, or
to disable by cutting the sinews of the ham.
HOULIERES, Antoniette des, a French lady,
whose poetry is highly esteemed in France. Her works
and those of her daughter have been collected and
printed together in two volumes. Most of the idyls,
particularly those on sheep and birds, surpass every
thing of the kind in the French language : the thoughts
and expressions are noble ; and the style pure, flowing,
and chaste. Mademoiselle des Houlieres carried the
poetic prize in the French academy against Fontenelle.
Both of these ladies were members of the academy of
Ricovatri *, the mother was also a member of the aca¬
demy of Arles. Those who desire to be more particu¬
larly acquainted with the history of Madame des Hou¬
lieres, may consult her life prefixed to her works in the
Paris edition of I 747, 2 vols I2mo.
HOULSWORTHY, a large town of Devonshire,
seated between two branches of the river Jamar, having
a good market for corn and provisions. It had I2c6 in¬
habitants in 1 811. W. Long. 2. 42. N. Lat. 50. 50.
HOUND. See Canis, Blood-Hound, and Giie~
Hound.
Training
H O U [ 640 ] H O U
HyunJ Training of Hounds. Before we speak of the me-
- -v - / thods proper to be used for this purpose, it will be ne¬
cessary to point out the qualities which sportsmen de¬
sire to meet with in these animals. It is generally un¬
derstood, that hounds of the middle size are the most
proper, it being remarked, that all animals of that de¬
scription are stronger than either such as are very small
or very largp. The shape ot the hound ought to be
particularly attended to ; for if he be not well propor¬
tioned, he can neither run fast nor do much work.
His legs ought to be straight, his feet round, and not
very large 5 his shoulders back 5 his breast rather wide
than narrow j his chest deep, his back broad, his head
small, his neck thin 5 his tail thick and bushy, and if
he carry it well so much the better. None of those
young hounds which are out at the elbows, or such as
are weak from the knee to the foot, should ever be ta¬
ken into the pack. That the pack may look well, it
is proper that the hounds should be as much as possible
of a size : and if the animals be handsome at the same
time, the pack will then be perfect. It must not, how¬
ever, be thought, that this contributes any thing to the
goodness of a pack ; for very unhandsome packs, con¬
sisting of hounds entirely different in size and colour,
have been known to afford very good sport. It is only
necessary that they should run well together; to which
indeed an uniformity in size and shape would seem to
contribute in some degree. The pack that can run 10
miles, or any other considerable space, in the shortest
time, may be said to go fastest, though the hounds ta¬
ken separately might be considerably inferior to others
in swiftness. A pack of hounds, considered in a col¬
lective body, go fast in proportion to the excellence of
their noses and the head they carry. Packs which are
composed of hounds of various kinds seldom run well.
When the packs are very large, the hounds are seldom
sufficiently hunted to be good ; 20 or 30 couple, there¬
fore, or at most 40, will be abundantly sufficient for
the keenest sportsman in this country, as thus he may
be enabled to hunt three or even four times a-week.
The number of hounds to be kept must, however, in a
considerable degree, depend on the strength of the
pack, and the country in which you hunt. They
should be left at home as seldom as possible j and too
many old hounds should not be kept. None ought
to be kept above five or six seasons, though this also is
somewhat uncertain, as we have no rule for judging
how long a hound will last.
In breeding of hounds, considerable attention ought
to be paid to the dog from whom you breed. All
such are to be rejected as have a tender nose, as are
babblers or skirters. An old dog should never be put
to an old bitch j nor should any attempts be made to
cross the breed unless in a proper and judicious man-
* Evay on ner. Mr Beckford * informs us, that he has seen fox-
Hnrtiuig. i10UIU|3 (,retl out 0f a Newfoundland dog and fox¬
hound bitch ; the whelps were monstrously ugly, and
had other bad qualities besides. The cross most likely
to be of service to a fox-hound is the beagle. The rea¬
son of crossing the breeds sometimes Cs, that the imper-
fectiorrs of one may sometimes be remedied by another.
The months of January, February, and March, are the
best for breeding; late puppies seldom thrive. After
the temales begin to grow big with young, it will not
b« proper to let them hunt any more, or indeed to re¬
3
main for a much longer time in the kennel. Some-
times these animals will have an extraordinary number _
of whelps. Mr Beckford informs us, that he has known
a bitch have 15 puppies at a litter; and he assures us,
that a friend of his informed him, that a hound in his
pack brought forth 16, all of them alive. In these
cases it is proper to put some of the puppies to another
bitch, if you want to keep them all; but if any are de¬
stroyed, the best coloured ought to be kept. The
bitches should not only have plenty of flesh, but milk
also ; and the puppies should not be taken from them
till they are able to take care of themselves ; their mo¬
thers will be relieved when they learn to lap milk,
which they will do in a short time. After the puppies
are taken away from the mothers, the litter should have
three purging balls given them, one every other morn¬
ing, and plenty of whey the intermediate day. If a
bitch bring only one or two puppies, and you have an¬
other that will take them, by putting the puppies to
her the former will soon be fit to hunt again. She
should, however, he first physicked, and it will also
be of service to anoint her dugs with brandy and wa¬
ter.
Whelps are very liable to the distemper to which
dogs in general are subject, and which frequently
makes great havock among them at their walks ; and
this is supposed by Mr Beckford to be owing te the
little care that is taken of them. “ If the distemper
(says he) once get among them, they must all have
it: yet, notwithstanding that, as they will be constant¬
ly well fed, and will lie warm (in a kennel built on
purpose), I am confident it would be the saving of
many lives. If you should adopt this method, yc»
must remember to use them early to go in couples:
and when they become of a proper age, they must be
walked out often ; for should they remain confined,
they would neither have the health, shape, or under¬
standing, which they ought to have. When I kept
harriers, I bred up some of the puppies at a distant
kennel ; but having no servants there to exercise them
properly, I found them much inferior to such of their
brethren as had the luck to survive the many difficul¬
ties and dangers they had undergone at their walks;
these were afterwards equal to any thing, and afraid
of nothing ; whilst those that had been nursed with so
much care, were weakly, timid, and had every disad¬
vantage attending private education. I have oftea
heard as an excuse for hounds not hunting a cold
scent, that they were too high-bred. I confess I know
not what that means : but this I know, that hounds
are frequently too ill-bred to be of any service. It is
judgment in the breeder, and patience afterwards in the
huntsman, that makes them hunt.
“ When young hounds are first taken in, they should
be kept separate from the pack ; and as it will happen
at a time of the year when there is little or no hunting,
you may easily give them up one of the kennels and
grass court adjoining. Their play frequently ends in a
battle ; it therefore is less dangerous where all are
equally matched.—If you find that they take a dislike
to any particular hound, the safest way will be to re¬
move him, or it is probable they will kill him at last.
When a feeder hears the hounds quarrel in the kennel,
he halloos to them to stop them ; he then goes in a-
naong them, and flogs everv hound he can come near.
Haw
H O U
How much more reasonable, as well as efficacious,
y—would it be, were he to see which were the combatants
before he speaks to them. Punishment would then fall,
as it ought, on the guilty only. In all packs there are
some hounds more quarr'elsome than the rest; and it is
to them we owe all the mischief that is done. If you
find chastisement cannot quiet them, it may be prudent
to break their holders; for since they are not necessary
to them for the meat they have to eat, they are
not likely to serve them in any good purpose. Young
hounds should be fed twice a-day, as they seldom take
kindly to the kennel meat at first, and the distemper is
most apt to seize them at this time. It is better not to
round them till they are thoroughly settled ; nor should
it be put off till the hot weather, for then they will
bleed too much. It may be better perhaps to round
them at (heir quarters, when about six months old ;
should it be done sooner, it would make their ears tuck
up. The tailing of them is usually done before they
are put out ; it might be better, perhaps, to leave it till
they are taken in. Dogs must not be rounded at the
time they have the distemper upon them, as the loss of
blood would weaken them too much.
“ If any of the dogs be thin over the back, or any
more quarrelsome than the rest, it will be of use to cut
them ; I also spay such bitches as I shall not want to
breed from ; they are more useful, are stouter, and are
always in better order; besides it is absolutely necessary
if you hunt late in the spring, or your pack will be
very short for want of it. The latter operation, how¬
ever, does not always succeed ; it will be necessary
therefore to employ a skilful person, and one on whom
you can depend ; for if it be ill done, though they can¬
not have puppies, they will go to heat notwithstanding.
They should be kept low for several days before the
operation is performed, and must be fed on thin meat
for some time after.”
It is impossible to determine how many young
hounds ought to be bred in order to keep up the pack,
as this depends altogether on contingencies. The defi¬
ciencies of one year must be supplied by the next; but
it is probable, that from 30 to 35 couple of old hounds,
and from eight to twelve couple of young ones, will
answer the purpose where no more than 40 couple are
to be kept. A considerable number, however, ought
always to be bred ; for it is undoubtedly and evidently
true, that those who breed the greatest number of
hounds must expect the best pack.
After the hounds have been rounded, become ac¬
quainted with the huntsman, and answer to their
names, they ought to be coupled together, and walked
out among sheep. Such as are particularly ill-natured
ought to have their couples loose about their necks in
the kennel till they become reconciled to them. The
most stubborn ought to be coupled to old hounds rather
than to young ones ; and two dogs should not be cou¬
pled together when you can avoid it. As young bounds
are awkward at first, a few ought only to be set out at
at a time with people on foot, and they will soon after¬
wards follow a horse. When they h; ve been walked
out often in this manner amongst the sheep, they should
be uncoupled by a few at a time, and those chastised
who offer to run after the sheep ; but it will be difficult
to reclaim them after they have once been allowed to
Yol. X. Part II. f
H O U
taste blood.. Some are accustomed to couple the dogs
with a ram in order to break them from sheep; but this
is very dangerous for both parties. Mr Beckford re¬
lates a story of a nobleman who put a large ram into
his kennel in order to break his hounds from sheep ;
hut when he came some time after to see how nobly the
ram defended himself, he found him entirely eaten up, and
the hounds gone to sleep after having filled their bellies.
When hounds are to be aired, it is best to take them
out separately, the old ones one day, and the young
another; though, if they are to have whey from a dis¬
tant dairy, both old and young may be taken out toge¬
ther, observing only to take the young hounds in cou¬
ples, when the old ones are along with them. Young
hounds are always apt to fall into mischief, and even
old ones when idle will be apt to join them. Mr Beck-
ford mentions a whole pack running after a flock of
sheep through the mere accident of a horse’s falling,
and then running away. *
With regard to the first entering of hounds to a
scent, our author gives sucii directions as have sub¬
jected him to a severe charge of inhumanity. We
shall give them in his own words. “ You had better
enter them at their own game : it will save you much
trouble afterwards. Many dogs, I believe, like that
scent best which they were first blooded to: but be this
as it may, it is most certainly reasonable to use them
to that which it is intended they should hunt. It may
not be amiss first when they begin to hunt to put light
collars on them, oung hounds may easily get out of
their knowledge ; and shy ones, after they have been
much beaten, may not choose to return home. Col¬
lars, in that case, may prevent their being lost.—You
say you like to see your young hounds run a trail-
scent.—I have no doubt that you would be glad to see
them run over an open down, where you could so easily
observe their action and their speed. I cannot think
the doing of it once or twice could hurt your hounds ;
and yet as a sportsman I dare not recommend it to you.
All that I can say is, that it would be less bad than en¬
tering them at hare. A cat is as good a trail as any ;
but on no account should any trail be used after your
hounds are stooped to a scent. I know an old sportsman
who enters his young hounds first at a cat, which he
drags along the ground for a mile or two, at the end of
which he turns out a badger, first, taking care to break
his teeth : he takes out about a couple of old hounds
along with the young ones to hold them on. He never
enters his young hounds but at vermin ; for he says,
Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he
is old he will not depart from it.”
Hounds ought to be entered as soon as possible,
though the time must be uncertain, as it depends on
the nature of country in which they are. In corn
countries hunting may not be practicable till the corn
is cut down ; but you may begiu sooner in grass coun¬
tries, and at any time in woodlands. “ If (says Mr
Beckford) you have plenty of foxes, and can afford to
make a sacrifice of some of them -for the sake of making
your young houi^ls steady, take them first where you
have least riot, putting some of the steadiest of your
old hounds among them. If in such a place you are
fortunate enough to find a litter of foxes, you may
assure yourself you will have but little trouble with
4 M your
[ 641 ]
H O U
[ 642 ]
H O U
Hound, yonr young bounds afterwards.—If, owing to a scar-
——v~~~ citv of foxes, you should stoop your Siounds at hare,
let them by no means have the blood ol her; nor, for,
the sake of consistency, give them much encourage¬
ment. Hare-hunting has one advantage ; hounds
are chiefly in open ground, where you can easily com¬
mand them ; but notwithstanding that, if foxes be in
tolerable plenty, keep them to their own game. 
Frequent hallooing is of use with young hounds ;
it keeps them forward, prevents them being lost, and
hinders them from hunting after the rest. The oftener
therefore that a fox is seen and hallooed, the better.
X by no means, however, approve of much hallooing
to old hounds; though it is true that there is a time
when hallooing is of use, a time when it does hurt,
and a time when it is perfectly indifferent: but long
practice and great attention to hunting can only teach
the application.
“ H ounds at their first entrance cannot be encou¬
raged too much. When they are become handy, love
a scent, and begin to know what is right, it will then
be soon enough to chastise them for what is wrong; in
which case one severe beating will save a great deal of
trouble. When a hound is flogged, the whipper-in should
make use of his voice as well as his whip. If any be
very unsteady, it will not be amiss to send them out by
themselves when the men go out to exercise their horses.
If you have hares in plenty, let some be found sitting,
and turned out before them ; and you will find that
the most riotous will not run after them. If you in¬
tend them to be steady from deer, they should often
see deer, and then they will not regard them, and if
after a probation of this kind you turn out a cub be¬
fore them, with some old hounds to lead them on, you
may assure yourself they will not be unsteady long.”
It is proper to put the young hounds into the pack
when tl'.ey stoop to a scent, become handy, know a rate,
and stop easily. A few only are to be puf to the pack
at a time ; and it is not advisable even to begin this till
the pack have been out a few times by themselves,
and are “ gotten well in blood.” They should be low
in flesh when you begin to hunt; the ground being ge¬
nerally bard at that time, so that they are liable to be
shaken.—By hounds being handy, our author means
their being ready to do whatever is required of them ;
and particularly, when cast, to turn easily which way
the huntsman pleases.
Mr Beckford begins to hunt with his young hounds
in August. The huntsman in the preceding months
keeps his old hounds healthy by giving them proper
exercise, and gets his young hounds forward ; and for
this purpose nothing answers so well as taking them
frequently out. The huntsman should go along with
them, get frequently off his horse, and encourage them
to come to him :-—too much restraint will frequently
incline the hounds to he riotous. Our author frequent-
, ty walks out his hounds among sheep, hares, and deer.
Sometimes he turns down a cat before them, which
they kill ; and, when the time of hunting approaches,
he turns out young foxes or badgers ; taking out some
of the most steady of his old hounds to lead on the
young ones. Small covers and furze-brakes are drawn
with them to use them to a halloo, and to teach them
obedience. If they find improper game and hunt it,
they are stopped and brought back ; and as long as Hound m«i
they will stop at a rate, they are not chastised. At U
such times as they are taken out to air, the huntsman ^ou'^ua,1» I’"'1
leads them into the country in which they are design¬
ed to hunt; by which means they acquire a knowledge
of the country, and cannot miss their way home at any
time afterwards. When they begin to hunt, they are
first brought into a large cover of his own, which has
many ridings cut in it ; and where young foxes are
turned out every year on purpose for them. After
they have been bunted for some days in this manner,,
they are sent to more distant covers, and more old
hounds added to them. There they continue to hunt
till they are taken into the pack, which is seldom later
than the beginning of September ; for by that time
they will have learned what is required of them, and
seldom give much trouble afterwards. In September
he begins to hunt in earnest ; and after the old hounds
have killed a few foxes, the young ones are put into
the pack, two or three couple at a time, till all have
hunted. They are then divided ; and as he seldom has
occasion to take in more than nine or .ten couple, one
half are taken out one day, and the other the next, till
they are steady.
To render fox-hunting complete, no young hounds
should be taken into the pack the first season ; a re¬
quisite loo expensive for most sportsmen. The pack
should consist of about 40 couple of hounds, that have
hunted one, two, three, four or five, seasons. The
young pack should consist of about 20 couple of young
hounds, and an equal number of old ones. They should
have a separate establishment, and the two kennels
should not be too near one another- When the season
is over, the best of the young hounds should be taken
into the pack, and the draught of old ones exchanged
for them. Many must be bred to enable a sportsman
to take in 20 couple of young hounds every season.
It will always be easy to keep up the number of old
hounds ; for when your own draft is not sufficient,
drafts from other packs may be obtained, and at a
small expence. When young hounds are hunted toge¬
ther for the first season, and have not a sufficient num¬
ber of old ones along with them, it does more harm
than good.
Kennel of Hounds. See Kennel.
HOUNSLOW, a town of Middlesex, 10 miles from
London. It is situated on a heath of the same name ;
and belongs to two parishes, the north side of the street
to Heston, and the south side to Isleworth. Near it
are powder-mills. It has fairs on Trinity-Monday, and
Monday after September 29. Here is a charity -school
and a chapel. In this place was formerly a con¬
vent of mendicant friars, who, by their institution,
were to heg alms for the ransom of captives taken by
the infidels.—The heath is noted for robberies and
horse-races. Population 2304 in l8ll.
HOU-quang, a province of China, occupying near¬
ly the centre of the empire : the river Yang-tse-kiaog
traverses it from west to east, and divides it into two
parts, the northern and southern. This province (the
greater part of which is level, and watered by lakes,
canals, and rivers) is celebrated for its fertility ; tbe
Chinese call it the store-house of the empire; and
it is a common saying among them, that “ the abun¬
dance
H O U [ ^43 1 H O U
ft (iaangdance of Kiang-si could furnish all China with a break-
I fastj but the province of Hou-quang alone could supply
^ uft’ . enough to maintain all its inhabitants.” Some princes
of the race of Hong-vou formerly resided in this pro¬
vince ; but that family was entirely destroyed by the
Tartars when they conquered China. The people here
boast much of their cotton cloths, simples, gold-mines,
wax, and paper made of the bamboo-reed. The' north¬
ern part of the province contains eight fou, or cities
of the first class, and sixty of the second and third.
The southern comprehends seven of the first class, and
fifty-four of the second and third, exclusive of forts,
towns, and villages, which are everywhere to be found.
HOUR, in Chronology, an aliquot part of a natu¬
ral day, usually a 24th, but sometimes a 12th. The
origin of the word hora, or comes, according to
some authors, from a surname of the sun, the father
of hours, whom the Egyptians call Horns. Others
derive it from the Greek to terminate, distinguish,
&c. Others from the word t^ey, urine; holding, that
Trismegistus was the first that settled the division of
hours which he did from observation of an animal con¬
secrated to Serapis, named cynocephalus, which makes
water 12 times a-day, and as often in the night, at equal
intervals.
An hour, with us, is a measure or quantity of time,
equal to a 24th part of the natural day, or nycthemeron ;
or the duration of the 24th part of the earth’s diurnal
rotation. Fifteen degrees of the equator answer to an
hour ; though not precisely, but near enough for com¬
mon use. It is divided into 60 minutes } the minute
into 60 seconds, &c.
The division of the dav into hours is very ancient $
as is shown by Kircher, Oedipt. Egypt, tom. ii. p. ii.
class, vii. c. 8. : though the passages he quotes from
Scripture do not prove it.—-The most ancient hour is
that of the- 12th part of the day. Herodotus, lib. ii.
observes, that the Greeks learnt from the Egyptians,
among other things, the method of dividing the day
into twelve parts.—The astronomers of Cathaya, &c.
Bishop Beveridge observes, still retain this division.
They call the hour chug; and to each chag give a pe¬
culiar name, taken from some animal : The first is call¬
ed Kelli, “ mouse $” the second, chiu, “ bullock the
third, Kem, “ leopard ; the fourth, mau, “ hare j” the
fifth, chin, “ crocodile,” &c.
The division of the day into 24 hours, was not
known to the Romans before the first Punic war.—
Till that time they only regulated their days by the
rising and setting of the sun. They divided the 12
hours of their day into four, viz. prime, which com¬
menced at six o’clock ; third, at nine •, sixth, at twelve,
and none, at three. They also divided the night into
four watches, each containing three hours.
HOURS, Hor^E, in the ancient mythology, were
certain goddesses, the daughters of Jupiter and Themis;
at first only three in number, Eunomia, Dice, and
Irene, to which were afterwards added two more, Car-
po and Thallote.
Homer makes them the doorkeepers of heaven. O-
vid allots them the employment of harnessing the horses
of the Sun :
Jungere equos Titan velocibus imperat Horis.
And speaks of them as standing, at equal distances, Hour*
about the throne of Sol: ||
. Houses.
—  et, positce spattis equalibus, Horse. «——v 
The poets represent them as dressed in fine coloured or
embroidered robes, and gliding on with a quick and
easy motion.
Hours, Horce, in the Romish church, are certain
prayers performed at stated times of the day •, as ma¬
tins, vespers, lauds, &c. The lesser hours are, prime,
tierce, sixth, and none. They are called hours or ca¬
nonical hours, as being to be rehearsed at certain hours
prescribed by the canons of that church, in comme¬
moration of the mysteries accomplished at those hours.
These hours were anciently also called course, eursus ;
F. Mabillon has a dissertation on them, entitled, De
Cursu Gallicano.
The first constitution enjoining the observation of the
canonical hours is of the ninth century, being found in
a capitular of Heito bishop of Basil directed to his cu¬
rates, importing that the priests shall never be absent
at the canonical hours either by day or night.
Houn-Glass, a popular kind of chronometer or clep¬
sydra, serving to measure the flux of time by the de¬
scent or running of sand out of one glass vessel into an¬
other. The best hour-glasses are those which, instead
of sand, have egg-shells well dried in the oven, then
beaten fine and sifted.—Hour-glasses are much used at
sea for reckoning, &c.
HOURIS, in modern history, is a name given by
the Mahometans to those females that are designed
for the faithful in Paradise. These are not the same
with whom they have lived on earth, but formed
for this purpose with singular beauty and undecaying
charms.
HOUSE, a habitation, or place built with conveni-
encies for dwelling in. See Architecture.
Houses, among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans,
were flat on the top for them to walk upon, and had
usually stairs on the outside, by which they might a-
scend and descend without coming into the house. Each
house, in fact, was so laid out, that it enclosed a quad¬
rangular area or court. This court was exposed to the
weather, and being open to the sky, gave light to the
house. This was the place where company was recei¬
ved, and for that purpose it was strewed with mats or
carpets for their better accommodation. It was paved
with marble or other materials, according to the own¬
er’s ability, and provided with an umbrella of vellum
to shelter them from the heat and inclemencies of the
weather. This part of their houses, called by the Ro¬
mans impluvium or cava cedium, was provided with
channels to carry off the water into the common sewers.
The top of the house was level, and covered with a
strong plaster by way of terrace. Hither, especially
among the Jews, it was customary to retire for me¬
ditation, private converse, devotion, or the enjoyment
of the evening breezes.
The Grecian houses were usually divided into two
parts, in which the men and women had distinct man¬
sions assigned. The part assigned to the men was to¬
wards the gate, and called ; the apartment
of the women was the farthest part of the house, and
called yvnuKum'ht. Jews, Greeks, and Romans, suppo-
4 M 2 sed
H O U [ 644 ] H O U
House, sed their houses to be polluted by dead bodies, and to
stand in need of purification.
House is also used for one of the estates of the king¬
dom of Britain assembled in parliament. Thus we say,
the house of lords, the house of commons, &c. See
Peers, Commons, &c.
House is also used for a noble family, or a race of
illustrious persons issued from the same stock. In this
sense we say, the house or family of the Stuarts, the
Bourbons, the house of Hanover, of Austria, of Lor-
rain, of Savoy, &c.
Cheap, easy, and expeditious Method of constructing
Houses, which have been found to be very useful hos¬
pitals for the recovery of the sick, and therefore may
probably make very wholesome places of residencefor the
healthy.—The first thing to be done is to choose a dry
and airy situation, on a gravelly or chalky soil if possi¬
ble j upon this lay down the plan of your building,
make one end of it face that quarter from whence the
purest and healthiest winds may be expected to blow,
of a breadth that can be conveniently roofed. Then,
if boarding does not come so cheap, drive stakes, at a-
bout six feet distance from each other, into the ground,
so as to stand about six feet above it j and, interlacing
them with wattles, coat the wattles on the side next
the weather with fresh straw j and make the roof in
the same manner, but thicker, or of thatch in the
usual way, with a hole at the very top of it, to open
occasionally. Let the end of the building facing the
wholesomest quarter lie open some feet back, so as to
form a porch, where the convalescents may take the
air without danger of any injury from the weather.
A large chimney and kitchen grate may be erected at
the other end. If the soil happens to be chalky or
gravelly, you may hollow it four or five feet deep,
within a foot or eighteen inches of the walls; but let
the steps into this hollow lie far enough within the
porch, that no water may get into it, and, if of chalk,
the steps may not grow slippery in wet weather. From
time to time open the vent-hole at the roof j by means
of which all the unwholesome infectious air, as being
warmer, and consequently lighter, than that which is
pure and wholesome, will be driven out by the rush¬
ing in of the fresh air ; a purpose, which the little 0-
penings that may be left in the sides and roofs of
such rude and hasty buildings, will, even of themselves,
answer so well, as sufficiently to compensate any cold
they may let in, even in the coldest months. Let the
floor likewise be scraped three or four inches deep
every five or six days, and what comes oft' removed to
some distance. Halls of this kind, 50 feet long and
20 broad, cost but a trifle to build; yet, with these
precautions (even without the addition of clean straw
for every new patient to lie on, inclosed in clean washed
sacks fit for the purpose, which come infinitely cheaper
than the bare cleaning of flock or even feather-beds,
supposing it possible to wash such beds), proved of
infinitely more advantage in the recovery of sick sol¬
diers, than the low-roofed rooms of the farm-houses of
the Isle of Wight, or even the better accommodations
of Carisbrooke castle in the same island, in which
there perished four times the number of sick that
there did in these temporary receptacles j which were
first thought of by Doctor Brocklesby, on occasion
of some terrible infections from confined animal ef- ]j0lIS(1 frie.
fluvia. ——^
Is it not surprising, that we have not availed our¬
selves more of the above discovery in natural history,
being, perhaps, the most important the moderns can
boast of, in the most useful science, viz. the superior
lightness of unwholesome and infectious air! The up¬
per sashes in most houses, even of those who pretend
to some knowledge in these matters, are generally
immoveable, by means of which no part of the foul
air above the level of the lowest rail of the other sash’s
greatest rise can escape by the window ; and, if it 11
escapes by the doors, it is generally, for want of a
vent in the highest part of the roof, merely to accu¬
mulate in the upper story of the house, and add to the
infection, which the great quantities of old furniture
usually stored up there are of themselves but too apt
to create, when care is not frequently taken to open
the windows of it. Thus, the chief benefit to be ex¬
pected from lofty rooms is in a great measure lost.
Whereas, were the upper sashes contrived to come
down, all the air might be easily changed, and that
almost insensibly, by letting them down an inch or
two. Nay, the upper sash might be often let entire¬
ly down with less danger or inconvenience from cold,
than the lower thrown up the tenth part of an inch,
though the doing of the former would be attended
with infinitely more advantage to the health of the
inhabitants than the latter. It is, perhaps, on this
principle, that we are to account for the good health
enjoyed by the poor who live crowded in damp cellars,
and often with great numbers of rabbits, poultry, and
even swine about them. These cellars are open to the
street, with doors reaching from the floor to the very
ceiling, but never so close at bottom or at top as to
prevent a free circulation of air j in consequence of
which, that all vivifying fluid, as fast as it is spoiled
by passing through the lungs of the inhabitants and i
their stock, or is infected by their insensible perspira¬
tion, excrements, &c. is driven out and replaced by
the fresh air. 1
House, in Astrology, denotes the twelfth part of the s
heavens.
The division of the heavens into houses is founded
upon the pretended influence of the stars, when meet¬
ing in them, on all sublunary bodies. These influences
are supposed to be good or bad j and to each of these >
houses particular virtues are assigned, on which astro¬
logers prepare and form a judgment of their horoscopes. s
The horizon and meridian are two circles of the cele- 1
stial houses, which divide the heavens into four equal }
parts, each containing three houses; six of which are I,
above the horizon, and six below it; and six of these l
are called eastern and six western houses. t
A scheme or figure of the heavens is composed of c
12 triangles, all called houses, in which are marked the li
stars, signs, and planets, so included in each of these cir- e
cles. Every planet has likewise two particular houses, (
in which it is pretended that they exert their influence £
in the strongest manner j but the sun and moon have p
only one, the house of the former being Leo, and that s
of the latter Cancer. t
The houses in astrology have also names given them 0
according to their qualities. The first is the house ol a
life: 0
H O U
H >e
i Se
hte ; this is tlie ascendant, which extends five degrees
—» above the horizon, and the rest below it. The second
is the house of riches j the third, the house of brothers j
the fourth, in the lowest part of the heavens, is the
house of relations, and the angle of the earth ; the fifth,
the house of children j the sixth, the house of health $
the seventh, the house of marriage, and the angle of the
west $ the eighth, the house of death $ the ninth, the
house of piety; the tenth, the house of officesj the
eleventh, the house of friends ; and the twelfth, the
house of enemies.
'Mu. Country House, is the villa * of the ancient Ro¬
mans, the quinta of the Spaniards and Portuguese, the
closcrie and cassine of the French, and the viena of the
Italians.
It ought always to have wood and water near it,
these being the principal beauties of a rural seat. The
trees make a far better defence than hills, as they yield
a cooling and healthy air, shade during the heat of
summer, and very much break the severities of the
winter season.
It should not be situated too low, on account of the
moisture of the air ; and, on the other hand, those built
on places exposed to the winds are expensive to keep
in repair. In houses not above two stories high, and
upon a good foundation, the length of two bricks, or
18 inches, for the heading course, will be sufficient for
the ground-work of any common structure j and six or
seven courses above the earth, to a water-table, where
the thickness of the walls is abated or taken in, on
either side the thickness of a brick, viz. two inches and
a quarter. But for large and high houses of three,
four, or five stories, with garrets, their walls ought to
be three heading courses of bricks, or 28 inches at
least, from the foundation to the first water-table ; and
at every story a water-table, or taking in, on the in¬
side, for the summers, girders, and joists to rest upon,
laid into the middle, or one quarter of the wall at least,
for the better bond. But as for the partition-wall, a
brick and half will be sufficiently thick ; and for the
upper stories a brick length or nine inch brick will
suffice.
Hot-HousE. See Stove and Hypocaustum.
House-Breaking, or Robbing, is the breaking into
and robbing a house in the day-time ; the same crime
being termed BURGLARY when done by night: both
are felony without benefit of clergy.
House and Window Hilly, a branch of the king’s
ce-extraordinary revenue f.—As early as the Conquest,
mention is made in Doomesday book of fumage or fu-
gage, vulgarly called smoke-farthings ; which were paid
by custom to the king for every chimney in the house.
And we read that Edward the Black Prince (soon af¬
ter his successes in France), in imitation of the English
custom, imposed a tax of a florin upon every hearth in
his Irench dominions. But the first parliamentary
establishment of it in England was by statute 13 and 14
Car. II. c. 10. whereby an hereditary revenue of 2s.
tor every hearth, in all houses paying to church and
poor, was granted to the king for ever. And, by sub¬
sequent statutes, for the more regular assessment of this
tax, the constable and two other substantial inhabitants
of the parish, to be appointed yearly (or the surveyor
appointed by the crown, together with such constable
or other public officer), were, once in every year, em-
[ 645 ]
H O U
powered to view the inside of every house in the pa- House
rish. But, upon the Revolution, by stat. x W. and M. jj
c. 10. hearth-money was declared to be “ not only HoH>eho,t,•
a great oppression to tiie poorer soit, but a badge of' 7 '
slavery upon the whole people, exposing every man’s
house to he entered into and searched at pleasure, by
persons unknown to him j and therefore, to erect a last¬
ing monument of their majesties goodness, in every
house in the kingdom tiie duty of hearth money was
taken away and abolished.” This monument of good¬
ness remains among us to this day : but the prospect
of it was somewhat darkened, when in six years after¬
wards, by statute 7 W. III. c. 18. a tax was laid upon
all houses (except cottages) of 2s. now advanced to
3s. per house, and a tax also upon all windows, if they
exceeded nine, in such house. These rates have been
from time to time varied, being now extended to all
windows exceeding six $ and power is given to survey¬
ors, appointed by the crown, to inspect the outside of
houses, and also to pass through any houses, two day s
in the year, into any court or yard, to inspect the win¬
dow's there.
Schemes of the different rates of duty upon houses
and windows may be seen in the Almanacks, or in
Kearsley's Tux-Tables published yearly.
HousE-Letk. See Serum and Sempervivum, Bo¬
tany Index.
HOUSEHOLD, the whole of a family considered
collectively, including the mistress, children, and ser¬
vants. But the household of a sovereign prince in¬
cludes only the officers and domestics belonging to bis
palace.
'I he principal officers of his majesty’s household are,
the lord steward, lord chamberlain of the household,
the groom of the stole, the master of the great ward-:
robe, and the master of the horse.
The civil government of the king’s house is under
the care of the lord steward of the king’s household ;
who, being the chief officer, all bis commands are
observed and obeyed. His authority extends over all
the other officers and servants, except those of his ma¬
jesty’s chapel, chamber, and stable, and he is the judge
of all crimes committed either within the court or the
verge.
Under him are the treasurer of the household, the
comptroller, cofferer, the master of the household, the
clerks of the green-cloth, and the officers and servants
belonging to the accounting-house, the marshalsea, the
verge, the king’s kitchen, the household kitchen, the
acatery, bake-house, pantry, buttery, cellar, pastry,
&c. Next to the lord steward is the lord-chamberlam
of the household, who has under him. the vice-cham¬
berlain, the treasurer, and comptroller of the chamber j
48 gentlemen of the privy chamber, 12 of whom wait
quarterly, and two of them lie every night in the privy-
chamber j the pages of the presence-chamber j the mace-
bearers, cup-bearers, carvers, musicians, &c. See Lord
Chamberlain of the Household.
Ihe groom of the stole has under him the II other
lords of the bed-chamber, who wait weekly in the bed¬
chamber, and by turns lie there a-nights on a pallet-
bed ; and also the grooms of the bed-chamber, the
pages of the bed-chamber and back-stairs, &c. See
Groom of the Stole.
The master or keeper of the great wardrobe has un¬
der
H O U [ 646 ] H O U
<3er him a deputy, comptroller, clerk of the robes,
brusher, &c. and a number of tradesmen and artificers,
•who are all sworn servants to the king.
The master of the horse has under his command the
equerries, pages, footmen, grooms, coachmen, farriers,
saddlers, and all the other officers and tradesmen em¬
ployed in his majesty’s stables.
Next to the civil list of the king’s court, is the mi¬
litary, consisting of the band of gentlemen pensioners,
the yeomen of the guards, and the troops of the house¬
hold ; of which the two first guard the king above
stairs.
When the king dines in public, he is waited upon at
table by his majesty’s cup-bearers, carvers, and gentle¬
men sewers j the musicians playing all the time. The
dinner is brought up by the yeomen of the guard, and
the gentleman sewers set the dishes in order. The
carvers cut for the king, and the cup-bearer serves him
the drink with one knee on the ground, after he has
first tasted it in the cover.
HOUSING, or HousE-Line, in the sea-language, a
small line, formed of three fine strands or twists ot
hemp, smaller than rope-yarn. It is chiefly used to
seize blocks into their strops, to bind the corners of the
sails, or to fasten the bottom of a sail to its bolt-rope,
&c. See BoLT-Rope.
Housing, or Housee, a oover laid over the saddle of
a horse, in order to save it from the weather, dirt, &c.
The word is formed of the French hottssie, yvhich signi¬
fies the same thing; though it anciently denoted a kind
of hood worn by country people.—The cavaliers ap¬
peared with their embroidered housings.
Housing, among bricklayers, a term used for a
brick which is warped, or is cast crooked or hollow in
burning ; in such a case, they say it is housing.
HOUSSA, the metropolis of an empire in Africa,
on the banks of the Niger, the population of which,
according to the account of an Arab named S/iabeni,
which he delivered to the African Association, was
only equalled by that of London and Cairo. The
same person described the government as a limited mo¬
narchy, yvhich administered justice in a severe manner,
although in conformity to yvritten laws. The rights of
landed property are guarded by the institutions of par¬
ticular hereditary officers, whose duties imply no ordi¬
nary degree of refinement and civilization. The mer¬
chants of Houssa have been celebrated for their probi¬
ty, yviule the ladies are said not to be very remarkable
for their conjugal fidelity. The art of writing is com¬
mon, but their alphabet is entirely different from the
Arabic and Hebrew. These observations appear to be
confirmed by the testimony of Mr Park ; and to such
as may be disposed to doubt the possibility of so much
refinement in the interior of a country deemed savage,
it will be neeessary to observe, that many of the Car¬
thaginians may have retired to the southern parts of
Africa, on the destruction of their own cities, and car¬
ried with them some portion of the arts, sciences, and
commercial knowledge, for the knowledge of which we
are assured that their ancestors were once so famous.
According to some maps of North Africa, particularly
that of Major Rennel, the city of Houssa lies in Lat.
16. 20. N. and Long. 4. 30. E,
HOUSTONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
5
tetrandria class and in the natural method ranking un- HousW«
der the 47th order, Stellatce. See Botany Index. ||
HOU-TCHEOU-FOU, a city of China, in the pro- Houzoua-
vince of Tche-kiang. It is a city of the first class ; ,
and is situated on a lake, from which it takes its name.
The quantity of silk manufactured here is almost incre¬
dible. To give some idea of it we shall only say, that
the tribute paid by a city under its jurisdiction, named
Te-tsin-hien, amounts to more thaw 500,000 taels or
ounces of silver. Its district contains seven cities, one
of which is of the second, and six of the third, class.
HOUZOUANAS, a wandering people, whose coun¬
try, according to M. Vaillant, is situated between 160
and 290 E. Long, but in what latitude appears to be
unknown, although it is extremely probable that it
commences about the 23d parallel, and stretches to¬
wards the north a considerable way. It is the opinion
of the above-mentioned author, that the Houzouanas
are the origin of all the eastern and western tribes of
the Hottentots : and as to the Houzouanas themselves,
they seem wholly ignorant of their own origin ; for
wh-n they are interrogated upon this subject, their an¬
swer invariably is, that they live in the country which
their ancestors inhabited, which in point of information
is no answer at all. They have been often confounded
by the planters with the Boshmen, who are not a dis¬
tinct people, but a hand of fugitives and freebooters.
The Houzouanas have nothing in common with them,
and only form alliances among themselves. So great
are their courage and habits of plunder, that all sur¬
rounding nations are afraid of them, and even the very
Hottentots, according to Vaillant, tremble to enter
their territories. They are often guilty of shedding
human blood, yet this does not appear to originate from
an innate love of carnage, but merely for the purpose
of making just reprisals.
They survey the adjacent countries from the summits
of their mountains, and make incursions to carry off
cattle or slaughter them upon the spot; but although
they rob, they never kill, except in their own defence,
or by way of retaliation, so that they are by no means
the unrelenting cannibals which some have represented
them. Like the Arabs, who are also plunderers, they
adhere with unshaken fidelity to their engagements, and
the traveller who puts himself under their protection by^
civilly purchasing their services, may rest assured of
being defended to the last drop of their blood ; which
is more than can be said for the people of many coun¬
tries professing to be civilized.
Amidst all this superiority to the other natives of
Southern Africa, their stature is low, so that a person
among them measuring five feet four inches in height,
is considered as very tall a proof that intellectual
excellence is not always to be met with in men of a gi¬
gantic stature. Their complexion is not so black as
that of the Hottentots, but their heads are rounder
towards the chin. The heat of the climate renders
clothing unnecessary, and the constant habit of going
naked, makes them equally indifferent to the burning
sands of the level country, or the frost and snow of the
lofty mountains. They have no weapons but bows and
arrows, in the use of which they discover remarkable
dexterity. Their huts appear as if cut vertically through
the middle, so that it would require two of them exact-
MS,
i.ai
HOW [ 647 ] HO W
Iljjoua- ly to make one of the Hottentots. The Houzouanas were committed to the Tower, in December 1 r,
rj| *s' are 1’cmarkabJy nimble, considering the climbing of
y J ra<t^, mountains as nothing more than an amusement; and
they conducted M. Vaillant, that traveller informs us,
«over such tremendous precipices as the Hottentots would
have deemed wholly impassable. The practice of mak¬
ing signals by means of nocturnal fires, is known in all
savage countries 5 but the Houzouanas are said to dis¬
play such uncommon sagacity and prudence in the ar¬
rangement and variations of position from time to time,
as to render it impossible for the surrounding tribes to
penetrate their designs.
HOWARD, Henry, earl of Surrey, a soldier and
a poet, the son and grandson of two lord treasurers,
dukes of Norfolk, was born probably about the year
1520, and educated in Windsor castle, with young
litzroy earl of Richmond, natural son to King Hen-
ry VIII. Wood says, from tradition, that he was some
time a student at Cardinal College, Oxford. In his
youth he became enamoured of the Fair Geraldine,
whom his sonnets have immortalized. In 1532, Howard
with his companion Richmond was at Paris, where
they continued some time. The latter died in 1536;
after which our young hero made a tour to Italy,
and at Florence, like a true enamorato, published a
challenge against all comers, whether Christians, Jews,
Saracens, Turks, or cannibals, in defence of the beau¬
ty of his fair Geraldine ; and was victorious in the
tournament instituted by the grand duke on the occa-
s on. The duke, we* are told, was so charmed with
his gallant exploits, that he would gladly have retained
him at his court j but be rejected tiie invitation, being
determined to maintain the superlative beauty of his
Geraldine in all the principal cities in Italy. This
romantic resolution was however frustrated by the
command of his sovereign, Henry VIII. to return to
England.
In 1540, he signalized himself in a tournament at
Westminter, against Sir John Dudley, Sir Thomas
Seymour and others. In 1542, he marched, under
the command of his father, against the Scots; and in
the same year was confined in Windsor castle for eat¬
ing flesh in Dent, contrary to the king’s proclamation.
I» 1544, on ^ie expedition to Boulogne in France, he
was appointed field-marshal of the English army ; and
after the taking of that town, in 1546, made captain-
general of the king’s forces in France. He was at this
time knight of the Garter. In the same year, attempt¬
ing to intercept a convoy, he was defeated by the
French, and soon after superseded in his command by
the earl of Hertford.
Surrey, after his return to England, conscious of his
former services, and peevish under his disgrace, could
not help reflecting on the king and council. This was
his first step towards destruction. He had married
I ranees, the daughter of John earl of Oxford; and,
after her death, is said to have made love to the prin¬
cess Mary. For this the Seymours, rivals of the Nor¬
folk family, and now in favour with the king, accused
him of aspiring to the crown, adding, that he already
presumed to quarter part of the royal arms with his
own: but, whatever might be the pretence, the cause
of his ruin was the jealousy and power of his enemies.
In short, the destruction of the Howards being deter¬
mined, Surrey, and his father, the duke of Norfolk,
and on the 13th of January following, Surrey was tried
at Guildhall by a common jury, and beheaded on
'lower-hill on the ipth day of the same month, nine
days before the death of the king ; who thus, that the
measure of his crimes might be full, finished his life
with the murder of his best subject. The accusations
brought against this amiable and innocent young noble¬
man on his trial, were so extremely ridiculous, that
one is astonished how it was possible, even in the most
despotic reign, to find a judge and jury so pusillani-
mously villanous as to carry on the farce of justice on
the occasion. We boast of our excellent constitution,
and our trial by juries; but this example may teach
us, that our constitution and our juries are not incom¬
patible with despotic monarchy. He was first inter¬
red in the church of All-hallows, Barkin, near Tower-
hill; and afterwards in the reign of King James I.
removed to Farmingham in Suffolk, by his sen Henry
earl of Northampton.
As to the character of this unfortunate earl, all our
poets have sung his praise. Mr Walpole begins his
anecdotes of Surrey with these words : “ We now
emerge from the twilight of learning to an almost clas¬
sic author, that ornament of a boisterous, yet not un¬
polished court, the earl of Surrey, celebrated by Dray¬
ton, Dryden, Fenton, Pope, illustrated by his own
muse, and lamented for his unhappy death : a man (as
Sir Walter Raleigh says) no less valiant than learned,
and of excellent hopes.” Leland calls him the con¬
script enrolled heir of Sir Thomas Wyatt, the elder,
in his learning and other excellent qualities; and the
author of The Art of English Poetry says, that the earl
of Surrey and Sir Thomas Wyatt, may be justly call¬
ed the reformers of ottr poetnj and style. His poems
were published in 1557, i2mo; and in 1565, 1574,
1585, 1587, 8vo, Several of the sonnets are by Sir
Thomas Wyatt and others.
Howard, Charles, an able statesman and experi¬
enced seaman, was the son of Lord William Howard,
ba ron of Effingham, and born in 1536. He serv ed
under his father, who was lord high admiral of Eng¬
land, till the accession of Queen Elizabeth. In January
1573, he succeeded his father in his title and estate ;
after which he successively became chamberlain of the
household and knight of the Garter, and in 1585 was
made lord high admiral, at that critical juncture when
the Spaniards were sending their Armada, in their opi¬
nion, to the assured conquest of this kingdom. When
he received intelligence of the approach of the Spanish
fleet, and saw the prodigious consequence it was to get
out the few ships that were ready at Plymouth, he not
only gave orders in every thing himself, but wrought
also with his own hands, and the first night left the
port with six ships. The next morning, though he
had only 30 sail, and those the smallest of the fleet, he
attacked the Spanish navy; but first dispatched his
brother-in-law, Sir Edward Hobby, to the queen, to
desire her to make the proper disposition of her land-
forces for the security of the coast, and to hasten as
many ships as possible to his assistance. His valour was
conspicuously displayed in his repeated attacks of a su¬
perior enemy. The coolness of his temper was no less
conspicuous ; and it was owing to his magnanimity
and prudence that the victory was so great. The queen
expressed.
HOW [
ex pressed her sense of his merit in the most honourable
terms j and granted him a pension for life. ^ In 1596)
he commanded in chief at sea, as Essex did by land,
the forces sent against Spain, when his prudence and
moderation were among the principal causes of the suc¬
cess the English met with in that great and glorious
enterprise j so that, upon his return the next year he
was advanced to the dignity of earl of Nottingham.
The next eminent service in which his lordship was
engaged was in 1599, when the Spaniards seemed to
meditate a new invasion. Her majesty, who always
placed her safety in being too quick, for hei enemies,
drew together, in a fortnight’s time, such a fleet, and
such an army, as took away all appearance of success
from her foreign and domestic enemies ; and she gave
the earl the sole and supreme command of both the
fleet and army, with the title of lord lieutenant general
of all England, an office unknown in succeeding times.
When age and infirmity had unfitted him for action,
he resigned his office, and spent the remaining part of
his life in ease and retirement, till the time ol his de¬
cease, which happened in 1624, in the 87th year of
his age.
Howard, John, Esq. a man of singular and trans-
Cendant humanity, was tbe son of a reputable tradesman
in St Paul’s church yard. He was born about the year
1725 or 1726 5 and at a proper age was put apprentice
to Mr Nathaniel Newnham, a wholesale grocer in Wal¬
ling street. His father died, leaving only this son and
a daughter, to both of whom he bequeathed handsome
fortunes j and by his will directed that his son should
not be considered of age till he was five and twenty.
His constitution was thought very weak, and his health
appeared to have been injured by the necessary duties
of his apprenticeship j and therefore, at the expiration
of it, he took an apartment in a lodging house in
Church-street, Stoke Newington, Middlesex •, but not
meeting with the tenderest treatment there, he removed
to another lodging-house in the same street, which was
kept by a widow lady Mrs Sarah Lardeau, a worthy
sensible woman, but an invalid. Here he was nursed
with so much care and attention, that he resolved to
marry his landlady out of gratitude for her kindnesss.
In vain she expostulated with him upon the extravagance
of such a proceeding, he being about 28 and she about
sji years of age, and 20 years older in constitution:
but nothing could alter his resolution, and they were
privately married about the year 1752. She was possess¬
ed of a small fortune, which he presented to her sister.
During his residence at Newington, the minister of the
dissenting meeting-house there resigned his office, and
a successor was elected j and Mr Howard, who was bred
a dissenter, and stedfastly adhered all his life to that
profession, proposed to purchase the lease of a house near
the meeting-house, and to appropriate it as a parsonage-
house for the use of the minister for the time being, and
contributed 50I. for that purpose. His wife died No¬
vember 10. 1755, aged 54 ', and he was a sincere and
affectionate mourner for her death. About this time
it is believed, he was electedE. R. S. In the year 1756
he had the fortune to experience some of the evils
which it afterwards became the business of his life to
redress. He embarked that year in a Lisbon packet,
the Hanover, in order to make the tour of Portugal j
when the vessel was taken by a French privateer. “ Be-
3
648 ] HO W
fore we reached Brest (says he*) l suffered the extre- ii0v,*,j
mity of thirst, not having for above 40 hours one drop v 
of water, nor hardly a morsel of food. In the castle * On PH.
at Brest I lay six nights upon straw j and observingsows> 4t‘>.
how cruelly my countrymen were used there and atI7S4’p,!I'
Morlaix, whither I was carried next, during the two
months I was at Carhaix upon parole, I corresponded
with the English prisoners at Brest, Morlaix, and Din-
nan : at the last of those towns were several of our ship’s
crew, and my servant. I had sufficient evidence of
their being treated with such barbarity, that many
hundreds had perished, and that 36 were buried in a
hole at Dinnan in one day. When I came to England,
still on parole, I made known to the commissioners of
sick and wounded seamen the sundry particulars, which
gained their attention and thanks. Remonstrance was
made to the French court: our sailors had redress j and
those that were in the three prisons mentioned above,
were brought home in the first cartel ships.—Perhaps
(adds Mr Howard) what I suffered on this occasion
increased my sympathy with the unhappy people whose
case is the subject of this book.”
He afterwards, it is said, made the tour of Italy ;
and at his return settled at Brokenhurst, a retired and
pleasant villa in the New Forest, near Lymington in
Hampshire, having, April 25. 1758, married a daugh¬
ter of Edward Leeds, Esq. of Croxton, Cambridge¬
shire, king’s serjeant. This lady died in 1765 in child¬
bed, of her only child, a son, who unfortunately became
lunatic. After her death Mr Howard left Lymington,
and purchased an estate at Cardington, near Bed¬
ford.
“ While he lived here in retirement (says Mr Pal¬
mer f), it was his meat and drink to make his neigh-1
hours happy. His neat but humble mansion was ever Sermmi m
hospitable to a few select friends, but was never the the(Uath oj
scene of riot or luxurious banqueting. Though polite ^
to all, he neither sought nor admitted the company ol
the profligate, however distinguished by rank or for¬
tune.—His charity had no bounds, except those of
prudence j and was not more commendable for the ex¬
tent of it, than for the manner in which it was exer¬
cised. He gave not his bounty to countenance vice
and idleness, but to encourage virtue and industry. He
was singularly useful in furnishing employment for the
labouring poor of both sexes, at those seasons when
a scarcity of work rendered their situation most com-
passionable. And at other times, though never inat¬
tentive to the tale of woe, he was not easily imposed
upon by it, but made himself acquainted with the case.
He had indeed a general acquaintance with the cases
and characters of the poor around him, and made it
his business to visit the abodes of affliction. In cir¬
cumstances of bodily disorder, he often acted the part
of a physician as well as a friend. But his kindness
was not confined to the bodies of his iellow-creatures,
it extended to their spiritual and immortal part. He
carefully watched over the morals of his neighbour¬
hood, and used his advice, his admonitions, and in¬
fluence, to discountenance immorality of all kinds, and
to promote the knowledge and practice of religion.
As a most effectual means to this great end, he pro¬
vided for the instruction of poor children, by erecting
and supporting schools which he carefully superintend¬
ed. In short, he was an universal blessing to the vil¬
lage
H O W [ 649 ] HO W
■d. iage where he resided, in every part of which are to
be seen the pleasing monuments of his munificence and
taste.—His liberality extended also to adjacent places,
in which there are many who will call him blessed.
Nor was it confined to persons of his own religious
persuasion, but comprehended the necessitous and de¬
serving of all parties $ while he was particularly use¬
ful in serving the interest of the Christian society to
which he belonged. What wonder if such a man were
universally beloved ? Was it possible he should have
an enemy f One however he had (and I never heard
of more), an idle and dissolute wretch, who, having
been often reproved by him for his vices, formed the
desperate resolution to murder him as he was going to
public worship, which he almost always did on foot.
But providence remarkably interposed to preserve so
valuable a life, by inclining him that morning to go
on horseback a different road.”
But the sphere in which he had hitherto moved was
too narrow for bis enlarged mind. Being named in
1773 to the office of sheriff of Bedfordshire, from
that time his scene of usefulness was extended. His
effice, as he himself observes, brought the distress
of prisoners more immediately under his notice. A
tense of duty induced him personally to visit the
county-jail, where he observed such abuses and such
scenes of calamity, as he had before no conception ofj
end he soon exerted himself in order to a reform. With
a view to obtain precedents for certain regulations
which he proposed, he went to inspect the prisons in
some neighbouring counties. But finding in them equal
room for complaint and commiseration, be determined
to visit the principal prisons in England. The farther
be proceeded, the more shocking were the scenes pre¬
sented to his view: which induced him to resolve upon
exerting himself to the utmost, in order to a general
reform in these horrid places of confinement j consi¬
dering it as of the highest importance, not only to the
wretched objects themselves, but to the community at
large. Upon this subject he was examined in the house
of commons in March 1774, when he had the honour
of their thanks. This encouraged him to proceed in
his design. He revisited all the prisons in the king¬
dom, together with the principal houses ol correction.
He also in 1775 enlarged his circuit by going into
"Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, where he found the
same need of reformation.
One grand object which he bad in view was, to
put a stop to that shocking distemper called the jail-
fever ; which raged so dreadfully in many of the pri¬
sons as to render them to the last degree offensive ■and
dangerous: A distemper, by which more had been
taken off than by the hands of the executioner ; and
which, in several instances, had been communicated
from the prisons into the courts of justice, and had
proved fatal to the magistrates and judges, and to mul¬
titudes of persons who attended the trials, as well as
to the families of discharged felons and debtors. An¬
other end he proposed was, to procure the immediate
release of prisoners, who, upon trial, were acquitted,
hut who often continued long to be unjustly detained
for want of being able to pay the accustomed fees : As
also to abolish many other absurd and cruel usages which
had long prevailed. But the great object of all was, to
introduce a thorough reform of morals into our prisons j
Vol. X. Part II. t
where he had found the most flagrant vices to prevail in Howard,
such a degree, that they were become seminaries of wick-
edness and villany, and the most formidable nuisances
to the community ; in consequence of the promiscuous
intercourse of prisoners of both sexes, and of all ages
and descriptions; whereby the young and less experi¬
enced were initiated, by old and hardened sinners, in¬
to all the arts of villany and the mysteries of iniquity ;
so that, instead of being reformed by their confinement
(which should be the chief end of punishment), those
that were discharged became more injurious to society
than before.
In order to the attainment of these great objects,
Mr Howard spared no pains nor expence, and cheer¬
fully exposed himself to much inconvenience, and ha¬
zard ; particularly from that malignant distemper, of
which he saw many dying in the most loathsome dun¬
geons, into which none, who were not obliged, besides
himself, would venture. “ I have been frequently
(says Mr Howard) asked what precautions I used to
preserve myself from infections in the prisons and hospi¬
tals which I visited. I here answer, next to the free
goodness and mercy of the Author of my being, tem¬
perance and cleanliness are my preservatives. Trust¬
ing in divine providence, and believing myself in the
way of my duty, I visit the most noxious cells ; and
while thus employed, I fear no evil. I never enter an
hospital or prison before breakfast; and in an offensive
room, I seldom draw my breath deeply.”
His laudable endeavours he had the pleasure to see,
in some instances, crowned with success ; particularly
in regard to the healthiness of prisons, some of which
were rebuilt under his inspection. Through his inter¬
position also, better provision has been made for the in¬
struction of prisoners, by the introduction of bihles and
other pious books into their cells, and a more con¬
stant attendance of clergymen. The gaolers likewise
have, by act of parliament, been rendered incapable of
selling strong liquors, which had been the source of
much drunkenness and disorder. But a minute detail
of particulars is not to be expected here ; for these the
reader is referred to Mr Howard’s publications, which
show that much is yet wanting.
But in order to a more general and happy regula¬
tion, and the reformation of criminals, he determined
to visit other countries, to see the plans there adopted ;
in hope of collecting some information which might be
useful in his own country. For this purpose he tra¬
velled into France, Flanders, Holland, Germany, and
Switzerland. Afterwards through the Prussian and
Austrian dominions. He visited also the capitals of
Denmark, Sweden, Russia, and Poland, and some ci¬
ties in Portugal and Spain. In all these expensive and
hazardous journeys, he denied himself the usual grati¬
fications of travellers, and declined the honours which
were ofi’ered him by persons of the first distinction, ap¬
plying himself solely to his one grand object. To him
the inspection of a jail, or hospital, was more grate¬
ful than all the entertainments of a palace. With what
astonishment and gratitude he was received by their
miserable inhabitants may easily be imagined, since
while he made observations on their situation, he medi¬
tated their relief; and many distressed prisoners abroad,
as well as at home, partook of his bounty, and some
were liberated by it; for he considered all of every na*.
4 N tionj 4
Howard.
HOW
tion, and people, and tongue, as brethren. Nor was
he sparing of advice, or of reproof, as he saw occa¬
sion, to persons of rank and influence, whereby the
miseries of their countrymen might be relieved. As
he courted the favour of none, neither did he fear
the frowns of any ; but with a manly freedom and a
Christian fortitude, spoke his mind to crowned heads
(particularly the late emperor of Germany) in a man¬
ner to which they were not accustomed ; which, how¬
ever, in a person of such disinterested views, procured
him reverence and esteem, and in some instances
proved effectual for relieving the miserable and oppres¬
sed. On his return, he published in 1777, “ Tlie
State of the Prisons in England and Wales, with
Preliminary Observations, and an Account of some
foreign Prisons.” 4to. And in 1778 he took a
third journey through the Prussian and Austrian do¬
minions, and the free cities of Germany, and like¬
wise extended his tour through Italy, and revisited
some of the countries he had before seen. The obser¬
vations he made in this tour were published in an ap¬
pendix, 1780; containing also some remarks respect¬
ing the management of prisoners of war, and the hulks
on the Thames. But wishing to acquire some further
knowledge on the subject, he in 1781 again revisited
Holland and some cities in Germany. He visited also
the capitals of Denmark, Sweden, Russia, and Po¬
land j and in 1783 some cities in Portugal and Spain,
and returned through France, Flanders, and Holland.
The substance of all these travels was afterwards
thrown into one narrative, which was published in
1784. He also published a curious account of theBas-
tile, in 8vo. j that infamous French prison, happily now
no more.
His travels and exertions, however, were not yet at
an end. He conceived a further design, which was
to visit the principal lazarettoes in France and Italy,
in order to obtain information concerning the best me¬
thods to prevent the spreading of the plague, with a
view to apply them with respect to other infectious
disorders. Not gaining all the satisfaction here which
he wished for, he proceeded to Smyrna and Constan¬
tinople, where that most dreadful of human distempers
actually prevailed, “ pleasing himself (as he said) with
the idea of not only learning, but of being able to
communicate somewhat to the inhabitants of those di¬
stant regions.” In the execution of this design, though
he was so much exposed to danger, and actually caught
the plague, “ that merciful Providence (as he him¬
self piously remarks) which had hitherto preserved
him, was pleased to extend his protection to him in
this journey also, and to bring him home once more
in safety.” In his return he revisited the chief pri¬
sons and hospitals in the countries through which he
passed ; and afterwards went again to Scotland, and
then to Ireland, where he proposed a new and very
important object; namely, to inspect the Protestant
Charter Schools, in some of which he had before ob¬
served shameful abuses, which he had reported to a
committee of the Irish House of Commons. In this
more extensive tour, he took a particular account of
what he observed amiss in the conduct of this noble
charity, with a view to a reformation, and not without
considerable success. In the course of these journeys,
particular cities and communities were not unmindful
HOW
to pay him proper respect. At Dublin, he was created Howard
by the university a Doctor of Laws j and the city of'-—-^*1
Glasgow and the town of Liverpool did honour to
themselves by enrolling him among their members.
Upon his return home, having again inspected the
prisons in England, and the hulks on the Thames, to
see what alterations had been made for the better
(which he found to be very considerable, though yet
imperfect), be published the result of bis last laborious
investigations, in “ An Account of the Principal La¬
zarettoes in Europe, with various Papers relative to the
Plague, together with further Observations on some
Foreign Prisons and Hospitals, and additional Remarks
on the present State of those in Great Britain and Ire¬
land,” with a great number of curious plates. The
work likewise contained Observations on Penitentiary
Houses, which had been eneouraged by act of par¬
liament, for the correction and reformation of crimi¬
nals, of which he and Dr Fothergill had been nomi¬
nated by the king to be superintendants. Beside these,
he published the Grand Duke of Tuscany’s “new Code
of Criminal Law, with an English Translation :” and
of all his publications he gave away a vast number of
copies among his acquaintance in the most liberal man¬
ner. His laying open the horrors of despotism in a
neighbouring country bad very nearly exposed him to
the sufferings of them ; and had it not been for the
timely notice of our ambassador, be had ended his days
in the Bastile.
Not satisfied, however, with what he had already
done, he concludes his “ Account of Lazarettoes”
with announcing his “ intention again to quit his coun¬
try, for the purpose of revisiting Russia, Turkey, and
some other countries, and extending his tour in the
east. I am not insensible (says he) of the dangers that
must attend such a journey. Trusting, however, in
the protection of that kind Providence which has hi¬
therto preserved me, I calmly and cheerfully commit
myself to the disposal of unerring wisdom. Should
it please God to cut off my life in the prosecution of
this design, let not my conduct be uncandidly imputed
to rashness or enthusiasm, but to a serious deliberate
conviction that I am pursuing the path of duty, and
to a sincere desire of being made an instrument of more
extensive usefulness to my fellow-creatures than could
be expected in the narrower circle of a retired life.”
Accordingly, to the great concern of his friends, h«
set out in summer 1789 on this hazardous enterprixe •,
the principal object of which was to administer a me¬
dicine in high repute at home, in maligaant fever*
under a strong persuasion that it would be equally effi-p*'v‘,er
cacious in the plague. In this second tour in the
east, “ it did please God to cut off his life :” for, ha¬
ving spent some time at Cherson, a new settlement of
the empress of Russia, on the mouth of the Dnieper
or Borysthenes, toward the northern extremity of the
Black sea, near Oczakow, he caught, in visiting the
Russian hospital of that place, or as some say a young
lady who was ill of the same complaint, a malignant
fever, which carried him off on the 20th of January,
after an illness of about twelve days : and after ha¬
ving been kept, according to his express directions
to his servant, five days, he was buried, by his own de¬
sire, in the garden of a villa in the neighbourhood, be¬
longing to a French gentleman from whom he bad
received
[ 650 ]
*;
M
]fi
(in
in
*7
HOW [ 651 ] HOW
imd received great civilities, by his faithful servant who had
|j attended him on his former journeyings, and whom he
we. expressly enjoined not to return home till five weeks
from his death. While absent on his first tour to Tur¬
key, &c. his character for active benevolence had so
much attracted the public attention, that a subscrip¬
tion was set on foot to erect a statue to his honour, and
in no long space above 1500I. was subscribed for that
purpose. But some of those who knew Mr Howard best,
never concurred in the scheme, being well assured that
he would neither countenance nor accede to it; and in
^'^•consequence of two letters from Mr Howard himself*
|v0^i to the subscribers, the design was laid aside. It has,
however, been resumed since his death: And surely,
of all the statues or monuments ever erected by pub¬
lic gratitude to illustrious characters either in ancient
or modern times, none was ever erected in honour of
worth so genuine and admirable as his—who devoted
his time, his strength, his fortune, and finally sacrificed
his life, in the pursuits of humanity :—who (to adopt
expressive words of Mr Burke f) “ visited all Eu-
^stn/ rope [and the east], not to survey the sumptuousness of
palaces, or the stateliness of temples j not to make ac¬
curate measurements of the remains of ancient gran¬
deur, nor to form a scale of the curiosity of modern art j
not to collect medals, or to collate manuscripts : but to
dive into the depth of dungeons ; to plunge into the
infection of hospitals $ to survey the mansions of sorrow
and of pain 5 to take the gauge and dimensions of mi¬
sery, depression, and contempt ; to remember the for¬
gotten to attend to the neglected ; to visit the forsa¬
ken ; and to compare and collate the distresses of all
men in all countries. His plan is original ; and it is
as full of genius as it is of humanity. It is a voyage
of discovery, a circumnavigation of charity j and al¬
ready the benefit of his labour is felt more or less in
every country.”
HO WHEN, a town in the east riding of York¬
shire, 180 miles from London, stands on the north
side of the Ouse, has a market on Saturdays, and four
fairs in the year. Here was formerly a collegiate
church of five prebendaries j adjacent to which the
bishops of Durham, who possess many estates here with
a temporal jurisdiction, have a palace. One of them
built a very tall steeple to the church here, whither
the inhabitants might retire in case of inundations; to
which it is very liable from the great freshes that come
down the Ouse sometimes at ebb. This part of the
county is from hence called Howdenshire, and is wa¬
tered by a conflux of several large rivers that fall in¬
to the Humber. At Howdendike is a ferry over the
Ouse. Population 1812, in 1811.
HOWE, Richard, Earl, an English naval com¬
mander of distinguished eminence, was born in the
year 1725, being the second son of Lord \ iscount
Howe, by the daughter of Baron Kilmansegg. From
his early attachment to the life of a mariner, he quit¬
ted the school of Eton at the age of 14, and went on
board the Severn, the honourable Captain Legge be¬
ing commander, destined for the South seas under
Commodore Anson. Mr Howe next appeared in the
Burford, Captain Lushington commander, who being
killed in an expedition against the Caraccas, Commo¬
dore Knowles made Mr Howe an acting lieutenant. At
the age of 20 he was promoted to the rank of command¬
er in the Baltimore sloop of war, and he joined a squa¬
dron at that time cruising off the coast of Scotland,
where he met with an opportunity of displaying his
undaunted courage and intrepidity, by engaging and
beating off two French frigates of 30 guns each, by
the assistance of another armed ship, notwithstanding he
was severely wounded in the head during the action.
This service was immediately and very justly reward¬
ed with the rank of post-captain. He was soon after
appointed to the rank of captain on board Commodore
Knowles’s own ship of 80 guns, with which he return¬
ed to England in the year 1748. When hostilities
again commenced, he commanded the Dunkirk of 60
guns, in North America ; which ship constituted part
of the squadron under Admiral Boscawen, and with
which he captured a French man of war of superior
metal off the coast of Newfoundland ; viz. the Alcide
of 64 guns. In order to annoy the coast of France, he
received, in the year 1758, the command of a small
squadron, with which he effected the destruction, at St
Malo, of a number of magazines and ships. When he
served on board the Essex, Prince Edward, afterwards
duke of York, sailed with him, at which time he power¬
fully contributed to the reduction of the town of Cher¬
bourg. In 1758 his elder brother fell in North Ame¬
rica in the service of his king and country, on which
event the young commodore succeeded to the family
title and estate. In the following year he participated
of the honourable victory gained by Sir Edward Hawke
over the French fleet under Admiral Conflans. He
afterwards served in the Channel, and was captain of
the Amelia, the ship of admiral the duke of York. On
the restoration of peace, he was nominated one of the
lords of the admiralty, and some time afterwards, trea¬
surer of the navy. He rvasinthe year 1770, raised to
the rank of rear-admiral of the blue, and chosen com¬
mander-in-chief on the Mediterranean station. In
1775, he rose to the station of rear-admiral of the
blue ; in consequence of which rapid promotions, Lord
Hawke paid him the following compliment in the house
of peers: “ I advised his majesty to make the promo¬
tion. I have tried my Lord Howe on important occa¬
sions ; he never asked me how he was to execute any
service, but always went and performed it”.
In the summer of 1776, Lord Howe appeared off
Massachusets, as commander-in-chief of his Britannic
majesty’s fleet acting in North America, and in the ca¬
pacity of a commissioner for restoring the blessings of
an amicable reconciliation. All the provincial govern¬
ors were made acquainted with his arrival by means of
circular letters, expressive also of the full extent of the
authority invested in him and his fellow commissioners ;
but as congress did not deem the conditions which these
letters contained to be at all satisfactory, they were or¬
dered to be inserted in all the gazettes for the exami¬
nation of the people. His powers being thus circum¬
scribed at the very commencement, he could only act
in the capacity of a naval commander, in which he aid¬
ed the operations of the land forces with uncommon
skill. It was not to be imagined, however, that much
glory could redound to his lordship from such an une¬
qual contest, till the junction of France with America
placed the contending parties more upon a level. On
the arrival of Admiral D’Estaign in the month of July
1778, off Sandy Hook, Lord Howe was certainly in a
4 N 2 very
Howr.
HOW [ 652 ] HOW
Howe, very critical situation 5 but by an exertion of uncom-
mon skill and dexterity, the French commander thought
it prudent to retire, when he was pursued by Lord
Howe to Rhode island, after he obtained a reinforce¬
ment under Admiral Byron. The intentions of the
enemy were completely counteracted, and the campaign
was finally terminated with honour. Here he resigned
his command, and came over to England $ but in 1782
he was promoted to the rank of admiral of the blue,
made a viscount of Great Britain, and chosen command¬
er of the fleet which was sent for the relief of Gibral¬
tar. The combined fleets of France and Spain were
•about a third superior to that under Lord Howe, who,
with 34 sail of the line, appeared off Gibraltar in the
month of October, being driven into the Mediterra¬
nean by contrary winds. Although he was pursued by
the combined fleet, he found means to supply the fort¬
ress with provisions. He checked the enemy by a par¬
tial action, and notwithstanding he offered to give
them battle, it was declined on their part j and he had
the satisfaction to execute his commission prior to his
return home, in spite of the numerous difficulties which
he had to encounter.
He was nominated first lord of the admiralty on the
termination of the war, which he both resigned and re¬
sumed by difi’erent changes of administration. In the
year 1787 he was chosen admiral of the white, and
created an earl of Great Britain in the following
year. When hostilities were renewed with France in
1793, his lordship accepted the command of the chan¬
nel fleet, at the express desire of his Britannic majes¬
ty, but he had it not in his power to do any thing
decisive till the summer of 1794. On the ever me¬
morable 1st of June, with a fleet consisting of 25 sail of
the line, he gave battle to a French fleet of 26, gain¬
ing a most signal victory over the enemy, capturing
seven of their ships, one of which was so shattered as
to go to the bottom, and several others were, in the
language of seamen, very much crippled. His lordship
had the good fortune not to lose a ship, and compara¬
tively but a few men, considering the prodigious loss in
this respect sustained by the enemy. The gratitude of
the nation was suitable to the importance of this naval
victory, and it is more than probable that the first of
June will never be forgotten. In 1795 he was made
general of marines: but the infirmities which seldom
fail to be the concomitants of old age, induced him to
resign his naval command in the year 1797, and on his
final retreat he was presented with the honours of the
Garter. His great influence as a beloved officer, con¬
tributed greatly to stifle a spirit of mutiny and discon¬
tent which at this time exhibited alarming symptoms
among the seamen of his majesty’s fleets. He termina¬
ted his brilliant and honourable career on the 5th of
August 1799, in the 73d year of his age, leaving none
but female issue behind him. His lordship’s valour,
always cool and steady, was consequently of that nature
which enables a commander to make the most of his
situation j his judgment was sound and penetrating,
which prevented him from being easily imposed upon
by external appearances; and his seamanship was of
the most consummate and masterly kind. It is with
pleasure we close this concise account of his lordship’s
public life by observing, that his country was deeply
sensible of the value and importance of his services, a
truth fully evinced by the honours and preferments Howe, Wi
which it heaped upon him. Howe5,! iJ
HoiVE-Island, a small island of the South sea, disco- Island, J
vered by Captain Wallis, called by the inhabitants of ’ 1 1
the Society islands Mopeha; lies in S. Lat. 16. 46.
and W. Long. 154. 8.
Lord Howe's Island, a small island in the neigh¬
bourhood of New South Wales, discovered on Febru¬
ary 17th, 1788. S. Lat. 31. 36. E. Long. 159. 40.
It is of an arched figure, lying from north-west to
south-east, the two extremities including a space of
about six miles, though, by reason of the curved figure
of the island itself, it is near seven in length. It is
deeply indented in the middle of the eastern part by
a bay named Ross’s bay, and on the opposite and
western part has another named Prince William Hen¬
ry’s bay $ so that the whole has the appearance of two
islands joined together by an isthmus, which in some
places is not above half a mile broad. On the south¬
ern part of that division which lies most to the north¬
ward are two considerable bays, named Callam’s and
Hunter’s bay j and on the south-western part of the
other are two high mountains, the most southerly na¬
med Mount Gower, and the other Mount Lidgbird.
The convex part of the island lying towards the north¬
east, and the concave side towards the opposite quarter,
is terminated by two points named Point King and
Point Philip. No fresh water was found on the island j
but it abounds with cabbage-palms, mangrove, and
manchineel trees, even up to the summits of the moun¬
tains. There are plenty of gannets, and a land fowl of
a dusky brown colour, with a bill about four inches
long, and feet like those of a chicken. These wers
found to be remarkably fine meat, and were very fat.
There are many large pigeons, and the white birds
found in Norfolk island were also met with in this
place. The bill of this bird is red, and very strong,
thick, and sharp pointed. Great numbers of fine
turtle frequent this island in summer, but go to the
northward in winter. These, it was imagined, would
prove of great service to the colony at Port Jackson j
but, from some cause or other, it appears they have hi¬
therto been disappointed. Plenty of fish were caught
by a hook and line. At the distance of about four
leagues from Lord Howe’s island is a very remarkable
and high rock, to which the name of Ball’s Pyramid
has been given. This island may be approached with¬
out danger j but about four miles from the south-west
part of the pyramid there is a very dangerous rock,
which shows itself above the surface of the water, and
appears not to be larger than a boat. The southern
part of the island is lined with a sandy beach, which is
guarded against the sea by a reef of coral rocks, at the
distance of half a mile from the beach, through which
there are several small openings for boats j but there is
nowhere a greater depth of water within the reef than
four feet. By the account of Mr Watts, who visited
this island in his return from Port Jackson, the isthmus
which joins the two parts has evidently been overflow¬
ed, and the island disjoined, as in the very centre the
men saw large beds of coral rocks and great quantities
of shells 5 and on the east, which seems in general to
be the weather-side, the sea has thrown up a bank of
sand from 25 to 30 feet high, which serves as a bar¬
rier against future inundations. The island also ap¬
pears.
HOY '[ 653 ] H U A
H e’s pears to have suffered by volcanic eruptions, as great
1 “d quantities of pumice-stones and other matters of that
)V kind were found upon it. Mr Austin also found the
^ ■ whole reef which shelters the west bay a burnt-up mass.
The time he visited the island was that of the incuba¬
tion of the gannets, of which there were then prodigi¬
ous numbers, their nests being only hollows made in
the sand, there not being any quadrupeds on the
island to disturb them. Besides the large pigeons al¬
ready mentioned, they met with beautiful parrots and
parroquets j a new species of the coote, as well as of the
rail and magpie. They found likewise a very beauti¬
ful small bird of a brown colour with a yellow breast,
and yellow on the wing, which seemed to be a species
of humming bird. They found also a black bird like
a sheerwater, having a hooked bill ; and which bur¬
rows in the ground. The only insects met with here
were the common earth-worm and ants : which last
were in great plenty. Besides the trees already men¬
tioned, they found several esculent vegetables, as scur¬
vy-grass, celery, spinach, endive, and samphire.
HOWITZ, a kind of mortar, mounted upon a field-
carriage like a gun. The difference between a mortar
and a hovvitz is, that the trunnions of the first are at
the end, and at the middle in the last. The invention
of howitzes is of much later date than mortars, for
they really had their origin from them. The construc¬
tions of howitzes are as various and uncertain as those
of mortars, excepting the chambers, which are all
cylindric. They are distinguished by the diameter of
the bore ; for instance, a ten inch howitz is that the
diameter of which is 10 inches 5 and so of the smaller
'ones.
HOWTH, a promontory which forms the northern
entrance of the bay of Dublin, having a small village
about seven miles north-east from that city in the pro¬
vince of Leinster. It gives title of earl to the family
of St, Lawrence, who were so called from a victory
obtained by them over the Irish on St Lawrence’s day
1177, their former name being Tristram 5 and this
place has continued in possession of the family above
600 years. N. Lat. 53. 21. W. Long. 6. 22. The
shores off this hill are rocky and precipitous, affording,
however, a few harbours for small craft. It was for¬
merly called Ben-hedar, i. e. “ the birds promontory
and celebrated for having Dun Criomthan, or the rath
or royal palace of Criomthan erected on it, he having
been chief or king of that district, and memorable for
making steveral successful descents on the coast of
Britain against the Romans in the time of Agricola.
Howth, though now stript of trees, was formerly co¬
vered with venerable oaks, and was a seat of the Dru¬
ids-, one of their altars still remains in a sequestered
valley on the east side of the hill. The mansion-house
is built in form of a castle, and was probably erected
by Sir Armoricus Tristram. Near the house stands
the family chapel, and on the western shore are the
ruins of St Mary’s church, with some ancient monu¬
ments of Lord Howth’s ancestors. Due west of Howth
house are the ruins of St Fenton’s church.
HOY, a small vessel chiefly used in coasting, or car-
rying goods to or from a ship, in a road or hay, where
the ordinary lighters cannot be managed with safety
or convenience.
It would be very difficult to describe precisely the
marks of distinction between this vessel and some others ff0
of the same size, which are also rigged in the same man- |j
ner j because what is called a hoy in one place, would Uuah
assume the name of a sloop or smack in another $ and " ^
even the people who navigate these vessels, have, upon
examination, very vague ideas of the marks by which
they are distinguished from those above mentioned.
In Holland the hoy has two masts $ in England, it
has but one, where the main-sail is sometimes extend¬
ed by a boom, and sometimes without it. Upon the
whole, it may he defined a small vessel, usually rigged
as a sloop, and employed for carrying passengers and
luggage from one place to another, particularly on the
sea-coast.
Hoy, one of the Orkney islands, which lie off the
north coast of Scotland, is situated between the island
of Pomona and the north coast of Caithness, and is se¬
parated from the small island of Graemsay by a sound
of a mile broad. The whole island is nearly occupied by
three large hills, of which that to the north-east rises
from a broad base to the height of 1200 feet. Some
veins of lead and iron have been discovered in this
island. Birch trees of considerable size seem to have
been produced on it in former times. But at present
its vegetable productions, excepting what are fit for
sheep pasture, are extremely limited. A few hardy al¬
pine plants and stunted shrubs include the whole. The
number of inhabitants does not exceed 520. The
Dwarfie stone is the only monument of antiquity in the
island. This is a large mass of sand-stone 3 2 feet long,
18 broad, and y-J feet thick above the surface. It is
hollowed within, and divided into three apartments,
one of which, called the dwarf’s bed, is five feet eight
long, by two feet broad. It lias probably been the re¬
treat of a hermit. Tradition says that it was the habi¬
tation of a giant. Waas or Waes, which is often con¬
sidered as a distinct island, makes part of Hoy. It is
distinguished for the excellence of its harbours, parti¬
cularly the Longhope, one of the finest and safest in
Europe. Waas contains 75c inhabitants.
HOYE, a town of Germany in Westphalia, and
capital of a county of the same name. It is seated on.
the river Weser, and is subject to the king of Han¬
over. E. Long. 9. o. N. Lat. 53. j.
HUAHEINE, one of the Society Islands, in the
South sea, situated in S. Lat. 16. 43. W. Long. 150.
52. and is about seven or eight leagues in compass. Its
surface is hilly and uneven, and it has a safe and con¬
venient harbour. It was first discovered by Captain
Cook in 1769. It is divided by a deep inlet into two
peninsulas connected by an isthmus, which is entirely
overflowed at high water. From the appearance of its
hills it may be concluded, that the country has at some
period or other been the seat of a volcano. The summit
of one of them had much the appearance of a crater,
and a blackish spongy earth was seen upon one of its
sides, which seemed to be lava ; and the rocks and clay
every where had a burnt appearauce. The island is
plentifully supplied with water by many rivulets which
descend from the mountains and broken rocks. The
inhabitants are nearly as fair as Europeans j and their
conduct is bolder than that of the inhabitants of the
other Society islands. They are a stout large-made
people, some of the tallest being six feet three inches
in height: they are extremely indolent, and seem to
have
HUD
Ifnaheiae J'ave as curiosity as fear.
tj favour with all their women, “ who could not have ca-
ffudsuu. lessed them (says Mr Forster) with a more ridiculous
* " affection if they had been European ladies of fashion.
Here was seen a middle-aged woman, whose breasts
were full of milk, offering them to ei little puppy who
had been trained up to suck them. I he sight disgusted
those who saw it so much, that they could not for¬
bear expressing their dislike to it j but the woman smil¬
ed, and told them that she allowed young pigs to do
the same. It appeared afterwards that this woman had
lost her child. Some of the gentlemen were present at
a dramatic entertainment on this island : the piece re¬
presented a girl running away from her parents j and
seemed to be levelled at a female passenger who had
come in Captain Cook’s ship from Otaheite, and who
happened to be present at the representation. It made
such an impression on the girl, that the gentlemen could
scarce prevail upon her to see the piece out, or to re¬
frain from tears while it was acting. It concluded
with the reception she was supposed to meet with from
her friends, which was made out not to be a very
agreeable one.—These people introduce extempore
pieces upon occasion j and it is most probable that this
was meant as a satire upon the girl above mentioned,
and to discourage others from acting in the same man¬
ner.
HUBERT, St, a town of the Netherlands, on the
confines of Liege, with a very fine abbey, where they
bring those that are bit by mad animals to be cured.
E. Long. 5. 25. N. Lat. 50. 1.
HUBNER, John, a learned geographer of Ger¬
many, taught geography at Leipsic and Hamburg with
extraordinary reputation j and died at Hamburg in 1732,
aged 63. His principal work is A Geographical Trea¬
tise, printed at Basil in 1746, in 6 vols. l2mo.
HUDSON, Jeffret. See Dwarf.
Hudson, Henry. Of this eminent naval discover¬
er we know nothing prior to the year 1607, when he
was employed by some London merchants in a small
vessel, for exploring a north-east passage to China and
Japan. He set sail on the 1st of May with only ten
men and a boy, and reached as high as 8o° of N. Lat.
where being stopt by the ice, he returned to England
in the month of September following, In his next
voyage he landed at Nova Zembla, but could make no
farther east, aod he returned in August next year.
The Dutch East India Company fitted him out in 1609,
with a crew of 20 men, English and Dutch, and after
in vain attempting to penetrate eastward, he steered for
the American coast, and went as far as Chesapeak bay.
His crew mutinying, he durst not attempt a westerly
passage through Davis’s strait, and therefore returned
home.
His knowledge in consequence of those voyages in¬
creased his ardour for discovery, and he again made an
offer of his services to the Dutch East India Company,
which were not accepted *, and for his last voyage, Sir
Thomas Smith, Sir Dudley Digges, and some of his
friends, fitted him out. On the 17th of April he set
sail, and came in sight of Greenland on the 4th of June.
Sailing westward, he reached the mouth of the strait
which bears his name, through which he advanced
along the coast of Labrador, which he called Nova Bri~
tannia. Here he hoped he had discovered the long-
3
[ 654 ] ' HUD
The dogs arc in great wished-for passage j but he found he was only in a bay,
in the southern part of which he determined to winter.
After this he fitted out his shallop for farther discove¬
ries, but as he had no means of revictualling his ship,
he distributed his last remaining bread with tears in
his eyes, among his people, and returned home. His
mutinous crew entered his cabin by night, tied his
hands behind his back, and set him ashore at the west
end of the straits, with eight of the crew who were most
attached to him. They were never more heard of,
and it is probable they were swallowed up by the
waves. Such was the unfortunate end of this adventu¬
rous mariner !
Hudson, William, a celebrated English botanist,
was born at Westmoreland about 1730. He was bound
apprentice to an apothecary in London, whose business
he took, and proved a friend to the widow and daugh¬
ters. It appears from the testimony of Dr Pulteney,
that he had a residence in the British museum, but we
are not informed in what capacity. He was also F.R.S.
and died of a paralytic distemper in May 1793. He
possessed a comprehensive knowledge of English plants,
which induced him to undertake an arrangement of
English botany according to the Linnsean classification,
a task which had been previously attempted by Dr
Hill, but the execution was very imperfect. Hudson’s
Flora Anglica appeared in 1762* in one volume 8vo,
the Latin preface to which was written by the ingeni¬
ous Mr Stillingfleet, and received with great applause,
and contributed greatly to the adoption in England of
the sexual system.
The merits of Mr Hudson are thus described by Dr
J. E. Smith. “ His memory requires no studied eulo-
gium here, as every page of the present work is an in¬
dex to his labours. May the writer of this leave no
more errors behind him as an author, or as a man.”
Mr Hudson well understood the insects and shells of
Great Britain, and always meditated 9. Fauna Britan-
nica. His temper is said to have been gentle, rather
close, but kind to those who gained his esteem.
Hudson's Bay, a large bay of North America, ly¬
ing between 51 and 69 degrees of latitude, discovered
in 1610, by Henry Hudson. This intrepid mariner,
in searching after a nor: h-west passage to the South seas,
discovered three straits, through which he hoped to find
out a new way to Asia by America. He had made
two voyages before on the same adventure; the first
in 1607, and the second in 1608. In his third and last,
16x0, he entered the straits that lead into this new
mediterranean, the bay known by his name ; coasted
a great part of it; and penetrated to eighty degree*
and a half into the heart of the frozen zone. His
ardour for the discovery not being abated by the diffi¬
culties he struggled with in this empire of winter, and
world of frost and snow, he staid here until the ensu¬
ing spring, and prepared in the beginning of 1611
to pursue his discoveries •, but his crew, who suffered
equal hardships, without the same spirit to support
them, mutinied, seized upon him and seven of those
who were most faithful to him, and committed them
to the fury of the icy seas in an open boat. Hudson
and his companions were either swallowed up by the
waves, or gaining the inhospitable coast were destroyed
by the savages j but the ship and the rest of the men
returned home. Other attempts towards a discovery
were
Hudson,
Kmhei’i
Buy.
'1-
HUD [ 655 ]
H< an’* were raa^e 111 1612 and 1667 j and a patent for plant- in 20' at the utmost,
] r. iug the country, with a charter for a company, was
obtained in the year 1670. In 1746 Captain Ellis
wintered as far north as 57 degrees and a half, and
Captain Christopher attempted farther discoveries in
1761. But besides these and the late voyages, which
satisfy us that we must not look for a passage on this
side of the latitude 67 degrees north, we are indebted
to the Hudson’s Bay company for a journey by land 5
which throws much additional light on this matter, by
affording what may be called demonstration, how much
farther north, at least in seme parts of their voyage,
ships must go, before they can pass from one side of
America to the other. The northern Indians, who
come down to the company’s factories to trade, had
brought to the knowledge of our people a river, which,
on account of much copper being found near it, had
obtained the name of the Copper-mine river. The
company being desirous of examining into this matter
with precision, directed Mr Hearne, a young gentle¬
man in their service, and who having been brought
up for the navy and served in it the war before last,
was extremely well qualified for the purpose, to pro¬
ceed over land under the convoy of those Indians, for
that river, which he had orders to survey if possible
quite down to its exit into the sea *, to make observa¬
tions for fixing the latitudes and longitudes •, and to
bring home maps and drawings both of it and the
countries through which he should pass. Accordingly
Mr Ilea rne set out from Prince of Wales’s fort, on
Churchill river, latitude 58° 47E north, and longi¬
tude 940 yp west from Greenwich, on the 7th of
December 1770. On the 13th of June be reached
the Copper-mine river, and found it all the way, even
to its exit into the sea, encumbered with shoals and
falls, and emptying itself into it over a dry flat of the
shore, the tide being then out, which seemed by the
edges of the ice to rise about 12 or 14 feet. This
rise, on account of the falls, will carry it but a very
small way within the river’s mouth, so that the water
in it had not the least brackish taste. Mr Hearne was
nevertheless sure of the place it emptied itself into be¬
ing the sea, or a branch of it, by the quantity of whale¬
bone and seal skins which the Esquimaux had at their
tents, and also by the number of seals which he saw
upon the ice. The sea at the river’s mouth was full of
islands and shoals as far as he could see by the assist¬
ance of a pocket telescope \ and the ice was not yet
(July 17th) broken up, but thawed away only for
about three quarters of a mile from the shore, and for
a little way round the islands and shoals which lay off
the river’s mouth. But he had the most extensive view
of the sea when he was about eight miles up the river ;
from winch station the extreme parts of it bore north-west
by west and north-east. By the time Mr Hearne had
finished his survey of the river, which was about one
o’clock in the morning on the 18th, there came on a
very thick fog and drizzling rain ; and as he had found
the river and sea in every respect unlikely to be of any
utility, be thought it unnecessary to wait for fair wea¬
ther to determine the latitude more exactly by observa¬
tion j but by the extraordinary care he took in observ¬
ing the courses and distances, walking from Congeca-
thawhachaga, where he had two very good observa¬
tions, he thinks the latitude may be depended on with-
HUD
It appears fiom the map which
Mr Hearne constructed of this singular journey, that
the mouth ol the Copper-mine river lies in latitude 720
north, and longitude 250 west from Churchill river; that
is, about 1190 west of Greenwich. Mr Hearne’s jour¬
ney back from the Copper-mine river to Churchill last¬
ed till June 30th 1772 : so that he was absent almost a
year and seven months. The unparalleled hardships
he suffered, and the essential service he performed,
met with a suitable reward from his masters, and he
xvas made, governor of Prince of Wales’s fort on
Churchill river. The recent voyage of Captain Parry
(1820) has shown that a sea does exist towards the
parts where Hearne observed it, but whether this sea
communicates directly with Hudson’s bay remains to
be discovered.
The country lying round Hudson’s bay is called
New Britain^ or the country of the Esquimaux ; com¬
prehending Labrador, now North and South Wales,
I he entrance of the bay from the ocean, after leaving
to the north Cape Farewell and Davis’s straits, is be¬
tween Resolution isles on the north, and Button’s isles
on the Labrador coast to the south, forming the eastern
extremity of the straits distinguished by the name of
its great discoverer. The coasts are very high, rocky,
and rugged at top ; in some places precipitous, but
sometimes exhibit large beaches. The isles of Salis¬
bury, Nottingham, and Digges, are also very lofty and
naked. The depth of water in the middle of the bay
is a hundred and forty fathoms. From Cape Churchill
to the south end of the bay are regular soundings ; near
the shore shallow, with muddy or sandy bottom. To
the north of Churchill the soundings are irregular, the
bottom rocky, and in some parts the rocks appear above
the surface at low water. From Moose river or the
bottom of the bay to Cape Churchill the land is flat,
marshy, and wooded with pines, birch, larch, and wil¬
lows. From Cape Churchill to Wager’s Water the
coasts are all high and rocky to the very sea, and
woodless, except the months of Pockerekesko and Seal
rivers. The hills on their back are naked, nor are
there any trees for a great distance inland.
The mouths of all the rivers are filled with shoals,
except that of Churchill, in which the largest ships
may lie ; but ten miles higher, the channel is obstruct¬
ed with land banks; and all these rivers, as far as has
been navigated, are full of rapids and cataracts from
ten to sixty feet perpendicular. Down these rivers the
Indian traders find a quick passage; but their return
is a labour of many months. As far inland as the
company have settlements, which is six hundred miles
to the west, at a place called Hudson House, lat. 53.
long. 1 06. 27. from London, is a flat country : nor is
it known how far to the eastward the great chain
seen by our navigators from the Pacific ocean branches
off.
The climate even about Haye’s river, in only lat.,
57. is during winter excessively cold. The snows be¬
gin to fall in October, and continue falling by inter¬
vals the whole winter ; and when the frost is most ri¬
gorous, in form of the finest sand. The ice on the
rivers is eight feet thick. Port-wine freezes into a
solid mass ; brandy coagulates. The very breath fell
on the blankets of the beds in the form of a hoar frost,
and the bed-clothes often wex-e found frozen to the wall.
The
HUD
[ 656 ]
HUE
Hudson’s The sun rises in the shortest day at five minutes past
IIay. nine, and sets five minutes before three. In the longest
day the sun rises at three, and sets about nine. The
ice begins to disappear in May, and hot weather com¬
mences about the middle of June, which at times is so
violent as to scorch the face of the hunters. Thunder
is not frequent, but very violent. But there must be
great difference of heat and cold in this vast extent,
which reaches from lat. 50. 40. to lat. 63* north.—Dur¬
ing winter the firmament is not without its beauties.
Mock suns and halos are not unfrequent; they are very
bright, and richly tinged with all the colours of the rain¬
bow. The sun rises and sets with a large cone of yel¬
lowish light. The night is enlivened with the Aurora
Borealis, which spreads a thousand different lights and
colours over the whole concave of the sky, not to be de¬
faced even by the splendour of the full moon $ and the
stars are of a fiery redness.
The eastern boundary of the bay is Terra di La¬
brador ; the northern part has a straight coast facing the
bay, guarded with a line of isles innumerable. A vast
bay, called the Archiwinnipy sea, lies within it, and
opens into Hudson’s bay by means of Gulf Hazard,
through which the beluga whales dart in great num¬
bers. Here the company had a settlement for the sake
of the fishery, and for trading with the Esquimaux j
but deserted it as unprofitable about the year 1758 or
1759. The eastern coast is barren past the efforts of
cultivation. The surface is everywhere uneven, and
covered with masses of stone of an amazing size. It is
a country of fruitless valleys and frightful mountains,
some of an astonishing height: the first watered by a
chain of lakes, formed not from springs but rain and
snow, so chilly as to be productive of only a few small
trout. The mountains have here and there a blighted
shrub, or a little moss. The valleys are full of crooked
stunted trees, pines, fir, birch, and cedars, or rather
a species of juniper. In lat. 60. on this coast, vege¬
tation ceases. The whole shore, like that on the west,
is faced with islands at some distance from land. The
inhabitants among the mountains are Indians ; along
the coasts Esquimaux. The dogs of the former are
very small *, of the latter large, and headed like a fox.
Notwithstanding they have rein-deer, they never train
them for the sledge 5 but apply the dogs to that use.
Walruses visit a place called Nuchvunk, in lat. 60.
during winter; from thence the natives purchase the
teeth with which they head their darts. Davis sus¬
pected that he had lound a passage on this coast in
1586, to the Western ocean j but it proves no more
than a deep bay.
J he laudable zeal of the Moravian clergy induced
them to send, in the year 1752» missionaries from
Greenland to his country. They fixed on Nisbet’s har¬
bour for their settlement; but the first party was partly
killed, partly driven away. In 1764, under the pro¬
tection of our government, another attempt was made.
The missionaries were well received by the Esquimaux,
and the mission goes on with success.
The animals of these countries are, the moose
deer, stags, rein-deer, bears, buffaloes, wolves, foxes,
beavers, otters, lynxes, martins, squirrels, ermines, wild
cats, and hares. The rein-deer pass in vast herds to¬
wards the north in October, seeking the extreme cold.
'I he male polar bears rove out at sea, on the floating
5
ice, most of the winter, and till June : the females lie
concealed in the woods, or beneath the banks of ri¬
vers till March, when they come abroad with their
twin cubs, and bend their course to the sea in search
of their consorts. Several are killed in their passage: .
and those which are wounded show vast fury, roar
hideously, and bite and throw up into the air even
their own progeny. The females and the young, when
not interrupted, continue their way to sea. In June
the males return to shore, and by August are joined
by their consorts, with the cubs, by that time of a
considerable size. The feathered kind are, geese,
bustards, ducks, partridges, and all manner of wild¬
fowls. Indeed multitudes of birds retire to this re¬
mote country, to Labrador and Newfoundland, from
places most remotely south, perhaps from the Antilles j
and some even of the most delicate little species.
Most of them, with numbers of aquatic fowls, are
seen returning southward with their young broods to
more favourable climates. The savages, in some re¬
spects, regulate their months by the appearance of birds j
and have their goose month from the vernal appearance
of geese from tbe south. All the grous kind, ravens,
cinereous crows, titmouse, and Lapland finch, brave the
severest winter •, and several of the falcons and owls
seek shelter in the woods. Of fish, there are whales,
morses, seals, cod-fish, and a white-fish preferable to
herrings j and in their rivers and fresh waters, pike,
perch, carp, and trout.
All the quadrupeds of these countries are clothed
with a close, soft, warm fur. In summer there is here,
as in other places, a variety in the colours of the several
animals j when that season is over, which holds only
for three months, they all assume the livery of winter,
and every sort of beasts, and most of their fowls, are of
the colour of the snow j every thing animate and inani¬
mate is white. This is a surprising phenomenon. But
what is yet more surprising, and what is indeed one of
the most striking things, that draw the most inattentive
to an admiration of the wisdom and goodness of Provi¬
dence, is, that the dogs and cats from Britain that have
been carried into Hudson’s bay, on the approach of
winter have entirely changed their appearance, and ac¬
quired a much longer, softer, and thicker coat of hair
than they had originally.
Hudson's-Bay Company. See Company.
Hudson'^ River, a large river of North America
which rises on the east of Lake Ontario, and running
by Albany, and on the back of the south part of New-
England through part of New-York, falls into the bay
of the sea beyond the west end of Long-Island, and be¬
low the town of New-York.
HUDSONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
dodecandria class. See Botany Index.
HUE and Cry, in Law, the pursuit of a person
who has committed felony on the highway.—Of this
custom, which is of British origin, the following de¬
duction is given by Mr Whitaker. “ When it was
requisite for the Britons to call out their warriors into
the field, they used a method that was particularly
marked by its expeditiousness and decisiveness, and re¬
mains partially among us to this moment. They raised
a cry, which was immediately caught by others,
and in an instant transmitted from mouth to mouth
through all the region. And, as the notice passed
along
Hudson's
Bay
H
Hua and
Cry.
tit anc
Hu
<
V.
HUE [ 657 ] HUE
uid along, the warriors snatched their arms, and hurried
away to the rendezvous. We have a remarkable de-
'• scription of the fact in Caesar, and there see the alarm
propagated in 16 or 17 hours through 160 miles in a
line. And the same practice has been retained by the
Highlanders to our own time. When the lord of a
clan received intelligence of an enemy’s approach, he
immediately killed a goat with his own sword, dipped
the end of a half-burnt stick in the blood, and then
gave it and the notice of the rendezvous to be carried
to the next hamlet. The former symbolically threat¬
ened fire and sword to all his followers that did not in¬
stantly repair to the latter. The notice was despatched
from hamlet to hamlet with the utmost expedition ;
and in three or four hours the whole clan was in arms,
and assembled at the place appointed. This was within
these few years the ordinary mode by which the chief¬
tains assembled their tollowers for war. The first per¬
son that received the notice, set out with it at full speed,
delivered it to the next that he met, who instantly set
out on the same speed, and handed it to a third,
And in the rebellion of 1745, it Teas sent by an un¬
known hand through the region of Breadalbane •, and
flying as expeditiously as the Gallic signal in Ctesar,
traversed a tract of 32 miles in three hours. This
quick method of giving a diffusive alarm is even pre¬
served among ourselves to the present day ; but is
applied, as it seems from Caesar’s account above to have
been equally applied among the Celtae, to the better
purposes of civil polity. The hutesium and clamour
our laws, and \\\q hue and cry ol our own times, is a
well-known and powerful process for spreading the no¬
tice and continuing the pursuit of any fugitive felons.
The cry, like the clamour of the Gauls or the summons
of the Highlanders, is taken from town to town and
from county to county ; and a chain of communication
is speedily carried from one end of the kingdom to the
ether.”
HUER, a name given to certain fountains in Ice¬
land, of a most extraordinary nature; forming at
times d'eaux of scalding water ninety-four feet high
and thirty in diameter, creating the most magnifi¬
cent gerbes that can be imagined, especially when
backed by the setting sun. They arise out of cylindri¬
cal tubes of unknown depths : near the surface they
expand into apertures of a funnel shape, and the mouths
spread into large extent of stalactitical matter, formed
of successive scaly concentric undulations. The play¬
ing of these stupendous spouts is foretold by noises
loaring like the cataract of Niagara. The cylin¬
der begins to fill : it rises gradually to the surface,
and gradually increases its height, smoking amazing¬
ly, and flinging up great stones. After attaining its
greatest height, it gradually sinks till it totally disap¬
pears. BoilingjVta d'eaux and boiling springs are fre¬
quent in most parts of the island. In many parts they
are applied to the culinary uses of the natives. The
most capital is that which is called Geyer, or Geyser,
in a plain rising into small hills, and in the midst of an
amphitheatre, bounded by the mO'H magnificent and
various shaped icy mountains ; among which the three¬
headed Hecla soars pre-eminent. See Iceland, N° 4.
—These huers are not confined to the land ; they
rise in the very sea, and form scalding fountains amidst
the waves. Their distance from the land is unknown ;
Vol. X. Part II. t
but the new volcanic isle, twelve miles off the point
of Reickenes, emitting fire and smoke, proves that the
subterraneous fires and waters extend to that space :
for those awful effects arise from the united fury of
these two elements.
HUESCA, an ancient and considerable town of
Spain, in the kingdom of Arragon, with a bishop’s see
and a university. It is seated on the Issuela, in a soil
producing excellent wine, in W. Long. o. 2. N. Lat.
42. 18.
HUESCAR, or Guescar, a town of Spain, in the
kingdom of Granada, seated on a plain, in W. Long.
2. 20. N. Lat. 37. 32.
HI ESNE, or Huena, a small island in the Baltic
sea, in the Sound, where was the famous observatory
of Tycho Brahe. E. Long. 12. 38. N. Lat. 5^. 54.
HUET, Peter Daniel, a very learned French
writer, horn at Caen in Normandy, on the 8th of Fe¬
bruary 1630. He discovered, from his infancy, a great
inclination to the study of polite literature and the sci¬
ences, and at first applied himself to the law ; but Des
Cartes’s principles, and Bochart’s sacred geography,
made him change Ids studies for those of philosophy,
mathematics, the languages, and antiquities. His ad¬
miration for Bochart made him desirous of knowing
him. He contracted a very strict friendship with him,
and accompanied that learned man to Sweden. Here
Christina would have engaged him in her service ; but
he, sensible of her inconstant temper, returned to
I ranee. All he brought with him was a copy of a MS.
of Origen, which lie transcribed at Stockholm. He
refused several offers from Christina after she abdicat¬
ed and went to Rome, and from Gustavus her successor.
In 1670, Mr Bossuet being appointed by the king pre¬
ceptor to the dauphin, his majesty chose Mr Huet for
his colleague, with the title of sub-preceptor to the prince.
It was lie that formed the plan of the commentaries in N
Usum Delphini, and directed the execution. His senti¬
ments of piety determined him to enter into holy or¬
ders, which he did at the age of 46. Soon after this,
he was presented by the king to the abbey of Aunay ;
and in 1685 was nominated to the bishopric of Soissons,
which he changed for the see of Avranches. After go¬
verning that diocese ten years, he resigned, and was
made abbot of Fontenay near Caen. His love to his
native place determined him to fix there. But law¬
suits coming upon him, he retired to Paris, and lodged
among the Jesuits in the Maisson Professe, whom he
had made heirs to his library. A severe distemper
weakened his body extremely, but not the vivacity of
his genius: he wrote his own life in a very elegant
style : and died in 1721, aged 91. He was a man of
very agreeable conversation ; and of great probity, as
well as immense erudition.— i he followinir are the
titles of his principal works. 1. De clan's interpreti-
bus, et de optimo genere interpretandi. 2. An edition
of Origen’s Commentaries on the Holy Scriptures, in
Greek and Latin. 3. A Treatise on the Origin of the
Romans. 4. Uemonstratio cvangelica, folio. 5. Quccs-
tiones Alnetance de concordia rationis et jidci. 6. Of the
Situation of the terrestrial Paradise, in French. 7. A
History of the Commerce and Navigation of the An¬
cients, which has been translated into English. 8. Coni-
mentarius de rebus ad eum periinentibus. 9. Huetiana.
10. Latin and Greek verses, See.
4 0 HUGELY
liner
y
Huet.
\
V
JIuS’lily
HUG [
HUGHLY or Hoogly, a town of Asia, in the
kingdom of Bengal, seated on the most westerly branch
Huguenots. 0f t|ie j.jver Ganges* It is now nearly in ruins, but
vvas jn the beginning of the 18th century a place of
large extent, reaching about two miles along the river¬
side, and had a great trade in all the commodities of
that country •, aflording rich cargoes for 50 or 60 ships
annually, besides what was brought in carriages to the
neighbouring towns. Saltpetre was brought hither from
Patna in vessels above 50 yards long and five broad.
The inhabitants are chiefly Indians j but there are also
E. Long.
Portuguese, English, and other Europeans.
88. 28. N. Lat. 32. 30.
HUGO Capet, chief of the third race of the kings
of France, being count of Paris and Orleans : he was
raised to the throne for his military valour and public
virtues in 987. See France, N° 38.
KUGONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
monadelphia class; and in the natural method ranking
with those of which the order is doubtful. See Bota¬
ny Index.
HUGUENOTS, an appellation given by way of
contempt to the reformed or Protestant Calvinists of
France.
The name had its first rise in 1560 ; but authors are
not agreed as to the origin and occasion thereof; but
one of the two following seems to be the least forced
derivation.
One of the gates of the city of Tours is called the
gate Fourgon, by corruption from feu Hugon, i. e. the
late Hugon. This Hugon was once count of Tours
according to Eginhardus in his life of Charles the
Great, and to some other historians. He was it seems
a very wicked man, who by his fierce and cruel tem¬
per made himself dreadful ; so that after his death he
wTas supposed to walk about in the night-time, beating
all those he met with : this tradition the judicious
Thuanus has not scrupled to mention in his history.
Davila and other historians pretend, that the nickname
at Huguenots was first given to the French Protestants,
because they used to meet in the night-time in subter¬
raneous vaults near this gate of Hugon ; and what
seems to countenance this opinion is, that they were
first called by the name of Huguenots at this city of
Tours.
Others assign a more illustrious origin to that name ;
and say that the leaguers gave it to the reformed, be¬
cause they were for keeping the crown upon the head
of the line descended from Hugh Capet; whereas
they were for giving it to the house of Guise, as de¬
scended from Charles the Great.
Others again derive it from a French and faulty pro¬
nunciation of the German word edignosseit, signifying
confederates, and originally applied to thbt valiant part
of the city of Geneva, which entered into an alliance
with the Swiss cantons, in order to maintain their li¬
berties against the tyrannical attempts of Charles III.
duke of Savoy.
These confederates were called jE/gnote, whence Hu¬
guenots.
The persecution which they underwent has scarce its
parallel in the history of religion : though they obtain¬
ed a peace from Henry III. in 1576, it was only of
c n r\r f .1 4.1 *  _ fV • •. • 1 1
658 ] HU M
by Henry IV. were again renewed, after the revocation Huguenots BlIlie
of that edict, by Louis XIV. in 1685. §
HULK, an old ship of war, fitted with an appara- Brnne.
tus to fix or take out the masts of his majesty’s ship#, r'"
as occasion requires.
The mast of this vessel is extremely high, and withal
properly strengthened by shrouds and stays, in order
to secure what are called the sheers, which serve, as
the arm of a crane, to hoist out or in the masts of any
ship lying alongside. The sheers are composed of se¬
veral long masts, whose heels rest upon the side of the
hulk, and having their heads declining outward from
the perpendicular so as to hang over the vessel whose
masts are to be fixed or displaced. The tackles, which
extend from the head of the mast to the sheer-heads,
are intended to pull in the latter towards the mast¬
head, particularly when they are charged with the
weight of a mast after it is raised out of any ship,
which is performed by strong tackles depending from
the sheer-heads. The effort of these tackles is produ¬
ced by tsvo capsterns, fixed on the deck for this pur¬
pose.
Hulk, is also a name bestowed on any old vessel
laid by as unfit for further service. It is probably de¬
rived from the or vessels of burthen, of the an¬
cient Grecians.
HULL, in the sea-language, is the main body of a
ship, without either masts, yards, sails, or rigging. Thus
to strike a hull in a storm, is to take in her sails, and
to lash the helm on the lee-side of the ship ; and to
hull, or lie a-hull, is said of a ship whose sails are thus
taken in, and helm lashed a lee.
Hull, a river in Yorkshire, which falls into the
Humber at Kingston upon Hull. See Kingston.
HUMAN, in general, is an appellation given to
whatever relates to mankind: thus we say, the human
soul, human body, human laws, &c.
HUMANITY, the peculiar nature of man, where¬
by he is distinguished from all other beings.
Humanities, in the plural, signify grammar, rheto¬
ric, and poetry, known by the name of literce humanio-
res ; for teaching of which, there are professors in the
universities of Scotland, called humanists.
HUMBER, a river formed by the Trent, Ouse,
Derwent, and several other streams. By means of in¬
land navigation, it has a communication with the rivers
Mersey, Dee, Ribble, Severn, Thames, Avon, &c.
which navigation, including its windings, extends a*
hove 500 miles, in the counties of Lincoln, Notting¬
ham, York, Lancaster, Westmoreland, Chester, Staf¬
ford, Warwick, Leicester, Oxford, Worcester. It di¬
vides Yorkshire from Lincolnshire, and falls into the
German ocean near Holderness.
HUME, David, Esq. a celebrated philosopher
and historian, was born in the south part of Scotland
on the 26th of April O. S. in the year 1711. Being
the younger son of a country gentleman of good family,
but no great fortune, his patrimony was of consequence
insufficient to support him. For this reason he was des¬
tined for the bar, and passed through his academical
courses in the university of Edinburgh ; but being more
inclined to studies of a different nature, he never put on
„ , , the gown, nor even took the introductory steps for that
short continuance ; and their sufferings, mitigated by purpose. The writings of Locke and Berkeley had di-
the famous edict of Nantes, granted to them in 1598 reeled the attention of the generality of learned men to¬
wards
HUM E 659 ] HUM
I die. wards metaphysics j and Mr Hume having early ap-
^ plied himself to studies of this kind, published in 1739
the two first volumes of his Treatise of Human Nature,
and the third the following year. He had the mortifi¬
cation, however, to find his book generally decried j
and to perceive, that the taste for systematic writing
was now on the decline. He therefore divided this trea¬
tise into separate Essays and Dissertations, which he af¬
terwards published at different times with alterations
and improvements.
In 1742, Mr Hume published two small volumes,
consisting of Essays moral, political, and literary.
These were better received than his former publica¬
tion 5 but contributed little to his reputation as an au¬
thor, and still less to his profit j and his small patri¬
mony being now almost spent, he accepted an invita¬
tion from the marquis of Annandale to come and live
with him in England. With this nobleman he staid a
twelvemonth ; during which time his small fortune W'as
considerably increased. Pie then received an invitation
from General St Clair, to attend him as a secretary to
his expedition, which was at first meant against Canada,
hut afterwards ended in an excursion against the coast
of France. In 1747, he received an invitation from
the general to attend him in the same station in his mi¬
litary embassy to the courts of Vienna and Turin. Pie
then wore the uniform of an officer; and was introdu¬
ced at these courts as aid-de-camp to the general, along
with Sir Harry Erskine and Captain Grant, afterwards
General Grant. In 1749, he returned to Scotland, and
lived two years with his brother at his countryPionse ;
where he composed the second part of his essays, called
Political Discourses. And now the general approbation
of his performances was indicated by a more extensive
sale than formerly, and likewise by the numerous an¬
swers published by different persons in order to counter¬
act their supposed pernicious tendency. In 1752, w’ere
published at Edinburgh his Political Discourses, the
only work of his which was well received on its first
appearance ; and the same year at London, his Inquiry
concerning the Principles of Morals, which in his own
opinion was incomparably the best of all his perform¬
ances. This year also he was appointed librarian to the
faculty of advocates at Edinburgh ; the principal ad¬
vantage resulting from which employment was, that he
had by that means the command of a large library. He
then formed the plan of writing the History of Eng¬
land : but deeming the whole to be too extensive, he
confined his history to that of Britain under the house
of Stuart. The book was almost universally decried on
its first appearance, and soon after seemed to sink in
oblivion. Dr Herring, primate of England, and Dr
Stone, primate of Ireland, were the only literati of the
author’s acquaintance who approved of the work, and
sent him messages not to be discouraged.
Notwithstanding the approbation of these eminent
men, however, Mr Hume’s spirits were so much sunk
by his bad success, that he had some thoughts of retir¬
ing to France, changing his name, and bidding adieu
to his own country for ever ; but his design was ren¬
dered impracticable by the breaking out of the war of
1755 between France and Britain. He then published
his Natural History of Religion ; to which an answer
was published, soon after its appearance, in the name
of Dr Hurd bishop of Litchfield and Coventry; of
which, however, he since disclaimed being the sole Hume,
author. In I75^> second volume of the His- ■ y—
tory of the Stuarts was, published, two years after the
appearance of the first. This was better received,
and helped to retrieve the character of the former
volume. Three years after, his History of the House
of Tudor made its appearance ; which was almost as ill
received as the History of the Stuarts had been, the
reign of Elizabeth being particularly obnoxious. The
author, however, had now learned to despise popular
clamours; and continued to finish at his leisure the
more early part of the English history, which was
published in 1761, and was received with tolerable
success.
Mr Hume being now turned of fifty, and having ob¬
tained by the sale of his books a competent and inde¬
pendent fortune, retired into his native country of
Scotland, determined never more to set his foot out of
it. From this resolution, however, he was diverted
by the earl of Hertford ; whom he attended as secre¬
tary on his embassy to Paris in 1763. In 1765, the
earl being appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Mr
Hume was intrusted with the sole management of the
business of the state till the arrival of the duke of
Richmond towards the latter end of the year. In
1767, lie returned to Edinburgh, with a much larger
income, procured to him by the earl of Hertford, than
he formerly had ; and now formed the same design he
had formerly entertained, namely, of burying himself
in his philosophical retreat. In this, however, he was
again disappointed, by receiving an invitation from Ge¬
neral Conway to be under secretary ; and this invita¬
tion he was prevented from declining, both by the
character of the person, and his connexions with Lord
Hertford. In 1769 he returned to Edinburgh, pos¬
sessed of IQ00I. a-year, healthy, and though some¬
what stricken in years, yet having a prospect of long
enjoying his ease, and of seeing the increase of his re¬
putation. Of his last illness and character, he him¬
self gives the following account. In spring 1775,
I was struck with a disorder in my bowels ; which at
first gave me no alarm, but has since, as I apprehend
it, become mortal and incurable. I now reckon upon
a speedy dissolution. I have suffered very little pain
from my disorder; and what is more strange, have
notwithstanding the great decline of my person, never
suffered a moment’s abatement of my spirits ; inso¬
much, that were I to name the period of my life
which I should most choose to pass over again, I might
be tempted to point to this latter period. I possess
the same ardour as ever in study, and the same gaiety
in company. I consider, besides, that a man of sixty-
five, by dying, cuts off only a few years of infirmities ;
and though I see many symptoms of my literary repu¬
tation breaking out at last with additional lustre, I
know that I could have but few years to enjoy it. It
is difficult to be more detached from life than I am at
present.
“ To conclude, historically, with my own character,
I am, or rather was (for that is the style 1 must now
use in speaking of myself, which emboldens me the
more to speak my sentiments)—I was, I say, a man of
mild dispositions, of command of temper, of an open,
social, and cheerful humour, capable of attachment,
but little susceptible of enmity, and of great moderation
4 0 2 in
Hume
HUM F 660 ] HUM
in all my passions. Even my love of literary fame, my
ruling passion, never soured my temper, notwithstand¬
ing my frequent disappointments. My company was
not unacceptable to the young and careless, as well as
to the studious and literary •, and as I took particular
pleasure in the company of modest women, I had no
reason to be displeased with the reception I met with
from them. In a word, though most men anywise
eminent have found reason to complain of calumny, I
never was touched, or even attacked, by her baleful
tooth: and though I wantonly exposed myself to the
rage of both civil and religious factions, they seemed
to be disarmed in my behalf of their wonted fury. My
friends never had occasion to vindicate any one circum¬
stance of my character and conduct: not but that the
zealots, we may well suppose, would have been glad
to invent and propagate any story to my disadvantage,
but they could never find any which they thought
would wear the face of probability. I cannot say there
is no vanity in making this funeral oration of myself,
but I hope it is not a misplaced one ; and this is a mat¬
ter of fact which is easily cleared and ascertained.”
His fears concerning the incurableness of his disorder
proved too true. He died on the 25th of August
1776 ; and was interred in the Gallon burying-ground,
Edinburgh, where a monument is erected to his me¬
mory.
HUMECTATION, formed of humour, moisture,
moistening, in pharmacy, the preparing of a medicine
by sleeping it a while in water, in order to soften and
moisten it when too dry ; or to cleanse it, or prevent
its subtile parts from being dissipated in grinding, or the
like.
Humectation is also used for the application of
moistening remedies.
In this sense we say, embrocations, emplasters, unc¬
tions, humectations, fomentations, &c.
HUMERUS, or 0.9 Humeri, in Anatomy, the up¬
permost bone of the arm, popularly called \.\\z shoulder-
bone ; extending from the scapula, or shoulder-blade, to
the upper end of the cubitus, or elbow. See Anatomy
Index.
HUMIDITY, that quality in bodies whereby they
are capable of wetting other bodies. This differs very
much from fluidity ; and seems to be merely a relative
thing, depending on the congruity of the component
particles of the liquor to the pores cf such particular
bodies as it is capable of adhering to, penetrating a
little into, or wetting. Thus, for instance, quicksilver
is not a moist thing with regard to our hands or clothes j
but may be called so in reference to gold, tin, or lead,
to whose surfaces it will perfectly adhere, and render
them soft and moist.
HUMILIATT, a congregation of religious in the
church of Rome, established by some Milanese gentle¬
men on their release from prison, where they had been
confined under the emperor Conrad, or, as others say,
under Frederick I. in the year 1162. This order,
which acquired great wealth, and had no less than 90
monasteries, was abolished by Pope Pius Y. in 1570,
and their houses given to the Dominicans and Cordeli¬
ers, for their luxury and cruelty.
HUMILIATION, the act of humbling, i. e. of a-
bating a person’s pride, and bringing him lower in his
opinion.
In this sense humiliation stands distinguished from Ilrwitfa-
mortification : humiliation brings down the mind j t'-mi
mortification subdues the flesh. 8
HUMILITY, in Ethics, is a virtue consisting in
the moderate value which a person puts upon himself,
and every thing relating to him. Or, more particular¬
ly, it consists in not attributing to ourselves any excel¬
lence or good which we have not j in not overrating
any thing which we have or do; in not taking an im¬
moderate delight in one’s self; in not assuming more of
the praise of a quality or action than belongs to us ;
and in a lowly sense and acknowledgment of our imper¬
fections, errors, and sins. This virtue expresses itself
in the modesty of our appearance, of our pursuits, and
of our behaviour towards other men. It is distinguish¬
ed from affectation, bashfulness, and meanness.
HUMMING-bird. See Trochilus, Ornitho¬
logy Index.
HUMOUR, from the Latin humor, in its original
signification, stands for moisture in general ; from
whence it has been restrained to signify the moisture of
animal bodies, or those fluids which circulate through
them.
It is distinguished from moisture in general in this,
that humours properly express the fluids of the body ;
when in a vitiated state, it would not he improper to
say, that the fluids of such a person’s body ivere full of
humours.
The only fluids of the body, which, in their natural
and healthful state, are called humours, are those in the
eye ; we talk of the aqueous humour, the crystalline
humour, without meaning any thing that is morbid or
diseased : yet when we say in general, that snch a per¬
son has got a humour in his eye, we understand it in
the usual sense of a vitiated fluid.
As the temper of the mind is supposed to depend up¬
on the state of the fluids in the body, humour has come
to he synonymous with temper and disposition. A per¬
son’s humour, however, is different from his disposition,
in this, that humour seems to be the disease of a dispo¬
sition : it would be proper to say that persons of a se¬
rious temper or disposition of mind, were subject to me¬
lancholy humours ; that those of a delicate and tender
disposition, were subject to peevish humours.
Humour may be agreeable or disagreeable: but it is
still humour ; something that is whimsical, capricious,
and not to be depended upon. An ill-natured man may
have fits of good-humour, which seem to come upon
him accidentally, without any regard to the common
moral causes of happiness or misery.
A fit of cheerfulness constitutes the whole of good-
humour ; and a man who has many such fits, is a good-
humoured man : yet he may not be good-natured ;
which is a character that supposes something more con¬
stant, equable, and uniform, than what is requisite to
constitute good humour.
Humour is often made use of to express the quality
of the imagination, which bears a considerable resem¬
blance to wit.
Wit expresses something that is more designed, con¬
certed, regular, and artificial ; humour, something that
is more wild, loose, extravagant, and fantastical; some¬
thing which comes upon a man by fits, which he can
neither command nor restrain, and which is not per¬
fectly consistent with true politeness. Humour, it has
been
3! j
HUN [ 661 ] HUN
j mur been said, Is often more diverting than wit} yet a man
of wit is as much above a man of humour as a gentle-
man is above a buffoon } a buffoon, however, will of¬
ten divert more than a gentleman. The duke of Buck¬
ingham, however, makes humour to be all in all ; wit,
according to him, should never be used, but to add an
agreeableness to some proper and just sentiment, which,
without some such turn, might pass without its effect.
See Wit.
HUMPHREY, Dr Lawrence, a very learned
English divine in the 16th century, who, during the
persecution under Queen Mary, retired with other Pro¬
testant refugees to Zurich. He returned on the acces¬
sion of Queen Elizabeth } and was made president of
Magdalene college, Oxford, dean of Gloucester, and
then dean of Winchester. He was a great and general
scholar, an able linguist, and a deep divine } and pub¬
lished, i. De religioms conservatione et reformatione,
deque primatu regum. 2. Ide ratione vnterpretandi auc-
torcs. 3. Optimates; sive dc nobilitatc, ejusque origine.
4. Sermons, and other works. He died in I590,
HUMULUS, the Hop, a genus of plants belonging
to the dioecia class} and in the natural method ranking
under the 53d order, Scabridee. For the culture and
use of hops, see Hop.
HUNDRED, Hundredum, or Centuria, a part
or division of a county; which was anciently so called
from its containing an hundred families, or from its
furnishing an hundred able men for the king’s wars.
After King Alfred’s dividing this kingdom into coun¬
ties, and giving the government of each county to a
sheriff, these counties were divided into hundreds, of
which the. constable was the chief officer. The grants
of hundreds were at first made by the king to parti¬
cular persons : but they ax*e not now held by grant or
prescription, their jurisdiction being devolved to the
county-court} a few of them only excepted, that have
been by privilege annexed to the crown, or granted to
some great subjects, and still remain in the nature of a
franchise.
Hundred Court. This is only a larger Court Ba-
roily being held for all the inhabitants of a parti¬
cular hundred instead of a manor. The free suitors
are here also the judges, and the steward the register,
as in tbe case of a court-baron. It is likewise no
court of record } resembling the former in all points,
except that in point of territory it is of a greater ju¬
risdiction. This is said by Sir Edward Coke to have
been derived out of the county-court for the ease of the
people, that they might have justice done them at their
own doors, without any charge or loss ot time: but
its constitution was probably coeval with that ol hun¬
dreds themselves, which were formerly observed to
have been introduced though not invented by Alfred,
being derived from the policy ol the ancient Germans.
The cenletti, wre may remember, were the principal in¬
habitants of a district composed ot different villages,
originally in number an hundred, but afterwards only
called by that name } and who probably gave the same
denomination to the district out ol which they were
chosen. Ccesar speaks positively of the judicial power
exercised in their hundred-courts and courts-baron.
“ Principes regionum, atque pagorum,'' (which we may
fairly construe, the lords of hundreds and manors)
inter suosjus dicunt, controversiasque mvnuvntP And
Tacitus, who had examined their constitution still Hundred,
more attentively, informs us not only of the authority Hungary,
of the lords, but of that of the centeni, the hundreders, "
or jury } who were taken out of the common freehold¬
ers, and had themselves a share in the determination.
“ Eliguntur in conciliis ct principes, quijura per pagos
vicosque reddunt: centeni singulis, ex pie be 1 omites, con¬
silium sitnul et ouctoritas, ad sunt.This hundred-court
was denominated hcereda in the Gothic constitution.
But this court, as causes are equally liable to removal
from hence as from the common court-baron, and by
the same writs, and may also be reviewed by writ of
false judgment, is therefore fallen into equal disuse with
regard to the trial of actions.
HUNGARY, a kingdom of Europe, the greatest
part of which was anciently called Pannonia. It had
the name oi Hungary from the Hunns, a Scythian or
Tartar nation, who subdued it in the ninth century.
It lies between the iyth and 25th degrees of east long,
and betwixt the 44th and 49th degrees of north lat.
being bounded to the north by the Carpathian moun¬
tains, which separate it from Poland ; to the south
by Servia, and the river Drave, which separates it
from Sclavonia } to the west by Moravia, Austria,
and Stiria } and to the east by Wallachia and Tran¬
sylvania. It is about 380 miles in length, and 300
in breadth ; and is divided into the Upper and Lower
Hungary, the former being that part which lies to¬
wards the east, and the latter that which lies towards
the west*
The northern parts of the kingdom are mountain¬
ous and barren, but healthy ; the southern, on the
contrary, are level, and exceeding fruitful, but not
very healthy. The country along the Danube, from
Freiburg to Belgrade, for upwards of 200 miles, is
one continued plain, and no soil can be more fertile ;
but the air, by reason of the many swamps and mo¬
rasses, is not so wholesome as on the higher and
drier grounds. Here are mines of gold, silver, cop¬
per, iron, lead, quicksilver, cinnabar, antimony, yel¬
low orpiment, sulphur, vitriol, marcasite, sfilt native
and factitious, saltpetre, magnets, asbestos or stone-
flax, marble of several colours, alabaster, with dia¬
monds, and all sorts of precious stones. Corn is in
such plenty, that it is sold for one-sixth of its price
in England. Their grapes are large and luscious;
and their wines preferred to any in Europe. They have
vast numbers of cattle and horses, the latter mostly
mouse-coloured, with buffaloes, deer, wild fowl, game,
and fish, and many species of wild-beasts, particularly
chamois goats, bears, and lynxes. Of vegetables, be¬
sides vines, and the common sorts, here are tobacco,
saffron, buck-wheat, millet, melons, and chesnuts.
Here also are excellent warm baths, and springs of
various kinds and qualities. The chief mountains ot
Hungary are the Crapack or Carpathian, which is
the general name for all those that separate this king¬
dom from Poland, Moravia, Silesia, and some part of
Austria. The sides of most of them are covered
with wood, and their tops with snow. I he chief ri¬
vers are the Danube, the Drave, the Save, the Wag
or Waag, the Gran, the Temes, the Raab, and Theiss,
ail well stocked with fish. There are several lakes
among the Carpathian mountains, and some also in the
lowlands.
Tim
Hungary.
HUN [
The inhabitants are a mixture of the descendants of
the ancient Hunns, Sclavonians, Camani, Germans,
Wallachians, Greeks, Jews, Turks, and a wandering
people called Ztgduns, said to be ot uncertain origin,
but probably the same as those we called gypsies. The
Hungarians are said to be of a sanguine choleric tem¬
per, and somewhat fierce, cruel, proud, and revenge¬
ful. They have been always reputed good soldiers,
being much more inclined to arms, martial exercises,
and hunting, than to arts, learning, trade, or agri¬
culture. The nobility affect great pomp and magni¬
ficence, and are much addicted to feasting and carou¬
sing. The men in general are strong and well pro¬
portioned. They shave their beards, but leave whis¬
kers on the upper lip } wearing fur caps on their heads,
a close-bodied coat girt with a sash, with a short cloak
or mantle over all, so contrived as to be buckled under
the arm, and leave the right hand at liberty. Their
horse are called hussars, and their foot heydukes. The
former wear a broadsword or scimitar, and carry a
hatchet or battle-axe. Their horses are fleet, but not
near so large as the German horses, and therefore they
stand up on their short stirrups when they strike. The
heydukes usually wear feathers in their caps, accord¬
ing to the number of the enemies they pretend to have
killed. Both horse and foot are an excellent militia,
very good at a pursuit, or ravaging and plundering a
country, but not equal to regular troops in a pitched
battle. The women, when they go abroad, wear short
cloaks and a veil.
There are four languages spoken in this country,
viz. the Hungarian, which, like the people, is of Scy¬
thian origin, and has little or no affinity with any Eu¬
ropean tongue ", the German, Sclavonian, Wallachian,
and Latin. The last is spoken, not only by the belter
sort, but also by the common people, though very cor¬
ruptly. The people called Zigduns have also a parti¬
cular jargon.—Christianity was planted in Hungary
in the ninth and tenth centuries. In the sixteenth the
reformation made a great progress in it *, and at pre¬
sent the Homan Catholic religion is predominant, the
Protestants enjoying only a bare toleration.
As to the traffic of this country, it is chiefly in the
hands of the Greeks and Jews. The exports consist
chiefly of wine, horses, cattle, metals, minerals, saffron,
wool, and leather. Hungary, in particular, furnishes
Austria, and other countries west of it, with vast droves
of cattle, as well as a variety of excellent wines, of
which those of Tokay are reckoned the best. The
principal manufactures are those of copper, brass, iron,
and other hard wares. Great quantities of brass and
iron are exported, wrought and unwrought.
Hungary at first, like most other countries, was di¬
vided into many little principalities and states, which
at length were^ united under one head, who had the
title of duke. The last of these dukes was Geysa ; who,
becoming a proselyte to Christianity, was baptized j
after which he resigned the government to his son
Stephen, who took the title of king, anno 1000. But
as the throne was filled by election, though generally
out of the same family, the disposal of the crown was
disputed between the Turkish and German emperors
for near 200 years: but after the year 1527, when
1 erdinand, archduke-of Austria, was advanced to the
throne, the Austrians found means to influence the
elections in such a manner, as to keep the
5
crown m
662 ] HU N
their family till 1687, when it was settled heredita-
rily on their heirs male ; and now, in consequence of Hunger,
an act made by the diet at Presburg in 1723, in case Vi— v—■
of the failure of heirs-male, it is to descend to female*.
The states of the kingdom consist of the prelates, the
barons, the gentry, and the royal towns. To the
first class belong two archbishops, about a dozen bi¬
shops, near as many abbots and provosts, with tire
Pauline and Praemonstratensian Jesuits. To the se¬
cond, the stadtholder or palatine, who represents the
king ; the court-judge ; the ban or viceroy of Dalma¬
tia, Croatia, and Sclavonia ; the stadtholder of Tran¬
sylvania j the great treasurer, the great cup-bearer, the
steward of the household, the master of the horse, the
lord chamberlain, the captain of the yeomen of the
guards, and the grand marshal of the courts, who are
styled the great barons. To the third class belong the
gentry, some of whom have noble manors, and others
only the privileges of nobles. To the fourth class be¬
long the royal free cities, which are not subject to the
counts, but hold immediately of the king. The gentry
also, who hold of the archbishops and bishops, have the
same privileges as the Hungarian nobility. The com¬
mon people are vassals to the lords on whose lands they
live, whether these lands belong to the crown, the
clergy, nobility or gentry.
Hungary contained eight millions of inhabitants in
1805, including 13,728 nobles (males only), and
162,495 clergy* ^1 these 4,647,832 were Catho¬
lics, 1,161,138 were of the Greek church, 1,002,490
were Calvinists or Reformed, and 624,776 were Lu¬
therans. The Jews amounted to 72,128. The whole
surface of the country amounts to 88,000 square miles,
or 39,000,000 of jochs (each equal to 1^ English
acres). Of this soil only 23,900,000 acres are com¬
puted to be in cultivation or under wood. The total
exports in 1802 amounted to 24,000,000 of florins, or
about 2,400,000!. sterling. The imports were about
1,800,000. The revenue is reckoned to be about two
millions sterling, of which only a very small portion
finds its way to Vienna. The military force of Hun¬
gary has long been the chief support of the Austrian
monarchy. It consists of 12 complete regiments of
infantry of 3857 men each, and 10 complete hussar
regiments of 1698 men each, making together 63,364
regulars. But in times of imminent danger this force
is increased by a large body of irregulars. Pest, the
principal town of Hungary, contained 41,882 inhabi¬
tants in 1817. See HUNGARY, SUPPLEMENT.
IduNGAltY-Water, a distilled water prepared from
the tops of flowers of rosemary $ so denominated from
a queen of Hungary, for whose use it was first made.
See Pharmacy.
HUNGER, an uneasy sensation occasioned by long
abstinence from food when the body is in a healthy
state.-—See ABSTINENCE ", FASTING J and ANATOMY,
N° 103. .
The following useful observations upon hunger or
famine are extracted from a paper by Dr Percival in
the second volume of the Manchester Transactions.
In famine, life may be protracted (the doctor
observes) with less pain and misery, by a moderate
allowance of water. For the acrimony and putre¬
faction of the humours are obviated by such dilu¬
tion, the small vessels are kept permeable, and the
lungs are furnished with that moisture Nvhich is es¬
sential
/
j:
.
1.
j
/Minx’,$
T.Sma J
Krerli .uic
(holm
vinov
XroYotfii
in in if'
~zen
XiifschnVnX. (Ti,\an
it'Oii
■mrt
Damn
\zrno‘.
V Ion.
Rowoh
f^Mii/ilrjifnirli ^,
'firiiizi
•rrn
(rofkvtmlt
•tijs.vnr
/ Sisie^S\
$§kis'« r
<KMATl.y^//,
Chi]min<
HObnn
Vv*»v//Y
foivil- -
. O’/n/rn
li Kirs<-^
Jut Inn
ftf'/Z
, jv^-y*
Oka.if.vo
umo
il/i.ttmit
10~^/^
U)a^/n^ban
^-"flg/i/ilor
'n/zo/\fr
fWnV*i
' l\)i </''• '
firm)
rl.rzifrrnb
yrnizo*
jJ-' {.y]]fn hit / <
V-A •;///"■ /;■•«/•/«•'•
unjni
S'(Tn it n’
'rh’H’hj/
dEi&ttrtrttf
iDHiyt
IIIO
' tt/Trl/nb^/i
St/viif/tOiti
,‘" Tm/.-mr/io JC^
Ii(ulos 1 <7 j ■-■/./?■
<lajtinopQi
U'tMt
vf 4 nr M.-/ A* .tf ■-< ^
IbifoirtfiJiti ' ‘r’s//
Yfnitvo'
^Mttrmnro
ll.nxif
vywo
JjiruftfPtftf (
/Snniol
i/ionifirui
i£OTpO^
SEvgaSs
Ailrnrniti
t nHu
Smvi'ua
< VnSSBB
l or*"1
dmlrnzt
ikiroUTZA
  • r/Vih 
fittawigj
T-gilii"<i
< '.SjwiHa
jjx’W’X?
AM>1 I
n/r’UJ
Ujin'
M/M 1’ir.i 'oiist'ib/,’ X- C:/■:Juiiw,ih.iSj:>.
HUN [ 663 ] HUN
H 'er. sential to the performance of their functions. Fonta-
u* nus, a writer of respectable authority in the estimation
of Morgagni, relates the history of a woman who obsti¬
nately refused to take any sustenance, ex<|ept twice,
during the space of 50 days, at the end of which period
she died. But he adds, that she used water by way of
drink, though in small quantity. Redi, who made many
experiments (cruel and unjustifiable in my opinion), to
ascertain the effects of fasting on fowls, observed, that
none were able to support life beyond the ninth day to
whom drink was denied j whereas one indulged with
water lived more than 20 days.
Hippocrates has observed, that children are more
affected by abstinence than young persons; these, more
than the middle-aged ; and the middle-aged, more than
old men. The power to endure famine, however, must
depend no less upon the state of health and strength
than on the age of the sufferer. There are also parti¬
cular constitutions which do not suffer much pain from
the calls of hunger. Dr Percival was informed by a
young physician from Geneva, that when he was a stu¬
dent at Montpelier, he fasted three nights and four
days, with no other refreshment than a pint of water
daily. His hunger was keen, but never painful, during
the first and second days of his abstinence; and the two
following days, he perceived only a faintness when he
attempted either bodily or mental exertion : A sense of
coldness was diffused over his whole frame, but more
particularly affected the extremities. His mind was
in a very unusual state of pusillanimity; and he expe¬
rienced a great tendency to tears whenever he recollec¬
ted the circumstance which had been the occasion of
his fasting. During the whole period, the alvine ex¬
cretions were suppressed, but not those by the kidneys:
and at the close of it, his skin became tinged with a
shade of yellow. The first food he took was veal broth ;
which had something of an intoxicating effect, produ¬
cing a glow of warmth, and raising bis spirits, so as to
render him ashamed of his despondency. Perhaps in
the case of Sextius Baculus, as recorded in the com-
*].vi. mentaries of Caesar*, the extraordinary courage and
prowess which he suddenly exerted, might be aided by
the exhilarating effect of sustenance, which, under such
circumstances, it is probable he would no longer de¬
cline. The fact, however, evinces, that neither his
sickness nor the sensations of hunger had been so vio¬
lent as much to impair his strength of body or vigour
of mind. Pomponius Atticus, the celebrated friend ot
Cicero, who put a voluntary end to his life in the 77th
year of his age by refusing all food, appears to have
experienced ease from his disorder, rather than any
acute sufferings by famine. “ Sic cum biduo cibo se ab-
stinuisset, subito febris decessit, leviorque morbus esse
coepit: tamen propositum nihilo secius perigit. Itaque
die quinto, postquam id consilium inierat, decessit.”
{Corn. Nepos in Vit. Pomp. Attic.') From the former
circumstance it has been conjectured, that he did not
wholly deny himself the use of water, or of some other
diluent. But though a few examples of this kind may
be adduced, we have the evidence of numerous melan¬
choly facts to show, that the pressure of want is agoni-
^ Gold- zing to the human frame. “ I have talked (says an
ingenious writer J) with a captain of a ship, who was
£, one of six that endured it in its extremity, and who
w .’I2(jt was the only person that had ,not lost his senses when
they received accidental relief. He assured me his Hunger,
pains at first were so great, as to be often tempted to —v->—
eat a part of one of the men who died, and which the
rest ot his crew actually for some time lived upon.
He said, that during the continuance of this paroxysm,
he found his pains insupportable, and was desirous at
one time of anticipating that death which he thought
inevitable : But his pains, he said, gradually decreased
after the sixth day (for they had water in the ship,
which kept them alive so long), and then he was in a
state rather of languor than desire ; nor did he much
■wish for food, except when he saw others eating ; and
that for a while revived his appetite, though with di¬
minished importunity. The latter part of the time,
when his health was almost destroyed, a thousand
strange images rose upon his mind ; and every one of
his senses began to bring him wrong information. The
most fragrant perfumes appeared to him to have a fetid
smell ; and every thing he looked at took a greenish
hue, and sometimes a yellow. When he was presented
with food by the ship’s company that took him and his
men up, four of whom died shortly after, he could
not help looking upon it with loathing instead of
desire ; and it was not till after four days that his
stomach was brought to its natural tone ; when the
violence of his appetite returned with a sort of canine
eagerness.”
To those who by their occupations are exposed to
such dreadful calamities, it is of serious importance to
be instructed in the means of alleviating them. The
American Indians are said to use a composition of the
juice of tobacco, and the shells of snails, cockles, and
oysters calcined, whenever they undertake a long jour¬
ney, and are likely to be destitute of provisions. It is
probable the shells are not burnt into quicklime, but
only so as to destroy their tenacity, and to render them
fit for levigation. The mass is dried, and formed into
pills, of a proper size to be held between the gum and
lip, which, being gradually dissolved and swallowed,
obtund the sensations both of hunger and of thirst.
Tobacco, by its narcotic quality, seems well adapted
to counteract the uneasy impressions which the gastric
juice makes on the nerves of the stomach when it is
empty; and the combination of testaceous powder
with it may tend to correct the secretion that is suppo¬
sed to be the chief agent in digestion, and which, if
not acid, is always united with acidity. Certain at
least it is, that their operation is both grateful and sa¬
lutary ; for we find the luxurious inhabitants of the
East Indies mix them with the betel nut, to the chew¬
ing of which they are universally and immoderately ad¬
dicted. Perhaps such absorbents may be usefully ap¬
plied, both to divide the doses and to moderate the
virulence of the tobacco. For, in the internal exhi¬
bition of this plant, much caution is required, as it pro¬
duces sickness, vertigo, cold clammy sweats, and a
train of other formidable symptoms, when taken in too
large a quantity. During the time of war, the im¬
pressed sailors frequently bring on these maladies, that
they may be admitted into the hospitals, and released
from servitude. It would be an easy and safe experi¬
ment to ascertain the efficacy, and to adjust the ingre¬
dients, of the Indian composition mentioned. And
there is reason to believe, that the trial would be in
some degree successful; for it is known that smoking
tobacco .
HUN [ 664 ] HUN
HuH,rer tobacco gives relief to those habitual pains of the sto-
,nach which appear to arise from the irritation of the
gastric secretion. The like effect is sometimes produ¬
ced bv increasing the flow of saliva, and swallowing
what is thus discharged. And Or Percival has related
the case of a gentleman, who used to masticate, many
hours daily, a piece of lead, which being neither
hard, friable, nor offensive to the palate, suited his
purpose, as he thought, better than any other sub¬
stance. He continued the custom many years, deri¬
ving great ease from it, and suffering no sensible inju¬
ry from the poisonous quality of the metal. On
mentioning this fact to a navy surgeon, the doctor was
told, that the sailors, when in hot climates, are wont
to mitigate thirst by rolling a bullet iu their mouths.
A more innocent mean, the doctor observes, might be
devised ; but the efficacy of this evinces, that the sali¬
vary glands are for a while capable of furnishing a sub¬
stitute for drink. When a scarcity of water occurs at
sea, Dr Franklin has advised, that the mariners should
bathe themselves in tubs of salt-water: For, in pur¬
suing the amusement of swimming, he observed, that,
however thirsty he was before immersion, he never
continued so afterwards 5 and that, though he soaked
himself several hours in the day, and several days suc¬
cessively, in salt-water, he perceived not, inconsequence
of it, the least taste of saltness in his mouth. He also
further suggests, that the same good effect might per¬
haps be derived from dipping the sailor’s apparel in the
sea •, and expresses a confidence that no danger of catch¬
ing cold would ensue.
To prevent the calamity of famine, at sea, it has been
proposed by Dr Lind, that the powder of salep should
constitute part of the provisions of every ship’s com¬
pany. This powder and portable soup, dissolved in
boiling water, form a rich thick jelly j and an ounce
of each of these articles furnishes one day’s subsistence
to a healthy full grown man. Indeed, from Dr Per-
cival’s experiments it appears, that salep contains more
nutritious matter, in proportion to its bulk, than any
other vegetable production now used as food, It has
the property also of concealing the nauseous taste of
salt-water j and consequently may be of great advan¬
tage at sea, when the stock of fresh water is so far con¬
sumed, that the mariners are put upon short allowance.
Ly the same mucilaginous quality, it covers the offen-
siveness, and even in some measure, corrects the acri¬
mony, of salted and putrescent meats. But, as a pre¬
servative against hunger, salep would be most efficaci¬
ous combined with an equal weight of beef suet. By
swallowing little balls of this lubricating compound at
proper intervals, the coats of the stomach would be de¬
fended from irritation : and as oils and mucilages are
highly nutritive, of slow digestion, and indisposed to
pass off by perspiration, they are peculiarly well adap¬
ted to support life in small quantities. This cohiposi-
tion is superior in simplicity, and perhaps equal in ef¬
ficacy, to the following one, so much extolled by Avi¬
cenna the celebrated Arabian physician ; to whom we
are indebted for the introduction of rhubarb, cassia,
tamarinds, and senna, into the materia medica. “ Take
»weet almonds and beef suet, of each one pound 5 of
the oil of violets two ounces j and of the roots of marsh¬
mallows one ounce : bray these ingredients together in
a aiortar, and form the mass into boluses, about the size
3
of a common nut.” Animal fat is singularly powerful Htnmr.
in assuaging the most acute sensations of thirst, as ap-y—1
pears from the narrative of the sufferings experienced by
those who were confined in the black hole at Calcutta.
A hundred and forty-six persons, exhausted by fatigue
and military duty, were there thrust together into a
chamber of 18 cubic feet, having only two windows,
strongly barred with iron, from which, in a close sul¬
try night, and in such a climate as that of Bengal,
little or no circulation of fresh air could he enjoyed.
In a few minutes, these unhappy wretches fell into so
profuse a perspiration, that an idea can hardly be
formed of it *, and this was succeeded by a raging
thirst, which increased in proportion as the body was
drained of its moisture. Water ! Water ! became the
universal cry j and an old soldier on the outside, through
pity, furnished them with a few skinfuls of it. But
these scanty supplies, like sprinklings on the fire, ser¬
ved only to feed and increase the flame. From this
experience of its effects, Mr Holvvell, their chief, de¬
termined to drink no more j and kept his mouth moist
by sucking the perspiration out of his shirt sleeves, and
catching the drops as they fell from his head and face.
“ You cannot imagine (says he) how unhappy I was
if any of them escaped me.” He came into the pri¬
son without his coat, the season being too hot to bear
it; and one of his miserable companions, observing tbe
expedient be had hit upon of allaying his thirst, rob¬
bed him from time to time of a considerable part of
his store. This plunderer, whom he found to be a
young gentleman in the service of the East India Com¬
pany, afterwards acknowledged, that he owed his life
to the many comfortable draughts which he derived
from him. Before Mr Holwell adopted this mode of
relief, he had attempted, in an ungovernable fit of
thirst, to drink his own urine: but it was so intensely
bitter, that a second taste- could not be endured ;
whereas, he assures us, no Bristol water could be more
soft and pleasant than his perspiration. And this, we
may presume, consisted chiefly of animal fat, melted by
excessive heat, and exuding from the cellular mem¬
brane through the pores of the skin.
Persons who have been accustomed to animal food,
are soon reduced when supplied only with the farina-
cea. Several years ago, to determine the comparative
nutritive powers of different substances, an ingenious
young physician, as Dr Percival informs us, made a
variety of experiments on himself, to which be unfor¬
tunately fell a sacrifice. He lived a month upon bread
and water ; and under this regimen of diet be every
day diminished much in bis weight. But in 1784, a
student of physic at Edinburgh confined himself for
a longer space of time to a pint of milk and half a
pound of white bread daily: And he assured our au¬
thor, that he passed through the usual labours of study
and exercise without feeling any decay of health or
strength, and without any sensible loss of bulk. Hie
cutaneous, urinary, and alvine excretions, were very
scantv during tbe whole period ; and the discharge ot
faeces occurred, only once in a week. In this case the
oily and coagulable parts of tbe milk probably furnish¬
ed a larger proportion of aliment, and at the same
time contributed to check the waste by perspiration
and other discharges ; for oleaginous substances are
retained long in the body by their viscidity. Dr
Russel,
HUN [665] HU N
I iger. Russel, in his Natural History of Aleppo, relates, that
in. those seasons when oil abounds, the inhabitants, by
indulgence in it, are disposed to fever, and affected
with infarctions of the lungs j maladies which indicate
both retention and obstruction. Milk has been suspect¬
ed by some of producing similar effects, though in a
slighter degree ; and the free use of it has been on this
account forbidden to asthmatics.
Gum arable might be a good substitute for salep in
the composition already recommended 5 and as it will
give such firmness to the mass, as to require manduca-
tion, the saliva, by this means separated and carried
into the stomach, would further contribute to assuage
the sensations both of hunge*’ and of thirst. See
Guit-Arabic. This gum, combined with sugar and
the whites of eggs, has been lately extolled in France,
under the name of patigumo, as a remedy for catarrhal
defluxions. Dr Percival has seen cakes made of these
ingredients, and thinks they might very well be ap¬
plied to the purpose of obviating hunger. They are
not perishable in the hottest climates, may be carried
about the person with convenience, and though very
tough are pleasant to the taste. In the formula by
which they are made, the proportion of sugar is too
large, and that of gum arable too small, if the mass be
intended to assuage the cravings of appetite. Accord¬
ing to our author’s information, the receipt is as fol¬
lows. “ Take of fine sugar four ounces, and of gum-
arabic one ounce : Levigate them well together j and
add half an ounce of rose water, and of the white of
eggs a sufficient quantity.”
In our attempts to recover those who have suffered
under the calamities of famine, great circumspection is
required. Warmth, cordials, and food, are the means
to be employed ; and it is evident that these may prove
too powerful in their operation, if not administered
with caution and judgment. For the body, by long
fasting, is reduced to a state of more than infantile
debility ; the minuter vessels of the brain, and of the
other organs, collapse for want of fluids to distend
them ; the stomach and intestines shrink in their capa¬
city ; and the. heart languidly vibrates, having scarcely
sufficient energy to propel the scanty current of blood.
Under such circumstances, a proper application of heat
seems an essential measure, and may be effected by pla¬
cing on each side a healthy man in contact with the pa¬
tient. Pediluvia or fomentations may also be used with
advantage. The temperature of these should be lower
than that of the human body, and gradually increased
according to the effects of their stimulus. New milk,
weak broth, or water gruel, ought to be employed
both for the one and the other ; as nutriment may be
conveyed into the system this way, by passages probably
the most pervious in a state of fasting, if not too long
f I iio.Vs protracted. “ A lad at Newmarket f, a few years ago,
Ch ical * having been almost starved in order that lie might be
reduced to a proper weight for riding a match, was
? '• weighed at nine o’clock in the morning, and again at
P' r' ten ; and he was found to have gained near 30 ounces
in weight in the course of an hour, though he had only
drank half a glass of wine in the interval. The wine
probably stimulated the action of the nervous system,
and incited nature, exhausted by abstinence, to open
the absorbent pores of the whole body, in order to suck
in some nourishment from the air.” But no such ab-
Vol, X. Part II. f
sorption as this can he expected in a state of extreme Hunger
weakness and emaciation gradually induced $ because 11
the lymphatics must partake of the general want of tone Hunnf'-
and energy. And notwithstanding the salutary effects '■““'V——
of wine in the case of the jockey, who, it is likely,
had been reduced by sweating as well as by abstinence,
such a stimulant might prove dangerous, and even fatal
in other cases. It appears safer therefore to advise the
exhibition of cordials in very small doses, and at first
considerably diluted. Slender wine-whey will perhaps
best answer this purpose j and afford, at the same time,
an easy and pleasant nourishment. When the stomach
has been a little strengthened, an egg may be mixed
with the whey, or administered under some other agree¬
able form. The yolk of one was, to Cornaro, sufficient
for a meal ; and the narrative of this noble Venetian,
in whom a fever was excited by the addition of only-
two ounces of food to his daily allowance, shows, that
the return to a full diet should be conducted with great
caution, and by very slow gradations.
HUNGERFORD, a town of Berkshire in Eng¬
land, seated on the river Kennet, in a low and watery
soil. It is a great thoroughfare in the Bath and Bristol
road, sixty-five miles from London j and was formerly
called Ingleford-Charnamstreet. The constable of
this town, who is chosen annually, is lord of the manor,
which he holds immediately of the crown. They have
a horn here which holds about a quart, and appears by
an inscription on it to have been given by John of
Gaunt, together with a grant of the royal fishery, in a
part of the river which abounds with good trouts and
craw-fish. Here is a market on Wednesdays, and fair
in August. Population 1957.
HUNNI.NGUEN, a town of Alsace, subject to
the French ; seated on the Rhine, and fortified by Vau-
ban. Its fortifications were demolished since 1816.
E. Long. 11. 40. N. Lat. 47. 42.
HUNNS, a fierce and savage nation, who formerly
inhabited that part of Sarmatia bordering on the Palus
Mseotis and the Tanais, the ancient boundary between
Europe and Asia. Their country, as described by Pro¬
copius, lay north of Mount Caucasus, which, extend¬
ing from the Euxiue to the Caspian seas, parts Asiatic
Sarmatia from Colchis, Iberia, and Albania ; lying on
the isthmus between the two seas above mentioned.
Here they resided unknown to other nations, and them¬
selves ignorant of other countries, till the "year 376.
At this time, a hind pursued by the hunters, or, ac¬
cording to some authors, an ox stung by a gad-fly, ha¬
ving passed the marsh, was followed by some Hunns to
the other side, where they discovered a country much
more agreeable than their own. On their return, hav¬
ing acquainted their countrymen with what they had
seen, the whole nation passed the marsh, and falling
upon the Alans, who dwelt on the banks of the Tanais,
almost exterminated them. They next fell upon the
Ostrogoths, whom they drove out of their country, and
forced to retire to the plains between the Borysthenes
and the Tanais, now known by the name of TAodolia.
Then attacking the Visigoths, they obliged them to
shelter themselves in the most mountainous parts of
their country $ till at last the Gothic nations finding it
impossible to withstand such an inundation of barbari¬
ans, obtained leave from the emperor Valens to settle
in Thrace.
4 P The
Htfnns.
HUN [ 666 ]
The Hunns thus became masters of all the country
between the Tanais and Danube in 376, where they
continued quietly till the year 388, when great num¬
bers of them were taken into the pay of Theodosius I.
but, in the mean time, a party of them, called the
Ncphthalite or fFhite Hunns, who had continued in A-
sia, overran all Mesopotamia, and even laid siege to
Edessa, where they were repulsed with great slaughter
by the Romans. The European Ilunns frequently pas¬
sed the Danube, committing the greatest ravages in the
western empire $ sometimes they fell upon the eastern
provinces, where they put all to fire and sword. They
were often defeated and repulsed by the Romans, but
the empire was now too weak to subdue or confine them
from making excursions j so that they continued to
make daily encroachments, and became every day
more formidable than before. In 411* Hunns»
under Attila, threatened the western empire with total
destruction. This monarch, having made himself ma¬
ster of all the northern countries from the confines of
Persia to the banks of the Rhine, invaded Msesia,
Thrace, and Illyricum ; where he made such progress,
that the emperor not thinking himself safe in Constan¬
tinople, withdrew into Asia. Attila then broke into
Gaul j where he took and destroyed several cities, mas¬
sacring the inhabitants with the greatest cruelty. At
last he was driven out with great slaughter by Aetius
the Roman general, and Theodoric king of the Goths,
and could never afterwards make any great progress.
About the year 452 or 453 Attila died, and his king¬
dom was immediately split into a number of small ones
by his numerous children, who waged perpetual war
with each other. The Hunns then ceased to be formi¬
dable, and became dally less able to cope with the other
barbarous nations whom Attila had kept in subjection.
Still, however, their dominion was considerable ; and
in the time of Charles the Great they were masters of
Transylvania, Wallachia, Servia, Carniola, Carinthia,
and the greater part of Austria, together with Bosnia,
Sclavonia, and that part of Hungary which lies beyond
the Danube. In the year 776, while Charles was in
Saxony, two princes of the Hunns, Caganus and Jugunus,
sent ambassadors to him, desiring his friendship and al¬
liance. Charles received them with extraordinary marks
of friendship, and readily complied with their request.
However, they entered, not long after, into an alliance
with Taffila duke of Bavaria, who had revolted from
Charles, and raised great disturbances in Germany.
Charles dissembled his resentment till he had entirely
reduced Bavaria, when be resolved to revenge himself
on the Hunns for those succours they had underhand
given to his enemy. Accordingly, he ordered levies to
be made throughout his dominions j and having by that
means assembled a very numerous army, he divided it
;nto two bodies, one of which he commanded himself,
and the other he committed to the care of his generals.
The two armies entered the kingdom of the Hunns at
different places, ravaged their country far and near,
burnt their villages, and took all their strong holds.
This he continued for eight years, till the people were
almost totally extirpated •, nor did the Hunns ever af¬
terwards recover themselves, or appear as a distinct na¬
tion.
There were two different nations that went by the
name of Hunns; the Nephthalite or White Hunns, and
HUN
the Sarmatian or Scythian Hunns. The former inha¬
bited a rich country, bordering to the north on Persia, '■
and at a great distance from the Sarmatian or Scythian
Hunns, with whom they had no intercourse, nor the
least resemblance either in their persons or manners.
They were a powerful nation, and often served against
the Romans in the Persian armies ; but in the reign of
the emperor Zeno, being provoked by Perozes king of
Persia laying claim to part of their country, they de¬
feated the Persians in two pitched battles, slew their
king, overran all Persia, and held it in subjection for
the space of two years, obliging Cabades, the son and
successor of Perozes, to pay them a yearly tribute.
These Hunns, called by the writers of those times the
white Hunns, did not wander, like the others, from
place to place ; but, contented with their own country,
which supplied them with all necessaries, they lived un¬
der a regular government, subject to one prince, and
seldom made inroads, unless provoked, either into the
Persian or Roman territories. They lived according
to their own laws, and dealt uprightly with one ano¬
ther, as well as with the neighbouring people. Each
of their great men used to choose twenty or more com¬
panions to enjoy with him his wealth, and partake of
all his diversions j but, upon his decease, they were all
buried with him in the same grave. This custom sa¬
vours of barbarity j but in every other respect, the
Nephthalite were a far more civilized nation than the
Scythian Hunns, who, breaking into the empire, filled
most of the provinces of Europe with blood and slaugh¬
ter.
The latter were, according to Ammianus Marcelli-
nus, a savage people, exceeding in cruelty the most bar¬
barous nations. They began to practise their cruelty,
says Jornandes, upon their own children the very first
day they come into the world, cutting and mangling
the cheeks of their males, to prevent the growth of
hair which they must have looked upon, contrary to the
sentiments of other nations, as unbecoming and unman¬
ly. They had, perhaps, in this practice another view,
which Jornandes seems to insinuate elsewhere, viz. to
strike terror into the enemy with their countenances,
thus deformed and covered with scars. They had no
other food but roots and raw meat, being quite unac¬
quainted with the use of fire, and no houses at all, not
even huts; but lived constantly exposed to the air in
the woods, and on the mountains, where, from their
infancy, they were inured to hunger, thirst, and all
manner of hardships : nay, they had such an aversion
to houses, which they called the sepulchres of the living,
that, when they went into other countries, they could
hardly be prevailed upon to come within the walls of
any house, not thinking themselves safe when shut up
and covered. They used even to eat and sleep on horse¬
back, scarce ever dismounting ; which, in all likeli¬
hood, induced Zosimus to write, that the Hunns could
not walk. They covered their nakedness with goats
skins, or the skins of a sort of mice sewed together.
Day and night were indifferent to them, as to buying,
felling, eating, and drinking. They had no law, nor
any kind of religion ; but complied with their inclina¬
tions, whatever they prompted them to, without the
least restraint, or distinction between good and evil. In
war, they began the battle with great fury, and a hi¬
deous noise : but if they met with a vigorous opposition,
their
Hnnr,i,
jiJtei
"r
HUN [ 667 ] HUN
i ans, their fury began to abate after the first onset *, and
I nten vidien once put into disorder, they never rallied, but
v ' fled in the utmost confusion. They were quite unac¬
quainted with the art of besieging towns 5 and authors
observe, that they never attacked the enemy’s camp.
They were a faithless nation, and thought themselves
no longer bound by the most solemn treaties, than they
found their advantage in observing them. Hence we
often find them, upon the least prospect of obtaining
more advantageous conditions, breaking into the Ro¬
man empire, in defiance of the most solemn oaths and
engagements. Several corps of Hunns, after their
coming into Europe, served in the Roman armies a-
gainst the Goths and other barbarous nations j nay,
they were ready, for hire, to fight against each other,
being blind to every other regard and consideration.
HUNTER, a name given to a horse qualified to
carry a person in the chase. The shape of the horse
designed for this service, should be strong and well knit
together, as the jockeys express it. Irregular or un¬
equal shapes in these creatures are always a token of
weakness. The inequalities in shape which show a horse
improper for the chase, are the having a large head
and a small neck, a large leg and a small foot, and the
like. The head of the hunter should indeed always be
large, but the neck should also be thick and strong to
support it. The head should be lean, the nostrils wide,
and the windpipe straight.
The hunter, in order to his behaving well in the
field, ought to have great care and indulgence in the
stable: he ought to have as much rest and quiet as may
be, to be kept well supplied with good meat, clean lit¬
ter, and fresh water by him ; he should be often dressed,
and suffered to sleep as much as he pleases. He should
be so fed, that his dung may be rather soft than hard,
and it must be of a bright and clean colour. All this
may be easily managed by the continual observance and
change of his food, as occasion requires. After his
usual scourings he should have exercises and mashes of
sweet malt, or bread and beans •, or wheat and beans
mixed together, are to be his best food, and beans and
oats his worst.
Some very great sportsmen are for keeping their
horses out at grass all the buck-hunting season, never
taking them up into the stable at all, but allowing them
in the field as much oats with their grass as they will
eat. The horse may be thus rid three days in the week
for the whole season, and never damaged by it, nor
ever showing any marks of harm afterwards.
The whole shape of a horse intended for a hunter,
should be this : The ears should be small, open, and
pricked ; or though they be somewhat long, yet if they
stand up erect and bold like those of a fox, it is a sign
of toughness or hardiness. The forehead should be long
and broad, not flat, or, as it is usually termed, mare¬
faced, but rising in the middle like that of a hare ; the
feather should be placed above the eye, the contrary
being thought by some to threaten blindness. The eyes
should be full, large, and bright; the nostrils not only
large, but looking red and fresh within; for an open
and fresh nostril is always esteemed a sign of a good
wind. The mouth should be large, deep in the wicks,
and hairy. The windpipe should be large, and appear
straight when he bridles his head ; for if, on the con¬
trary, it bends like a bow on bis bridling, it is not
formed for a free passage of the breath. This defect in Hunter,
a horse is expressed among the dealers by the phrase —
cock-throppled. The head should be so set on to the
neck, that a space may be felt between the neck and
the chine •, when there is no such space, the horse is
said to be bull-necked ; and this is not only a blemish
in the beauty of the horse, but it also occasions his
wind not to be so good. The crest should be strong,
firm, and well risen 5 the neck should be straight and
firm, not loose and pliant; the breast should be strong
and broad, the ribs round like a barrel, the fillets large,
the buttocks rather oval than broad, the legs clean,
flat, and straight; and, finally, the mane and tail
ought to be long and tbin, not short and bushy, the
last being counted a mark of dulness. When a hunter
is thus chosen, and has been taught such obedience,
that he will readily answer to the rider’s signals both
of the bridle and hand, the voice, the calf of the leg,
and the spurs j that he knows how to make his way
forward, and has gained a true temper of mouth, and
a right placing of his head, and has learned to stop
and to turn readily, if his age be sufficiently advanced,
he is ready for the field. It is a rule with all staunch
sportsmen, that no horse should be used in hunting till
he is full five years old $ some will hunt them at four,
but the horse at this time is not come up to his true
strength and courage, and will not only fail at every
tough trial, but will be subject to strains and accidents
of that kind, much more than if he were to be kept
another year first, when his strength would be more
confirmed.
When the hunter is five years old, he may be put to
grass from the middle of May till Bartholomew-tide ;
for the weather betweeji these is so hot, that it will be
very proper to spare him from work. At Bartholomew-
tide, the strength of the grass beginning to be nipped
by frosts and cold dews, so that it is apt to engender
crudities in the horse, he should be taken up while his
coat is yet smooth and sleek, and put into the stable.
When he is first brought home, he should be put in
some secure and spacious place, where he may evacuate
his body by degrees, and be brought not all at once to
the warm keeping j the next night he may be stabled
up. It is a general rule with many not to clothe and
stable up their horses till two or three days after they
are taken from grass, and others wh© put them in the
stable after the first night, yet will not dress and clothe
them till three or four days afterward j but all this, ex¬
cept the keeping the horse one day in a large and cool
place, is needless caution.
There is a general practice among the grooms, in
many places, of giving their hunters wheat-straw as
soon as they take them up from grass. They say they
do this to take up their bellies ; but there seems much
reason to disapprove of this. The change is very vio¬
lent, and the nature of the straw so heating and dry¬
ing, that there seems great reason to fear that the
astringent nature of it would be prejudicial, more than
is at first perceived. It is always found that the dung
is hard after this food, and is voided with pain and dif¬
ficulty, which is in general very wrong for this sort of
horse. It is better therefore to avoid this straw-feeding,
and to depend upon moderate airing, warm clothing,
and good old hay and old corn, than to have recourse
to any thing of this kind.
4 P * When
Hunter.
HUN [ 668 ] HUN
When the horse has evacuated all his grass, and has
been properly shod, and the shoes have had time to
settle to his feet, he may be ridden abroad, and treat¬
ed in this manner: the groom ought to visit him early
in the morning, at five o’clock in the long days, and
at six in the short ones } he must then clean out tne
stable, and feel the horse’s neck, flank, and belly, to
find the state of his health. If the flank feels soft and
flabby, there is a necessity of good diet to harden it,
otherwise any great exercise will occasion swellings
and gontiness in the heels. After this examination, a
handful or two of good old oats, well sifted, should be
given him $ this will make him have more inclination
to water, and will also make the water sit better on his
stomach, than if he drank fasting. After this, he is to
be tied up and dressed. If in the doing of this he
opens his mouth, as if he would bite, or attempts to
kick at the person, it is a proof that the teeth of the
currycomb are too sharp, and must be filed blunter.
If after this he continues the same tricks, it is through
wantonness, and he should be corrected for it with the
whip. The intent of currying being only to raise
the dust, this is to be brushed oft' afterwards with a
horse-tail nailed to a handle, or any other light brush.
Then he is to be rubbed down with the brush, and
dusted a second time *, he should then be rubbed over
with a wet hand, and all the loose hairs, and whatever
foulness there is, should be picked off. When this
is done, and he is wiped dry as at first, a large saddle¬
cloth is to be put on, reaching down to the spurring
place j then the saddle is to be out on, and a cloth
thrown over it that be may not take cold : then rub
down his legs, and pick his feet with an iron picket,
and let the mane and tail be combed with a wet mane-
comb. Lastly, it is a custom to spurt some beer in his
mouth just before the leading him out of the stable.
He should then be mounted, and walked a mile at
least to some running water, and there watered $ but
be must only be suffered to take about half his water at
one drinking.
It is the custom of many to gallop the horse at a vio¬
lent rate as soon as he comes out of the water ; but this
is extremely wrong for many reasons. It endangers
the breaking a horse’s wind more than any other prac¬
tice, and often has been the occasion of bursting very
good horses. It uses them also to the disagreeable trick
we rind in many horses, of running away as soon as ever
they come out of the water : and with some it makes
them averse to drinking, so that they will rather en¬
dure thirst, and hurt themselves greatly by it, than
bring on the violent exercise which they remember al¬
ways follows it. The better way is to walk him a little
after he is out of the water, then put him to a gentle
gallop for a little while, and after this to bring him to
the water again. This should be done three or four
times, till he will not drink any more. If thei’e is a
hilly place near the watering place, it is always well to
ride up to it: if otherwise, any place is to be chosen
where there is free air and sun. That the creature may
enjoy the benefit of this, he is not to be galloped, but
walked about in this place an hour, and then taken
home to the stable. The pleasure the horse himself
takes in these airings when well managed is very evi¬
dent ; for he will gape, yawn, and shrug up his body :
and in these, whenever he would stand still to stale,
dung, or listen to any noise, he is not to be hindered Hunter,
from it, but encouraged in every thing of this kind, »■ „ >mmi
The advantages of these airings are very evident j
they purify the blood, teach the creature how to make
his breathing agree with the rest of the motions of his
body, and give him an appetite to his food, which hun¬
ters and racers that are kept stalled up are otherwise
very apt to lose. On returning from airing, the litter
of the stable should be fresh, and by stirring this and
whistling, he will be brought to stale. Then he is to
be led to his stall, and tied up, and again carefully rub¬
bed down ; then he should be covered with a linen
cloth next his body, and a canvas one over that, made
to fit him, and reaching down to his legs. This, as the
duke of Newcastle observes, is a custom which we learn¬
ed of the Turks, who are of all people the most nice
and careful of their horses. Over this covering there
should he put a body-cloth of six or eight straps ; this
keeps his belly in shape, and does not hurt him. This
clothing will be sufficient while the weather is not very
sharp ; but in severe seasons, when the hair begins to
rise and start in the uncovered part, a woollen cloth is
to be added, and this will always prove fully suffi¬
cient.
Different horses, and different seasons, make variety
of the degree of clothing necessary $ but there always
is an obvious rule to point out the necessary changes,
the roughness of the coat being a mark of the want
of clothing, and the smoothness of it a proof that the
clothing is sufficient. Therefore if at any time the
hair is found to start, it is a notice that some farther
clothing is to be added.
If the horse sweat much in the night, it is a sign
that he is over fed and wants exercise : this therefore is
easily remedied. An hour or more after the horse is
come in from his airing, the groom should give him a
wisp of clean hay, making him eat it out of his hand ;
after this let the manger be well cleaned out, and a
quartern of oats clean sifted be given him. If he eats
up this with an appetite, he should have more given
him *, hut if he is slow and indifferent about it, be must
have no more. The business is to give him enough,
but not to cloy him with food.
If the horse gets flesh too fast on this home feeding,
he is not to be stinted to prevent it, but only his exer¬
cise increased ; this will take down his flesh, and at the
same time give him strength and wind. After the feed¬
ing in the morning is over the stable is to be shut up,
only leaving him a little hay on his litter. He need be
no more looked at till one o’clock, and then only rub¬
bed down, and left again to the time of his evening
watering, which is four o’clock in the summer and
three in the winter. When he has been watered, be
must be kept out an hour or two, or more if necessary,
and then taken home and rubbed as after the morning
watering. Then he is to have a feed of corn at six
o’clock, and another at nine at night; and being then
cleaned, and his litter put in order, and hay enough leit
for the night, he is to be left till morning. This is the
direction for one day, and in this manner he is to be
treated every day for a fortnight ; at the end of which
time his flesh will be so hardened, his wind so impro¬
ved, and his mouth so quickened, and his gallop
brought to so good a stroke, that he will he fit to be
put to moderate hunting. During the time that he is
used
Idler.
f Hs's
= to
H U N
l-| ter. used to hunting, he must be ordered on his days of rest
w —exactly as is directed for the fortnight when he is in
preparation 5 but as his exercise is now greatly increa¬
sed, he must be allowed a more strengthening food,
mixing some old split beans at every feeding with his
oats.
And if this is not found to be sufficient, the following
bread must be given : let two pecks of old beans and
one peck of wheat be ground together, and made into
an indifferently fine meal j then knead it into dough
with some warm water, and a good quantity of yeast;
let it lie a time that it may rise and swell, which will
make the bread the lighter; then make it into loaves of
a peck each, and let it be baked in a slow oven, that it
may be thoroughly done without being burnt; when it
is taken out of the oven, it must be set bottom upwards
to coo! ; when it is one day old the crust is to be chip¬
ped off, and the crumb given him for food. When this
is ready, he should have some of it at least once in the
day : but it is not to be made the only food, but some
feeds are to be of oats alone, some of oats and this bread,
and some of oats and beans mixed together. The mak¬
ing a variety in this manner being the best of all me¬
thods for keeping up the appetite, which is often apt to
fail.
The day before the horse is to hunt, he must have
no beans, because they are hard of digestion, but only
some oats with this bread : or if he will be brought to
eat the bread alone, that will be best of all. His even¬
ing feed should on this day be somewhat earlier than
usual; and after this he is only to have a wisp of
hay out of the groom’s hand till he return from hunt-
ing.
Hunter, Dr William, a celebrated anatomist and
physician, was born on the 23d of May 1718, at Kilbride
fli 'tart Jn t[,e county of Lanerk in Scotland. He was the se-
(‘nUS venl^ ^ie children of John and Agnes Hunter, who
•Vfr presided on a small estate in that parish called Zorcg Cal-
igs of derwood, which had been long in the possession of his
' ' family. His great grandfather by his father’s side,
‘ r' was a younger son of Hunter of Hunterston, chief of
the family of that name. At the age of fourteen his
father sent him to the college of Glasgow. In this se¬
minary he passed five years, and by his prudent beha¬
viour and diligence acquired the esteem of the profes¬
sors, and the reputation of being a good scholar. His
father had designed him for the church : but the idea
of subscribing to articles of faith was so repugnant to
the liberal mode of thinking he had already adopted,
that he felt an insuperable aversion to his theological
pursuits. In this state of mind he happened to be¬
come acquainted with Hr Cullen, the late celebrated
professor at Edinburgh, who was then just established
in practice at Hamilton under the patronage of the
duke of Hamilton. Dr Cullen’s conversation soon de¬
termined him to lay aside all thoughts of the church,
and to devote himself to the profession of physic. His
father’s consent having been previously obtained, Mr
Hunter in 1737 went to reside with Dr Cullen. In
the family of this excellent friend and preceptor he
passed nearly three years : and these, as he has been
often heard to acknowledge, were the happiest years
of his life. It was then agreed, that he should go and
prosecute his medical studies at Edinburgh and Lon¬
don, and afterwards return to settle at Hamilton in
HUN
partnership with Dr Cullen. He accordingly set out Hunter,
for Edinburgh in November 1740; and continued there —y——
till the following spring, attending the lectures of the
medical professors, and amongst others those of the late
Dr Alexander Monro, who many years afterwards, in
allusion to this circumstance, styled himself his old
master.
Mr Hunter arrived in London in the summer of
1741, and took up his residence at Mr, afterwards Dr,
Smellie’s, who was at that time an apothecary in Pall
Mall. He brought with him a letter of recommenda¬
tion to his countryman Dr James Douglas, from Mr
Foulis, printer in Glasgow, who had been useful to the
doctor in collecting for him different editions of Ho¬
race. Dr Douglas was then intent on a great anato¬
mical work on the bones, which he did not live to
complete, and was looking out for a young man of
abilities and industry whom he might employ as a dis¬
sector. This induced him to pay particular attention
to Mr Hunter; and finding him acute and sensible, he
desired him to make him another visit. A second con¬
versation confirmed the doctor in the good opinion he
had formed of Mr Hunter ; and without any farther
hesitation he invited him into his family to assist in his
dissections and to superintend the education of his
son.—Mr Hunter having accepted Dr Douglas’s invi¬
tation, was by his friendly assistance enabled to enter
himself as a surgeon’s pupil at St George’s Hospital
under Mr James Wilkie, and as a dissecting pupil un¬
der Dr Frank Nichols, who at that time taught ana¬
tomy with considerable reputation. He likewise at¬
tended a course of lectures on experimental philosophy
by Dr Desaguliers. Of these means of improvement
he did not fail to make a proper use. He soon became
expert in dissection, and Dr Douglas was at the ex¬
pence of having several of his preparations engraved.
But before many months had elapsed, he had the mis¬
fortune to lose this excellent friend.—The death of Dr
Douglas, however, made no change in the situation of
our author. He continued to reside with the doctor’s
family, and to pursue his studies with the same diligence
as before.
In 1743 he communicated to the lioyal Society an
essay on the Structure and Diseases of articulating
Cartilages. This ingenious paper, on a subject which
till then had not beeir sufficiently investigated, affords
a striking testimony of the rapid progress he had made
in his anatomical inquiries. As he had it in contem¬
plation to teach anatomy, his attention was directed
principally to this object; and it deserves to be men¬
tioned as an additional mark of his prudence, that
he did not precipitately engage in the attempt, but
passed several years in acquiring such a degree of know¬
ledge and such a collection of preparations, as might
insure him success. Dr Nichols, to whom he com¬
municated his scheme, and who declined giving lec¬
tures about that time in favour of the late Dr Law¬
rence, did not give him much encouragement to pro¬
secute it. But at length an opportunity presented it¬
self for the display of his abilities as a teacher. A so¬
ciety of navy surgeons had an apartment in Covent
Garden, where they engaged the late Mr Samuel Sharpe
to deliver a course of lectures on the operations of sur¬
gery. Mr Sharpe continued to repeat this course,
till finding that it interfered too much with his other
engagements,,
[ 669 ]
HUN [ 670 ] H U N
Hunter engagements, he declined the task in favour 01 Mr
—'V-—Hunter •, who gave the society so much satisfaction,
that they requested him to extend his plan to anatomy,
and at first he had the use of their room for his lec¬
tures. This happened in the winter of 1746. He
is said to have experienced much solicitude when he
began to speak in public : but the applause be met with
soon inspired him with courage j and by degrees he
became so fond of teaching, that for many years be.
fore his death he was never happier than when employ¬
ed in delivering a lecture. The profits of his two first
courses were considerable j but by contributing to the
wants of different friends, he found himself at the re¬
turn of the next season obliged to defer his lectures for
a fortnight, merely because he had not money enough
to defray the necessary expence of advertisements.
In 1747 he was admitted a member of the corpora¬
tion of surgeons j and in the spring of the following
year, soon after the close of his lectures, he set out in
company with his pupil, Mr James Douglas, on a
tour through Holland to Paris. His lectures suffered
no interruption by this journey, as he returned to Eng¬
land soon enough to prepare for his winter-course,
which began about the usual time.
At first he practised both surgery and midwifery:
but to the former of these he had always an aversion.
His patron, Dr James Douglas, had acquired consider¬
able reputation in midwifery $ and this probably indu¬
ced Mr Hunter to direct his views chiefly to the same
line of practice. His being elected one of the surgeon
men-midwives, first to the Middlesex, and soon after¬
wards to the British Lying-in Hospital, assisted in
bringing him forward in this branch of his profession,
in which he was recommended by several of the most
eminent surgeons of that time, who respected his ana¬
tomical talents and wished to encourage him. But
these were not the only circumstances that contributed
to his success. He owed much to his abilities, and
much to his person and manner, which eminently qua¬
lified him for the practice of midwifery.
In 1750 he seems to have entirely relinquished his
views in surgery; as in that year he obtained the de¬
gree of Doctor of Physic from the university of Glas¬
gow’, and began to practise as a physician. About
this time he quitted the family of Mrs Douglas, and
went to reside in. Jermyn-street. In the summer of
1751 he revisited his native country, for which he al¬
ways retained, a cordial affection. His mother was still
living at Long Calderwood, which was now become
his property by the death of his brother James. Dr
Cullen, for whom he always entertained a sincere re¬
gard, was then established at Glasgow, and had ac¬
quired considerable reputation both as a practitioner
and teacher of physic ; so that the two friends had
the pleasure of being able to congratulate each other
on their mutual prosperity. During this visit he
showed his attachment to his little paternal inheritance
by giving many instructions for repairing and impro¬
ving it, and for purchasing any adjoining lands that
might be offered for sale. After this journey to Scot¬
land, to which he devoted only a few weeks, he was ne¬
ver absent from London, unless his professional engage¬
ments, as sometimes happened, required his attendance
at a distance from the capital.
In 1755, on the resignation of Dr Layard, one of
the physicians of the British lying-in hospital, we find jjtll]le
the governors of that institution voting their “ thanks -
to Dr Hunter for the services he had done the hospi¬
tal, and for his continuing in it as one of the physi¬
cians so that he seems to have been established in
this office without the usual form of an election. The
year following he was admitted a licentiate of the Royal
College of Physicians. Soon afterwards he was elected
a member of the Medical Society ; and to the Observa¬
tions and Inquiries published by that society, he at dif¬
ferent periods contributed several valuable papers.
In 1763, we find him warmly engaged in controver¬
sy, supporting his claim to different anatomical disco¬
veries, in a work entitled Medical Commentaries, the
style of which is correct and spirited. As an excuse
for the tardiness with which he brought forth this
work, he observes in his introduction, that it required
a good deal of time, and he had little to spare j that
the subject was unpleasant, and therefore he was very
seldom in the humour to take it up. In this publica¬
tion he confined himself chiefly to a dispute with the
present learned professor of anatomy at Edinburgh,
concerning injections of the testicle, the ducts of the
lachrymal gland, the origin and use of the lymphatic
vessels, and absorption by veins. He likewise defend¬
ed himself against a reproach thrown upon him by
Professor Monro senior, by giving a concise account of
a controversy he was involved in with Mr Pott con¬
cerning the discovery of the Hernia Congenita. It
was not long before Mr Pott took occasion to give the
public his account of the dispute j and, in reply,
Dr Hunter added a supplement to his commenta¬
ries, No man was ever more tenacious than Dr Hun¬
ter of what he conceived to be his anatomical rights.
This was particularly evinced in the year 1780, when
his brother communicated to the Royal Society a dif-
covery he had made 25 years before, relative to the
structure of the placenta, the communication between
it and the uterus, and the vascularity of the spongy
chorion. At the next meeting of the society, a letter
was read, in which Dr Hunter put in his claim to the
discovery in question. This letter was followed by a
reply from Mr John Hunter, and here the dispute
e'nded.
In 1762, when the queen became pregnant, Dr Hun¬
ter was consulted : and two years afterwards he had
the honour to be appointed physician extraordinary to
her majesty.
About this time his avoeations were so numerous,
that he became desirous of lessening his fatigue j and
having noticed the ingenuity and assiduous application
of the late Mr William Hewson, F. R. S. who was
then one of his pupils, he engaged him first as an as¬
sistant, and afterwards as a partner in his lectures.
This connection continued till the year I77°» wlm11
some dispute happened which terminated in a sepa¬
ration. Mr Hewson was succeeded in the partnership
by Mr Cruikshank, whose anatomical abilities were de¬
servedly respected.
In 1767, Dr Hunter was elected a fellow of the
Royal Society : and in the year following communi¬
cated to that learned body observations on the bones,
commonly supposed to be elephants bones, which have
been found near the river Ohio in America. This
was not the only subject of natural history on which
our
jjiintef
*0-
HUN [ 671 ] HUN
} iter, our author employed his pen ; for in a subsequent vo-
rUl ' lume of the Philosophical Transactions, we find him
offering his remarks on some bones found In the rock
of Gibraltar, and which he proves to have belonged to
some quadruped. In the same work, likewise, he pub¬
lished an account of the nyl-ghau, an Indian animal
not described before. In 1768, Dr Hunter became a
fellow of the Society of Antiquaries ; and the same year,
at the institution of a Royal Academy of Arts, he was
appointed by his majesty to the office of professor of ana¬
tomy. This appointment opened a new field for his abi¬
lities $ and he engaged in it, as he did in every other pur¬
suit of his life, with unabating zeal. He now adapted
his anatomical knowledge to the objects of painting and
sculpture, and the novelty and justness of his observa¬
tions proved at once the readiness and extent of his
genius. In January xySi* he was unanimously elected
to succeed the late Dr John Fothergill as president of
the Medical Society. As his name and talents were
known and respected in every part of Europe, so the
honours conferred on him w'ere not limited to his own
country. In 1780, the Royal Medical Society at Pa¬
ris elected him one of their foreign associates j and in
2782, he received a similar mark of distinction from
the Royal Academy of Sciences in that city.
The most splendid of Dr Hunter*s medical publica¬
tions was the Anatomy of the Human Gravid Ute¬
rus. The appearance of this work, which had been
begun so early as the year 1751 (at which time 10 of
the 34 plates it contains were completed), was retard¬
ed till the year I775> on^y the author’s desire of
sending it into the world with fewer imperfections.
This great work is dedicated to the king. In his pre¬
face to it, we find the author very candidly acknow¬
ledging, that in most of the dissections he had been as¬
sisted by his brother Mr John Hunter, “ whose accu¬
racy (he adds) in anatomical researches is so well known,
that to omit this opportunity of thanking him for
that assistance would be in some measure to disregard
the future reputation of the work itself.” He like¬
wise confesses his obligations to the ingenious artists
who made the drawings and engravings $ “ but par¬
ticularly to Mr Strange, not only for having by his
hand secured a sort of immortality to two of the plates,
but for having given his advice and assistance in every
part with a steady and disinterested friendship.” An
anatomical description of the gravid uterus was a work
which Dr Hunter had in contemplation to give the
public. He had likewise long been employed in col¬
lecting and arranging materials for a history of the va¬
rious concretions that are formed in the. human body.
Amongst Dr Hunter’s papers have been found two
introductory lectures, which are written out so fairly,
and with such accuracy, that he probably intended no
farther correction of them before they should be given
to the world. In these lectures Dr Hunter traces the
history of anatomy from the earliest to the present
times, along with the general progress of science and
the arts. He considers the great utility of anatomy
in the practice of physic and surgery j gives the an¬
cient divisions of the different substances composing the
human body, which for a long time prevailed in ana¬
tomy $ points out the most advantageous mode of cul¬
tivating this branch of natural knowledge ; and con¬
cludes with explaining the particular plan of his own
lectures. Besides these manuscripts, he has also left Hunter.
behind him a considerable number of cases of dissec-   -
tion ; mostly relating to pregnant women.
The same year in which the Tables of the Gravid
Uterus made their appearance, Dr Hunter communi¬
cated to the Royal Society an Essay on the Origin of
the Venereal Disease. In this paper he attempted to
prove, that this dreadful malady was not brought from
America to Europe by the crew of Columbus, as had
been commonly supposed, although it made its first
appearance about th^t period. After this paper had
been read to the Royal Society, Dr Hunter, in a con¬
versation with the late Dr Musgrave, was convinced
that the testimony on which he placed his chief depen¬
dence was of less weight than he had at first imagined,
as many of Martyr’s letters afford the most convincing
proofs of their having been written a considerable time
after the period of their dates. He therefore very
properly laid aside his intention of giving his es¬
say to the public. In the year 1777 Dr Hunter join¬
ed with Mr Watson in presenting to the Royal Society
a short account of the late Dr Maty’s illness, and of
the appearances on dissection ; and the year following
he published his Reflections on the Section of the
Symphysis Pubis.
We must now go back a little in the order of time
to describe the origin and progress of Dr Hunter’s
museum, without some account of which the history of
his life would be very incomplete.
When he began to practise midwifery, he was de¬
sirous of acquiring a fortune sufficient to place him in
easy and independent circumstances. Before many
years had elapsed, he found himself in possession of a
sum adequate to his wishes in this respect; and this he
set apart as a resource of which he might avail himself
whenever age or infirmities should oblige him to re¬
tire from business. After he had obtained this com¬
petency, as his wealth continued to accumulate, he
formed a laudable design of engaging in some scheme
of public utility, and at first had it in contempla¬
tion to found an anatomical school in this metro¬
polis. For this purpose, about the year 1775, du¬
ring the administration of Mr Grenville, he present¬
ed a memorial to that minister, in which he requested
the grant of a piece of ground in the Mews, for the
site of an anatomical theatre. Dr Hunter under¬
took to expend 7000I. on the building, and to en¬
dow a professorship of anatomy in perpetuity. This
scheme did not meet with the reception it deserved.
In a conversation on this subject soon afterwards with
the earl of Shelburne, his lordship expressed a wish
that the plan might be carried into execution by sub¬
scription, and very generously requested to have his
name set down for a thousand guineas. Dr Hunter’s
delicacy would not allow him to adopt this proposal.
He chose rather to execute it at his own expence ; and
accordingly purchased a spot of ground in Great Wind¬
mill-street, where he erected a spacious house, to which
lie removed from Jermyn-street in I770, I*1 this
building, besides a handsome amphitheatre and other
convenient apartments for his lectures and dissections,
there was one magnificent room, fitted up with great
elegance and propriety as a museum. Of the magni¬
tude and value of his anatomical collection some idea
may be formed, when we consider the great length of
years
HUN [ 6?2 1 HUN
years he employed in the making of anatomical prepa¬
rations and in the dissection ot morbid bodies, added
to the eagerness with which he procured additions
from the collections of Sandys, Hewson, .Falconer,
Blackall, and others, that were at different times offer¬
ed for sale in this metropolis. His specimens of rare
diseases were likewise frequently increased by presents
from his medical friends and pupils j who, when any
thing of this sort occurred to them, very justly thought
theyS could not dispose of it more properly than by
placing it in Hr Hunter’s museum. Speaking of an
acquisition in this way in one of his publications, he
savs, “ I look upon every thing of this kind which is
given to me, as a present to the public ; and consider
mvself as thereby called upon to serve the public with
more diligence.”
Before his removal to YVindmill-street, he had con¬
fined his collection chiefly to specimens of human and
comparative anatomy and of diseases *, but now he ex¬
tended his views to fossils, and likewise to the promo¬
tion of polite literature and erudition. In a short space
of time he became possessed of “ the most magnificent
treasure of Greek and Latin books that has been accu¬
mulated by any person now living since the days of
Mead.” A cabinet of ancient medals contributed like¬
wise much to the richness of his museum. A descrip¬
tion of part of his coins in this collection, struck by the
Greek free cities, was afterwards published by the
Doctor’s learned friend Mr Combe. In a classical de¬
dication of this elegant volume to the queen, Hr Hunter
acknowledges his obligations to her majesty. In the
preface some account is given of the progress of the
collection, which has been brought together since the
year 1770, with singular taste, and at the expence of
upwards of 20,0001. In 1781, the museum received a
valuable addition of shells, corals, and other curious
subjects of natural history, which had been collected by
the late worthy Dr Fothergill, who gave directions by
his will, that his collection should be appraised after his
death, that Dr Hunter should have the refusal of it at
500!. under the valuation. This was accordingly done,
and Dr Hunter purchased it for the sum of 1200I. The
fame of this museum spread throughout Europe. Few
foreigners distinguished for their rank or learning visit¬
ed this metropolis without requesting to see it. Men of
science of our own country always had easy access to
it.—Considered in a collective point of view, it is per¬
haps without a rival.
Dr Hunter, at the head of his profession, honoured
with the esteem of his sovereign, and in possession of
every thing that his reputation and wealth could con¬
fer, seemed now to have attained the summit of his
wishes. But these sources of gratification were embit¬
tered by a disposition to the gout, which harassed him
frequently during the latter part of his life, notwith¬
standing his very abstemious manner of living. On Sa¬
turday the 15th March 1783, after having for seve¬
ral days experienced a return of a wandering gout, he
complained of great headach and nausea. In this state
he went to bed, and for several days felt more pain than
usual both in his stomach and limbs. On the Thurs¬
day following he found himself so much recovered, that
he determined to give the introductory lecture to the
operations of surgery. It was to no purpose that his
friends urged to him the impropriety of such an a^
5
tempt. He was determined to make the experiment,
and accordingly delivered the lecture 5 but towards the
conclusion his strength was so exhausted that he fainted
away, and was obliged to be carried to bed by two ser¬
vants. The following night and day his symptoms
were such as indicated danger; and on Saturday morn¬
ing Mr Combe, who made him an early visit, was
alarmed on being told by Dr Hunter himself, that du¬
ring the night he had certainly had a paralytic stroke.
As neither his speech nor his pulse were affected, and
he was able to raise himself in bed, Mr Combe encou¬
raged him to hope that he was mistaken. But the
event proved the doctor’s idea of his complaint to be
but too well founded; for from that time till his death,
which happened on Sunday the 30th of March, he
voided no urine without the assistance of the catheter,
which w7as occasionally introduced by his brother : and
purgative medicines were administered repeatedly
without procuring a passage by stool. These circum¬
stances, and the absence of pain, seemed to show, that
the intestines and urinary bladder had lost their sensi¬
bility and power of contraction ; and it was reasonable
to presume that a partial palsy bad affected the nerves
distributed to those parts.
By his will, the use of his museum, under the di¬
rection of trustees, devolved to his nephew Dr Matthew
Baillie, and in case of his death to Mr Cruikshank for
the term of thirty years 5 at the end of which period
the whole collection is bequeathed to the university of
Glasgow, with eight thousand pounds sterling as a fund
for the support and augmentation of the collection,
which is now deposited at Glasgow.
Dr Hunter was regularly shaped, but of a slender
make, and rather below a middle stature. His man¬
ner of living was extremely simple and frugal, and
the quantity of his food was small as well as plain. He
was an early riser ; and when business w'as over, was
constantly engaged in his anatomical pursuits, or in
his museum. There was something very engaging in
his manner and address ; and he had such an appearance
-of attention to his patients, when he was making his
inquiries, as could hardly fail to conciliate their confi¬
dence and esteem. In consultation with his medical
brethren, he delivered his opinions with diffidence and
candour. In familiar conversation he was cheerful and
unassuming. As a teacher of anatomy he has been,
long and deservedly celebrated. He was a good
orator; and having a clear and accurate conception
of what he taught, he knew how to place in di¬
stinct and intelligible points of view the most abstruse
subjects of anatomy and physiology. Among other
methods of explaining and illustrating his doctrines,
he used frequently to introduce some apposite story or
case that had occurred to him in his practice ; and few
men had acquired a more interesting fund of anec¬
dotes of this kind, or related them in a more agreeable
manner.
Hunter, John, an eminent surgeon, was the young¬
est child of John Hunter of Kilbride, in the county of
Lanark. He was born at Long Calderwood on the
13th of July 1728. His father died when he was about
ten years of age, from which circumstance his mother
was induced to grant him too much indulgence. In
consequence he made no progress at the grammar-school,
and was almost wholly illiterate at the age of 20, when
HUN
[ 673 ]
HUN
H ter.
he arrived in London. His brother Dr W. Hunter
^ was at that time the most eminent teacher of anatomy,
and John expressed a wish to attend him in his researches.
The doctor, anxious to make trial of his talents, gave
him an arm to dissect for the muscles, with proper in¬
structions how it was to be performed j and the dexte¬
rity with which he managed his undertaking exceeded
the expectations of his brother.
Having acquired some reputation from this first at¬
tempt, his brother employed him in a more difficult
dissection, which was an arm wherein all the arteries
were injected, and these and the muscles were to be
preserved and exposed. In the execution of this task
he also gave the highest satisfaction, and his brother
predicted that he would become a good anatomist, and
never want employment. Under the instructions of
bis brother, and Mr Symonds his assistant, he enjoyed
every favourable opportunity of increasing his anato¬
mical knowledge, since that school monopolized all the
dissections then carried on in London.
He was admitted into partnership with his brother
in the winter of 1755, and a certain department of the
lectures was allotted to him, and he also lectured when
the doctor was called away to attend his patients. The
mind of Mr Hunter was peculiarly fitted for the study
of anatomy, and the indefatigable ardour with which
he prosecuted it is scarcely to be equalled. He applied
jto human anatomy for ten years, during which period
he made himself master of every thing then known, and
also made some considerable additions. He was the first
who discovered the existence of the lymphatic vessels
in birds.
With such eagerness did he apply himself to the
study of comparative anatomy, that he even applied to
the keeper of wild beasts in the Tower for the bodies
of such as died there, and to all those who were in the
habit of exhibiting wild beasts to the public. He made
a purchase of every rare animal that came in his way,
which, together with those presented to him by his
friends, he gave to the showmen to keep till they died,
the more effectually to prevail with them to assist him
in his labours. So much was his health impaired by
unwearied attention to his favourite pursuits, that in
1760 his friends advised him to go abroad, as he exhi¬
bited many symptoms of an incipient consumption. In
October that year he was appointed a surgeon on the
staff by the inspector-general of hospitals (Mr Adair),
and in the spring of the ensuing year he went to Belle-
isle with the army.
He served during the continuance of the war, as se¬
nior surgeon on the staff, when he acquired his know¬
ledge of gun-shot wounds. He settled in London on
his return to England j but finding that his half pay
and private practice could not support him, he taught
practical anatomy and surgery for several winters. He
built a house near Brompton, where he pursued the
study of comparative anatomy with unabated ardour.
He discovered the changes which animal and vegetable
substances undergo in the stomach by the action of the
gastric juice } the mode in which a bone retains its
shape during its growth 3 and explained the process of
exfoliation, by which a piece of dead bone is separated
from the living. ^
On the 5th of February 1767, he was chosen F. R. S.
In the year 1768 he became a member of the incorpo-
Vol. X. Part II. f
ration of surgeons, and in the following year was elect- Hunter,
ed one of the surgeons of St George’s hospital, through
the influence of his brother. He published his treatise
on the natural history of the teeth in May 1771, and in
July the same year he married Miss Home, daughter of
Mr Home, surgeon to Burgoyne’s regiment of light
horse. His private practice and professional reputation
advanced with rapidity after his marriage, and although
his family increased, he devoted much of his time to the
forming of his collection. He discovered the cause of
failure in the cure of every case of hydrocele, and pro¬
posed a mode of operating in which that event may cer¬
tainly be avoided. He ascertained that simple exposure
to the air can neither produce nor increase inflammation;
and he considered the blood as alive in its fluid state. He
also discovered that the stomach after death is sometimes
acted on and dissolved by the gastric juice, respecting
which he communicated a paper to the Royal Society.
Comparative anatomy occupied the greater part of
his time and attention, and he suffered no opportunity
to escape him. He dissected the torpedo in 1773, and
laid an account of its electrical organs before the Royal
Society. A young elephant which had been presented
to the queen, having died, it was given to Dr Hunter,
which afforded our author an opportunity of examining
the structure of that monstrous animal, as did also two
others which died in the queen’s menagerie. In the
year 1774, he published an account, in the Philosophi¬
cal Transactions, of certain receptacles of air in birds,
communicating with the lungs, and lodged in the mus¬
cular parts and hollow bones of these animals. Several
animals belonging to the species called Gymnotus elec-
tfr/’ez/s of Surinam having been brought alivetoBritain in
1775, their electrical properties excited a considerable
share of the public attention, and Mr Hunter purcha¬
sed many of them after they died, for the purpose of
prosecuting his favourite experiments. He published
an account of their electrical organs in the Philosophi¬
cal Transactions for 1775 , and in the same volume ap¬
peared his experiments on the power of animals and ve¬
getables to produce heat.
Mr Hunter was appointed surgeon extraordinary to
his majesty in 17763 in the autumn of which year he
grew extremely ill, when both himself and his friends
apprehended that his life was in danger, but he happily
recovered so far as to be able to publish the second part
of his treatise on the Teeth in 1778, which completed
the subject 3 and in 1779 he published in the Philoso¬
phical Transactions his account of the Free Martin.
He was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society of Sciences
and Belles Lettres at Gottenburg, and in 1 783 he be¬
came a member of the Royal Society of Medicine and
the Royal Academy of Surgery in Paris.
In the building which he formed for his valuable
collection, there was a room 52 feet by 28, lighted
from the top, with a gallery all round, for containing
his preparations. At this time he had reached the
height of his career as a surgeon, with his mind and
body in full vigour 3 and his hands were capable of per¬
forming whatever was suggested by his capacious mind,
and his judgement was fully ripened by long experi¬
ence.
He removed a tumor from the head and neck of a
patient in St George’s hospital, as large as the head
to which it was attached 3 and by bringing the cut
4 Q edges
HUN [ 674 ] HUN
edn-es of the skin Into contact, the whole was almost quire so little relaxation as Mr Hunter (lid, for he sel- Hunter,
healed by the first intention. He dissected or cut out dom slept above four hours in the night, but always , tltintlng-
a tumor on the neck, which one of the best surgeons an hour after dinner. In private practice he was scru-
in thi® country declared that none but a fool or a mad- pulously honest in declaring his opinion of the case be-
rnan would ever attempt ; yet the patient perfectly re- fore him, and ready on all occasions to conless his ig-
covered. He discovered a new method of performing norance of what he did not understand. He sometimes
the operation for the popliteal aneurism, by taking up spoke harshly of his cotemporaries j which did not orl-
the femoral artery on the anterior part of the thigh, ginate from envy, but from a full conviction that sur-
without doing any thing to the tumor or the ham. gery was as yet in its infancy, and he himself a novice
This, from many subsequent experiments which have in his own art.
been successfully performed, must be allowed to stand On October the 16th 1793, when in his usual state
high among the modern improvements in surgery. of health, he went to St George’s hospital, and meet-
Mr Hunter was engaged in a very extensive private ing with some things which irritated his mind, and not
practice ; he was surgeon to St George’s hospital j he being perfectly master of the circumstances, he with-
o-ave a very long course of lectures during the winter held his sentiments j in which state of restraint he went
season j he carried on his inquiries in comparative ana- into the next room, and turning round, to Dr Robert-
tomy; he had a school of practical human anatomy in son, one of the physicians of the hospital, he gave a
his own house, and was continually employed in some deep groan and dropt down dead, being then in his
experiments respecting the animal economy. In 1786 65th year, the same age at which his brother Dr Hun-
he was chosen deputy surgeon-general to the army, at ter had died.
which time he published his work on the venereal dis- HUNTING, the exercise or diversion of pursuing
ease, the first edition of which met with a very rapid four-footed beasts of game. See the article^ Game.
Four-footed beasts are hunted in the fields, woods,
In the year 1787 he published a treatise on the ef- and thickets, and that both with guns and gre-
fect of extirpating one ovarium on the number of young, hounds.
which procured him the annual gold medal of Sir John Birds, on the contrary, are either shot in the air, or
Copley. His collection was now brought into a state taken with nets and other devices, which exercise is
of arrangement, which he shewed to his friends and ac- called fowling ; or they are pursued and taken by birds
quaintances twice a year, and in May to noblemen and of prey, which is called hawking. See the articles
gentlemen, who were only in town during the spring. Fowling, Hawking, Ialconry, SHOOTING, Bibd-
When Mr Adair died, Mr Hunter was appointed in- Catching, and Decoy.
spector general of hospitals, and surgeon-general to the F. de Launay, professor of the French laws, has an
army. This event happened in 1792, at which time express treatise of hunting. From those words of God
he was elected honorary member of the Chirurgo-Phy- to Adam, Gen. i. 26. and 28. and to Noah, Gen. ix.
sical Society of Edinburgh, and one of the vice presi- 2, 3. hunting was considered as a right devolved or
dents of the Veterinary College of London, then first made over to man j and the following ages appear to
established. He published also three papers on the have been of the same sentiment. Accordingly we
treatment of inflamed veins, on introsusception, and on find, that among the more civilized nations it made
the mode of conveying food into the stomach in cases of one of their diversions j and as to the wilder and more
paralysis of the oesophagus. barbarous it served them with food and necessaries*
The collection of comparative anatomy left by Mr The Roman jurisprudence, which was formed on the
Hunter remains an unequivocal testimony of his perse- manners of the first ages, made a law of it, and esta-
verance and abilities, and an honour to the country in blished it as a maxim, that as the natural right of
which he was educated. In it is beheld the natural things which have no master belongs to the first posses-
gradation from the lowest state in which life is found to sor, wild beasts, birds, and fishes, are the property of
exist, up to the most perfect and complex of the animal whomsoever can take them first.
creation'—man himself. But the northern nations of barbarians who overran
Mr Hunter enjoyed a good state of health, for the the Roman empire, bringing with them a stronger
first 40 years of his life, during which he had no com- taste for the diversion, and the people being now pos-
plaint of any consequence, except an inflammation of sessed of other and more easy means of subsistence from
his lungs in i'759. The first attack of the gout which the lands and possessions of those they had vanquished,
he ever experienced was occasioned by an affection of their chiefs and leaders began to appropriate the right
the mind, and every subsequent fit originated from the of hunting, and, instead of a natural right, to make it
same source. a royal one. Thus it continues to this day j the right
Mr Hunter was of a short stature, uncommonly strong of hunting, among us, belonging only to the king, and
and active, well formed, and capable of great bodily those who derive it from him.
exertion. His countenance was open, animated, and The hunting used by the ancients was much like
deeply impressed with thoughtfulness towards the. close that now practised for the rein-deer ; which is seldom
of his life. Lavater seeing a print of him, is said to hunted at force, or with hounds $ but only drawn with
have exclaimed, “ that man thinks for himself.” For a blood-hound, and forestalled with nets and engines,
the last twenty years of his life he drank nothing Thus did they with all beasts; whence a dog is nevei*
stronger than water, and wine at no period agreed with commended by them for opening before he has disco-
his stomach. He was easily irritated, and not soon vered where the beast lies. Hence, they were not in
pacified when once provoked. He was an enemy to any manner curious as to the music of their hounds, or
dissimulation, and free even to a fault. Few men re- the composition of their kennel or pack, either for
deepness,
HUN [ 675 1 HUN
ng. deepness, loudness, or sweetness of cry, which Is a
—; principal point in the hunting of our days. Their
huntsmen, indeed, were accustomed to shout and make
a great noise, as Virgil observes in the third of his
Georgies : Ingentem clamore premes ad retia cervutn.
But that confusion was only to bring the deer to the
nets laid for him.
The Sicilian way of hunting had something in it
very extraordinary.—The nobles or gentry being in¬
formed which way a herd of deer passed, gave notice
to one another, and appointed a meeting; every one
bringing with him a cross-bow or long-bow, and a
bundle of staves shod with iron, the heads bored, with
a cord passing through them all: thus provided, they
came to the herd, and, casting themselves about in a
large ring, surrounded the deer.—Then, each taking
his stand, unbound his faggot, set up his stake, and
tied the end of the cord to that of his next neighbour,
at the distance of ten feet from one another.—Then
taking feathers, dyed in crimson, and fastened on a
thread, they tied them to the cord $ so that with the
least breath of wind they would whirl round.—Which
done, the persons who kept the stands withdrew, and
hid themselves in the next covert. Then the chief ran¬
ger entering within the line with hounds to draw after
the herd, roused the game with their cry j which flying
towards the line, were turned off, and, still gazing on
the shaking and shining feathers, wandered about as if
kept in with a real wall or pale. The ranger still pur¬
sued, and calling every person by name as he passed
by their stand, commanded him to shoot the first, third,
or sixth, as he pleased : and if any of them missed,
or singled out another than that assigned him, it was
counted a grievous disgrace. By such means, as they
passed by the several stations, the whole herd was kill¬
ed by the several hands. Pier. Hieroglyphic, lib. vii.
cap. 6.
Hunting formed the greatest part of the employment
of the ancient Germans, and probably of the Britons
also, when they were not engaged in war. We are in¬
formed by some ancient historians, that this was the
case even as late as the third century with the uncon¬
quered Britons who lived beyond Adrian’s wall; nay,
that they subsisted chiefly by the prey they took in this
way. The great attachment shown by all the Celtic
nations to hunting, however, proceeded most probably
from its being a kind of apprenticeship to war. Thus
their youth acquired that courage, strength, swiftness,
and dexterity in handling their arms, which made them
so formidable in time of war to their enemies. Thus
also they freed the country from many mischievous ani¬
mals which abounded in the forests, furnishing them¬
selves also with materials for those feasts which seem to
have constituted their greatest pleasure. The young
chieftains had thus likewise an opportunity of paying
court to their mistresses, by displaying their bravery and
agility, and making them presents of their game j nay,
so strong and universal was the passion for hunting
among the ancient Britons, that young ladies of the
highest quality and greatest beauty spent much of their
time in the chase. They employed much the same wea* Hunting,
pons in hunting that they did in war, viz. long spears, —v—
javelins, and bows and arrows j having also great num¬
bers of dogs to assist them in finding and pursuing their
game. These dogs, we are also told, were much ad¬
mired among other nations, on account of their swift¬
ness, strength, fierceness, and exquisite sense of smell¬
ing. They were of several different kinds, called by
different names, and formed a considerable article of
commerce. They were highly valued by all the Celtic
nations, insomuch that some very comical penalties were
inflicted upon those who were convicted of stealing
them (a). From the poems of Ossian also it appears,
that the Britons were not unacquainted with the art of
catching birds with hawks trained for that purpose j
but they seem to have been absolutely ignorant of the
method of catching fish j for there is not a single allu¬
sion to this art in all the works of that venerable bard.
Their ignorance of this art is both confirmed and ac¬
counted for by Dio Niceus, who assures us, that the
ancient Britons never tasted fish, though they had in¬
numerable multitudes in their seas, rivers, and lakes.
“ By the bye (says Dr Henry), we may observe that
this agreement between the poems of Ossian and the
Greek historian, in a circumstance so singular, is at
once a proof of the genuine antiquity of these poems,
and that the Greek and Roman writers were not so ill
informed about the affairs and manners of the ancient
Britons as some have imagined.”
The Mexicans, whatever imbecility may be impu¬
ted to them in other respects, were very dexterous in
hunting. They used bows and arrows, darts, nets,
snares, and a kind of tubes named carbottane, through
which they shot by blowing out little balls at birds.
Those which the kings and great men made use of
were curiously carved and painted, and likewise adorn¬
ed with gold and silver. Besides the exercise of the
chase which private individuals took either for amuse¬
ment or to provide food for themselves, there were g«-
neral hunting-matches, sometimes appointed by the
king j at others, undertaken with a view to provide
plenty of victims for sacrifices. A large wood, gene¬
rally that of Zacatapec, not far distant from the ca¬
pital, was pitched upon as the scene of these grand
hunting-matches. Here they chose the place best
adapted for setting a great number of snares and nets.
The wood was inclosed by some thousands of hunters,
forming a circle of six, seven, or eight miles, accord¬
ing to the number of animals they intended to take.
Fire was then set to the grass in a great number of
places, and a terrible noise made with drums, horns,
shouting, and whistling. The hunters gradually con¬
tracted their circle, continuing the noise till the game
were inclosed in a very small space. They were then
killed or taken in snares, or with the hands of the
hunters. The number of animals taken or destroyed
on these occasions was so great, that the first Spanish
viceroy of Mexico would not believe it without ma¬
king the experiment himself. The place chosen for
his hunting-match was a great plain in the country of
4 Q 2 the
(a) Si quis canem veltraum aut segutium vel petrunculum, praesuraserit involare, jubemus ut convictus, coram
artuu populo, posteriora ipsius osculetur.
HUN [ 676 ] HUN
Xwmng the Otomies, lying between the villages of Xilotepec
 V-JL and S. Giovani del Rio ; the Indians being ordered to
proceed according to their usual customs in the times
of their paganism. The viceroy, attended by a vast
retinue of Spaniards, repaired to the place appointed,
where accommodations were prepared for them in houses
of wood erected for the purpose. A circle of more
than 15 miles was formed by 11,000 Otomies, who
started such a quantity of game on the plain, that the
viceroy was quite astonished, and commanded the great*
er part of them to be set at liberty, which was accord¬
ingly done. The number retained, however, was still
incredibly great, were it not attested by a witness of
the highest credit. On this occasion upwards of 600
deer and wild goats, IOO cajotes, with a surprising
number of hares, rabbits, and other smaller animals.
The plain still retains the Spanish name Cazadero,
which signifies the “ place of the chase.”
The Mexicans, besides the usual methods of the
chase, had particular contrivances for catching certain
animals. Thus, to catch young asses, they made a
small fire in the woods, putting among the burning
coals a particular kind of stone named cacalottl, “ raven
or black stone,” which bursts with a loud noise when
heated. The fire was covered with earth, and a little
maize laid around it. The asses quickly assembled with
their young, in order to feed upon the maize j but
while they were thus employed, the stone burst, and
scared away the old ones by the explosion, while the
young ones, unable to fly, were carried off by the
hunters. Serpents were taken even by the hands,
seizing them intrepidly by the neck with one hand,
and sewing up their mouths with the other. This me¬
thod is still practised. They showed the greatest dex¬
terity in tracing the steps of wild beasts, even when
an .European could not have discerned the smallest
print of their feet. The Indian method, however, was
by observing sometimes the herbs or leaves broken
down by their feet j sometimes the drops of blood which
fell from them when wounded. It is said that some of
the American Indians show still greater dexterity in
discovering the tracks of their enemies, which to an
European would be altogether imperceptible.
Hunting was a favourite diversion of the great and
bloody conqueror Jenghiz Khan, if indeed we can apply
the word diversion to a monster whose mind was set
upon the destruction of his own species, and who only
endeavoured to make the murder of brutes subservient
to that of men, by keeping his soldiers in a kind of
warfare with the beasts when they had no human ene¬
mies to contend with. His expeditions were conduct¬
ed on a plan similar to that of the Mexicans already
mentioned j and were no doubt attended with still
greater success, as his numerous army could enclose a
much greater space than all the Indians whom the
Spanish viceroy could muster. The East Indian princes
still show the same inclination to the chase ; and Mr
Blane, who attended the hunting excursions of Asoph
Ul Dowlah visir of the Mogul empire and nabob of
Gude in 1785 and 1786, gives the following account
of the method practised on this occasion.
The time chosen for the hunting party is about the
beginning of December ; and the diversion is continued
till the heats, which commence about the beginning of
March, oblige them to stop. During this time a cir¬
cuit of between 400 and 600 miles is generally made j Han ling,
the hunters bending their course towards the skirts —v-—/
of the northern mountains, where the country is wild
and uncultivated. The visir takes along with him
not only his court and seraglio, but a great part of the
inhabitants of his capital. His immediate attendants
may amount to about 2000 ; but besides these he is
also followed by 500 or 600 horse, and several battalions
of regular sepoys with their field-pieces. Four or five
hundred elephants are also carried along with him t of
which some are used for riding, others for fighting,
and some for clearing the jungles and forests of the
game. About as many sumpter horses of the beauti¬
ful Persian and Arabian breeds are carried along with
him. A great many wheel carriages drawn by bul¬
locks likewise attend, which are used chiefly for the
convenience of the women ; sometimes also he has an
English chaise or two, and sometimes a chariot; but
all these as well as the horses are merely for show, the
visir himself never using any other conveyance than
an elephant, or sometimes when fatigued or indisposed
a palanquin. The animals used in the sport are prin¬
cipally grehounds, of which there may be about 3004
he has also about 200 hawks, and a few trained leo¬
pards for hunting deer. There are a great number
of marksmen, whose profession it is to shoot deer j
with many fowlers, who provide game : as none of
the natives of India know how to shoot game with
small shot, or to hunt with slow hounds. A vast num¬
ber of matchlocks are carried along with the company,
tvith many English pieces of various kinds, 40 or 50
pairs of pistols, bows and arrows, besides swords, dag¬
gers, and sabres without number. There are also nets
of various kinds, some for quail, and others very large,
for fishing, which are carried along with him upon ele¬
phants, attended by fishermen, so as always to be ready
for throwing into any river or lake that may be met
with. Every article that can contribute to luxury or
pleasure is likewise carried along with the army. A
great many carts are loaded with the Ganges water, and
even ice is transported for cooling the drink. The
fruits of the season and fresh vegetables are daily sent
to him from his gardens by bearers stationed at the
distance of every ten miles j by which means each ar¬
ticle is conveyed day or night at the rate of four miles
an hour. Besides the animals already mentioned,
there are also fighting antelopes, buffaloes, and rams in
great numbers $ also several hundred pigeons, some
fighting cocks, with a vast variety of parrots, nightin¬
gales, &c.
To complete the magnificence or extravagance of
this expedition, there is always a large bazar, or mo¬
ving town, which attends the camp ; consisting of shop¬
keepers and artificers of all kinds, money-changers,
dancing-women j so that, on the most moderate calcu¬
lation, the whole number of people in his camp can¬
not be computed at fewer than 20,000. The nabob
himself, and all the gentlemen of his camp, are provi¬
ded with double sets of tents and equipage, which are
always sent on the day before to the place to which he
intends to go; and this is generally eight or ten miles
in whatever direction most game is expected ; so that
by the time he has finished his sport in the morning,
he finds his whole camp ready pitched for his recep¬
tion.
The
HUN [ 677 ] HUN
The nabob, with the attending gentlemen, proceed
in a regular moving court or durbar, and thus they
keep conversing together and looking out for game.
A great many foxes, hares, jackals, and sometimes
deer, are picked up by the dogs as they pass along :
the hawks are carried immediately before the elephants,
and let fly at whatever game is sprung for them, which
is generally partridges, bustards, quails, and difl’erent
kinds of herons $ these last affording excellent sport
with the falcons or sharp-winged hawks. Wild boars
are sometimes started, and either shot or run down by
the dogs and horsemen. Hunting the tyger, however,
is looked upon as the principal diversion, and the dis¬
covery of one of these animals is accounted a matter of
great joy. The cover in which the tyger is found is
commonly long grass, or reeds of such a height as fre¬
quently to reach above the elephants ; and it is diffi¬
cult to find him in such a place, as he commonly en¬
deavours either to steal off, or lies so close to the ground
that he cannot be roused till the elephants are almost
upon him. He then roars and skulks away, but is shot
at as soon as he can be seen j it being generally con¬
trived that the nabob shall have the compliment of fir
ring first. If he be not disabled, the tyger continues
to skulk along, followed by the line of elephants 5 the
nabob and others shooting at him as often as he can be
seen till he falls. The elephants themselves are very
much afraid of this terrible animal, and discover their
apprehensions by shrieking and roaring as soon as they
begin to smell him or hear him growl j generally at¬
tempting to turn away from the place where he is.
When the tyger can be traced to a particular spot, the
elephants are disposed of in a circle round him j in
which case he wrill at last make a desperate attack,
springing upon the elephant that is nearest, and at¬
tempting to tear him with his teeth or claws. Some,
but very few, of the elephants, can be brought to at¬
tack the tyger j and this they do by curling up their
trunks under their mouths, and then attempting to toss,
or otherwise destroy him with their tusks, or to crush
him with their feet or knees. It is considered as good
sport to kill one tyger in a day j though sometimes,
when a female is met with her young ones, two or
three will be killed.
The other objects of pursuit in these excursions are
wild elephants, buffaloes, and rhinoceroses. Our au¬
thor was present at the hunting of a wild elephant of
vast size and strength. An attempt was first made to
take him alive by surrounding him with tame ele¬
phants, while he was kept at bay by crackers and other
fire-works j but he constantly eluded every effort of
this kind. Sometimes the drivers of the tame ele¬
phants got so near him, that they threw strong ropes
over his head, and endeavoured to detain him.by fasten¬
ing them around trees; but he constantly snapped the
ropes like pack-threads, and pursued his way to the
forest. Some of the strongest and most furious of the
fighting elephants were then brought up to engage
him ; but he attacked them with such fury that they
were all obliged to desist. In his struggle with one
of them he broke one of his tusks, and the broken
piece, which was upwards of two inches in diameter,
of solid ivory, flew up into the air several yards above
their heads. Orders were now given to kill him, as
it appeared impossible to take him alive; but even this Hunting,
was not accomplished without the greatest difficulty. *
He twice turned and attacked the party who pursued
him ; and in one of these attacks struck the elephant
obliquely on which the prince rode, threw him upon
his side, but then passed on without offering farther in¬
jury. At last he fell dead, after having received as was
supposed upwards of IOOO balls into bis body.
Notwithstanding the general passion among most na¬
tions for hunting, however, it has by many been deem¬
ed an exercise inconsistent with the principles of huma¬
nity. The late king of Prussia expressed himself on
this subject in the following manner. “ The chase is
one of the most sensual of pleasures, by which the
powers of the body are strongly exerted, but thostf of
the mind remain unemployed. It is an exercise which
makes the limbs strong, active, and pliable : but leaves
the head without improvement. It consists in a violent
desire in the pursuit, and the indulgence of a cruel
pleasure in the death, of the game. I am convinced
that man is more cruel and savage than any beast of
prey : We'exercise the dominion given us over these
our fellow-creatures in the most tyrannical manner. It
we pretend to any superiority over the beasts, it ought
certainly to consist in reason ; but we commonly find
that the most passionate lovers of the chase renounce
this privilege, and converse only with their dogs, horses,
and other irrational animals. This renders them wild
and unfeeling ; and it is probable that they cannot be
very merciful to the human species. For a man who
can in cold blood torture a poor innocent animal, can¬
not feel much compassion for the distresses of his own
species. And, besides, can the chase be a proper em¬
ployment for a thinking mind ?”
The arguments used by his majesty against hunting
seem indeed to be much confirmed by considering the
various nations who have most addicted themselves to
it. These, as must be seen from what has already been
said, were all barbarous; and it is remarkable, that
Nimrod, the first great hunter of whom we have any
account, was likewise the first who oppressed and en¬
slaved his own species. As nations advanced in civili¬
zation, it always became necessary to restrain by law
the inclination of the people for hunting. This was
done by the wise legislator Solon, lest the Athenians
should neglect the mechanic arts on its account. The
Lacedaemonians, on the contrary, indulged themselves
in this diversion without controul ; but they were bar¬
barians, and most cruelly oppressed those whom they
had in their power, as is evident from their treatment
of the Helots. The like may be said of the Egyptians,
Persians, and Scythians) all of whom delighted in war,
and oppressed their own species. The Romans, on
the other hand, who were somewhat more civilized,
were less addicted to hunting. Even they, however,
were exceedingly barbarous, and found it necessary to
make death.and slaughter familiar to their citizens from
their infancy. Hence their diversions of the amphi¬
theatre and circus, where the hunting of wild beasts
was shown in the most magnificent and cruel manner;
not to mention their still more cruel sport ol gladia¬
tors, &c.
In two cases only does it seem possible to reconcile
the practice of hunting with humanity ; viz. either
when ■
HUN [ 678 ] HUN
Hunting, when an uncultivated country is overrun with noxious
animals; or when it is necessary to kill wild animals
for food. In the former case, the noxious animals are
killed because they themselves would do so if they were
allowed to live; but if we kill even a lion or a tyger
merely for the pleasure of killing him, tve are undoubt¬
edly chargeable with cruelty. In like manner, our mo¬
dern foxhunters expressly kill foxes, not in order to
destroy the breed of these noxious animals, but for the
pleasure of seeing them exert all their power and cun¬
ning to save their lives, and then beholding them torn,
in pieces after being half dead with fatigue. This re¬
finement in cruelty, it seems, is their favourite diver¬
sion 5 and it is accounted a crime for any person to de¬
stroy these animals in self-defence, as appears from the
following passage in Mr Beckford’s treatise on hunting.
“ Besides the digging of foxes, by which method many
young ones are taken and old ones destroyed, traps,
&c^ are too often fatal to them. Farmers for their
lambs, (which, by the bye, few foxes ever kill), gen¬
tlemen for their game, and old women for their poultry,
are their inveterate enemies. In the country where I
live, most of the gentlemen are sportsmen j and even
those who are not, show every kind of attention to those
who are. I am sorry it is otherwise with you ; and that
your old gouty neighbour should destroy your foxes, I
must own concerns me. I know some gentlemen, who,
when a neighbour had destroyed all their foxes, and
thereby prevented them from pursuing a favourite
amusement, loaded a cart with spaniels, and went all
together and destroyed his pheasants. I think they
might have called this very properly lex talionis : and
it had the desired effect j for as the gentleman did not
think it prudent to fight them all, he took the wiser
method, he made peace with them. He gave an order
that no more foxes should be destroyed, and they never
afterwards killed any of his pheasants.”
In the first volume of the Manchester Transactions
we have a dissertation upon the diversions of hunting,
shooting, &c. as compatible with the principles of hu¬
manity. One argument used by the author is, that
death is no positive evil to brutes. “ It would perhaps
(says he) be too hasty an assertion to affirm, that death
to brutes is no evil. "We are not competent to deter¬
mine whether their existence, like our own, may not
extend to some future mode of being, or whether the
present limited sphere is all in which they are interest¬
ed. On so speculative a question little can be advanced
with precision ; nor is it necessary for the investigation
of the subject before us. If we may be allowed to rea¬
son from what we know, it may be safely conjectured,
that death to brutes is no positive evil : we have no rea¬
son to believe they are endowed with foresight; and
therefore, even admitting that with them the pleasures
of life exceed its pains and cares, in terminating their
existence, they only suffer a privation of pleasure.”
On this extraordinary piece of reasoning we may
observe, that it would hold much more against the hu¬
man species than against the brutes. There are few
amongst us willing to allow that the pleasures we en¬
joy are equivalent to our pains and cares : death there-
tore must be to us a relief from pain and misery, while
to the brutes it is a privation of pleasure. Hence, if
it bs no positive evil for a brute to suffer death, to a
3
man it must be a positive good: add to which, that a HuBt;
man lives in hope of an endless and glorious life, while '-L-y-l
a brute has no such hope ; so that, if to kill a brute,
on our author’s principles, be no cruelty, to kill a man
must be an act of tenderness and mercy !
Another argument, no less inconclusive, is our au¬
thor’s supposing that death from disease is much more
to be dreaded in a brute than a violent death. Were
brutes naturally in as helpless a state as man, no doubt
their want of support from society in cases where they
are attacked by sickness would be very deplorable ;
but it must be considered that the parallel betwixt the
two species is in this respect by no means fair. A brute
has everywhere its food at hand, and is naturally capa¬
ble of resisting the inclemencies of the weather ; but
man has not only a natural inability to procure food
for himself in the way that the brutes do, but is, be¬
sides, very tender and incapable of resisting the incle¬
mency of the air. Hence, a man unassisted by society
must very soon perish j and, no doubt, it would be
much more merciful for people to kill one another at
once, than to deprive them of the benefits of society,
as is too frequently done in various ways needless to be
mentioned at present. A brute, however, has nothing
to fear. As long as its stomach can receive food, na¬
ture offers an abundant supply. One that feeds upon
grass has it always within reach j and a carnivorous
one will content itself with worms or insects, which, as
long as it is able to crawl, it can still make a shift to
provide 5 but so totally helpless is man when left to
himself in a state of weakness, that many barbarous na¬
tions have looked upon the killing of their old and in¬
firm people to be an act of mercy.
Equally unhappy is our author in his other argu¬
ments, that the quick transition from a state of per¬
fect health to death mitigates the severity. The tran¬
sition is not quick. The sportsmen estimate their di¬
version by the length of the chase; and during all
that time the creature must be under the strongest
agonies of terror; and what person of humanity is there
who must not feel for an animal in this situation ? All
this is assented to by our author, who says, “ Hard is
the heart who does not commiserate the sufferer.” Is
not this an acknowledgment on his part, that before a
person can become a thorough sportsman, he must
harden his heart, and stifle those amiable sensations of
compassion, which on all occasions ought to be encou¬
raged towards every creature, unless in cases of neces¬
sity. But in the present case no necessity is or can be
pretended. If a gentleman chooses to regale himself
with venison of any kind, he may breed the animals
for the purpose. We call Domitian cruel, because he
took pleasure in catching flies, and stabbing them with
a bodkin. A butcher is excluded from sitting on a
jury on account of his being accustomed to sights which
are deemed inhuman ; but whether it is mere inhuman
to knock down an ox at once with an axe, or to tear
him in pieces with dogs, (for they would accomplish
the purpose if properly trained), must be left to the
sportsmen to determine.
Lastly, the great argument in favour of hunting, that
it contributes to the health of the body and exhilaration
of the spirits, seems equally fallacious with the rest. It
cannot be proved that hunters are more healthy or long-
lived
HUN [ 679 ] H U N
lived than other people. That exercise will contribute
to the preservation of health, as well as to the exhila¬
ration of the mind, is undoubted ; but many other kinds
of exercise will do this as well as hunting. A man
may ride from morning to night, and amuse himself
with viewing and making remarks on the country
through which he passes ; and surely there is no per¬
son will say that this exercise will tend to impair his
health or sink his spirits. A man may amuse and
exercise himself not only with pleasure, but profit also,
in many different ways, and yet not accustom himself
to behold the death of animals with indifference. It
is this that constitutes the cruelty of hunting j because
we thus wilfully extinguish in part that principle natu¬
rally implanted in our nature, which if totally eradi¬
cated would set us not only on a level with the most fe¬
rocious wild beasts, but perhaps considerably below
them ; and it must always be remembered, that what¬
ever pleasure terminates in death is cruel, let us use as
many palliatives as we please to hide that cruelty from
the eyes of others, or even from our own.
The gentlemen and masters of the sport have invent¬
ed a set of terms which may be called the hunting-lan¬
guage. The principal are those which follow :
1. For beasts as they are in company.—They say, a
herd of harts, and all manner of deer. A bey of roes.
A sounder of swine. A rout of wolves. A richess of
martens. A brace or leash of bucks, foxes, or hares.
A couple of rabbits or coneys.
2. For their lodging.—A hart is said to harbour.
A buck lodges. A roe beds. A hare seats or forms.
A coney sits. A fox kennels. A marten trees. An
otter watches. A badger earths. A boar couches.—
Hence, to express their dislodging, they say, Unharbour
the hart. Rouse the buck. Start the hare. Bolt the
coney. Unkennel the fox. Untree the marten. Vent
the otter. Dig the badger. Rear the boar.
3. For their noise at rutting time.—A hart belleth.
A buck growns or trouts. A roe bellows. A hare
beats or taps. An otter whines. A ho^v frearns. A
fox barks. A badger shrieks. A wolf howls. A goat
rattles.
4. For their copulation.—A hart or buck goes to
rut. A roe goes to tourn. A boar goes to brim. A
hare or coney goes to buck. A fox goes to chckitting.
A wolf goes to match or make. An otter huntetk for
his kind.
5. For the footing and treading.—-Of a hart, we
say the slot. Of a buck, and all fallow-deer, the view.
Of all deer, if on the grass and scarce visible, the
foiling. Of a fox, the print; and of other the like ver¬
min, \\w footing. Of an otter, the marks. 01 a boar,
the track. The hare when in open field, is said to
sore; when she winds about to deceive the hounds, she
doubles; when she beats on the hard highway, and her
footing comes to be perceived, she pncketh: in snow,
it is called the trace of the hare.
6. The tail of a hart, buck, or other deer, is call¬
ed the single. That of a boar, the wreath. Of a
fox, the brush or drag; and the tip at the end, the
chape. Of a wolf, the stern. Of a hare and coney,
the scut.
7. The ordure or excrement of a hart and all deer,
is called fewmets or fwmishing. Of a hare, crotiles Hunting,
or crotising. Of a boar, losses. Of a fox, the billit-
ing; and of other the like vermin, the fuants. Of an
otter, the spraints.
8. As to the attire of deer, or parts thereof, those
of a stag, if perfect, are the bur, the pearls, the little
knobs on it, the beam, the gutters, the antler, the sur-
antler, royal, suv-royal, and all at top the croches. Of
the buck, the bur, beam, brow-antler, black-antler, ad¬
vancer, palm, and spellers. If the croches grow in the
form of a man’s hand, it is called a palmed head. Heads
bearing not above three or four, and the croches pla¬
ced aloft, all of one height, are called crowned heads.
Heads having double croches, are called forked heads,
because the croches are planted on the top of the beam
like forks.
9. They say, a litter of cubs, a nest of rabbits, a
squirrel’s dray.
10. The terms used in respect of the dogs, &c. are
as follow.—Of grehounds, two make a brace; of
hounds a couple. Of grehounds, three make a leash ;
of hounds, a couple and half.—They say, let slip a
grehound 5 and, east off a hound. The string wherein
a grehound is led, is called a leash ; and that of a
hound, a lyome. The grehound has his collar, and
the hound his couples. We say a kennel of hounds, and
a pack of beagles.
Hunting, as practised among us, is chiefly per¬
formed with dogs ; of which we have various kinds,
accommodated to the various kinds of game, as, hounds,
grehounds, bloodhounds, terriers, &c. See Canis,
Hound, &c.
In the kennels or packs they generally rank
them under the heads of entererq, drivers, flyers, tyers,
&.c.
On some occasions, nets, spears, and instruments for
digging the ground, are also required : nor is the hunt¬
ing horn to be omitted.
The usual chases among us are, the hart, buck, roc,
hare, fox, badger, and otter.-—We shall here give some¬
thing of what relates to each thereof: first premising
an explanation of some general terms and phrases, more
immediately used in the progress of the sport itselt", what
belongs to the several sorts of game in particular being
reserved for the respective articles.
When the hounds, then, being cast off, and finding
the scent of some game, begin to open and cry ; they
are said to challenge. When they are too busy ere
the scent be good, they are said to babble. When too
busy where the scent is good, to bawl. When they
run it endwise orderly, holding in together merrily,
and making it good, they are said to be in full cry.
When they run along without opening at all, it is call¬
ed running mute.
When spaniels open in the string, or a grehound in
the course, they are said to lapse.
When beagles bark and cry at their prey, they are
said to yearn.
When the dogs hit the scent the contrary way, they
are said to draw amiss.
When they take fresh scent, and quit the former
chase for a new one, it is called hunting change.
When they hunt the game by the heel ,or track, they
are said to hunt counter.
When
HUN
[ 680 ]
HUN
Hunting. When the chase goes off, and returns again, tra-
c—v——' versing the same ground, it is called hunting the foil.
When the dogs run at a whole herd of deer, instead
of a single one, it is called running riot.
Dogs set in readiness where the game is expected to
come by, and cast off after the other hounds are passed,
are called a relay. If they be cast off ere the other
dogs be come up, it is called vauntlay.
When, finding where the chase has been, they make a
proffer to enter, but return, it is called a blemish.
A lesson on the horn to encourage the hounds, is
named a call, or a recheat. That blown at the death
of a deer, is called the mart. The part belonging to
the dogs of any chase they have killed, is the reward.
They say, take off a deer’s skin ; strip or case a hare,
fox, and all sorts of vermin ; which is done by begin¬
ning at the snout, and turning the skin over the ears
down to the tail.
Hunting is practised in a different manner, and with
different apparatus, according to the nature of the beasts
which are hunted, a description of which may be found
under their respective articles, infra.
With regard to the seasons, that for hart and buck-
hunting begins a fortnight after midsummer, and lasts
till Holy-rood day j that for the hind and doe, begins
on Holy-rood day, and lasts till Candlemas j that for
fox-hunting begins at Christmas, and holds till Lady-
day ; that for roe-hunting begins at Michaelmas, and
ends at Christmas $ hare-hunting commences at Mi¬
chaelmas, and lasts till the end of February j and where
the wolf and boar are iiunted, the season for each begins
at Christmas, the first ending at Lady-day, and the lat¬
ter at the Purification.
When the sportsmen have provided themselves with
nets, spears, and a hunting horn to call the dogs to¬
gether, and likewise with instruments for digging the
ground, the following directions will be of use to them
in the pursuit of each sort of game.
Badger-HuNTiNG. In doing this, yon must seek
the earths and burrows where he lies, and in a clear
moonshine night go and stop all the burrows, except
one or two, and therein place some sacks, fastened
with drawing strings, which may shut him in as soon
as he straineth the bag. Some use no more than to
set a hoop in the mouth of the sack, and so put it into
the hole j and as soon as the badger is in the sack and
straineth it, the sack slippeth off the hoop, and follows
him to the earth, so he lies tumbling therein till he
is taken. These sacks or bags being thus set, cast off
the hounds, beating about all the woods, coppices,
hedges, and tufts, round about, for the compass of a
mile or two j and what badgers are abroad, being a-
1 armed by the hounds, will soon betake themselves to
their burrows ; and observe, that he who is placed to
watch the sacks, must stand close and upon a clear
wind : otherwise the badger will discover him, and will
immediately fly some other way into his burrow. But
if the hounds can encounter him before he can take his
sanctuary, he will then stand at a bay like a boar, and
make good sport, grievously biting and clawing the
dogs; for the manner of their fighting is lying on their
backs, using both teeth and nails ; and by blowing up
their skins, defend themselves against all bites of the
dogs, and blows of the men upon their noses. And
for the better preservation of your dogs, it is good
to put broad collars about their necks made of gray Hmu:h*
skins. » 1 y f
When the badger perceives the terriers to begin to
yearn him in his burrow, he will stop the hole betwixt
him and the terriers, and if they still continue baying,
he will remove his couch into another chamber or part
of the burrow, and so from one into another, barrica¬
ding the way before them, as they retreat, until they
4can go no further. If you intend to dig the badger
out of his burrow, you must be provided with the same
tools as for digging out a fox ; and besides, you should
have a pail of water to refresh the terriers, when they
come out of the earth to take breath and cool them¬
selves. It will also be necessary to put collars of bells
about the necks of your terriers, which making a noise
may cause the badger to bolt out. The tools used
for digging out of the badger, being troublesome to
be carried on men’s backs, may be brought in a cart.
In digging, you must consider the situation of the
ground, by which you may judge where the chief
angles are; for else, instead of advancing the work, you
will hinder it. In this order you may besiege them in
their folds, or castles ; and may break their platforms,
parapets, casements, and work to them with mines and
countermines until you have overcome them.
Having taken a live and lusty badger, if you would
make sport, carry him home in a sack and turn him
out in your court-yard, or some other enclosed place,
and there let him be hunted and worried to death by
your hounds.
There are the following profits and advantages which
accrue, by killing this animal. Their flesh, blood, and
grease, though they are not good food, yet are very
useful for physicians and apothecaries for oils, ointments,
salves, and powders for shortness of breath, the cough
of the lungs, for the stone, sprained sinews, colt-aches,
&c.; and the skin being well dressed, is very warm
and good for old people who are troubled with paraly¬
tic distempers.
Boar-Hunting. See Boar.
Buck-HuNTiNG. Here the same hounds and methods
are used as in running the stag ; and, indeed, he that can
hunt a hart or stag well, will not hunt a buck ill.
In order to facilitate the chase, the game-keeper
commonly selects a fat buck out of the herd, which he
shoots in order to maim him, and then he is run down
by the hounds.
As to the method of hunting the buck. The com¬
pany generally go out very early for the benefit of the
morning. Sometimes they have a deer ready lodged-;
if not, the coverts are drawn till one is roused : or
sometimes in a park a deer is pitched upon, and forced
from the herd, then mere hounds are laid on to run the
chase. If you come to be at a fault, the old staunch
hounds are only to be relied upon till you recover him
again : if he be sunk, and the hounds thrust him up, it
is called an imprime, and the company all sound a re-
cheat ; when he is run down, every one strives to get
in to prevent his being torn by the hounds, fallow deer
seldom or never standing at bay.
He that first gets in, cries hoo-up, to give notice that
he is down, and blows a death. When the company are
all come in, they paunch him, and reward the hounds,
and generally the chief person of quality amongst them
takes say, that is, cuts his belly open, to see how fat he
is.
HUN [ 681 ] HUN
miing. is. ^Vhen this is done, every one has a chop at his neck,
'v— ' and the head being cut oil is showed to the hounds, to
encourage them to run only at a male deer, which they
see by the horns, and to teach them to bite only at the
head: then the company all standing in a ring, one
blows a single death j which being done, all blow a
double recheat, and so conclude the chase with a gene¬
ra! halloo of hoo-up, and depart the field to their several
homes, or to the place of meeting; and the huntsman,
or some other, hath the deer cast across the buttocks of
his horse, and so carries him home.
Fox-Hunting makes a very pleasant exercise, and
is either above or below ground.
i. Above ground. To hunt a fox with hounds, you
must draw about groves, thickets, and hushes, near vil¬
lages. When you find one, it will be necessary to stop
up the earth, the night before you design to bunt, and
that about midnight; at which time lie is gone out to
prey : this may be done by laying two white sticks
across in his way, which he will imagine to be some gin
or trap laid for him ; or else they may be stopped up
with black thorns and earth mixed together.
Mr Beckford is of opinion that for fox-hunting the
pack should consist of 25 couple. The hour most fa¬
vourable for the diversion is an early one; and he
thinks that the hounds should he at the cover at sun¬
rising. The huntsman should then throw in his hounds
as quickly as he can, and let the two whippers in keep
wide of him on either hand; so that a single hound
may not escape them; let them be attentive to his
halloo, and let the sportsmen be ready to encourage
or rate as that directs. The fox ought on no account
to be hallooed too soon, as in that case he would most
certainly turn back again, and, spoil all the sport.—
Two things our author particularly recommends, viz.
the making all the hounds steady, and making them
all draw. “ Many huntsmen (says he) are fond of hav¬
ing them ht their horse’s heels; but they never can get
so well or so soon together as when they spread the co¬
ver; besides, I have often known where there have
been only a few finders, that they have found their fox
gone down the wind, and been beard of no more that
day. Much depends upon the first finding your fox ; for
I look upon a fox well found to be half killed. I think
people are generally in too great a hurry on this occa¬
sion. There are but few instances where sportsmen are
not too noisy, and too fond of encouraging their hounds,
which seldom do their business so well as when little is
said t« them. The huntsman ought certainly to begin
with his foremost hounds; and I should wish him to
keep as close to them as he conveniently can ; nor can
any barm arise from it, unless he should not have com¬
mon sense. No hounds can then slip down the wind
and get out of his hearing; he will also see how far
they carry a scent, a necessary requisite; for without
it he never can make a cast with any certainty.—You
will find it not less necessary for your huntsman to be
active in pressing forward his hounds when the scent is
good, than to be prudent in not hurrying them beyond
it when it is bad. It is his business to be ready at all
times to lend them that assistance which they so fre¬
quently need, and which when they are first at a fault
is then most critical. A fox-hound at that time will
exert himself most; be afterwards cools and becomes
most indifferent about his game. Those huntsmen who
VOL. X. Part II. f
do not get forward enough to take advantage of this iiun'.in^.
eagerness and impetuosity, and direct it properly, seldom  v——
know enough of hunting to be of much use to them af¬
terwards. Though a huntsman cannot be too fond of
hunting, a whipper-in easily may. His business will
seldom allow him to be forward enough with the hounds
to see much of the sport. His only thought therefore
should he to keep the hounds together, and to contri¬
bute as much as he can to the killing of the fox : keep¬
ing the hounds together is the surest means to make
them steady. When left to themselves they seldom re¬
fuse any blood they can get; they become conceited ;
learn to tie upon the scent ; and besides this they fre¬
quently get a trick of hunting by themselves, and are
seldom good for much afterwards.
“ Every country is soon known ; and nine foxes out
of ten, with the wind in the same quarter, will follow
the same track. It is therefore easy for the whipper-
in to cut short, and catch the hounds again. With
a high scent you cannot push on hounds too much.
Screams keep the fox forward, at the same time that
they keep the hounds together, or let in the tail-
hounds: they also enliven the sport; and, if discreet¬
ly used, are always of service ; but in cover they should
be given with the greatest caution. Halloos seldom
do any hurt when you are running up the wind, for
then none but the tail hounds can hear \ou : when you
are running down the wind, you should halloo no more
than may be necessary to bring the tail hounds for¬
wards; for a hound that knows his business seldom
wants encouragement when he is upon a scent.—Most
fox-hunters wish to see their hounds run in a good style.
I confess I myself am one of those; I hate to see a
string of them ; nor can I bear to see them creep where
they can leap. A pack of harriers, if they have time,
may kill a fox, but I defy them to kill him in the style
in which he ought to be killed ; they must hunt him
down. If you intend to tire him out, you must expect
to be tired also yourself; I never wish a chase to be
less than one hour, or to exceed two : It is sufficiently
long if properly followed : it will seldom be longer un¬
less there be a fault somewhere either in the day, the
huntman, or the hounds.
“ Changing from the hunted fox to a fresh one is as
bad an accident as can happen to a pack of fox-hounds,
and requires all the ingenuity and observation that man
is capable of to guard against it. Could a fox-hound
distinguish a hunted fox as the deer-hound does the deer
that is blown, fox-hunting would then be perfect. A
huntsman should always listen to his hounds while they
are running in cover; he should be particularly atten¬
tive to the headmost hounds, and he should be constant¬
ly on his guard against a skirter: for if there be two
scents, he must be wrong. Generally speaking, the
best scent is least likely to be that of the hunted fox :
and as a fox seldom suffers hounds to run up to him as
long as he is able to prevent it; so, nine times out of
ten, when foxes are hallooed early in the day, they are
all fresh foxes. The hounds most likely to be right are
the hard-running line-hunting ones; or such as the
huntsman knows had the lead before there arose any
doubt of changing. With regard to the fox, if he
break over an open country, it is no sign that he is hard
run; for they seldom at any time will do that unless
they are a great way before the hounds. Also if he run
4 R up
HUN [ 682 ] . HUN
Hunting !,P ^ie wind j they seldom or never do that when they
u—y~.-/ have been long hunted and grow weak $ and when they
turn their foil, that also may direct him. AH this re¬
quires a good ear and nice observation j and indeed in
that consists the chief excellence of a huntsman.
“ When the hounds divide, and are in two parts, the
whipper-in, in stopping, must attend to the huntsman
and wait for his halloo, before he attempts to stop ei¬
ther : for want of proper management in this respect, I
have known the hounds stopped at both places, and
both foxes lost. If they have many scents, and it is
quite uncertain which is the hunted fox, let him stop
those that are farthest down the wind ; as they can hear
the others, and will reach them soonest : in such a case
there will be little use in stopping those that are up the
wind. When hounds are at a check, let every one be
silent and stand still. Wliippers-in are frequently at
this time coming on with the tail hounds. They should
never halloo to them when the hounds are at fault 5 the
> least thing does them harm at such a time, but a hal¬
loo more than any other. The huntsman, at a check,
had better let his hounds alone *, or content himself
with holding them forward, without taking them off
their noses.—Should they be at a fault, after having
made their own cast (which the huntsman should always
first encourage them to do), it is then his business to
assist them further *, hut except in some particular in¬
stances, I never approve of their being cast as long as
they are inclined to hunt. The first cast I bid my
huntsman make it generally a regular one, not choosing
to rely entirely on his judgment: if that should not suc¬
ceed, he is then at liberty to follow his own opinion,
and proceed as observation or genius may direct. WThen
such a cast is made, I like to see some mark of good
sense and meaning in it j whether down the wind, or
towards some likely cover or strong earth. However,
as it is at best uncertain, I always wish to see a regular
cast before I see a knowing one ; which, as a last re¬
source, should not he called forth till it he wanted :
The letting hounds alone is but a negative goodness
in a huntsman 5 whereas it is true this last shows real
genius 3 and to he perfect it must be born with him.
There is a fault, however, which a knowing huntsman
is too apt to commit: he will find a fresh fox, and then
claim the merit of having recovered the hunted one.
It is always dangerous to throw hounds into a cover to
retrieve a lost scent *, and unless they hit him in, is not
to be depended on.
“ Gentlemen, when hounds are at fault, are too apt
themselves to prolong it. They should always stop
their horses some distance behind the hounds ; and if
it be possible to remain silent, this is the time to be so.
They should he careful not to ride before the hounds
or over the scent j nor should they ever meet a hound
in the face, unless with a design to stop him. Should
you at any time be before the hounds, turn your horse’s
head the way they are going, get out of their track,
and let them pass by you. In dry weather, and par¬
ticularly in heathy countries, foxes will run the roads.
If gentlemen at such times will ride close upon the
hounds, they may drive them miles without any scent.
—High-mettled fox-hounds are seldom inclined to stop
while horses are close at their heels. No one should
ever ride in a direction which if persisted in would
carry him amongst the hounds, unless he be at a great Humiii*, ^
distance behind them. * —y—. ^
“ The first moment that hounds are at fault is a cri¬
tical one for the sport people, who should then be very
attentive. Those who look forward may perhaps see
the fox ; or the running of sheep, or the pursuit of
crows, may give them some tidinsrs of him. Those
who listen may sometimes get a hint which way he
is gone from the chattering of a magpie; or perhaps
be at a certainty from a distant halloo : nothing that
can give any intelligence at such a time ought to be
neglected. Gentlemen are too apt to ride all toge¬
ther : were they to spread more, they might sometimes
he of service ; particularly those who, from a know¬
ledge of the sport, keep down the wind : it would
then be difficult for either hounds or fox to escape their
observation.—You should, however, be cautious how
you go to a halloo. The halloo itself must in a great
measure direct you ; and though it afford no certain
rule, yet you may frequently guess whether it can be
depended upon or not. At the sowing time, when
hoys are keeping off the birds, yon will sometimes be
deceived by their halloo ; so that it is best, when you
are in doubt, to send a whipper-in to know the cer¬
tainty of the matter.”
Hounds ought not to be cast as long as they are able
to hunt. It is a common, though not very just idea,
that a hunted fox never stops ; but our author informs
us that he has known them stop even in wheel-ruts in
the middle of a down, and get up in the middle of the
hounds. The greatest danger of losing a fox is at the
first finding him, and when he is sinking; at both which
times he frequently will run short, and the eagerness of
the hounds will frequently carry them beyond the scent.
When a fox is first found, every one ought to keep be¬
hind the hounds till they are well settled on the scent;
and when the hounds are catching him, our author
wishes them to be as silent as possible ; and likewise to
eat him eagerly after he is caught. In some places
they have a method of treeing him ; that is, throwing
him across the branch of a tree, and suffering the
hounds to hay at him for some minutes before he is
thrown among them ; the intention of which is to make
them more eager, and to let in the tail hounds; during
this interval also they recover their wind, and are apt
to eat him more readily. Our author, however-, ad¬
vises not to keep him too long) as he supposes that tire
hounds have not any appetite to eat him longer than
while they are angry with him.
2. Under-grwnd. In case a fox does so far escape
as to earth, countrymen must be got together with sho¬
vels, spades, mattocks, pick-axes, &c. to dig him out,
if they think the earth not too great. They make theif
earths as near as they can in ground that is hard to
dig, as in clay, stony ground, or amongst the roots of
trees ; and their earths have commonly but one hole,
and that is straight a long way in before you come at
their couch. Sometimes craftily they take possession of
a badger’s old burrow, which hath a Variety of cham¬
bers, holes, and angles.
Now to facilitate this way of bunting the fox, tire
huntsman must be provided with one or two terriers to
put into the earth after him, that is, to fix him into an
angle; for the earth often consists of many angles: the
trsre
HUN [ 683 ] HUN
I iting. use of the terrier is to know where he lies*, for as soon
» v*’—as he finds him, he continues baying or barking, so that
which way the noise is heard that way dig to him. Your
terriers must be garnished with bells hung in collars,
to make the fox bolt the sooner j besides, the collars
will be some small defence to the terriers.
The instruments to dig withal are these ; a sharp-
pointed spade, which serves to begin the trench where
the ground is hardest and broader tools will not so well
enter ; the round hollowed spade, which is useful to
dig among roots, having very sharp edges; the broad
fiat spade to dig withal, when the trench has been pret¬
ty well opened, and the ground softer; mattocks and
pick-axes to dig in hard ground, where a spade will do
but little service j the coal-rake to cleanse the hole,
and to keep it from stopping up j clamps, wherewith
you may take either fox or badger out alive to make
sport with afterwards. And it would be very conve¬
nient to have a pail of water to refresh your terriers
with, after they are come out of the earth to take
breath.
Hare-HuNTiNG. As, of all chases, the hare makes
the greatest pastime, so it gives no little pleasure to
see the craft of this small animal for her self-preserva¬
tion. If it be rainy, the hare usually takes to the
high-ways ; and if she come to the side of a young
grove, or spring, she seldom enters, but squats down
till the hounds have over-shot her ; and then she will
return the very way she came, for fear of the wet and
dew that hangs on the boughs. In this case, the hunts¬
man ought to stay a hundred paces before he comes
to the wood-side, by which means he will perceive whe¬
ther she return as aforesaid $ which if she do, he must
halloo in his hounds $ and call them back 5 and that
presently, that the hounds may not think it the counter
she came first.
The next thing that is to be observed, is the place
where the hare sits, and upon what wind she makes her
form, either upon the north or south wind : she will not
willingly run into the wind, but run upon a side, or
down the wind ; but if she form in the water, it is a
sign she is foul and measled : if you hunt such a one,
have a special regard all the day to the brook-sides ; for
there, and near plashes, she will make ail her crossings,
doublings, 6c.c.
Some hares have been so crafty, that as soon as they
have heard the sound of a horn, they would instantly
start out of their form, though it was at the distance of
a quarter of a mile, and go and swim in some pool, and
rest upon some rush bed in the midst of it; and would
not stir from thence till they have heard the sound
of the horn again, and then have started out again,
swimming to land, and have stood up before the hounds
four hours before they could kill them, swimming
and using all subtilities and crossings in the water.
Nay, such is the natural craft and subtility of a hare,
that sometimes after she has been hunted three hours,
she will start a fresh hare, and squat in the same form.
Others having been hunted a considerable time, will
creep under the door of a sheep cot, and hide them¬
selves among the sheep5 or, when they have been hard
hunted, will run in among a flock ol sheep, and will
by no means be gotten out from among them till the
hounds are coupled up, and the sheep driven into their
pens. Some of them (and that seems somewhat strange
will take the ground like a coney, and that is called Hunting.
g'nng 'to the vault. Some hares will go up one side of1
the hedge, and come down the other, the thickness of
the hedge being the only distance between the courses.
A hare that has been sorely hunted, has got upon a
quickset hedge, and run a good way upon the top
thereof, and then leapt off upon the ground. And they
will frequently betake themselves to furze bushes, and
will leap from one to the other, whereby the hounds are
frequently in default.
Having found where a hare hath relieved in some
pasture or corn-field, you must then consider the season
of the year, and what weather it is : for if it be in the
spring-time, or summer, a hare will not then set in
bushes, because they are frequently infested with pis¬
mires, snakes, and adders j but will set in corn-fields,
and open places. In. the winter-time, they set near
towns and villages, in tufts of thorns and brambles, es¬
pecially when the wind is northerly or southerly. Ac¬
cording to the season and nature of the place where
the hare is accustomed to sit, there beat with your
hounds, and start her j which is much better sport than
trailing of her from her relief to her form.
After the hare has been started and is on foot,
then step in where you saw her pass, and halloo in your
hounds, until they have all undertaken it and go on
with it in full cry : then recheat to them with your
horn, following fair and softly at first, making not too
much noise either with horn or voice j for at the first,
hounds are apt to overshoot the chase through too much
heat. But when they have run the space of an hour,
and you see the hounds are well in with it, and stick
well upon it, then you may come in nearer with the
hounds, because by that time their heat will he cooled,
and they will hunt more soberly. But above all things,
mark the first doubling, which must be your direction
for the whole day ; for all the doublings that she shall
make afterwards will he like the former; and accord¬
ing to the policies that you shall see her use, and the
place where you hunt, you must make your compasses
great or little, long or short, to help the defaults, al¬
ways seeking the moistest and most commodious places
for the hounds to scent in.
To conclude : Those who delight in bunting the
bare must rise early, lest they he deprived of the scent
of her footsteps.
Hart or Stag Hunting. Gesner, speaking of hart¬
bunting, observes, that this wild, deceitful, and subtile
beast, frequently deceives its hunter by windings and
turnings. Wherefore the prudent hunter must train his
dogs with words of art, that he may he able to set them
on and take them off again at pleasure.
First of all, he should encompass the beast in her
own layer, and so unharhour her in the view of the
dogs, that so they may never lose her slot or footing.
Neither must he set upon every one, either of the herd
or those that wander solitary alone, or a little one ; but
partly by sight, and partly by their footing and fumets,
make a judgment of the game, and also observe the
largeness of his layer.
The huntsman, having made these discoveries in or¬
der to the chase, takes off the couplings of the dogs ;
and some on horseback, others on loot, follow the cry,
with the gieatest art, observation, and speed; remem¬
bering and intercepting him in his subtile turnings and
4 R 2 headings;
HUN L 684 ] HUN
Hunting, headings $ with all agility leaping hedges, gates, pales,
-v—■— ditches; neither fearing thorns, down-hills, nor woods,
but mounting a fresh horse if the first tire. Follow the
largest head of the whole herd, which must be singled
out of the chase $ which the dogs perceiving, must
follow ; not following any other. The dogs are ani¬
mated to the sport by the winding of horns, and the
voices of the huntsmen. But sometimes the crafty beast
sends forth his little squire to be sacrificed to the dogs
and hunters, instead of himself, lying close the mean
time. In this case, the huntsman must sound a retreat,
break off the dogs, and take them in, that is, learn them
again, until they be brought to the fairer game $ which
riseth with fear, yet still striveth by flight, until he be
wearied and breathless. The nobles call the beast a
wise hurt, who, to avoid all his enemies, runneth into
the greatest herds, and so brings a cloud of error on
the dogs, to obstruct their further pursuit ; sometimes
also bearing some of the herd into his footings, that so
he may the more easily escape by amusing the dogs.
Afterwards he betakes himself to his heels again, still
running with the wind, not only for the sake of refresh¬
ment, but also because by that means he can the more
easily hear the voice of his pursuers whether they be far
from him or near to him. But at last being again dis¬
covered by the hunters and sagacious scent of the dogs,
he flies into the herds of cattle, as cows, sheep, &c.
leaping on a cow or ox, laying the fore parts of his
body thereon, that so touching the earth only with his
hinder feet, he may leave a very small or no scent at
all behind for the hounds to discern. But their usual
manner is, when they see themselves hard beset and
every way intercepted, to make force at their enemy
with their horns, who first comes upon him, unless they
be prevented by spear or sword. When the beast is
slain, the huntsman with his horn windeth the fall of
the beast ; and then the whole company comes up,
blowing their horns in triumph for such a conquest;
among whom, the skilfullest opens the beast, and re¬
wards the hounds with what properly belongs to them,
for their future encouragement j for which purpose the
huntsmen dip bread in the skin and blood of the beast
to give to the hounds.
It is very dangerous to go in to a hart at bay ; of
which-there are two sorts, one on land and the other
in water. Now, if the hart be id a deep water, where
you cannot well come at him, then couple up your
dogs ; for should they continue long in the water, it
would endanger their surbating or foundering. In this
case, get a boat, and swim to him, with dagger drawn,
or else with rope that has a noose, and throw it over
his horns : for if the water be so deep that the hart
swims, there is no danger in approaching him ; other¬
wise you must be very cautious.
As to the land-bay, if a hart be burnished, then you
must consider the place 5 for if it be in a plain and open
place, where there is no wood nor covert, it is danger¬
ous and difficult to come in to him j but if he be on a
hedge-side, or in a thicket, then, while the hart is sta¬
ring on the hounds, you may come softly and covertly
behind him, and cut his throat. If you miss your aim,
and the hart turn head upon you, then take refuge
at some tree •, and when the hart is at bay, couple up
your hounds j and when you see the hart turn head to
2
fly, gallop in roundly to him, and kill him with your iinntto.r.
sword. 1—- v
Directions at the Death of a Hart or Buck. The
first ceremony, when the huntsman comes in to the death
of a deer, is to cry “ ware haunch,” that the hounds
may not break into the deer ; which being done, the
next is the cutting his throat, and there blooding the
youngest hounds, that they may the better love a deer,
and learn to leap at his throat: then the mort having
been blown, and all the company come in, the best per¬
son who hath not taken say before, is to take up the
knife that the keeper or huntsman is to lay across the
belly of the deer, some holding by the fore legs, and
the keeper or huntsman drawing down the pizzle, tire
person who takes say, is to draw the edge of the knife
leisurely along the middle of the belly, beginning near
the brisket, and drawing a little upon it, enough in the
length and depth to discover how fat the deer is $ then
he that is to break up the deer, first slits the skin from
the cutting of the throat downward, making the arber,
that so the ordure may not break forth, and then be
paunches him, rewarding the hounds with it.
In the next place, he is to present the same person
who took say, with a drawn hanger, to cut off the head
of the deer. Which being done, and the hounds re¬
warded, the concluding ceremony is, if it be a stag, to
blow a triple mort ; and if a buck, a double one j and
then all who have horns, blow a recheat in concert,
and immediately a general whoop, whoop.
O t ter-H UN TING is performed with dogs, and also
with a sort of instruments called otter-spears; with
which when they find themselves wounded, they make
to land, and fight with the dogs, and that most furious¬
ly, as if they were sensible that cold water would an¬
noy their green wounds.
There is indeed craft to be used in hunting them ;
but they may be catched in snares under water, and
by river-sides : but great care must be taken, for they
bite sorely and venomously, and if they happen to re¬
main long in the snare, they will not fail to get them¬
selves free by their teeth.
In hunting them, one man must be on one side of
the river, and another on the other, both beating the
banks with dogs ; and the beast not being able to en¬
dure the water long, you will soon discover if there be
an otter or not in that quarter j for he must come out
to make his spraints, and in the night sometimes to feed
on grass and herbs.
If any of the hounds finds out an otter, then view
the soft grounds and moist places, to find out which
way he bent his head ; if you cannot discover this by
the marks, yon may partly perceive it by the spraints 5
and then follow the hounds, and lodge him as a hart
or deer. But if you do not find him quickly, you
may imagine he is gone to conch somewhere farther
off from the river ; for sometimes they will go to feed
a considerable way from the place of their rest, choos¬
ing rather to go up the river than down it. The per¬
sons that go a-hunting otters, must carry their spears,
to watch his vents, that being the chief advantage ;
and if they perceive him swimming under water, they
must endeavour to strike him with their spears, and
if they miss, must pursue him with the hounds, which,
if they be good and perfectly entered, will go chant¬
ing
HUN [ 685 ] HUN
1^1 j ltjl)5. Ing and travelling along by the river-side, and will beat
^ i. ymmm^ every root of a tree, and osier-bed, and tuft of bul¬
rushes ; nay, they will sometimes take water, and bait
the beast, like a spaniel, by which means he will hard¬
ly escape.
Roe-buck Hunting is performed divers ways, and
very easily in the woods.
When chased, they usually run against the wind,
because the coolness of the air refreshes them in their
course ; therefore the huntsmen place their dogs with
the wind : they usually, when hunted, first take a
large ring, and afterwards hunt the hounds. They
are also often taken by counterfeiting their voice,
which a skilful huntsman knows how to do by means
of a leaf in his mouth. When they are hunted, they
turn much and often, and come back upon the dogs
directly j and when they can no longer endure, they
take foil, as the hart does, and will hang by a bough
in such a manner, that nothing of them shall appear
above the water but their snout, and they will suffer
the dogs to come just upon them before they will
stir.
The venison of a roe*buck is never out of season, be¬
ing never fat, and therefore they are hunted at any
time only that some favour ought to be shown the
doe while she is big with fawn, and afterwards till
her fawn is able to shift for himself; but some roe-does
have been killed with five fawns in their bellies.
Pie is not called, by the skilful in the art of hunting,
a great roe-buck, but a fair roe-buck ; the herd of them
is called a bevy : and if he hath not bevy-grease upon
his tail, when he is broken up, he is more fit to be dog’s
meat than man’s meat. The hounds must be rewarded
with the bowels, the blood, and feet slit asunder, and
boiled altogether j this is more properly called a dose
than a reward.
HuNTlNG-Match. The first thing that is to be con¬
sidered by one who designs to match his horse for his
own advantage, and his horse’s credit, is not to flatter
himself with the opinion of his horse, by fancying that
he is a swift, when he is but a slow galloper; and that
he is a whole-running-horse, that is, that he will run
four miles without a sob at the height of his speed,
when he is not able to run two or three. Very pro¬
bably some gentlemen are led into this error, by their
being mistaken in the speed of their hounds, who for
want of trying them against other dogs that have been
really fleet, have supposed their own to be so, when in
reality they are but of a middling speed ; and because
their horse, when trained, was able to follow them all
day, and upon any hour, to command them upon deep
as well as light earths, have therefore made a laise con¬
clusion, that their horse is as swift as the best; but,
upon trial against a horse that has been rightly trained
after hounds that were truly fleet, have bought their
experience perhaps full dear. Therefore it is advisable
for all lovers of hunting to procure two or three couple
of tried hounds, and once or twice a-week to follow
after them at train-scent ; and when he is able to top
them on all sorts of earth* and to endure heats and
colds stoutly, then he may better rely on his speed and
toughness.
That horse which is able to perform a hare-chase ot
five or six miles briskly and courageously, till his body
be as it were bathed in sweat; and then, altei the
hare has been killed, in a nipping frosty morning, can Hunting,
endure to stand till the sweat be frozen on his back, "
so that he can endure to be pierced with the cold as
well as the heat; and then, even in that extremity of
cold, to ride another chase as briskly, and with as much
courage as he did the former ; that horse which can
thus endure heats and colds is most valued by sports¬
men. Therefore in order to make a judgment of the
goodness of a horse, observe him after the death of the
first hare, if the chase has been any thing brisk : if,
when he is cold, he shrinks up his body, and draws his
legs up together, it is an infallible sign of want of vi¬
gour and courage : the like may be done by the slack¬
ening of his girths after the first chase, and from the
dulness of his teeth, and the dulness of his counte¬
nance, all which are true tokens of faintness and being
tired ; and such a horse is not to be relied on in case
of a wager.
Here it will not be improper to take notice of the
way of making matches in former times, and the mo¬
dern way of deciding wagers. The old way of trial
was, by running so many train-scents after hounds, as
was agreed upon between the parties concerned, and
a bell-course, this being found not so uncertain, but
more durable than hare-hunting ; and the advantage
consisted in having the trains led on earth most suitable
to the qualifications of the horses. But now others
choose to hunt the hare till such an hour, and then to
run this wild-goose chase ; a method of racing that
takes its name from the manner of the flight of wild
geese, which is generally one after another; so the two
horses after running of twelvescore yards, had liberty,
which horse soever could get the leading, to ride what
ground he pleased, the hindmost horse being bound to
follow him, within a certain distance agreed on by ar¬
ticles, or else to be whipped up by the triers or judges \
which rode by ; and whichever horse could distance the
other won the match.
But this chase, in itself very inhuman, was soon found
to be very destructive to good horses, especially when
two good horses were matched ; for neither being able
to distance the other till both were ready to sink under
their riders through weakness, oftentimes the match
was fain to be drawn and left undecided, though both
the horses were quite spoiled.
This brought up the custom of train-scents, which
afterwards was changed to three heats and a straight
course ; and that the lovers of horses might be encou¬
raged to keep good ones, plates have been erected in
many places in Britain. The fewer of these before
you come to the course, if your horse be fiery and
mettled, the better ; and the shorter the distance, the
better. Also, above all things, be sure to make your
bargain to have the leading of the first train ; and then
make choice of such grounds where your horse may
best show his speed, and the fleetest dogs you can
procure : give your hounds as much law before you
as your triers will allow, and then making a loose,
try to win the match with a wind ; but if you fail in
this attempt, then bear your horse, and save him for
the course ; but if your horse be slow, but well-wind¬
ed, and a true spurred nag, then the more train-scents
you run before you come to the straight-course, the
better. But here you ought to observe to gain the
leading of the first train ; which io this case you must
° ' lead t
H U Q [ 686 ] H U R
Hunting
II
Eu-quang.
lead upon such deep earths, that it may not end near
any light ground : for this is the rule received among
horsemen, that the next train is to begin where the
last ends, and the last train is to be ended at the start¬
ing place of the course ; therefore remember to end
your last on deep earths, as well as the first.
HUNTINGDON, the county-town of Hunting¬
donshire in England, seated upon an easy ascent, on
the north side of the river Ouse. It was made a free
borough by King John, consisting of a mayor, 12 al¬
dermen, burgesses, &c. by whom the two members of
parliament are chosen. It had anciently 15 parishes,
and has now but two ; in one of which, called St John's,
Oliver Cromwell was born, in 1599. Here was for¬
merly a castle, built by William the Conqueror, which
afterwards belonged to David, a prince of Scotland,
with the title of earl; but Henry VIII. gave it to
George Hastings, with the earldom annexed, iu whose
family it still continues. It stands on the great north
road } and has a bridge built of free-stone over the
Ouse, which is made navigable for small vessels as high
as Bedford. It is the place where the assizes are kept,
and. where the county-jail stands. It has a good market¬
place, and several convenient inns, besides a grammar-
school, and contained 2397 inhabitants in 1811. W.
Long. o. 11. N. Lat. 52. 17.
Huntingdonshire, a county of England, bounded
on the south by Bedfordshire *, on the west by Nor¬
thamptonshire, as also on the north ; and by Cam-
brideeshire on the east; extending 26 miles in length
from north to south, 20 in breadth from east to west,
and nearly 67 in circumference. This county, which is
in the diocese of Lincoln, is divided into four hundreds,
and contains 6 market-towns, 29 vicarages, 78 parishes,
2^6 villages, about 6841 houses, and in l8ri, 42,208
inhabitants •, but sends only four members to parlia¬
ment, namely, two knights of the shire, and two mem¬
bers for Huntingdon. It is a good corn country 5
and abounds in pastures, especially on the eastern side,
which is fenny. The rest is diversified by rising hills
and shady groves, and the river Ouse waters the southern
part.
The air of this county is in most parts pleasant and
wholesome, except among the fens and meres, though
they are not so bad as the hundreds of Kent and Essex.
The soil is fruitful, and produces great crops of corn,
and the hilly parts afi’ord a fit pasture for sheep. They
have great numbers of cattle ; and plenty of water-fowl,
fish, and turf for firing ; which last is of great service
to the inhabitants, there being hut little wood, though
the whole county was a forest in the time of Henry II.
The only river besides the Ouse is the Nen, which runs
through Whittlesey mere.
HU-QUANG, a province of the kingdom of China,
in Asia, which has a great river called Yang, and Tse-
chiang, which runs across it from east to west. It is
divided into the north and south parts, the former of
which contains eight cities of the first rank, and 60 of
the second and third ; and the latter, seven of the first
rank, and five of the second and third. It is a flat,
open country, watered everywhere with brooks, lakes,
and rivers, in which there are great numbers of fish.
Here is plenty of wild-fowls j the fields nourish cattle
without number, and the soil produces corn, and va¬
rious kinds of fruits. There is gold found in the
5
sands of the rivers; and in the mines they have iron, Ha-
tin, &c. In short, there is such a variety of all sorts
of commodities, that it is called the magazine of the ^iirricane.
empire.
HURA, in Botany, a genus of plants belonging to
the moncEcia class ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 38th order, Tricoccce. See Botany
Index.
HURDLE, is the name of a sledge used to draw
traitors to the place of execution.
HURDLES, in Fortification, are made of twigs of
willows or osiers interwoven close together, sustained
by long stakes. They are made in the figure of a
long square, the length being five or six feet, and the
breadth three and a half. The closer they are wattled
together, the better. They serve to render the bat¬
teries firm, or to consolidate the passage over muddy
ditches j or to cover traverses and lodgments for the
defence of the workmen against fire-works or stones
thrown against them.
The Romans had a kind of military execution for
mutineers, called putting to death under the hurdle.
The manner of it was this : The criminal was laid at
his length in a shallow water, under an hurdle, upon
which was heaped stones, and so pressed down till he
was drowned.
Hurdles, in Husbandry, certain frames made ei¬
ther of split timber, or of hazel-rods wattled toge¬
ther, to serve for gates in inclosures, or to make sheep-
folds, &c.
HURDS, or Hords, of flax or hemp ; the coarser
parts separated in the dressings from the tear, or fine
stuff. See Flax.
HURL-bone, in a horse, a bone near the middle
of the buttock, very apt to go out of its sockets with
a hurt or strain.
HURLERS, a number of large stones, set in a kind
of square figure near St Clare in Cornwall, so called
from an odd opinion held by the common people, that
they are so many men petrified, or changed into stones,
for profaning the sabbath-day by hurling the ball, an
exercise for which the people of that country have been
always famous.
The htrrlers are oblong, rude, and unhewed. Many
authors suppose them to have been trophies erected in
memory of some battle: others take them for bounda¬
ries to distinguish lands. Lastly, others, with more
probability, hold them to have been sepulchral monu¬
ments.
HURLY-BURLY, in vulgar language, denotes con¬
fusion or tumult, and is said to owe its origin to two
neighbouring families, Hurleigh and Burleigh, which
filled their part of the kingdom with contest and vio¬
lence.
HURON, a vast lake of North America, situated
between 8o° and 84° W. Long, and between 430 and
46° of N. Lat. from whence the country contiguous
to it is called the country of the Hurons, whose lan¬
guage is spoken over a great extent in the southern
parts of America.
HURRICANE, a general name for any violent
storm of wind; hut which is commonly applied to those
storms which happen in the warmer climates, and
which greatly exceed the most violent storms known
in this country. The ruin and desolation accompany¬
ing
HUS [ 687 ] HUS
nicane ing a hurricane (says Dr Mosely *) cannot be described.
I! Like fire, its resisfless force consumes every thing in its
aod'*" tiack’ *n ^ie most terrible and rapid manner. It is ge-
1 ■ nerally preceded by an awful stillness of the elements,
s 'realise and a closeness and mistiness in the atmosphere, which
c Fropi- makes the sun appear red, and the stars larger. But a
‘ ^rea^11^ reverse succeeding—The sky is suddenly over-
! ’ ' cast and wild—The sea rises at once from a profound
calm into mountains—The wind rages and roars like
the noise of cannon—The rain descends in deluges—A
dismal obscurityenvelopes the earth with darkness—The
superior regions appear rent with lightning and thun¬
der—The earth often does and always seems to tremble
—Terror and consternation distract all nature—Birds
are carried from the woods into the ocean ; and those
whose element is the sea, seek for refuge on land—The
frightened animals in the field assemble together, and
are almost suflocated by the impetuosity of the wind in
searching for shelter; which, when found, serves them
only for destruction—The roofs of houses are carried to
vast distances from their walls, which are beat to the
ground, burying their inhabitants under them—Large
trees are torn up by the roots, and huge branches shi¬
vered off, and driven through the air in every direction,
with immense velocity—Every tree and shrub that with¬
stands the shock, is stripped of its boughs and foliage—
Plants and grass are laid flat on the earth—Luxuriant
spring is changed in a moment to dreary winter.—This
direful tragedy ended, when it happens in a town, the
devastation is surveyed with accumulated horror ; the
harbour is covered with wrecks of boats and vessels ;
and the shore has not a vestige of its former state re¬
maining. Mounds of rubbish and rafters in one place,
heaps of earth and trunks of trees in another, deep
gullies from torrents of water, anil the dead and dy¬
ing bodies of men, women, and children, half buried,
and scattered about, where streets but a lew hours be¬
fore were, present the miserable survivors with a shock¬
ing conclusion of a spectacle to be followed by famine,
and when accompanied by an earthquake by mortal
diseases.
These destructive phenomena are now thought to
arise from electricity, though the manner in which it
acts in this case is by no means known. It seems pro¬
bable, indeed, that not only hurricanes, but even the
most gentle gales of wind, are produced by the action
of the electric fluid ; for which see WlKD, WHIRL¬
WIND, &c. Meteorology Index.
HURST, Hyrst, or HerST, are derived from
the Saxon hyrst^ i. e. n wood, or grrwe of trees. There
are many places in Kent, Sussex, and Hampshire,
which begin and end with this syllable ; and the reason
may be, because the great wood called Andreswaid ex¬
tended through those counties.
HubsT-Castle, a fortress of Hampshire in England,
not far from Limington. It is seated on the extreme
point of a neck of land which shoots into the sea, to¬
wards the isle of Wight, from which it is distant two
miles.
HUSBAND, a man joined or contracted with a
Avoraan in marriage. See MaRRIAGE.
Husband-Land, a term used in Scotland for a por¬
tion of land containing six acres of sock and scythe
land; that is, of land that may be tilled Avitb a plough,
and moAvn with a scythe.
HUSBANDRY, as defined by some, includes not Husbandry
only agriculture, but several other branches connected ll
with it, such as the rearing of cattle, the management, ^uss'tes
of the dairy, making butter and cheese, raising flax, V ™' J
timber, &c. See Agriculture.
Virgilian Husbandry, a term used by authors to
express that sort of husbandry, the precepts of which
are so beautifully delivered in Virgil’s Georgies. The
husbandry in England is Virgilian in general, as is
seen by the method of paring and burning the surface,
of raftering or cross-ploughing, and of the care in de¬
stroying Aveeds, upon the same principle, and by much
the same means. In those parts of England along the
southern coast, Avhere the Romans principally inhabi¬
ted, not only the practice, but the expressions, are in
many respects the same Avith those of the ancient Ro¬
mans, many of the terms used by the ploughmen being
of Latin origin, and the same with those used by those
people on the like occasions. And on a strict observa¬
tion, more of Virgil’s husbandry is at this time practised
in England than in Italy itself. This change in the
Italian husbandry is, however, much more to the credit
of that people, than the retaining the Virgilian scheme
is to ours.
Tull, Avho has established a netv method of husban¬
dry, observes, that it is upon the Avhole so contradic¬
tory to this old plan, that it may be called the anti-
Virgilian husbandry i and adds that no practice can
be worse than the Virgilian.
HUSK, the same Avith Avhat botanists call the calyx
or cup of a flower. See Calyx, Botany Index.
HUSO. See Accipenser, Ichthyology Index.
HUSS, John. See Hussites.
HUSSARS, are the national cavalry of Hungary
and Croatia. Their regimentals consist in a rough
furred cap, adorned Avith a cock’s feather (the officers
either an eagle’s or a heron’s) ; a doublet, Avith a pair
of breeches to Avhich the stockings are fastened, and
yellow or red boots : besides, they occasionally w-ear a
short upper waistcoat edged with fur, and five rows
of round metal buttons ; and in bad Aveather a cloak.
Their arms are a sabre, carabine, and pistols. They
are irregular troops : hence, before beginning an at¬
tack, they lay themselves so flat on the necks of their
horses, that it is hardly possible to discern their force;
but being come Avithin pistol-shot of the enemy, they
raise themselves Avith such surprising quickness, and
begin the fight Avith such vivacity on every side, that,
unless the enemy is accustomed to their method ot
engaging, it is very difficult for troops to preserve
their order. When a retreat is necessary, their horses
have so much fire, and are so indefatigable, their equi¬
page so light, and themselves such excellent horsemen,
that no other cavalry can pretend to folioAV them.
They leap o\’er ditches, and swim over rivers, with
surprising facility. They never encamp, and conse¬
quently are not burdened Avith any camp equipage,
saving a kettle and a hatchet to every six men. They
always lie in the woods, out-houses, or villages, in the
front of the army. The emperor, queen of Hungary,
and king of Prussia, have the greatest number of
troops under tins name in their service.
HUSSITES, in ecclesiastical history, a party of
reformers, the followers of John Huss.
John Huss, from Avhom the Hussites take their
name,
Hussite?.
HUS [ 688 ] HUT
name, was born in a little village in Bohemia, called
Hussy and lived at Prague in the highest reputation,
both on account of the sanctity of his manners and the
purity of his doctrine. He was distinguished by Ins
uncommon erudition and eloquence, and performed
at the same time the functions ol professor o£ divinity
in the university, and of ordinary pastor in the church
of that city. He adopted the sentiments of Wickliffe,
and the Waldenses; and in the year 1407 began openly
to oppose and preach against divers errors in doctrine,
as well as corruptions in point of discipline, then reign¬
ing in the church. Huss likewise endeavoured to the
utmost of his power to withdraw the university of
Prague from the jurisdiction of Gregory XII. whom
the kingdom of Bohemia had hitherto acknowledged
as the true and lawful head of the church. This oc¬
casioned a violent quarrel between the incensed arch¬
bishop of Prague and the zealous reformer, which the
latter inflamed and augmented from day to day, by his
pathetic exclamations against the court of Home, and
the corruptions that prevailed among the sacerdotal
order.
There were other circumstances that contributed to
inflame the resentment of the clergy against him. He
adopted the philosophical opinions of the realists, and
vehemently opposed and even persecuted the nomina¬
lists, whose number and influence wrere considerable in
the university of Prague. He also multiplied the num¬
ber of his enemies in the year 1408, by procuring
through his great credit, a sentence in favour of the
Bohemians, who disputed with the Germans concern¬
ing the number of suffrages which their respective na¬
tions were intitled to in all matters that were carried
by election in this university. In consequence of a de¬
cree obtained in favour of the former, which restored
them to their constitutional right of three suffrages,
usurped by the latter, the Germans withdrew from
Prague, and, in the year 1409, founded a new aca¬
demy at Leipsick. This event no sooner happened,
than Huss began to inveigh with greater freedom than
he had before done against the vices and corruptions of
the clergy, and to recommend, in a public manner, the
writings and opinions of Wickliffe, as far as they re¬
lated to the papal hierarchy, the despotism of the court
of Rome, and the corruption of the clergy. Hence
an accusation was brought against him, in the year
1410, before the tribunal of John XXIII. by whom
he was solemnly expelled from the communion of the
church. Notwithstanding this sentence of excommuni¬
cation, he proceeded to expose the Romish church
with a fortitude and zeal that were almost universally
applauded.
This eminent man, whose piety was equally sincere
and fervent, though his zeal was perhaps too violent,
and his prudence not always circumspect, was sum¬
moned to appear before the council of Constance. Se¬
cured, as he apprehended, from the rage of his ene¬
mies by the safe conduct granted him by the emperor
Sigismund, for his journey to Constance, his residence
in that place, and his return to his own country, John
Huss obeyed the order of the council, and appeared
before it to demonstrate his innocence, and to prove
that the charge of his having deserted the church of
Rome was entirely groundless. However, his enemies
so far prevailed, that by the most scandalous breach of
public faith, he was cast into prison, declared a here- i|u^;les
tic because he refused to plead guilty against the die- Ij
tales of his conscience, in obedience to the council, and Hutciiesw
burnt alive in 1415 > a punishment which he endured 'r~'
with unparalleled magnanimity and resignation.
The same unhappy fate was borne by Jerome of
Prague, his intimate companion, who attended the
council, in order to support bis persecuted friend. Je¬
rome, indeed, was terrified into temporary submission ;
but be afterwards resumed his fortitude, and main¬
tained the opinions, which he had for a while desert¬
ed through fear, in the flames in which he expired in
1416.
The disciples of Huss adhered to their master’s doc¬
trine after his death with a zeal which broke out in¬
to an open war, that was carried on with the most sa¬
vage and unparalleled barbarity. John Ziska, .1 Bo¬
hemian knight, in 1420, put himself at the head of
the Hussites, who were now become a very considerable
party, and threw off’ the despotic yoke of Sigismund,
who had treated their brethren in the most barbarous
manner. Ziska was succeeded by Procopius, in the
year 1424. The acts of barbarity that were commit¬
ted on both sides were shocking and horrible beyond
expression : for notwithstanding the irreconcileable op¬
position between the religious sentiments of the con¬
tending parties, they both agreed in this one horrible
principle, that it was innocent and lawful to persecute
and extirpate with fire and sword the enemies of the
true religion j and such they reciprocally appeared to
each other. Those commotions in a great measure
subsided, by the interference of the council of Basil, j
in the year 1433*
The Hussites, who were divided into two parties, viz.
the Calixtines and Taborites, spread over all Bohemia
and Hungary, and even Silesia and Poland ; and there
are some remains of them still subsisting in all those
parts.
HUSTINGS (from the Saxon word hustingey i. e.
conciliumy or curia), a court held in Guildhall before
the lord-mayor and aldermen of London, and reckoned
the supreme court of the city. Here deeds may be
inrolled, outlawries sued out, and replevins and writs
of error determined. In this court also is the election
of aldermen, of the four members of parliament for
the city, &c. This court is very ancient, as appear*
by the laws of Edward the Confessor. Some other ci¬
ties have likewise had a court bearing the same name,
as Winchester, York, &c.
HUSUM, a town of Denmark, in the duchy of
Sleswick, and capital of a bailiwick of the same name,
with a strong ciatdel and a very handsome church. It
is seated near the river Ow, on the German sea ; and
is subject to the duke of Holstein-Gottorp. E. Long.
9. 4. N. Lat. 54. 5.
HUTCHESON, Dr Francis, a very elegant wri¬
ter and excellent philosopher, was the son of a dissent¬
ing minister in the north of Ireland, and was born on
the 8th of August 1694. He early discovered a su¬
perior capacity j and having gone through a school-
education, began his course of philosophy at an aca¬
demy, whence he removed to the university of Glas¬
gow, where he applied himself to all the parts of lite¬
rature, in which his progress was suitable to his un¬
common abilities.
He
HUT [ 689 ] HUT
H hcson. tlien returned to Ireland : and entering into the
v—ministry, was just about to be settled in a small con¬
gregation of dissenters in the north of Ireland, when
some gentlemen about Dublin, who knew his great
abilities and virtues, invited him to take up a private
academy there. He complied with the invitation, and
met with much success. He had been fixed but a
short time in Dublin, when his singular merits and
accomplishments made him generally known ; and his
acquaintance was sought by men of all ranks, who
had any taste for literature, or any regard for learn¬
ed men. Lord Viscount Molesworth is said to have
taken great pleasure in his conversation, and to have
assisted him with his criticisms and observations up¬
on his “ Inquiry into the Ideas of Beauty and Vir¬
tue,” before it came abroad. He received the same
favour from Dr Synge, lord bishop of Elphin, with
whom he also lived in great friendship. The first edi¬
tion of this performance came abroad without the au¬
thor’s name, but the merit of it would not suffer him
to be long concealed. Such was the reputation of the
work, and the ideas it had raised of the author, that
Lord Granville, who was then lord lieutenant of Ire¬
land, sent his private secretary to inquire at the book¬
seller’s for the author ; and when he could not learn
his name, he left a letter to be conveyed to him : in
consequence of which he soon became acquainted with
his excellency, and was treated by him, all the time
he continued in his government, with distinguished
marks of familiarity and esteem.
From this time his acquaintance began to be still
more courted by men of distinction either for station
or literature in Ireland. Archbishop King, the au¬
thor of the celebrated book De ongine mah, held him
in great esteem j and the friendship of that prelate was
of great use to him in screening him Irom two difterent
attempts made to prosecute him for daring to take
upon him the education of youth, without having qua¬
lified himself by subscribing the ecclesiastical canons,
and obtaining a license from the bishops. He had
also a large share in the esteem of the primate Bolter,
who through his influence made a donation to the
university of Glasgow of a yearly fund for an exhibi¬
tioner to be bred to any of the learned professions.
A few years after his Inquiry into the Ideas of Beauty
and Virtue, his Treatise on the Passions was published :
both these works have been often reprinted j and al¬
ways admired, both for the sentiment and language,
even by those who have not assented to the philosophy
of them, nor allowed it to have any foundation in na¬
ture. About this time he wrote some philosophical pa¬
pers accounting for laughter, in a different way from
Hobbes, and more honourable to human nature : which
papers were published in the collection called Hibcrm-
cus’s Letters.
After he had taught in a private academy at Dublin
for seven or eight years with great reputation and
success, he was called in the year I729» *°. Scotland,
to be a professor of philosophy in the university of
Glasgow. Several young gentlemen came along with
him from the academy, and his high reputation drew
many more thither both from England and Ireland.
Here he spent the remainder of his life in a manner
highly honourable to himself and ornamental to the
university of which he was a member. His whole
VOL. X. Part II. t
time was divided between his studies and the duties of Hutcheson
his office 5 except what he allotted to friendship and H
society. A firm constitution and a pretty uniform , Htilt0il- <
state of good health, except some few slight attacks
of the gout, seemed to promise a longer life ; yet he
did not exceed the 53d year of his age. He was mar¬
ried, soon after his settlement in Dublin, to Mrs Mary
Wilson, a gentleman’s daughter in the county of Long¬
ford $ by whom he left behind him one son, Francis
Hutcheson, doctor of medicine. By this gentleman
was published, from the original manuscript of his fa¬
ther, “ A system of Moral Philosophy, in three books,
by Francis Hutcheson, LL. D. at Glasgow, I75J>V
in two volumes, 4to.
HUTCHINSON, John, a philosophical writer,
whose notions have made no inconsiderable noise in
the world, was born in 1674. He served the duke of
Somerset in the capacity of steward ; and in the course
of his travels from place to place employed himself in
collecting fossils : wre are told that the large and noble
collection bequeathed by Dr Woodward to the uni¬
versity of Cambridge was actually made by him, and
even unfairly obtained from him. W hen fie left the
duke’s service to indulge his studies with more free¬
dom, the duke, then master of the horse to George I.
made him his riding surveyor, a kind of sinecure place
of 2001. a-year with a good house in the Meuse. In
1724 he published the first part of Moses's Principia,
in which he ridiculed Dr Woodward’s Natural History
of the Earth, and exploded the doctrine of gravita¬
tion established in Newton’s Principia: in 1727, he
published a second part of Moses's Principia, con¬
taining the principles of the Scripture Philosophy.
From this time to his death, he published a volume
every year or two, which, with the MSS. he left be¬
hind, were published in I74^» 12 vo^s ^vo*
the Monday before his death, Dr Mead urged him to
be bled ; saying pleasantly, “ I will soon send you to
Moses,” meaning to his studies: but Mr Hutchin¬
son taking it in the literal sense, answered in a mut¬
tering tone, “ I believe, Doctor, you will $” and was so
displeased, that he dismissed him for another physician ;
but died in a few days after, August 28. 1737. Sin¬
gular as his notions are, they are not without some
defenders, who have obtained the appellation of Hut-
chinsonians. The reader may find a distinct and com¬
prehensive account of the Hutchinsonian system in a
book intitled, Thoughts concerning Religion, See. print¬
ed at Edinburgh 1743 ; and in a letter to a bishop, an¬
nexed to it, first printed in 1732.
HUTTON, Dr James, physician and naturalist,
was the son of Mr WTilliam Hutton, a respectable mer¬
chant in Edinburgh. He was born on the 3d of June
1726, and lost his father while lie was very young, the
charge of his education devolving on his mother, who
determined that it should be very liberal. Having finish¬
ed his grammar-school education at the high school of
Edinburgh, he entered the university at the age of 1,4
in the year 1740. He always considered himself as
greatly indebted to Professor Stevenson’s lectures on lo¬
gic, not because they made him a logician, but because
they accidentally gave him a predilection for chemistry
which he retained and cherished to the close of life.
As an illustration of some particular doctrine, the pro¬
fessor observed, that while the acids can singly dissolve
4 S the
HUT [ 690 ] HUT
JluUon. the baser metals, they must unite their strength before
v*"""-1 they can have any influence upon gold ; that metal is
only to be dissolved by nitro-muriatic acid, formerly
denominated aqua regia. From this remark he found
his thirst for chemical knowledge daily increase, and
sought for information from every quarter.
He always evinced talents sufficient to encourage the
prosecution of his studies; but it was the wish of his
friends that he should turn his attention to business,
with which he complied though contrary to his own
inclinations. In 1743 he was put an apprentice to Mr
George Chalmers, writer to the signet, where he soon
discovered the ruling propensity of his mind ; for when
he should have been transcribing law papers, he was
amusing his fellow apprentices with experiments in che¬
mistry. Mr Chalmers perceiving this, generously freed
him from his obligations to serve him, desiring him to
turn his attention to some other employment more con¬
genial to his views. He fixed his choice on the study
of medicine as nearly related to his favourite pursuits,
and after spending about three years at Edinburgh, he
studied two years at Paris, and returning home by the
Low Countries, took his degree of doctor of medicine
at Leyden, in September 1749. The subject of bis the¬
sis was, De Sanguine et Circulatione in Microcosmo.
When he arrived in London, about the end of 1749,
he conceived the design of settling in the world. He
justly conjectured that Edinburgh did not hold out for
him any flattering prospects in the capacity of a physi¬
cian, as the principal practice was in the hands of a few
eminent physicians who had been long established. He
accordingly wrote to his friends in Edinburgh with
much anxieiy, as to the subject of his future prospects
in life. To Mr James Davie, a young man nearly of
liis own age, with whom he contracted a friendship
which death only could extinguish, he also communi¬
cated the perplexed state of his mind. Their mutual
knowledge of the nature of sal ammoniac led them to
establish this manufacture, which afterwards became a
most lucrative concern to both. The sentiments of Mr
Davie were communicated to Dr Hutton while yet in
London, which probably was the chief reason why he
resolved to abandon entirely the practice of physic.
On his return to Edinburgh, in the year 1750, he
resolved to devote all his attention to agriculture, which
might probably be occasioned by his having succeeded
to a small property in Berwickshire on the death of his
lather. Mr Play lair of the university of Edinburgh
has ascribed it, and we apprehend with great propriety,
to the native simplicity of his character, and the mode¬
ration of his views, which wete always free from ambi¬
tion. His attachment to the life of a farmer was in¬
creased by his acquaintance with Sir John Hall of Dun-
glass, a gentleman who was very ingenious, a friend
and lover of science, and one who well understood agri¬
culture. Determined to make himself master of rural
economy, Dr Hutton went into the county of Norfolk,
where he continued for some time in the house of a far¬
mer, who was at once his preceptor and his host. The
larmer’s name was John Dybold, whose practical know¬
ledge of agriculture Dr Hutton always mentioned in
terms of the highest respect.
During bis residence in this county, which was to
him a paradise, he made frequent excursions into dif-
terent parts of England; and although information re¬
specting rural economy was the great and primary ob- Hutton
ject of his pursuit, yet it was here that he first com- ——y—
menced the study of mineralogy, to serve him as an
amusement on the road. Fie acquainted his friend Sir
John Flail, that he was become remarkably fond of
studying the surface of the earth, and was narrowly ex¬
amining every pit, or ditch, or bed of a river that fell
in his way. The agricultural knowledge he acquired
in Norfolk increased his desire to pay a visit to Flan¬
ders, the only place in Europe where husbandry can
boast of the greatest antiquity. He set out accordingly
in the spring of 1754, and returned to England during
the summer of the same year. Soon after his arrival
in London, he observed in a letter to Sir John Hail;
“ had I doubted of it before I set out, I should have
returned fully convinced that they are good husband¬
men in Norfolk.”
About this time be returned to his native country,
and was for some time at a loss what place to fix upon
for the purpose of carrying into effect his agricultural
improvements. His own farm at length became his
choice, and a ploughman whom he had brought with
him from Norfolk gave the first specimen of excellent
tillage ever exhibited in that part of Scotland. To Dr
Hutton the country is indebted for the introduction of
the new husbandry into a county where it may be said
to have made more astonishing progress than in almost
any other part of the British empire. In the year
1764, he made an excursion into the north of Scotland,
in company with Commissioner Clerk, who was after¬
wards Sir George Clerk, a man of singular worth and
abilities. They went by Crieff, Dalwhinnie, F'ort Au¬
gustus, and Inverness, and returned along the coast by
Aberdeen to Edinburgh. To increase his knowledge
of geology was Dr Hutton’s chief aim in this tour, to
which he was now determined to pay the most unremit¬
ting attention. About the year 1768 he devoted his
whole time to scientific pursuits, and having met with
a favourable opportunity of letting hk farm to advan¬
tage, he took up his constant residence in Edinburgh.
He now turned his attention very much to the study of
chemistry, and we believe he was the first who discover¬
ed that mineral alkali is contained in zeolite. The
same fact has since been confirmed by the experiments
of that celebrated mineralogist M. Klaproth, as well as
by those of Dr Kennedy, which have led to others of a
similar nature.
Dr Hutton gave the world his first publication in
1777, which was a small pamphlet of 37 pages, en¬
titled, Considerations on the nature, quality, and di~
stinctiotis of Coal and Culm. It was designed to an¬
swer a question which began to be much agitated, whe¬
ther the small coal of Scotland is the same with the
culm of England ? and whether it ought to be carried
coastwise free of all duty ? This created a keen con¬
test between the proprietors and revenue officers, the
one insisting that it should, and the other that it should
not pay any duty. It was discussed before the board
of customs in Scotland, and even occupied the atten¬
tion of the privy council. The small coal of Scotland
was finally exempted from the payment of duty, to
which the pamphlet of Dr Hutton greatly contri¬
buted.
During a period of 30 years the attention of the doc¬
tor was turned towards geological studies, to qualify
him
H U T [ 691 ] " H U Y
I l(Vli him for writing on his favourite topic, a new theory of
1* the earth. Long before that theory made its appear¬
ance in the world, he had completed the great outline
of it, which was only shewn to a few confidential friends.
He was first induced to publish it. by communicating an
abridgement of it to the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Of the merits or defects of this theory (for an account of
which, see Geology), our readers must judge for them-
gelves. It has found a very able advocate in Professor
Playfair of the university of Edinburgh, whose illustra¬
tions of it have received a very candid and ingenious re¬
ply from an anonymous writer, who entitles his book, A
comparative view of the Jrluttonian and Neptunean sys¬
tems of geology. Hr Hutton’s theory did not meet with
that reception from the public which the doctor’s admi¬
rers expected, and which it is probable he looked for
himself. Professor Playfair thinks it was in a great mea¬
sure owing to the obscurity with which he wrote, so re¬
pugnant to the perspicuity of his conversation $ but as
the world had received so many unsatisfactory theories
before, it is not improbable that men were become dis¬
gusted with every thing of the kind, and almost deter¬
mined to refuse a hearing to every subsequent attempt.
A theory of rain from the same author appeared in
the first volume of the Edinburgh Transactions. He
had made meteorology his study for a considerable
time ; and his theory has been pronounced one of the
few to be met with in that department of knowledge
which is deserving of the name. Soon after this publi¬
cation, Dr Hutton gave the world, in three volumes
quarto, An investigation oj the principles of knowledge,
and of the progress of reason from sense to science and
philosophy. His elements of agriculture, the result of
much study and long experience, was the last work
which he seemed anxious to publish, but it was left in
manuscript at his death, which took place in 1796-7.
On the 26th of March lie was seized with a shivering,
which induced him to send for his friend Mr Russel,
who attended him as surgeon ; but before it was possi¬
ble for that gentleman to arrive, all medical aid was
absolutely vain. Having with some difficulty stretch¬
ed out his hand to Mr Russel, he instantly expired.
To the name of a philosopher Dr Hutton was most
justly entitled, by virtue of his natural talents, acqui¬
sitions, and temper. The direction of his studies was
rather uncommon and irregular •, but for that very rea¬
son it was peculiarly fitted to develope his quick pene¬
tration and originality of thought, by which his intel¬
lectual character was strikingly marked. I he vast ac¬
quisitions of wealth and fortune never excited more live¬
ly sensations of pleasure in the minds of men, than those
which arose in the mind of Dr Hutton on hearing of a
new invention, or the being made acquainted with a new
truth. This pleasure, which appeared almost ridiculous to
those who could not enter into his views, was not con¬
fined to any one branch of science} for in the language
of Professor Playfair, “ he would rejoice over M att’s
improvements on the steam engine, or Cook’s discove¬
ries in the South sea, with all the warmth of a man
who was to share in the honour or the profit about to
accrue from them.” Dr Hutton was not exclusively at¬
tached to the company of men of letters, whose conver¬
sation was entirely directed to subjects of literature ; for
he could occasionally unbend himself, and enjoy the
innocent hilarity of promiscuous company, when he
freely indulged in the gratification of his native plea- Hutton
santry. !'
Dr Hutton was never married, hut kept house with
his three sisters, who were ornaments to their sex, and
had the sole management of his domestic concerns. One
of them, Miss Isabella, survived her worthy brother,
and lived to lament a death which was certainly a loss
to the literary world, as a very large share of his know¬
ledge unavoidably perished with himself. He left no
particular directions behind him as to the disposal of his
collection of fossils, which was accordingly presented to
Dr Black, who gave it to the Royal Society of Edin¬
burgh, on condition that it should he completely ar¬
ranged, and always kept separate, for the purpose of il¬
lustrating the Huttonian Theory of the Earth.
HUXING of pike, among fishermen, a particular
method of catching that fish.
For this purpose, they take 30 or 40 as large blad¬
ders as can be got; blow them up, and tie them close
and strong j and at the mouth of each tie a line, longer
or shorter according to the depth of the water. At
the end of the line is fastened an armed hook, artfully
baited : and thus they are put into the water with the
advantage of the wind, that they may gently move up
and down the pond. When a master pike has struck
himself, it affords great entertainment to see him bounce
about in the water with a bladder fastened to him j at
last, when they perceive him almost spent, they take
him up.
HUY, a town of the Netherlands, in the bishopric
of Liege, and capital of Condrass. It is advantageously
seated on the river Maese, over which there is a bridge.
E. Long. 5. 15. N. Lat. 50. 32.
HUYGENS, Christian, one of the greatest ma¬
thematicians and astronomers of the 17th century, was
the son of Constantine Huygens, lord of Zuylichem,
who had served three successive princes of Orange in
the quality of secretary 5 and was born at the Hague,
in 1629. He discovered from his infancy an extraor¬
dinary fondness for the mathematics ; in a little time
made a great progress in them j and perfected himself
in those studies under the famous professor Schooten,
at Leyden. In 1649, he went to Holstein and Den¬
mark, in the retinue of Henry count of Nassau ; and
was extremely desirous of going to Sweden, in order
to see Des Cartes, but the count’s short stay in Den¬
mark, would not permit him. He travelled into France
and, England; was, in 1663, made a member of the
Royal Society ; and, upon his return into France,
M. Colbert, being informed of his merit, settled a con¬
siderable pension upon him to engage him to fix at Pa¬
ris ; to which Mr Huygens consented, and staid there
from the year 1666 to 1681, where he was admitted
a member of the Academy of Sciences. He lived a
quiet and studious manner of life, and frequently re¬
tired into the country to avoid interruption, but did
not contract that moroseness which is so frequently the
effect of solitude and retirement. He was the first who
discovered Saturn’s ring, and a third satellite belong¬
ing to that planet, which had hitherto escaped the eyes
of astronomers. He discovered the means of render¬
ing clocks exact, by applying the pendulum, and ren¬
dering all its vibrations equal by the cycloid. He
brought telescopes to perfection, made many other
useful discoveries, and died at the Hague in 1695. He
4 S 2 was
HUY [ 692 ] H Y A
Huygens, was the author of several excellent works. The princi-
Huysum. pal of these are contained in two collections ; the first
" of which was printed at Leyden in 1682, in quarto,
under the title of Opera vana ; and the second at Am¬
sterdam in 1728, in two volumes quarto, entitled Opera
reliqua.
HUYSUM, the name of several Dutch painters j
the most celebrated of whom was John, whose sub¬
jects were flowers, fruit, and landscapes. According
to Mr Pilkington, this illustrious painter hath sur¬
passed all who have ever painted in that style; and
his works excite as much surprise by their finishing as
they excite admiration by their truth. He was born
at Amsterdam in 1682, and was a disciple of Justus
van Huysum his father. He set out in his profession
with a most commendable principle, not so much to
paint for the acquisition of money as of fame ; and
therefore he did not aim at expedition, but at deli¬
cacy, and, if possible, to arrive at perfection in his
art. Having attentively studied the pictures of Mig-
non, and all other artists of distinction who had paint¬
ed in his own style, he tried which manner would
soonest lead him to imitate the lightness and singu¬
lar beauties of each flower, fruit, or plant, and then
fixed on a manner peculiar to himself, which seems
almost inimitable. His pictures are finished with in¬
conceivable truth; for he painted every thing after
nature ; and was so singularly £xact, as to watch even
the hour of the day in which his model appeared in
its greatest perfection. By the judicious he was ac¬
counted to paint with greater freedom than Mignon
or Breughel; with more tenderness and nature than
Mario da Fiori, Michael Angelo di Campidoglio, or
Segers ; with more mellowness than De Heem, and
greater force of colouring than Baptist. His reputa¬
tion rose to such a height at last, that he fixed immo¬
derate prices on his works ; so that none but princes,
or those of princely fortunes, could pretend to become
purchasers. Six of his paintings were sold at a public
sale in Holland for prices that were almost incredible.
One of them, a flower-piece, for fourteen hundred and
fifty guilders; a fruit-piece for a thousand and five
guilders; and the smaller pictures for nine hundred.
The vast sums which Van Huysum received for his
works, caused him to redouble his endeavours to ex¬
cel ; no person was admitted into his room while he
was painting, not even his brothers; and his method
of mixing the tints, and preserving the lustre of his
colours, was an impenetrable secret, which he never
would disclose. Yet this conduct is certainly not to
his honour, but rather an argument of a low mind,
fearful of being equalled or surpassed. From the same
principle, he would never take any disciples, except
one lady, named Haverman ; and he grew envious and
jealous even of her merit. By several domestic disquiets
his temper became changed ; he grew morose, fretful,
and apt to withdraw himself from society. He had
many enviers of his fame, which has ever been the
severe lot of the most deserving in all professions ; but
he continued to work, and his reputation never dimi¬
nished. It is universally agreed that he has excelled
all who have painted fruit and flowers before him, by
the confessed superiority of his touch, by the delicacy
of his pencil, and by an amazing manner of finishing;
nor does it appear probable that any future artist will
become his competitor. The care which he took to
purify his oils and prepare his colours, and the various jj
experiments he made to discover the most lustrous and Hyacin-
durable, are instances of extraordinary care and indus- *^UIS'
try as well as capacity. From having observed some v*—
of his works that were perfectly finished, some only
half finished, and others only begun, the principles by
which he conducted himself may perhaps be discover¬
able. His cloths were prepared with the greatest
care, and primed with white, with all possible purity,
to prevent his colours from being obscured, as he laid
them on very lightly. He glazed all other colours
except the clear and transparent, not omitting even
the white ones, till he found the exact tone of the co¬
lour ; and over that he finished the forms, the lights,
the shadows and the reflections, which are all execu¬
ted with precision and warmth, without dryness or
negligence. The greatest truth, united with the great¬
est brilliancy, and a velvet softness on the surface of
his objects, are visible in every part of his composi¬
tions ; and as to his touch, it looks like the pencil of
nature. Whenever he represented flowers placed in
vases, he always painted those vases after some elegant
model, and the bas-relief is as exquisitely finished as
any of the other parts. Through the whole he shows
a delicate composition, a fine harmony, and a most
happy effect of light and shadow. Those pictures
which he painted on a clear ground are preferred to
others of his hand, as having greatest lustre, and as
they demanded more care and exactness in the finish-,
ing ; yet there are some on a darkish ground, in which
appears rather more force and harmony. It is obser'?
ved of him, that in the grouping of his flowers, he
generally designed those which wrere brightest in the
centre, and gradually decreased the force of his colour
from the centre to the extremities. The birds nests
and their eggs, the feathers, insects, and drops of dew*
are expressed with the utmost truth, so as even to de¬
ceive the spectator. And yet, after all this merited and
just praise, it cannot but be confessed, that sometimes
his fruits appear like wax or ivory, without that pecu¬
liar softness and warmth which is constantly observable
in nature. Beside his merit as a flower painter, he also
painted landscapes with great applause. They are well
composed ; and although he had never seen Rome, he
adorned his scenes with the noble remains of ancient
magnificence which are in that city. His pictures in
that style are well coloured, and every tree is distinT
guished by a touch that is proper for the leafing. The
grounds are well broken, and disposed with taste and
judgment; the figures are designed in the manner of
Lairesse, highly finished, and touched with a great
deal of spirit; and through the whole composition the
scene represents Italy, in the trees, the clouds, and the
skies. He died in 1749, aged 67.
HUZZOOR, a Hindostan word, signifying The pre¬
sence ,- applied, by way of eminence, to the Mogul’s
court. According to polite usage, it is now applied to
the presence of every nabob or great man.
Huzzoor Neves; the secretary who resides at court,
and keeps copies of all the JirmauttSy records, or let¬
ters.
HYACINTH, in Natural History, a species of the.
zircon genus. See Zircon, Mineralogy Index.
HYACINTHUS, Hyacinth, a genus of plants,
belonging
H Y [' 69
belonging to the hexandria class ; ami in the natural
method ranking under the 10th order, Coronarne. See
Botany Index.
HYACINTHIA, in antiquity, feasts held at Spar¬
ta, in honour of Apollo, and in commemoration of his
favourite Hyacinth.
This Hyacinth was the son of Amyclas king of
Sparta, and was beloved both by Apollo and Zephy-
rus. The youth showing most inclination to the for¬
mer, his rival grew jealous j andt to be revenged, one
day as Apollo was playing at the discus, i. e. quoits,
with Hyacinth, Zephyrus turned the direction of a
quoit which Apollo had pitched full upon the head ot
the unhappy Hyacinth, who fell down dead. Apollo
then transformed him into a flower of the same name j
and as a farther token of respect, they say, command¬
ed this feast. The Hyacinthia lasted three days j the
first and third whereof were employed in bewailing the
death of Hyacinth, and the second in feasting and re¬
joicing.
HYADES, in Astt'onomy, are seven stars in the
bull’s head, famous among the poets for the bringing
of rain. Whence their name from the Greek
via, “ to rain.” The principal of them is in the left
eye, by the Arabs called Aldebaran.
The poets feign them the daughters of Atlas and
Pleone. Their brother Hyas being torn to pieces by
a lioness, they wept his death with such vehemence,
that the gods, in compassion to them, translated them
into heaven, and placed them in the bull’s forehead,
where they continue to weep •, this constellation being
supposed to presage rain. Others represent the Hyades
as Bacchus’s nurses j and the same with the Hodonides,
who fearing the resentment ot Juno, and flying from
the cruelty of King Lycurgus, were translated by Ju¬
piter into heaven.
HYJENA. See Canis, Mammalia Index.
HY^-NIUS lapis, in Natural History, the name
of a stone said to be found in the eyes ot the hyaena.
Pliny tells us, that those creatures were in old times
hunted and destroyed for the sake of those stones, and
that it was supposed they gave a man the gift of pro¬
phecy by being put under his tongue.
HYBEHNACULUM, in Botany, Winter-quar¬
ters $ defined by Linnaeus to be that part of the plant
which defends the embryo herb from injurie^ during
the severities of the winter. See Bulb and Gemma.
HYBLA, in Ancient Geography, or Megara ;
which last name it took from the Megareans, who led
thither a colony j called also Hyblu Barva and Guieohs.
In Strabo’s time Megara was extinct*, but the name
Hybla remained on account of its excellent honey named
from it. It was situated on the east coast ot Sicily, be¬
tween Syracuse and the Leontines. Galeotas and J/e-
garenses, the names of the people, who were of a pio-
ohetic spirit, being the descendants of Galeus the son
of Apollo. Hyblceus the epithet.—The Hyblcei colles,
small eminences at the springs of the Alabus near this
place, were famous from their variety of flowers, espe¬
cially thyme} the honey gathered from which was by
the ancients reckoned the best in the world, excepting
that of Hymettus in Attica. By the moderns it was
called Mel Passi, for the same reason, namely, on ac¬
count of its excellent honey, and extraordinary fertility,
till it was overwhelmed by the lava of ./Etna j and hav-
3 ] H Y D
ing then become totally barren, its name was changed jiybta
to Mai Passi. In a second eruption, by a shower of ||
ashes from the mountain, it soon reassumed its ancient Hyde,
beauty and fertility, and for many years was called v
Bel Passi : and, last of all, in the year 1669, it was a-
gain laid under an ocean of fire, and reduced to the
most wretched sterility j since which time it is again
known by the appellation of Mai Passi. However, the
lava, in its course over this beautiful country, has left
several little islands or hillocks, just sufficient to show
what it formerly was. These make a singular appear¬
ance in all the bloom of the most luxuriant vegetation,
surrounded and rendered almost inaccessible by large
fields of black and rugged lava.
Hybla Major, in Ancient Geography, was situated
in the tract lying between Mount ./Etna and the river
Symethus. In Pausanius’s time desolate.
Hybla Major, or Hercea, in Ancient Geography, an
inland town of Sicily, situated between the rivers Oa-
nus and Herminius. Now Ragusa.
HYBRIDA planta, a monstrous production of
two different species of plants, analogous to a mule a-
mong animals. The seeds of hybrid plants will not
propagate.
HYBRISTICA, (of injurin'), in antiquity, a
solemn feast held among the Greeks, with sacrifices and
other ceremonies, at which the men attended in the ap¬
parel of women, and the women in that of men, to do
honour to Venus in quality either of a god or a goddess,
or both. Or, according to the account given by others,
the hybristica was a feast celebrated at Argos, wherein
the women being dressed like men, insulted their hus¬
bands, and treated them with all marks of superiority,
in memory of the Argian dames having anciently de¬
fended their country with singular courage against Cle-
omenes and Demaratus.
Plutarch speaks of this feast in his treatise of the
great actions of women. The name, he observes, sig¬
nifies infamv ; which is well accommodated to the oc¬
casion, wherein the women strutted about in men’s
clothes, while the men were obliged to dangle in petti¬
coats.
HYDATIDES, in Medicine, little transparent ve¬
sicles or bladders full of water, sometimes found soli¬
tary, and sometimes in clusters, upon the liver and va¬
rious other parts, efpecially in hydropical cases.
HYDATOSCOPIA, called also Hydromangy,
a kind of divination or method of foretelling future
events by water.
HYDE, Edward, earl of Clarendon, and lord
high-chancellor of England, was a very eminent states¬
man and historian, son of Henry Hyde, a private
gentleman, resident at Dinton in Wiltshire, where his
lordship was born, in the month of February 1608.
The first rudiments of his education he received in. his
father’s house, the vicar of the parish being his pre¬
ceptor, under whose tuition he made such rapid pro¬
gress, that he was sent to Oxford at the age of 13,
where he studied only for one year in Magdalen-hal),
as his father entered him in the Middle Temple, that
he might be trained up to the profession of the law.
He repaired to London at the age of 17, being coun¬
tenanced and protected by his uncle, who was after¬
wards chief justice of the court of king’s bench. On
the death of his uncle he was still a student, yet such a
heavy
H Y D [ 694 ] H Y B
heavy misfortune did not deter him from the prosecu¬
tion of his designs. As a licentiousness of manners
was at that time extremely prevalent, the well-disposed
part of the community considered early marriage as a
commendable preservative against irregularity of con¬
duct ; and therefore in compliance with an opinion so
respectable, Mr Hyde united himself in wedlock with
a beautiful young lady, when he wTas only in the 2ist
year of his age, whom he had the misfortune to lose in
six months after the celebration of their nuptials, she
having fallen a victim to that loathsome malady the
smallpox. After a widowhood of three years continu¬
ance, he married the daughter of Sir Thomas Ayles¬
bury, with whom he lived 36 years in conjugal felici¬
ty. He considered it as a fortunate circumstance that
he was made acquainted at an early period with a num¬
ber of very distinguished character’s, among whom we
find the names of Lord Falkland, Selden, Kenelm Dig-
hv, Carew, Sheldon, May, Waller, Hales of Eton,
Morley, Chillingworth, and others 5 of whom he has
made respectable mention in memoirs written by him¬
self; and to their instructive conversation he nobly a-
scribes the principal part of his literary acquisitions.
H is diffidence is very amiably expressed in these words j
“ that he never was so proud, or thought himself so
good a man, as when he was the worst man in the
company.”
Being concerned in a cause in behalf of the mer¬
chants of London, he was thus introduced to the no¬
tice of Archbishop Laud, commissioner of the treasury,
by whom he was treated with much respect, and had his
advancement in the profession of the law greatly pro¬
moted. His easy circumstances and respectable connec¬
tions porverfully contributed to bring him forward and
increase his business as a barrister. But in the multi¬
plicity of causes which he was employed to bring be¬
fore different courts, he never lost sight, of polite lite¬
rature, on the study of which he bestowed indefatigable
attention, and in bis general deportment he exhibited
more of the polished gentleman than of the mere law¬
yer. So great was the reputation which by this time
he had acquired, that in 1640 he was chosen burgess
for Wotton-Basset and Shaftesbury, in the parliament
summoned by Charles I. on account of the Scotch re¬
bellion. As public grievances first attracted the atten¬
tion of this new parliament, Hyde brought forward a
statement of the illegal oppressions and malpractices of
the earl marshal’s court; but as it was soon dissolved,
a radical investigation of the conduct of that court was
for a time prevented. The borough of Saltash made
choice of him for the new parliament, in which he
pleaded so effectually against the earl marshal’s court
as to procure its suppression. He now totally abandoned
the profession of a barrister, and wholly confined him¬
self to the discussion of public business j and as he was
generally supposed to be attached to no particular par¬
ty, he was frequently appointed chairman of commit¬
tees in the. transaction of the most important affairs.
Hyde was represented to his majesty in such a fa¬
vourable light, that the king requested a private inter¬
view with him, in the course of which he expressed his
great obligations to him for his meritorious services, and
was much pleased with his zealous attachment to the
church. After this interview he may be considered
as devoted to the royal cause 5 and in order to make a
proper estimate of his subsequent conduct, it will be ne- Hyde,
cessary for our readers to attend to his own declaration. '-—4**
He informs us that be had “ a very particular passion
and devotion for the person of the king ; and a most
zealous esteem and reverence for the constitution of
government, which he believed to be so equally poised,
that if the least branch of the prerogative was torn off,
the subject suffered by it; and he was as much troubled
when the crown exceeded its just limits.” He believed
the church of England to be most admirably calculated
for the promotion of literature, piety, and peace, per¬
haps of any other in the whole world, and deemed the
application of any part of its revenue to civil purposes
to he the most abominable sacrilege and unpardonable
robbery. He also considered the removal of bishops
from the house of peers as a violation of the principles
ol justice, which made him an enemy to every innova¬
tion in the church from conscientious motives.
When the commons published their remonstrance on
the state of the nation, Hyde drew up a reply to it,
merely to gratify his own personal indignation, accord¬
ing to his own confession, without the smallest intention
of making it public, although it is more than probable
that Lord Higby was made acquainted with its con¬
tents. He was, however, at length prevailed upon to
allow it to appear as the king’s answer with the advice
of h is council. This procured him an offer of the office
of solicitor-general, which he thought proper to decline,
although he undertook the management of the king’s
affairs in parliament, in conjunction with Lord Higby
and Sir John Colepepper. Fie opposed the king’s as¬
sent to the bill for depriving the bishops of their seats
in the house of peers, in which the sovereign acted in
direct opposition to the sentiments of his professed friend,
by giving his assent. In the year 1642 his majesty
sent for Hyde to York, where he contributed his as¬
sistance in drawing up various papers in the cause of
the falling monarch. He was recalled by parliament,
but he refused to obey the summons without the royal
permission, which excluded him from pardon by a vote
of the house.
Soon after the breaking out of hostilities between the
king and parliament, when the court of the former was
held at Oxford, Hyde was appointed chancellor of the
exchequer, sworn a member of the privy council, and
created a knight. He continued with his majesty till
the month of March 1644, when he was appointed to
accompany Prince Charles to the west, and afterwards
to the island of Jersey, where Sir Edward Hyde con¬
tinued during two years after the departure of the
prince, prosecuting his studies with indefatigable in¬
dustry, and composing a history of those memorable
transactions in which he himself had borne a distinguish¬
ed part. He likewise published a reply to the parlia¬
mentary declaration of February 1647, in which it was
declared improper to send any more addresses to the
king. In 1648 he received orders to attend the prince
at Paris, who having in the mean time set out for Hol¬
land, Sir Edward took shipping for Hunkirk. The
prince was at the Plague when he received the melan¬
choly intelligence of his royal father’s fate. Upon this
the council of the young king determined to send am¬
bassadors to Spain, and for this purpose made choice of
Sir Edward Hyde and Lord Collington, who arrived at
Madrid in 1694 $ and when their residence in that me¬
tropolis
H Y D C 695 ] H Y D
i(je- tropolis was no longer necessary, Sir Edward returned
j to Paris. Tlie king’s court at the Hague was torn by
dissension, which made Sir Edward apply for, and ob¬
tain leave to retire to Antwerp, the residence of his
wife and children, as he clearly perceived that his
personal attendance was not likely to be productive of
any substantial good. This retreat afforded him lit-
terary and domestic happiness, and was better suited to
the reduced state of his finances. The princess of
Orange, eldest daughter of the unfortunate Charles I.
having assigned Sir Edward a house at Breda free of
rent, out of gratitude for his warm attachment to her
father, he was prevailed upon to remove to that city.
In the year 1657 he was appointed lord high-chan¬
cellor of England j a nomination which to our readers
may probably seem ridiculous, as coming from a king
who was not possessed of a kingdom ; but it should be
remembered that the young sovereign was of an easy and
too pliable a disposition, incapable of denying any re¬
quest j and therefore as applications were continually
made to him for contingent grants and reversions, he
justly considered it as a prudent step to raise a man to
that high rank, who had sufficient firmness to reject all
improper requisitions.
It is but doing justice to the memory of Sir Edward
Hyde to say that he was the most confidential and
faithful minister of Charles II. at the time of the resto¬
ration ; and by the consent of all parties, the many
public and private difficulties which this event occa¬
sioned, were settled by him with much wisdom, integri¬
ty and honour. Notwithstanding he was a warm ad¬
vocate for the royal prerogative, it says much for the
wisdom of his head and the goodness of his heart, that
he was an enemy to the extension of it beyond the li¬
mits prescribed by the constitution ; for when it was
proposed to raise a great standing revenue, which would
have made the king independent of parliament, it met
from Sir Edward the warmest opposition, and he re¬
strained the zeal of the royalists, and their desire of
revenge. His zeal for episcopacy was, however, car¬
ried to an extravagant height, as it led him to wish for
the annihiliation of every vestige of presbyterianism.
He was chosen chancellor of the university of Oxford
in 1690, and at the same time created a peer; being
in the year following made Viscount Cornbnry and earl
of Clarendon. But as his new dignity was far superior
to bis fortune, the crown made several grants to him to
enable him to support it. This sudden elevation, aaid
the strictness of his moral deportment, which bordered
on austerity, did not fail to create a number of enemies
in such a licentious court as tha.t of Charles II.
It would perhaps be improper to omit a remarkable
circumstance respecting bis daughter, who was a maid
of honour to the princess of Orange, as it had every ap¬
pearance of affecting his future fortune in a very ma¬
terial degree. The duke of York was so captivated
with the charms of his lordship’s daughter, that he en¬
tered with her into a private contract of marriage,
when he found it impracticable to triumph over her
virtue, or procure her for a mistress. Finding herself
pregnant, she boldly insisted that the duke would make
an open avowal of their marriage, which rendered it
necessary to make the king acquainted with it; but
when it readied the ears of her father, he behaved on
the occasion in such a manner, as greatly to tarnish a
5
character so illustrious. He said he would rather see Hyde,
his daughter the duke’s mistress than his consort; ad- —y—
vised to confine her in the Tower, and even asserted
that she ought to lose her head. He was afraid of the
king’s indignation, from a supposition that he was privy
to the marriage, which there is no good reason for be¬
lieving, yet such an apprehension might bring such ex¬
pressions from him as were wholly incompatible with
the feelings of a parent. His extravagant notions of
royalty might also have their own weight in producing
such an unnatural conduct, since he would conceive the
blood of majesty to be contaminated by such an alli¬
ance. To the honour of Charles he behaved on the
occasion in a very commendable manner; and not¬
withstanding the rage of the queen-mother, the base
conduct of the duke in denying his marriage, and at¬
tempting by calumny to impeach the chastity of his
consort, she was at length acknowledged as the du¬
chess of York, and became the mother of two English
queens.
Earl Clarendon’s influence with the crown was na¬
turally increased by this marriage, while it as naturally
procured him the envy of his fellow courtiers, and pa¬
ved the way to his subsequent degradation. The sale
of Dunkirk to the French was viewed as dishonourable
by the nation at large, although perhaps on the score
of economy and sound policy it was capable of vindi¬
cation. To this we may add the unpopular measure of
opposing the bill for granting liberty of conscience, as
it brought on him the displeasure both of the king and
of all religious sectaries. Even the unfortunate war
with the Dutch was charged to his account, although
he was known to be its enemy from its very commence¬
ment. Rigidly virtuous himself, the libidinous course
of life pursued by his master could not fail to give him
offence, and he certainly displeased the king by the
freedom of his reproofs. In defiance, therefore, of all
his former services, he was basely abandoned to the in¬
dignation of the people, and driven from every office
of public trust in the month of August 1667. He was
charged with the crime of high-treason by the house
of commons, but the peers refused to commit him upon
their charge; but while the dispute I ret ween the two
houses was yet undetermined, Clarendon received his
majesty’s orders to quit the kingdom. His apology to
the peers was burnt by the common executioner, and a
bill of banishment was issued against him for flying
from justice. While he proceeded from Calais to
Rouen, the court of France sent an order to him to
quit that kingdom, which bodily distress at that time
rendered impracticable, upon which the cruel order was
reversed. The savage rage of some Englishmen nearly
deprived him of his life as he passed from Rouen to
Avignon after his recovery; but the court of France
punished the perpetrators of the deed. At Montpe¬
lier he met with very respectful treatment during a re¬
sidence of four years, which time he devoted to the
vindication of his conduct. Having spent some time at
Moulins, he fixed his residence at Rouen, where he ter¬
minated his career in December 1674, in the 68th year
of his age. His remains were brought to England, and
interred in the abbey of Westminster.
Lord Clarendon was the author of Contemplations
and Reflections on the Psalms; Animadversions on a
book of Mr Cressy’s in the Roman Catholic Controver
sys
Hyde
Hydra.
)
H Y D t 696 ] H Y D
sy ; A brief view of the Errors in Hobbes’s Leviathan $
History of the grand Rebellion ; his own Life and a
Continuation of his History, published by the univer¬
sity in 1759. In a literary point of view his lordship
is only known as a historian j and his history of the
civil war is regarded by competent judges as an im¬
portant source of information. The writings of Cla¬
rendon resemble those of a man who takes a decided
part, yet his representations are generally allowed to
be moderate and just. His language is not devoid of
beauty ; but his injudicious use of the relative pronoun
often renders him obscure ; few however have ever
excelled him in the delineation of characters.
Hyde, Dr Thomas, professor of Arabic at Oxford,
and one of the most learned writers of the 17th cen¬
tury, was born in 1636 \ and studied first at Cam¬
bridge, and afterwards at Oxford. Before he was 18
years of age, he was sent from Cambridge to London to
assist Mr Brian Walton in the great work of the Poly¬
glot Bible ; and about that period undertook to tran¬
scribe the Persian Pentateuch out of the Hebrew cha¬
racters, which Archbishop Usher, who well knew the
difficulty of the undertaking, pronounced to be an im¬
possible task to a native Persian. After he had happi¬
ly succeeded in this, he assisted in correcting several
parts of Mr Walton’s work, for which he was perfect¬
ly qualified. He was made archdeacon of Gloucester,
canon of Christ-church, head keeper of the Bodleian
library, and professor both of Hebrew and Arabic in
the university of Oxford. He was interpreter and se¬
cretary of the Oriental languages, during the reigns of
Charles II. James II. and William III. ; and was
perfectly qualified to fill this post, as he could converse
in the languages which he understood. There never
was an Englishman in his situation of life who made so
great a progress $ but his mind was so engrossed by his
beloved studies, that he is said to have been but ill
qualified to appear to any advantage in common con¬
versation. Of all his learned works (the very cata¬
logue of which, as observed by Anth. Wood, is a cu¬
riosity), his Religio Veterum Persarum is the most ce¬
lebrated. Dr Gregory Sharpe, the late learned and
ingenious master of the Temple, has collected several
of his pieces formerly printed, and republished them
with some additional dissertations, and his life prefixed,
in two elegant volumes quarto. This great man died
on the 18th of February 1702. Among his other
works are, 1. A Latin translation of Ulug Beig’s ob¬
servations on the longitude and latitude of the fixed
stars $ and, 2. A catalogue of the printed books in the
Bodleian library.
HYDNUM, a genus of the natural order of fungi,
belonging to the cryptogamia class of plants. See Bo¬
tany Index.
HYDRA, in fabulous history, a serpent in the
marsh of Lerna, in Peloponnesus, represented by the
poets with many heads, one of which being cut off,
another immediately succeeded in its place, unless the
wound was instantly cauterized. Hercules attacked
this monster; and having caused lolaus to hew down
Tvood for flaming brands, as he cut off the heads he ap-
3
plied the brands to the wounds, by which means he Hydra
destroyed the hydra. {J
This hydra with many heads is said to have been Hy^roco-
only a multitude of serpents, which infested the marshes , t'ie-
of Lerna near Mycene, and which seemed to multiply
as they were destroyed. Hercules, with the assistance
of his companions, cleared the country of them, by
burning the reeds in which they lodged.
Hydra, in Astronomy, a southern constellation, con¬
sisting of a number of stars, imagined to represent a
water serpent. The stars in Hydra, in Ptolemy’s ca¬
talogue, are twenty-seven j in Tycho’s, nineteen ; in
Plevelius’s, thirty-one.
Hydra, in Zoology, a genus of the order of zoo-
phyta, belonging to the class of vermes. See Hel¬
minthology Index.
HYDRAGOGUES, among physicians, remedies
which evacuate a large quantity of water in dropsies.
rIhe word is formed of vhu^, water, and to draw
ox lead; but the application of the term proceeds upon
a mistaken supposition, that every purgative had some
particular humour which it would evacuate, and which
could not be evacuated by any other. It is now, how¬
ever, discovered, that all strong purgatives will prove
hydragogues, if given in large quantity, or in weak
constitutions. The principal medicines recommended
as hydragogues, are the juice of elder, the root of iris,
soldanella, mechoacan, jalap, &c.
HYDRANGEA, a genus of plants belonging to
the decandria class, and in the natural method ranking
under the 13 th order, Succvlentce. See Botany Index.
HYDRASTIS, a genus of plants, belonging to the
polyandria class, and in the natural method ranking
with those of which the order is doubtful. See Bo¬
tany Index.
HA DRARGYRUM, a name given to mercury, or
quicksilver. The word is formed of v$ao, aqua, “ wa¬
ter,” and wgyvgoj, argentum, “ silver j” q. d. water of
silver, on account of its resembling liquid or melted
silver.
HYDRAULICS, the science of the motion of
fluids and the construction of all kinds of machines re ¬
lating thereto. See Hydrodynamics in this work,
and Hydraulics, Supplement.
HYDRENTEROCELE, in Surgery, a species of
hernia, wherein the intestines descend into the scro¬
tum, together with a quantity of water.
HYDROCEPHALUS, a preternatural distension
of the head to an uncommon size by a stagnation and
extravasation of the lymph } which, when collected in
the inside of the cranium, is then termed internal; as
that collected on the outside is termed external. See
Medicine Index.
HYDROCHARIS, the Little Water-lily, a
genus of plants belonging to the dicecia class, and in
the natural method ranking under the first order, Pal-
mee. See Botany Index.
HYDROCQTYLE, Water -navelwort, a ge¬
nus of plants belonging to the pentandria class, and
in the natural method ranking under the 45th order,
Umbellatw. See Botany Index.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
[ 697 J
HYDRODYNAMICS.
iUaiy- , i. TTYDRODYNAMICS, from « water,” and
fniif'on U power,” is properly that science which
treats of the power of wrater, whether it acts by pressure
or by impulse. In its more enlarged acceptation, how¬
ever, it treats of the pressure, equilibrium, cohesion,
and motion of fluids, and of the machines by which
water is raised, or in which that fluid is employed as
the first mover. Hydrodynamics is divided into two
branches, Hydrostatics and Hydraulics. Hydrostatics
comprehends the pressure, equilibrium, and cohesion of
fluids, and Hydraulics their motion, together with the
machines in which they are chiefly concerned.
HISTORY.
drody- 2> The science of hydrodynamics was cultivated
in with less success among the ancients than any other
a branch of mechanical philosophy. When the human
deni mind had made considerable progress in the other de-
snce. partments of physical science, the doctrine of fluids had
not begun to occupy the attention of philosophers 5 and,
if we except a few propositions on the pressure and
equilibrium of water, hydrodynamics must be regarded
as a modern science, which owes its existence and im¬
provement to those great men who adorned the 17th
and 18th centuries.
scoveries 2. Those general principles of hydrostatics which
des'1' are to this day employed as the foundation of that part
of the science, were first given by Archimedes in his
work De Insidentibus Humido, about 250 years before
the birth of Christ, and were afterwards applied to ex¬
periments by Marinus Ghetaldus in his Archimedes
Promotus. Archimedes maintained that each particle
of a fluid mass, when in equilibrio, is equally pressed
in every direction; and he inquired into the conditions,
according to which a solid body floating in a fluid
should assume and preserve a position of equilibrium.
We are also indebted to the philosopher of Syracuse
for that ingenious hydrostatic process by which the
purity of the precious metals can be ascertained, and
for the screw engine which goes by bis name, the
theory of which has lately exercised the ingenuity of
some of our greatest mathematicians.
4. In the Greek school at Alexandria which flourish¬
ed under the auspices of the Ptolemies, the first at¬
tempts were made at the construction of hydraulic ma-
entions chinery. About 1 20 years after the birth of Christ,
r-usibiustjje fountain of compression, the syphon, and the for¬
cing pump, were invented by Ctesibius and Hero ; and
though these machines operated by the elasticity and
weight of the air, yet their inventors had no distinct
notions of these preliminary branches of pneumatical
science. The syphon is a simple instrument which is
employed to empty vessels full of water or spirituous
, ci«S liquors, and is of great utility in the arts. The forcing
' ^ pump, on the contrary, is a complicated and abstruse
invention, which could scarcely have been expected in
] pt;an the infancy of hydraulics. It was probably suggested
! id. to Ctesibius by the Egyptian wheel or Noria, which
Vol. X. Part II. " t
was common at that time, and which wras a kind of Hiitpry.
chain pump, consisting of a number of earthen pots
carried round by a wheel. In some of these machines
the pots have a valve in their bottom which enables
them to descend without much resistance, and dimi¬
nishes greatly the load upon the wheel; and if we sup¬
pose that this valve was introduced so early as the time
of Ctesibius, it is not difficult to perceive how such a
machine might have led this philosopher to the inven¬
tion of the forcing pump.
5. Notwithstanding these inventions of the Alexan-Labours of
drian school, its attention does not seem to have been Sextus Ju-
directed to the motion of fluids. The first attempt to*‘us
investigate this subject was made by Sextus Julius
Frontinus, inspector of the public fountains at Rome
in the reigns of Nerva and Trajan ; and we may justly
suppose that his work entitled De Aqiiceductibus urbis
Romce Commentarius contains all the hydraulic know¬
ledge of the ancients. Alter describing the Roman
aqueducts, and mentioning the dates of their erection,
he considers the methods which were at that time em¬
ployed for ascertaining the quantity of water discharged
from adjutages, and the mode of distributing the waters
of an aqueduct or a fountain. He justly remarks that
the ex pence of water from an orifice, depended not on¬
ly on the magnitude of the orifice itself, but also on the
height of the water in the reservoir ; and that a pipe
employed to carry off a portion of water from an aque¬
duct, should, as circumstances required, have a position
more or less inclined to the original direction of the
current. But as he was unacquainted with the true
law of the velocities of running water as depending
upon the depth of the orifice, we can scarcely be sur¬
prised at the want of precision which appears in his
results.
6. The labours of the ancients in the science of hy¬
drodynamics terminated with the life of Frontinus. The
sciences had already begun to decline, and that night
of ignorance and barbarism was advancing apace,whicti
for more than a thousand years brooded over the nations
of Europe. During this lengthened period of mental
degeneracy, when less abstruse studies ceased to attract
the notice, and rouse the energies of men, the human
mind could not be supposed capable of that vigorous
exertion, and patient industry, which are so indispensa¬
ble in physical researches. Poetry and the fine arts, Labour of
accordingly had made considerable progress under the Galileo,
patronage of the family of Medici, before Galileo began
to extend the boundaries of science. This great man,
who deserves ‘0 be called the father and restorer of
physics, does not appear to have directed his attention
to the doctrine of fluids: but his discovery of the uni¬
form acceleration of gravity, laid the foundation of its
future progress, and contributed in no small degree to
aid the exertions of genius in several branches of
science.
7. Castelli and Torricelli, two of the disciples ofofCastelli
Galileo, applied the discoveries of their master to the
science of hydrodynamics. In 1628 Castelli published
4 T a
693
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Of Torri¬
celli.
History, a small work, in which he gave a very satisfactory ex-
 v1— -> planation of several plienomena in the motion ol fluids.
But he committed a great paralogism in supposing the
velocity of the water proportional to the depth oi the
orifice below the surface of the vessel, lorricelli ob¬
serving that \n‘A jet iTeau where the water rushed through
a small adjutage, it rose to nearly the same height with
the reservoir from which it was supplied, imagined that
it ought to move with the same velocity as if it had fallen
through that height by the force of gravity. And
hence he deduced this beautiful and important proposi¬
tion, that the velocities of fluids are as the square roots
of the pressures, abstracting from the resistance of the
air and the friction of the orifice. This theorem was
published in 1643, *nhis treatise-De-Motw Gravtum rta-
turaliter accelerato. It was afterwards confirmed by the
experiments of Raphael Magiotti, on the expence of
water discharged from different adjutages under differ¬
ent pressure ; and though it is true only in small ori¬
fices, it gave a new turn to the science of hydraulics.
8. After the death of the celebrated Pascal, who
discovered the pressure of the atmosphere, a treatise on
the equilibrism of fluids was found among his manu¬
scripts, and was given to the public in 1662. In the
hands of Pascal, hydrostatics assumed the dignity of a
science. The laws of the equilibrium of fluids were
demonstrated in the most perspicuous and simple man¬
ner. and amply confirmed by experiments. The dis-
of the
Of Pascal.
Of Mari-
®tte.
covery of Torricelli, it may be supposed, would have in¬
cited Pascal to the study of hydraulics. But as he has
not treated this subject in the work which has been
mentioned, it was probably composed before that disco¬
very had been made public.
9, The theorem of Torricelli was employed by many
succeedii g writers, but particularly by the celebrated
Mariotte, whose labours in this department of physics
deserve to be recorded. His TraitS du Mouvementdes
eaux, which was published after his death in the year
1686, is founded on a great variety of well conducted
experiments on the motion of fluids, performed at Ver¬
sailles and Chantilly. In the discussion of some points, he
has committed considerable mistakes. Others he has
treated very superficially, and in none of his experiments
does he seem to have attended to the diminution of efflux
arising from the contraction of the fluid vein, when the
orifice is merely a perforation in a thin plate j but he
appears to have been the first who attempted to ascribe
the discrepancy between theory and experiment to the
retardation of the water’s velocity arising from friction.
His cotemporary Guglielmirti, who was inspector of
the rivers and canals in the Milanese, had ascribed this
diminution of velocity in rivers, to transverse motions
arising from inequalities in their bottom. But as Ma¬
riotte observed similar obstructions, even in glass pipes,
where no transversecurrentscouldexist,thecauseassign-
cd by Guglielmini seemed destitute of foundation. The
French philosopher therefore regarded these obstruc¬
tions as the effects of friction. He supposes that the
filaments of water which graze along the sides of the
pipe lose a portion of their velocity j that the contigu¬
ous filaments having on this account a greater velocity,
rub upon the former, and suffer a diminution of their
celerity-, and that the other filaments are affected with
similar retardations proportional to the distance from
the axis of the pipe. In this way the medium velocity
3 current may be diminished, and consequently the Hisi0,.y#
quantity of water discharged in a given time, must,' y—.
from the effects of friction, be considerably less than
that which is computed from theory.
10. That part of the science of hydrodynamics which The moti,*
relates to the motion of rivers seems to have originated of riTtrs
in Italy. This fertile country receives from the Appen- a»«nd.
nines a great number of torrents, which traverse several w
principalities before they mingle their waters with those
of the Po, into which the greater part of them fall.
To defend themselves from the inundations with which
they were threatened, it became necessary for the in¬
habitants to change the course of their rivers j and
while they thus drove them from their own territories,
they let them loose on those of their neighbours. Hence
arose the continual quarrels which once raged between
the Bolognese, and the inhabitants of Modena and Fer¬
rara. The attention of the Italian engineers was neces¬
sarily directed to this branch of science *, and hence a
greater number of works were vvritten on the subject in
Italy than in all the rest of Europe.
11. Guglielmini was the first who attended to the Theory ef
motion of water in rivers and open canals. Embra-Guglie!.
cing the theorem of Torricelli, which had been con- '“um-
firmed by repeated experiments, Guglielmini concluded
that each particle in the perpendicular section of a cur¬
rent has a tendency to move with the same velocity as
if it issued from an orifice at the same depth from the
surface. The consequences deducible from this theory
of running waters are in every respect repugnant to ex¬
perience, and it is really surprising that it should have
been so hastily adopted by succeeding writers. Gug¬
lielmini himself was sufficiently sensible that his parabo¬
lic theory was contradictory to fact, and endeavoured
to reconcile them by supposing the motion of rivers
to be obstructed by transverse currents arising from ir¬
regularities in their bed. The solution of this difficulty
as given by Mariotte was more satisfactory, and was
afterwards adopted by Guglielmini, who maintained also
that the viscidity of water had a considerable share in
retarding its motion.
12. The effects of friction and viscidity in diminish-Dil0.1TeFi,
ing the velocity of running water were noticed in the«f SirisM'
Principia of Sir Isaac Newton, who has thrown much Newton,
light upon several branchesof hydrodynamics. Atatime
when theCartesian systemof vorticesuniversally prevail¬
ed, this great man found it necessary to investigate that
absurd hypothesis, and in the course of his investigation
he has shown that the velocity of any stratum of the vor¬
tex is an arithmetical mean between the velocities of
the strata which enclosed it ; and from this it evidently
follows, that the velocity of a filament of water moving
in a pipe is an arithmetical mean between the velocities
of the filaments which surround it. Taking advantage
of these results, it was afterwards shewn by M. Pitot
that the retardations arising from friction are inversely
as the diameters of the pipes in which the fluid moves.
The attention of Newton was also directed to the dis¬
charge of water from orifices in the bottom ot vessels.
He supposed a cylindrical vessel full of water to be per¬
forated in its bottom with a small hole by which the
water escaped, and the vessel to be supplied with water
in such a mannner that it always remained full at the
same height. He then supposed this cylindrical column
of water to be divided into two parts j the first being
5; osi
1*
HYDRODYNAMICS.
699
story a I'yper^0l°i^ genera^e^ ^ie revolution of a byper-
, y bola of the fifth degree around the axis of the cylinder
which should pass through the orifice; and the second
the remainder of the water in the cylindrical vessel.
He considered the horizontal strata of this hyperboloid
as always in motion, while the remainder of the water
was in a state of rest; and imagined that there was a
kind of cataract in the middle of the fluid. When the
results of this theory were compared with the quantity
of water actually discharged, Newton concluded that
the velocity with which the water issued from the ori¬
fice was equal to that which a falling body would re¬
ceive by descending through half the height of water
in the reservoir. This conclusion, however, is absolute¬
ly irreconcileable with the known fact, that jets of wa¬
ter rise nearly to the same height as their reservoirs,
and Newton seems to have been aware of this objection.
In the second edition of his Principia, accordingly,
which appeared in Stf Isaac has reconsidered his
theory. He had discovered a contraction in the vein
of fluid which issued from the orifice, and found that at
the distance of about a diameter of the aperture, the
section of the vein was contracted in the subduplicate
ratio of 2 to I. He regarded therefore the section of
the contracted vein as the true orifice from which the
discharge of water ought to be deduced, and the velo¬
city of the effluent water as due to the whole height of
water in the reservoir ; and by this means his theory
became more conformable to the results of experience.
This theory however is still liable to serious objections.
The formation of a cataract is by no means agreeable
to the laws of hydrostatics; for when a vessel is emp¬
tied bv the efflux of water through an orifice in its
bottom, all the particles of the fluid direct themselves
toward this orifice, and therefore no part of it can he
considered as in a state of repose,
j* oscil- l3- The subject of the oscillation of waves, one of
on of" the most difficult in the science of hydrodynamics, was
ve* first first investigated by Sir Isaac Newton. By the 44th
Mdered proposition of the 2d hook of his Principia, he has fur-
Jffewton. njsjie(| us a method of ascertaining the velocity of
the waves of the sea, by observing the time in which
thev rise and fall. If the two vertical branches of a
syphon which communicate by means of a horizontal
branch be filled with a fluid of known density, the two
fluid columns when in a state of rest will be in equili-
brio and their surfaces horizontal. But it the one co¬
lumn is raised above the level of the other, and left to
itself, it will descend below that level, and raise the
other’column above it; and after a few oscillations,
they will return to a state of repose. Newton occupied
himself in determining the duration of these oscilla¬
tions, or the length of a pendulum isochronous to their
duration; and he found by a simple process of reason¬
ing, that, abstracting from the efiects of friction, the
length of a synchronous pendulum is equal to one-halt
of the length of the syphon, that is, of the two vertical
branches and the horizontal one, and hence lie dedu¬
ced the isochronism of these oscillations. From this
Newton concluded, that the velocity of waves foimed
on the surface of water either by the wind or by means
of a stone, was in the subduplicate ratio of their size.
When their velocity therefore is measured, which can
be easily done, the size of the waves will be determined
by taking a pendulum which oscillates in the time that History,
a wave takes to rise and fall. ' v 1
14. In the year 1718 the Marquis Poleni publish-I'abo,irs of
ed at Padua his work De Castcllis per qvce dcrivantitr *^• s^;
Fluviorum aqtue, &c. He found from a great number <*UlS
of experiments, that if A be the aperture of the orifice,
and D its depth below the surface of the reservoir, the
quantity of water discharged in a given time will be as
2 AD while it ought to be as 2 AD, if the
velocity of the issuing fluid was equal to that acquired
by falling through D. By adapting to a circular ori¬
fice through which the water escaped, a cylindrical
tube of the same diameter, the marquis found that the
quantity discharged in a determinate time was consi¬
dered greater than when it issued from the circular
orifice itself; and this happened whether the water
descended perpendicularly or issued in a horizontal di¬
rection.
15. Such was the state of hydrodynamics in 17^8, ^er*
when Daniel Bernouilii published his Hydrodynamica,™^1^}
sen de viribus et nwtibus Fluidorum Commcntarii. His niotj0n
theory of the motion of fluids was founded on two sup-of fluids,
positions, which appeared to him conformable to expe¬
rience. He supposed that the surface of a fluid, con¬
tained in a vessel which was emptying itself by an ori¬
fice, remains always horizontal; and if the fluid mass is
conceived to be divided into an infinite number of ho¬
rizontal strata of the same bulk, that these strata remain
contiguous to each other, and that all their points de¬
scend vertically, with velocities inversely proportional
to their breadth, or to the horizontal sections of the re¬
servoir. In order to determine the motion of each stra¬
tum, he employed the principle of the conservatio viri-
um vivarutn, and obtained very elegant solutions. In
the opinion of the abb£ Bossut, his work was one of the
finest productions of mathematical genius.
16. The uncertainty of the principle employed by ®k,jecle^ to
Daniel Bernouilii, which lias never been demonstrated lb^l^na^au'
in a general manner, deprived his results of that confi-j0hn Bcr-
dence which they would otherwise have deserved; andnouilli,
rendered it desirable to have a theory more certain,wlloreso^ve
and depending solely on the fundamental laws of nie*
chanics. Maclaurin and John Bernouilii, who were ofmore direct
this opinion, resolved the problem by more direct me-methods,
thods, the one in his Fluxions, published in 1742; and
the other in his Hydraulica nunc primum dctectay et di-
recte demonstrate! ex pi'incipiis pure mechanicis, which
forms the fourth volume of his works. The method
employed by Maclaurin has been thought not suffici¬
ently rigorous ; and that of John Bernouilii is, in the
opinion of La Grange, defective in perspicuity and pre-
17. The theory of Daniel Bernouilii was opposed ^
also by the celebrated D’Alembert. When general!- j^rt
sing James Bernouilli’s Theory of Pendulums, he dis- pi* ot'dyl
covered a principle of dynamics so simple and general, n imics to
that it reduced the laws of the motion of bodies to that^e motioa
of their equilibrium. He applied this principle to tbe0^
motion of fluids, and gave a specimen of its application
at the end of his Dyn amics in 1743. It was more
fully developed in his Traite des Fluides, which was
published in 1744, where he has resolved, in the most
simple and elegant manner, all the problems which re-
4 T 2 late
HYDRODYNAMICS.
History, late to the equilibrium and motion of fluids. He makes
use 0f ^|ie very same suppositions as Daniel Jjernouilli,
thougli bis calculus is established in a very dillerent
manner. He considers, at every instant, the actual
motion of a stratum, as composed of a motion which it
had in the preceding instant, and of a motion which it
lias lost. The laws of equilibrium between the motions
lost, furnish him with equations which represent the
motion of the fluid. Although the science of hydrody¬
namics had then made considerable progress, yet it was
chiefly founded on hypothesis. It remained a deside¬
ratum to express by equations the motion of a particle
of the fluid in any assigned direction. These equations
were found by D’Alembert, from two principles, that
a rectangular canal, taken in a mass of fluid in equili-
hrio, is itself in equilibvio j and that a portion of the
fluid, in passing from one place to another, preserves
the same volume when the fluid is incompressible, or
dilates itself according to a given law when the fluid is
elastic. His very ingenious method was published in
1752, in his Essai sur la resistance desfiuides. It was
brought to perfection in his Opuscules Mathematiques,
and has been adopted by the celebrated Tulei.
Before the time of D’Alembert, it was the great
object of philosophers to submit the motion of fluids to
general formulae, independent of all hypothesis. Their
attempts, however, were altogether tiuitless j for the
method of fluxions, which produced such impoitaut
changes in the physical sciences, was but a feeble auxi-
liaiy in the science of hydraulics. For the resolution
of the questions concerning the motion of fluids, we
are indebted to the method of partial differences, a new
calculus, with which Euler enriched the sciences. This
t reat discovery was first applied to the motion of water
by the celebrated D’Alembert, and enabled both him
. and Euler to represent the theory of fluids in formulae
restrained by no particular hypothesis.
Expeii- 18. An immense number of experiments on the mo¬
ments of tion of water in pipes and canals was made by Pro-
Michelotti. fessor Miohelotti of Turin, at the expence of the sove¬
reign. In these experiments the water issued from holes
of different sizes, under pressures of from five to twenty-
two feet, from a tower constructed of the finest ma¬
sonry* Basons built of masonry, and lined with stucco,
received the effluent water, which was conveyed in ca¬
nals of brickwork lined with stucco, of various forms
•and declivities. The whole of Michelotti’s experiments
were conducted with the utmost accuracy 5 and his re¬
sults are, in every respect, entitled to our confidence.
Oi the 19. The experiments of the Abbe Bossut, whose la-
Abbe Bos- hours in this department of science have been very as-
iUl- siduous and successful, have, in as far as they coincide,
afforded the same results as those of Michelotti. Though
performed on a smaller scale, they are equally entitled
to our confidence, and have the merit of being made in
cases which are most likely to occur in practice. In
order to determine what were the motions of the fluid
particles in the interior of a vessel emptying itself by
an orifice, M. Bossut employed a glass cylinder, to the
bottom of which different adjutages were fitted j and he
found that all the particles descend at first vertically,
hut that at a certain distance from the orifice they turn
from their first direction towards the aperture. In con¬
sequence of these oblique motions, the fluid vein forms
a kind of truncated conoid, whose greatest base is the
orifice itself, having its altitude equal to the radius of jj;st01,y
the orifice, and its bases in the ratio of 3 to 2.— ft ap- ——
pears also, from the experiments of Bossut, that when
water issues through an orifice made in a thin plate,
the expence of water, as deduced irom theory, is to
the veal expence as 16 to 10, or as 8 to 5 ; and, when
the fluid issues through an additional tube, two or three
inches long, and follows the sides ol the tube, as 16 to
13.—In analyzing the effects of friction, lie found,
I. That small orifices gave less water in proportion than
great ones, on account of friction ; and, 2. That when
the height of the reservoir was augmented, the contrac¬
tion of the fluid vein was also increased, and the ex¬
pence of water diminished ; and by means of these two
laws he was enabled to determine the quantity of water
discharged, with all the precision he could wish. In
his experiments on the motion of water in canals and
tubes, he found that there was a sensible difference be¬
tween the motion of water in the former and the latter.
Under the same height of reservoir, the same quantity
of water always flows in a canal, whatever be its length
and declivity •, whereas, in a tube, a difference in length
and declivity has a very considerable influence on the
quantity of water discharged.—According to the theory
of the resistance of fluids, the impulse upon a plane sur¬
face, is as the product of its area multiplied by the
square of the fluid’s velocity, and the square of the sine
of the angle of incidence. The experiments of Bossnt,
made in conjunction with D’ Alembert and Condorcet,
prove, that this is sensibly, true when the impulse is per¬
pendicular j but that the aberrations from theory in¬
crease with the angle of impulsion. They found, that
when the angle of impulsion was between 6o° and 90°,
the ordinary theory may be employed, that the resist¬
ances thus found will be a little less than they ought
to be, and the more so as the angles recede from 90T
The attention of Bossut was directed to a variety of
other interesting points, which we cannot stop to notice,
but for which, must refer the reader to the works of
that ingenious author.
20. The oscillation of waves, which was first dis-jn([Ujf^5 0j
cussed by Sir Isaac Newton, and afterwards by D’A-m. Flau-
lembert, in the article O/ides, in the French Ency-gergues
clopeedia, was now revived by M. Flaugergues, wh0concerning
attempted to overthrow the opinions of these philoso-]aljon
pliers. He maintained, that a wave is not the effect of wave*.
a motion in the particles of water, by which they rise
and fall alternately, in a serpentine line, when moving
from the centre where they commenced ; but that it is
a kind of intumescence, formed by a depression at the
place where the impulse is first made, which propagates
itself in a circular maimer when removing from the
point of impulse. A portion of the water, thus elevat¬
ed, he imagines, flows from all sides into the hollow
formed at the centre of impulse, so that the water be¬
ing, as it were, heaped up, produces another intumes¬
cence, which propagates itself as formerly. From this
theory, M. Flaugergues concludes, and he has confirm¬
ed the conclusion by experiment, that all waves, whe¬
ther great or small, have the same velocity.
21. This difficult subject has also been discussed byAndofM*
M. de la Grange, in his Mecanique Analytique. He de
found, that the velocity of waves, in a canal, is equal Gia'loC‘
to that which a heavy body would acquire by falling
through a height equal to half the depth of the water
in
p t II.
H rosta- >n canal. If this depth, therefore, be one foot, the
[cs. velocity of the waves will be 5.495 feet in a second;
w v—anll if the depth is greater or less than this, their velocity
will vary in the subduplicate ratio of the depth, provided
it is not very considerable. If we suppose that, in the
formation of waves, the water is agitated but to a very
small depth, the theory of La Grange may be employed,
whatever be the depth of the water and the figure of its
bottom. This supposition, which is very plausible, when
we consider the tenacity and adhesion of the particles
of water, has also been confirmed by experience.
E ri- 22. The most successful labourer in the science of
in is and hydrodynamics, tvas the chevalier Buat, engineer in
tl 'leva ordinary to the king of France. Following in the steps
,je of the abbe Bossut, he prosecuted the inquiries of that
B t, philosopher with uncommon ingenuity ; and in the
year 1786, he published his Principes d'l-lydrauh'que,
which contains a satisfactory theory of the motion of
fluids founded solely upon experiments. The che¬
valier du Buat considered, that if water were a per¬
fect fluid, and the channels in which it flowed infi¬
nitely smooth, its motion would be. continually accele¬
rated, like that of bodies descending in an inclined
plane. But as the motion of rivers is not continually
accelerated, and soon arrives at a state of uniformity, it
is evident that the viscidity of the water, and the fric¬
tion of the channel in which it descends, must equal the
accelerating force. M. Buat, therefore, assumes it as
a proposition of fundamental importance, that when
water flows in any channel or bed, the accelerating
force, which obliges it to move, is equal to the sum of
all the resistances which it meets with, whether they
arise from its own viscidity or from the friction of its
tied. This principle was employed by M. Buat, in
the first edition of his work, which appeared in 1779’
but the theory contained in that edition was founded
on the experiments of others. He soon saw, however,
that a theory so new, and leading to results so different
from the ordinary theory, should be founded on new
experiments more direct than the former, and he was
employed in the performance of these from 1780 to
1783. The experiments of Bossut having been made
only on pipes of a moderate declivity, M. Buat found
it necessary to supply this delect. He used declivities of
every kind, from the smallest to the greatest; and made
his experiments upon channels, from a line anti a hall
701
in diameter, or seven or eight square toises. All these Hydrosta-
experiments he arranged under some circumstances of tics,
resemblance, and produced the following proposition, l"“' «
which agrees in a most wonderful manner with the im¬
mense number of facts which he has brought toge-
, . 307 X vA/—01 — 
ther, viz. V—;—— —  —°.3 X d—0.1, where
.9—li,y/S -f" 1 *£)
d is the hydraulic mean depth, s the slope of the pipe,
or of the surface of the current, and V the velocity
with which the water issues. The theory of M. Buat,
with its application to practice, will be found in the ar¬
ticles Fiver and IFater-JProrks.
23. M. Venturi, professor of natural philosophy in the Researches
university of Modena, has lately brought to light some of M. Ven-
cui ious facts respecting the motion of water, in his work111™-
on the “ Lateral Communication of Motion in Fluids.”
He observed, that if a current of water is introduced with
a certain velocity into a vessel filled with the same fluid
at rest, and if this current passing through a portion of
the fluid is received in a curvilineal channel, the bottom
of which gradually rises till it passes over the rim of the.
vessel itself, it will carry along with it the flnid contained
in the vessel; so that after a short time has elapsed, there
remains only the portion of the fluid which was originally
below the aperture at which the current entered. 1 his
phenomenon has been called by Venturi, the lateral
communication of motion in fluids; and, by its assistance,
be has explained many important facts in hydraulics.
He has not attempted to explain this principle; hut has
shewn, that the mutual action of the fluid particles does
not afford a satisfactory explanation of it. The work
of Venturi contains many other interesting discussions,
which are worthy of the attention of every reader.
24. The science of hydrodynamics has of late years Experi-
been cultivated by M. Eytelwein of Berlin, whose prac-monts of
tical conclusions coincide nearly with those ol Bossut;— Eytehvein
by Dr Matthew Young, late bishop oi Clonfert, whoan< 01 ieLS*
has explained the cause of the increased velocity of ef¬
flux through additional tubes, and by Mr Vince, Dr
T. Young, Coulomb, and Don George Juan ; but the
limits of this work will not permit us to give any fur¬
ther account of their labours at present. We must now
proceed to initiate the reader into the science itself, be¬
ginning with that branch of it which relates to the pies-
sure, equilibrium, and cohesion of non-elastic fluids.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
PART I. HYDROSTATICS.
1 liiition 25‘ HYDROSTATICS is that branch of the sci-
< vdro- ence of hydrodynamics which comprehends the pressure
! ‘cs. and equilibrium of non-elastic fluids, as water, oil, mer¬
cury, &c.; the method of determining the specific
gravities of substances, the equilibrium of floating bo¬
dies (a), and the phenomena of capillary attraction.
Definitions and Preliminary Observations.
- initiou 26. A fluid is a collection of very minute particles, co-
' fluid, hering so little among themselves, that they yield to the
smallest force, and are easily moved among one another,
feet 27. Fluids have been divided into perfect and imper-
* Is.
feet. In perfect fluids the constituent particles are sup¬
posed to be endowed with no cohesive force, and to be
moved one among another by a pressure infinitely small.
But, in imperfect or viscous fluids, the mutual cohesion IiM^erfect
of their particles is very sensible, as in oil, varnish,a,
melted glass, &c. ; and this tenacity prevents them
from yielding to the smallest pressure. Although wa¬
ter, mercury, alcohol, &c. have been classed among
perfect fluids, yet it is evident that neither these nor
any other liquid is possessed of perfect fluidity. VS hen
a glass vessel is filled with water above the brim, it as¬
sumes a convex surface; and when a quantity of it is
thrown
(a) The discussion of this subject is reserved as an introduction to the article Suip-Bmlding.
Florentine
e«q>en-
raeat.
Compressi¬
bility of
water first
noticed by
Lord Ba-
Fluids di-
irided into
compres¬
sible and
incompres¬
sible-
Compressi¬
bility of
water as¬
certained
by Mr Cain
ton,
H Y D R O D
thrown on the floor, it is dispersed into a variety of
little globules, which can scarcely be separated from
one another. Even mercury, the most perfect of all
the fluids, is endowed with such a cohesive force among
its particles, that if a glass tube, with a small bore, is
immersed in a vessel full of this fluid, the mercury will
he lower in the tube than the surface o; tLe surrounding
fluid ;—if a small quantity of it be put in a glass vessel,
with a gentle risino in the middle ol its bottom, the
mercury will desert the middle, and form itsell into a
ring, considerably rounded at the edges j or if several
drops of mercury be placed upon a piece of flat glass,
they will assume a spherical form j and if brought with¬
in certain limits, they will conglobulate and form a
single drop. Now, all these pnenomena concur to
prove, that the particles of water have a mutual attrac¬
tion for each other ; that the particles of mercury have
a greater attraction for one another, than for the parti¬
cles of glass ; and, consequently, that these substances
are not entitled to the appellation of perfect fluids.
28. It was universally believed, till within the last
45 years, that water, mercury, and other fluids of a si¬
milar kind, could not be made to occupy a smaller
space, by the application of any external force. This
opinion was founded on an experiment made by Lord
Bacon, who inclosed a quantity of water in a leaden
globe, and by applying a great force attempted to
compress the water into less space than it occupied at
first: The water, however, made its way through the
pores of the metal, and stood on its surface like dew.
The same experiment was afterwards repeated at Flo¬
rence by the academy del Cimento, who filled a silver
globe with water, and hammered it with such force as
to alter its form, and drive the water through the pores
of the metal. Though these experiments were gene¬
rally reckoned decisive proofs of incompressibility^yet
Bacon himself seems to have drawn from his experi¬
ment a very different conclusion ; for after giving an
account of it, he immediately adds, that he computed
into how much less space the icater was driven by this
violent pressure (b). This passage from Lord Bacon
does not seem to have been noticed by any writer on
hydrostatics, and appears a complete proof that the
compressibility of water was fairly deducible from the
issuse of his experiment. In consequence of the reliance
which was universally placed on the result of the Flo¬
rentine experiment, fluids have generally been divided
into compressible and incompressible, or elastic and non-
elastic fluids: water, oil, alcohol, and mercury, being re¬
garded as incompressible and non elastic; and air, steam,
and other aeriform fluids, as compressible or elastic.
29. About the year 1761, the ingenious Mr Canton
began to consider this subject with attention, and distrust¬
ing the result obtained by the academy del Cimento,
resolved to bring the question to a decisive issue (c).
Having procured a small glass tube, about two feet
lontr, with a ball at one end, an inch and a quarter in
diameter, he filled the ball and part of the tube with
Y N A M I C S.
mercury, and brought it to the temperature of 50° of
Fahrenheit. The mercury then stood six inches and a
half above the ball ; but after it had been raised to the
top of the tube by heat, and the tube sealed hermeti¬
cally, then, upon bringing the mercury to its former
temperature of 50°, it stood ,y6-th of an inch higher in
the tube than it did before. By repeating the same
experiment witli water exhausted of air, instead of mer¬
cury, the water stood iVo^1 an *nch higher in the
tube than it did at first. Hence it is evident, that
when the weight of the atmosphere was removed, the
water and mercury expanded, and that the water ex¬
panded xV^th of an inch more than the mercury. By
placing the apparatus in the receiver of a condensing
engine, and condensing the air in the receiver, he in¬
creased the pressure upon the water, and found that it
descended in the tube. Having thus ascertained the
fact, that water and mercury are compressible, he sub¬
jected other fluids to similar experiments, and obtained
the results iu the fallowing table.
Parti, la
Hydrasla-
tifli.
Millionth Parts.
Compression of mercury, 3
sea-water, 40
rain-water, 46
oil of olives, 48
spirit of wine,66
Specific Gravity.
J3‘S9S
j.028
1.000
0.918
0.846
Zimmef-
mau.
Lest it should be imagined that this small degree of
compressibility arose from air imprisoned in the water,
Mr Canton made the experiment on some water which
had imbibed a considerable quantity of air, and found
that its compressibility was not in the least augmented.
By inspecting the preceding table, it will be seen that
the compressibility of the different fluids is nearly in the
inverse ratio of their specific gravities.
30. The experiments of Mr Canton have been late-and eon-
ly confirmed by Professor Zimmerman. He found that ^
sea-water was compressed -j-J^th part of its bulk when
inclosed in the cavity of a strong iron cylinder, and un¬
der the influence of a force equal to a column of sea¬
water 1000 feet high. From those facts, it is obvious
that fluids are susceptible of contraction and dilatation,
and that there is no foundation in nature for their be¬
ing divided into compressible and incompressible. If
fluids are compressible, they will also be elastic ; for
when the compressing force is removed, they will reco¬
ver their former magnitude ; and hence their division
into elastic and non-dastic is equally improper.
31. The doctrines of hydrostatics have been dedu¬
ced by different philosophers from different properties
of fluids. Euler has founded his analysis on the follow¬
ing property, “ that when fluids are subjected to any
pressure, that pressure is so diffused throughout the
mass, that when it remains in equilibrio all its parts
are equally pressed in every direction (d).” D’Alem¬
bert at first (e) deduced the principles of hydrostatics
from the property which fluids have of rising to the same
altitude in any number of communicating vessels; but he
afterwards
J(f»r
liiiii
iMfi
nirpi
ii k, ire
(b) Bacon’s works, by Shaw, vol. ii. p. 521. Novum Organum, part ii. sect. 2. aph. 45. § 2 22.
(c) See the Philosophical Transactions for 1762 and 1764, vols lii. and liv.
(d) Nov. Comment. Petropol. tom. xiii. p. 305.
(e) Melanges de Literature^ d'llistoire, et Philosophic.
C ap* I*
* iitirc, afterwards * adopted the same property as Euler from
i|:. of the foundation which it furnishes for an algebraical
iid?. calculus. The same property has been employed by
u J s Bossut, Prony, and other writers, and will form the first
f ict proposition of the following chapter.
$
Chap. I. On the Pressure and Equilibrium of Fluids.
Proposition I.
32. When a mass of fluid, supposed without
weight, is subjected to any pressure, that pres¬
sure is so diffused throughout the whole, that
when it remains in equilibrio all its parts are
equally pressed in every direction.
j parts As it is the distinguishing property of fluids that
»i fluid their particles yield to the smallest pressure, and are
n cted eas[|y moved among themselves (16.), it necessarily
!i avg6** follows, that if any particle is more pressed towards one
„ ny side than towards another, it will move to that side
(h e*i in where the pressure is least) and the equilibrium of the
* fluid mass will be instantly destroyed. But by the hy-
n pothesis the fluid is in equilibrio, consequently the par¬
ticle cannot move towards one side, and must therefore
be equally pressed in every direction.
I»te In order to illustrate this general law, let EF (fig. 1.)
( iXUI. jjg a vessel full 0f any liquid, and let m n, op he. two ori-
1‘ flees at equal depths below its surface j then, in order to
prevent the water from escaping, it will be necessary to
apply two pistons, A and B, to the orifices wj n, 0 p with
the same force, whether the orifice be horizontal or ver¬
tical, or in any degree inclined to the horizon j so that
the pressure to which the fluid mass is subject, which in
this case is its own gravity, must be distributed in every
direction. But if the fluid has no weight, then the pres¬
sure exerted against the fluid at the orifice op, by means
of the piston B, will propagate itself through every part
of the circular vessel EF, so that if the orifices mw, tu
are shut, and rsopen, the fluid would rush through
this aperture in the same manner as it would rush through
tn nov tu, were all the other orifices shut. This proposi¬
tion, however, is true only in the case of perfect fluids j
for when there is a sensible cohesion between the par¬
ticles, as in water, an equilibrium may exist even
when a particle is less pressed in one direction than in
another •, but this inequality of pressure is so exceed¬
ingly trifling, that the proposition may be considered
as true, even in cases of imperfect fluidity.
Prop. II.
I u 33. If to the equal orifices m n, t u, op, r s o£ a
vessel, containing a fluid destitute of weight, be
applied equal powers A, B, C, D, in a perpen¬
dicular direction, or if the orifices m n, &c. be
unequal, and the powers A, B, &c. which are
respectively applied to them be proportional to
the orifices, these powers will be in equilibrio.
It is evident from the last proposition, that the pres¬
sure exerted by the power B is transmitted equally to
the orifices rn n, r s, t u, that the pressure of the power
C is transmitted equally to the orifices ?/*/?, op, t u, and
so on with all the other powers. Every orifice then is
inflaenced with the same pressure, and, consequently,
7°3
none of the powers A, B, C, D, can yield to the action Pressure,
of the rest. The fluid mass, therefore, will neither ef
change its form nor its situation, and the powers A, B, I imds- ^
C, D will be in equilibrio. If the powers A, B, C, D v
are not equal to one another, nor the orifices run, op,
rs, tu ; but if A : Brr/w w : op, and so on with the
rest, the fluid will still be in equilibrio. Let A be
greater than B, then m n will be greater than op; and
whatever number of times B is contained in A, so ma¬
ny times will op he contained in mn. If A=r2B,
then m n~2op, and since the orifice m n is double of
op, the pressure upon it must also be double j and, in
order to resist that pressure, the power A must also be
double of B j but, by hypothesis, Ar=2B, consequent¬
ly the pressures upon the orifices, or the powers A, B,
will be in equilibrio. If the power A is any other
multiple of B, it may be shewn in the same way that
the fluid will be in equilibrio.
Prop. III.
34. The surface of a fluid influenced by the force>
of gravity and in equilibrio in any vessel, is ho¬
rizontal, or at right angles to the direction of
gravity.
Let the surface of the fluid he supposed to assume the The scrfecc
waving form APEB. Any particle P in the surfaceol h*-
of the fluid is influenced by the force of gravity, which
may be represented by PS, and which may be decom¬
posed into two forces Y m, Yn in the direction of the
two elementary portions of the surface P m, Y n, (see
DYNAMICS, 148). But since the particle P is in a state
of equilibrium, the force of gravity acting in the direc¬
tion P tn, Y n must be destroyed by equal and opposite
forces, exerted by the neighbouring particles against P
in the direction in P, « P; therefore the forces P m,
Yn are equal to the forces m P, n P. Now the parti¬
cle P being in equilibrio, must be equally pressed in
every direction (32.). Wherefore the forces Y m, Yn
are equal, and by the doctrine of the composition of
forces (see Dynamics, 133. D), the angle mY n
formed by the two elementary portions P m, P « of the
surface of the fluid, must be bisected by PS, the line
which represents the direction of gravity. The same
may be proved of every other point of the surface of the
fluid j and therefore this surface must be horizontal or
perpendicular to the direction of gravity.
35. This proposition may be otherwise demonstrated.
From the principles of mechanics, it is obvious, that
when the centre of gravity of any body is at rest, the
body itself is at rest ; and that when this centre is not
supported, the body itself will descend, till it is pre¬
vented by some obstacle from getting farther. In the
same manner the centre of gravity of a fluid mass will
descend to the lowest point possible j and it can be
shewn that this centre will be in its lowest position when
the surface of the fluid mass is horizontal. lor let
FGHL (fig. 2.) be any surface, whether solid or fluid, g,. ^
and C its centre of gravity, the point C is nearer the
line HI when EG is parallel to HI and rectilineal,
than when it has any other form or position. When
the surface EGHf is suspended by the point C, or ba¬
lanced upon it, it will be in eqiulibrio 5 but if the line
F is made to assume any other form as Fr s / G, by re¬
moving the portion G op of the surface to r s t, the
equilibrium
HYDRODYNAMICS.
1
7°4
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Part I.
Pressure, equilibrium will be destroyed, and fhe side FG will
Sec- of preponderate. In order, therefore, to restore the equi-
*r*u^g* librium, the surface must be balanced on a point c far-
v ther from HI; that is, the centre of gravity of the sur¬
face Y r st op IH is c. In the same way it may be
shewn, that whatever be the form of the bounding line
FG, the quantity of surface remaining the. same, its
centre of gravity will be nearest HI, when FG is rec¬
tilineal and parallel to it.—On the truth contained in
this proposition depends the art of levelling, and the
construction of the spirit level, for an account of which
see Levelling.
36. As the direction of gravity is in lines which
meet near the centre of the earth j and as it appears
from this proposition, that the surface of fluids is per¬
pendicular to that direction, their surface will be a por¬
tion of a spheroid similar to the earth. W hen the sur¬
face has no great extent, it may be safely considered as
a plane ; but when it is pretty large, the curvature of
the earth must be taken into the account.
Prop. IV.
the sur¬
face of a
fluid in any
number of
connnuni-
caling ves¬
sels is ho¬
rizontal.
F'g- 3-
Fi
3- 4-
This pro¬
position is
not true
when the
eofninuni-
eating ves¬
sels are
capillary
tubes.
37. The surface of a fluid influenced by the force
of gravity, and contained in any number of com¬
municating vessels, however different in form
and position, will be horizontal.
Let A13CDE be a system of communicating vessels
into which a quantity of fluid is conveyed : It will rise
to the same height in each vessel, and have a horizontal
surface ABCDE. Suppose AGFE a large vessel full
of water. By the last proposition, its surface ABCDE
will be horizontal. Now, if any body be plunged into
this vessel, the cylinder C for instance, the surface of
the fluid will still be horizontal 5 for no reason could be
assigned for the water’s rising on one side of this body
any more than on another. Let us now take out the cy¬
linder C, and immerge into the fluid, successively, the
solid bodies A or, B 6, C c, D <7, then after each immer¬
sion the surface will still be horizontal; and when all
these solids are immerged, the large vessel AF will be
converted into the system of communicating vessels re¬
presented in fig. 4..; in which the surface of the fluid
will, of consequence, be horizontal.
38. This proposition may be also demonstrated by
supposing the parts A o, B C c, D r/, converted into
fee without changing their former magnitude. When
this happens, the equilibrium will not be disturbed ;
and the fluid mass AF, whose surface was proved to be
horizontal by the last proposition, will continue in the
same state alter the congelation of some of its parts.
That is, the surface of the fluid in the communicating
vessels A, B, C, D, E will be horizontal.
39. When the communicating vessels are so small
that they may be regarded as capillary tubes, the sur¬
face of the fluid will not be horizontal. From the at¬
traction which all fluids have for glass, they rise to a
greater height in smaller tubes than in larger ones, and
the quantity of elevation is in the inverse ratio of the
diameters of the bores. In the case of mercury, and
probably of melted metals, the fluid substance is de¬
pressed in capillary tubes, and the depression is subject
to the same law. The subject of capillary attraction
will be treated at length in a subsequent part of this Pressure
article. &c. of
40. This proposition explains the reason why the sur- Fhidf.
face of small pools in the vicinity of rivers is always on '‘"""Y—--
a level with the surface of the rivers themselves, when
there is any subterraneous communication between the
river and the pool. The river and the pool may be
considered as communicating vessels.
Prop. V.
41. If a mass of fluid contained in a vessel be in
equilibrio, any particle whatever is equally pres¬
sed in every direction, with a force equal to the
weight of a column of particles whose height is
equal to the depth of the particle pressed below
the surface of the fluid.
Immerse the small glass tube vip, into the vessel AB 5'
filled with any fluid ; then if the tube is not of the ca¬
pillary kind, the fluid will rise to n on the same level
with the surface AB of the fluid in the vessel. Now it
is evident, that the particle j? at the bottom of the tube
mp is pressed downwards by the superincumbent co¬
lumn of particles np, which is equal to the depth of the
particle p below the surface of the fluid. But since
the mass of fluid is in equilibrio, the particle 7) is press¬
ed equally in every direction : Therefore, the particle
p is pressed equally in every direction by a force equal
to the superincumbent column np.
Prop. VI.
42. A very small portion of a vessel of any form,
filled with a fluid, is pressed with a force which
* is in the compound ratio of the number of par¬
ticles contained in that surface, its depth below
the surface of the fluid, and the specific gravity
of the fluid.
Let EB be the vessel, and rs a very small por¬
tion of its surface, the pressure upon r s is in the com¬
pound ratio of the number of particles in r s, and np its
depth below the horizontal surface DB. Suppose the
glass tube mp to be inserted in the infinitely small aper¬
ture yj, then, abstracting from the influence of capil¬
lary attraction, the fluid in the glass tube will ascend to
m on a level with DB, the surface of the fluid in the
vessel, and the particle/; will be pressed with a column
of particles, whose height is np. In the same way it
mav be shewn, that every other particle contained be¬
tween r and $ is pressed with a similar column. Then,
since py^np will represent the pressure of the column
np on the particle p; if N be the number of particles in
the space r s, N X «/> will be the force of the column
supported by the space r s. And as the weight of this
column must increase with the specific gravity o{ the
fluid, SxNxm/? "’ill represent its pressure, S being
the specific gravity of the fluid.
Prop. VII.
43. The pressure upon a given portion of the bottom
of a vessel, whether plane or curved, filled with
any
5
(lap.
] usure,
c. of
nds.
I. HYDRODYNAMICS.
any fluid, is in the compound ratio of the area
of that portion, and the mean altitude of the fluid,
, that is, the perpendicular distance of the centre
of gravity of the given portion from the surface
of the fluid; or, in other words, the pressure is
equal to the weight of a column of fluid whose
base is equal to the area of the given portion, and
whose altitude is the mean altitude of the fluid.
7^5
1 rosta-
ti aradot
1 5.
1 J.
Let AEGB he the vessel, ami AFB the surface of
the fluid which it contains. Let GH be a given por¬
tion of its bottom, and C the centre of gravity of that
portion : Then shall CF be the mean altitude of the
fluid.—Conceive the portion GH to be divided into an
infinite number of small elements II//, Gg, &c. then
(42.) the pressure sustained by the elements II //, Gg,
will be respectively S X H/z, X Hm>; S X Gg X G f, &c.
the specific gravity of the fluid being called S. But it
follows from the nature of the centre of gravity, that
the sum of all these products is equal to the product of
the whole portion GH into CF the distance of its
centre of gravity from the horizontal surface of the
fluid (f). Therefore the pressure upon the portion
GH is in the compound ratio of its surface converted
into a plane, and the mean altitude of the fluid.
44. From this proposition we may deduce what is ge¬
nerally called the Hydrostatic paradox, viz. that the pres¬
sure upon the bottoms of vessels filled with fluid does not
depend upon the quantity of fluid which they contain, but
upon its altitude; or, in other words, that any quantity of
fluid, however small, may be made to balance any quantity
or any weight, however great. Let ACOQBPHB be a
vessel filled with water, the bottom QR will sustain the
same pressure as if it supported a quantity of water equal
to MQRN. It is evident (43-) that the part EF is pres¬
sed with the column of fluid ABEF, and that the part
DG equal to CD is pushed upwards with the weight of
a column equal to ABCD. Now, as action and re¬
action are equal and contrary, the part DG reacts upon
FH with a force equal to the weight of the column
ABCD, and FH evidently sustains the smaller column
DGFH } therefore FH sustains a pressure equal to the
weight of the two columns ABCD and DGIH, that
is, of the column BIHF. In the same way it might be
shewn, that any other equal portion of the bottom QR
sustains a similar pressure; and therefore it follows, that
the pressure upon the bottom QR is as great as if it sup¬
ported the whole column MNQR.
45. The same truth may be deduced from Prop. IV.
For since the fluid in the two communicating vessels Pressure,
AB, CD will rise to the same level, whatever be their of
size, the fluid in AB evidently balances the fluid in
CD ; and any surface mn is pressed with the same force v_
in the direction B wz by the small column AB, as it is
pressed in the direction Dm by the larger column CD.
46. Cor. I. From this proposition it follows thatCorolkilot,
the whole pressure on the sides of a vessel which are
perpendicular to its base, is equal to the weight of a
rectangular prism of the fluid, whose altitude is that of
the fluid, and whose base is a parallelogram, one side of
which is equal to the altitude of the fluid, and the other
to half the perimeter of the vessel.
Cor. 2. The pressure on the surface of a hemisphe¬
rical vessel full of fluid, is equal to the product of its
surface multiplied by its radius.
Cor. 3. In a cubical vessel the pressure against one
side is equal to half the pressure against the bottom ; and
the pressure against the sides and bottom together, is to
that against the bottom alone as three to one. Plence, as
the pressure against the bottom is equal to the weight of
the fluid in the vessel, the pressure against both the sides
and bottom will be equal to three times that weight.
Cor. 4. The pressure sustained by different parts of
the side of a vessel are as the squares of their depths be¬
low the surface ; and if these depths are made the ab¬
scissa of a parabola, its ordinate will indicate the corre¬
sponding pressures.
Definition. Definition,
47. The centre of pressure is that point of a surface
exposed to the pressure of a fluid, to which if the total
pressure were applied, the effect upon the plane would
be the same as when the pressure was distributed over
the whole surface : Or, it is that point to which if a
force equal to the total pressure were applied in a con¬
trary direction, the one would exactly balance the other,
or, in other words, the force applied and the total pres¬
sure would be in equilibrio.
Prop. VIII.
48. The centre of pressure coincides with the
centre of percussion.
Let AB be.a vessel full of water, and CE the sec-To find tlis
tion of a plane whose centre of pressure is required, centre of
Prolong CE till it cuts the surface of the water in M. Press,,feik
Take any point D, and draw DO, EP, CN perpendi¬
cular to the surface MP. Then if M be made the axis
of suspension of the plane CE, the centre of percussion
of
(f) This will be evident from the following proposition. If every indefinitely small part of a surface be multi¬
plied by its perpendicular distance from a given plane, the sum of the products will be equal to the product of the whole
surface, multiplied by the perpendicular distance of its centre of gravity from the same plane. In Plate CCLXIII.
fig. 7. let a, c represent two weights suspended at their centre of gravity by the lines a A, cC attached to the
horizontal plane of which ABC is a section, and let b be the common centre of gravity of these weights and b B
the distance of this centre from the given plane, then oX« A.-t-cXcC—ac X ^ —Draw an, cm at right
angles to AB. Then since £ is the common centre of gravity of the weights a, c, we shall have by the similar
triangles anb,cmb (Euclid VI. 4.) nb : mb—{ba : be—') c : a (See Mechanics, Centre of Gravity). Hence
a'gnbz=.cy,mb, or a X n B—6 B=c X b 1»—m B, or «xra£—aX^BrrcX^B—cX™ B ; then by transposition^
a x n[, cX + But wBrrnA and tnBzzcC, therefore, by substitution ay. a A.
-^cycC—a-^-cybB. By supposing the two weights a and c united in their common centre of gravity, the
same demonstration may be extended to any number of weiguts.
Yol. X. Part II. t 4 V
rc6
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Part I.
JPresiure, of the plane CE revolving round M will also he the
&e. of centre of pressure. If MCE moves round M as a
Fluids, centre, and strikes any object, the percussive force of
V" * any point C is as its velocity, that is, as its distance
CM from the centre of motion ; therefore the percus¬
sive force of the points C, D, E, are as the lines CM,
DM, EM. But the pressures upon the point C, D, E,
are as the lines CN, DO, EP, and these lines are to
one another as CM, DM, EM; therefore the percus¬
sive forces of the points C, D, E, are as the pressures
upon these points. Consequently, the centre of pressure
will always coincide with the centre of percussion.
Sect. II. Instruments and Experiments for illustrat¬
ing the Pressure of Fluids.
Macliiue \YE have already shewn in art. 41. that the pres-
in^theh1 t'8Uie uPon ^ie bottoms of vessels filled with fluids does not
drostatic depend upon the quantity of fluid which they contain,
paradox, but upon its particular altitude. This proposition has
been called the Hydrostatical Paradox, and is excel-
Plate lentlv illustrated by the following machine. In fier. I.
^r,AiY. jg a j)0X w[)Jclj contains about a pound of water,
a* and a b c d a glass tube fixed to the end C of the beam
of the balance, and the other end to a moveable bot¬
tom which supports the water in the box, the bottom
and wire being of an equal weight with an empty scale
hanging at the other end of the balance. If one pound
weight be put into the empty scale, it will make the
bottom rise a little, and the water will appear at the
bottom of the tube a, consequently it will press with a
force of one pound upon the bottom. If another pound
be put into the scale, the water will rise to b, twice as
high as the point a, above the bottom of the vessel. If
a third, a fourth, and a fifth pound be put successively
into the scale, the water will rise at each time to c, dt
and e, the divisions ab, be, cd, de being all equal. This
will be the case, however small be the bore of the glass
tube ; and since when the water is at b, c, d, e, the pres¬
sures upon the bottom are successively twice, thrice,
four times, and five times as great as when the water
was contained within the box, we are entitled to con¬
clude that the pressure upon the bottom of the vessel
depends altogether on the altitude of the water in the
glass tube, and not upon the quantity it contains. If
a long narrow tube full of water, therefore, be fixed
in the top of a cask likewise full of water, then though
the tube be so small as not to hold a pound of the fluid,
the pressure of the water in the tube will be so great
on the bottom of the cask as to be in danger of burst¬
ing it j for the pressure is the same as if the cask was
continued up in its full size to the height of the tube,
The small- and filled with water. Upon this principle it has been
-^affirmed that a certain quantity of water, however small,
Jay exert* may 1)6 rendered capable of exerting a force equal to
a ferce e- aiiy assignable one, by increasing the height of the
qua! to any column, and diminishing the base on which it presses,
assignable This, however, has its limits 5 for when the tube be¬
comes so small as to belong to the capillary kind, the
attraction of the glass will support a considerable quan-
Corntruc- tity of the water it contains, and therefore diminish
tion of the the pressure upon its base.
preceding 50. The preceding machine must be so constructed,
macune. t|,aj t|ie moveai,le bottom may have no friction against
the inside of the box, and that no water may get be-
5
tween it and the box. The method of effecting tins Pressure
will be manifest from fig. 2. where A BCD is a sec- &c. of
tion of the box, and abed its lid, which is made very Fluids,
light. The moveable bottom E, with a groove round
its edges, is put into a bladder fg, which is tied close
around it in the groove, by a strong waxed thread. The
upper part of the bladder is put over the top of the box
at a and d all around, and is kept firm by the lid n ^ c d,
so that if water be poured into the box through the a-
perture / l in its lid, it will be contained in the space
f E g h, and the bottom may be raised by pulling the
wire i fixed to it at E.
51. The upward pressure of fluids is excellently il-Theim-
lustrated by the hydrostatic bellows. The form given ward prei.
to this machine by the ingenious Mr Ferguson (Lee-f,ure of
hires, vol. ii. p. m.) is represented in fig. 3. where f
ABCD is an oblong square box, into one of whose tjle kyA
sides is fixed the upright glass tube a I, which is bent static be!-
into a right angle at the lower end as at i, fig. 4. : ^ows-
To this bent extremity is tied the neck of a large J>4>
bladder K, which lies in the bottom of the box. Over"’
this bladder is placed the moveable board L, figs. 3.
and 4. in which the upright wire M is fixed. Leaden
weights NN, with holes in their centre, to the amount
of 16 pounds, are put upon this wire, and press with
all their weight upon the board L. The cross bar p
is then put on, in order to keep the glass tube in an
upright position ; and afterwards the piece EFG for
keeping the weights NN horizontal, and the wire M
vertical. Four upright pins, about an inch long, are
placed in the corners of the box, for the purpose of sup¬
porting the board L, and preventing it from pressing
together the sides of the bladder. When the machine
is thus fitted up, pour water into the tube I till the
bladder is filled up to the board L. Continue pouring
in more water, and the upward pressure which it will
excite in the bladder will raise the hoard with all the
weights NN, even though the base of the tube should he
so small as to contain no more than an ounce of water.
52. That the pressure of fluids arises from their gravi- Experiment
ty, and is propagated in every direction, may be prov-for shewing
ed by the following experiment. Insert into an empty l'lat
vessel, a number of glass tubes bent into various angles,
Into their lower orifices introduce a quantity of mercury,ironi their
which will rest in the longer legs on a level with these gravity,
orifices. Let the vessel be afterwards filled with water;al)C* '* ij10"
and it will be seen, while the vessel is filling, that the^X
mercury is gradually pressed from the lower orifices to-recliyn.
wards the higher, where the water is prevented from
entering. Now, in consequence of the various angles
into which the glass tubes are bent, the lower orifices
point to almost every direction 5 and therefore it fol¬
lows, that the pressure of the superincumbent water is
propagated in every direction. When a straight tube
is employed to shew the upward pressure of fluids, the
mercury which is introduced into its lower extremity
must be kept in by the finger till the height of the
water above the orifice is equal to fourteen times the
length of the column of quicksilver : When the finger
is removed the mercury will ascend in the tube. tll.u jpe
53. The pressure of the superior strata of fluids upon superior
the interior strata may be shown in the following man-strata
ner. Immerse two tubes of different bores, but not ofuP(>u.llu'
the capillary kind, in a vessel of mercury. The mer- 'st:.ata 0f
cury will rise in the tube on a level with its surface fluid*.
I. H Y D R O D
In the vessel. Let water then be poured upon the
mercury so as not to enter the upper orifices of the
tubes, the pressure of the water upon the inferior fluid
will cause the mercury to ascend in the tubes above the
level of that in the vessel, but to the same height in
both tubes. The columns of quicksilver in the two
tubes are evidently supported by the pressure of the
water on the inferior fluid. The same experiment may
be made with oil and tinged water, the latter being
made the inferior fluid.
D ription 54- The syphon is an instrument which shews the
e( e sy- gravitation of fluids, and is frequently employed for de-
pfi* canting liquors. It is nothing more than a bent tube
f EABCF, having one of its legs longer than the other.
The shorter leg BCF is immersed in the fluid contain¬
ed in the vessel D ; and if, by applying the mouth to
the orifice E, the air be sucked out of the tube, the
water in the vessel D will flow off till it be completely
emptied. Now it is obvious that the atmosphere which
has a tendency to raise the water in the shorter leg EB
by its pressure on the surface of the water at C, has the
same tendency to prevent the water from falling from
the orifice E, by its pressure there, and therefore if the
syphon had equal legs as AB, BC, no water could
possibly issue from the orifice E. But when the leg
EB is longer than BC, the column of fluid which it
contains being likewise longer, will by its superior
weight cause the water to flow from the orifice E, and
the velocity of the issuing fluid will increase as the dif¬
ference between the two legs of the syphon is made
greater.
5$. In order to shew that the effect of the syphon
l !1ewi.?t<lePends uPon tlie gravitat‘ons M. Pascal
tl the'ef* devised the following experiment. In the large glass
f{ of the vessel AB, fasten by means of bees wax two cylindrical
cups a, b, containing tinged water, whose surface is
about an inch higher in the one than in the other.
Into the tinged water insert the legs of a glass syphon
c d, having an open tube e fixed into the middle of it,
and put a wooden cover on the vessel with a hole in
its centre to receive the tube and keep it in a vertical
position. Then through the funneiy’, fixed in another
part of the cover, pour oil of turpentine into the larger
vessel till it flow into the cups a, b, and rise above the
arch of the syphon. The pressure of the oil upon the
tinned water in the cups will cause the water to pass
through the syphon from the higher cup to the lower,
till the surfaces of the water in both the cups be redu¬
ced to a level. In order to explain this, suppose a hori¬
zontal plane e h to pass through the legs of the syphon,
and the tinged water in the cups, the parts of this
plane within the legs when the syphon is full, will be
equally pressed by the columns of tinged water c e, db
within the syphon } but the equal parts of this plane
between the circumference of each leg of the syphon,
and the circumference of each cylindrical cup, their
diameters being equal, will sustain unequal pressures
from their superincumbent columns, through the alti¬
tudes of these columns be equal. For since the pressure
upon e is exerted by a column of oil ci c, and a column
of water a e, whereas the pressure upon b is exerted by
a column of oil h d, and a column of water h b; the
column c e which contains the greatest quantity of wa¬
ter, will evidently exert the greatest force, and by its
pressure will drive the tinged water irom the cup a,
Y N A M I C S.
7°7
s’ on de¬
li Is on
tf rravi-
ti n of
ft >.
F 7-
through the syphon a c d into the cup b, until a perfect Pressure
equilibrium is obtained by an equality between the co- Stc. of
lumns of water a e and h b. Fluids.
Sect. III. Application of the Principles of Hydrostatics
to the Construction of Dykes, &c. for resistijig the
pressure of water.
Definition.
Definition.
A dyke is an obstacle either natural or artificial,
which opposes itself to the constant effort of water to
spread itself in every direction.
56. In discussing this important branch of hydraulic Different
architecture, we must inquire into the thickness and
form whic h must be given to the dyke in order to resistmay
the pressure of the water. In this inquiry the dyke yield to the
may be considered as a solid body which the water pressure of
tends to overthrow by turning it round upon its poste- "T11®0-
rior angle C } or it may be regarded as a solid, whose *
foundation is immoveable, but which does not resist the
pressure of the water through the whole of its height,
and which may be separated into horizontal sections by
the efforts of the fluid. A dyke may he considered also
as a solid body which can he neither broken nor over¬
turned, but which may he pushed horizontally from its
base, and can preserve its stability only by the friction of
its base on the ground which supports it. On these con¬
ditions are founded the calculations in the following
propositions which contain the most useful information
that theory can suggest upon the construction of dykes.
Prop. I.
57. To find the dimensions of a dyke which the
water tends to overthrow by turning it round
its posterior angle.
Let ABCD be the section of the dyke, consider¬
ed as a continuous solid, or a piece of firm masonry,
HK the level of the water which tends to overthrow it
by turning it round its posterior angle C, supposed to
be fixed, and let AC, BD, be right lines or known
curves. It is required to determine CD the thickness
which must be given to its base to prevent it from be¬
ing overturned.
To the surface of the water HK draw the ordinates
PM, p m infinitely near each other, and let fall from
the points H and M the perpendiculars^ HT, MX.
Draw the horizontal line ML and raise the perpendi¬
cular CL, and suppose
HP
PM
P or MV the fluxion of .r =. x
V m the fluxion of y = y
HT = «
DT -b
CD = *
The momentum of the area ABCD, or the
force with which it resists being turned
round the fulcrum C rr Z
The specific gravity of water = s
The specific gravity of the dyke = r
58. It is obvious from art. 41. that every element sus¬
tains a perpendicular pressure proportional to the height
PM. Let ItM perpendicular to M m represent the
4 U 2 force
To find the
dimensions
of « dyke
when the
water tends
to turn it
round its
posterior
angle.
Fig. 8.
r= x
= y
o8
Pressure force exerted by tbe column of water M m p P, and let
&i'. oi it be decomposed into two oilier forces, one of which
Fluids, J>Q js horizontal, and has a tendency to turn the dyke
r ’ round the point C, and the other IfY is vertical and
tends to press the di ke upon its base. The force RQ is
evidently a-x y X Mot, (42.) and therefore the horizon-
RQ
tal part of it will be only sy X M ot X Put the tri¬
angles RQM, MVot are evidently similar, consequent-
lyRQ: RM=Vm : M»>,- tence jf-.
RM aim Mot
Wherefore by substitution we have the force RQrr
y
# yXM mX.T~,—> and dividing by Mot, we have RQ
M OT
•szsyy. Tbe force RQ, therefore, will always be the
same as the force against V ot, whatever he the nature
of the curve BD. Now the momentum of this force
with relation to the fulcrum C, or its power to make
the dyke revolve round C, is measured by the perpen¬
dicular CL let fall from the centre of motion to the
direction in which the force is exerted (See Mecha¬
nics), consequently this momentum will be Aj'^xCP
~s yyxa—y (since CLzriiT—PM=a—y)z=:sayy
sayy sy3
H Y D R G D Y N A M I C S. Part I.
resist its overthrow, therefore we shall have an equiii- pieslw#
brium between these three forces, when the momentum &c. of’
of the horizontal forces is made equal to the momen- *'hii<k
turn of the vertical l’orc?s, added to that of the dyke 'r“~'
itself, consequently
—syyy, whose fluent is
which by suppo-
2 3
singyrrn becomes -} s a3 lor the total momentum of the
horizontal effort of the water to turn the dyke round
C. The vertical force RY or QM, which presses the
dyke upon its base, is evidently s^xM m X» hut
on account of the similar triangles —— conse-
quently by substitution we shall have the force RY
~s y X M m X V x* a^er division by Mot. The
momentum, therefore, of the vertical force RY with
relation to C, or its power to prevent the dyke from
moving round the fulcrum C, will be sy .vxCX ; CX
being the arm of the lever by which it acts, or the per¬
pendicular let fall from the fulcrum upon the direction
of the force. Now CX=CD—DT-fTX or HP, that
is CX—g—£-{-#, therefore the momentum of the force
—syx X and the sum of the similar mo¬
menta from F to H will be the fluentJ'K.k—b-^-x^syx,
the combined momentum of all the vertical forces
which resist the efforts of the horizontal forces to turn
the dyke round C. But the efforts of the horizontal
forces are also resisted by the weight of the dyke whose
momentum we have called Z, therefore e- Z, r being
the specific gravity of the dyke, will be the momen¬
tum ol the dyke. We have now three forces acting at
once, viz. the horizontal force of the water striviiiT to
overturn the dyke, and the vertical force of the water
combined with the moqientum of the dyke, striving to
£ s a3=J\%—b-^x'jsyx-^TT,.
59. As it is necessary, however, to give more stability
to the dyke than what is just requisite to preserve its
equilibrium, we must make its dimensions such as to re¬
sist a force greater than the horizontal forces, a force,
for example, n times the momentum of the horizontal
forces (G). The equation will therefore become
(I.) nXz s <s3—A-f-crZ,
which comprehends every possible case of stability, for
if we wish the stability of the dyke to have double the
stability of equilibrium, we have only to make n~2.
The preceding general equation is susceptible of a va¬
riety of applications according to the nature of the
curves which form the sides of the dyke. It is at pre¬
sent worthy of remark that since the momentum of the
horizontal forces is always the same whatever be the
curvature cf the sides AC, BD, and since the momen¬
tum of the vertical forces increases as the angle CDH
diminishes, it follows that it will always be advantageous
to diminish the angle CDH and give as much slope as
possible to the sides of the dyke.
60. Let us now consider the conditions that may be Equation
necessary to prevent the dyke ABCD from sliding on coniaining
its base CD. Since, the base of the dyke is supposed^ coml'‘
horizontal, the force which the dyke opposes to the1'0”* °.fe'
horizontal efforts of the water arises solely from the A
adhesion or toe dyke to its base, and from the resistance position
of friction. These two forces, therefore, combined that the
with the weight cf the dyke, form the force which re-(^em83f
sists the horizontal efforts of the water ; an equili-®^
brium will consequently obtain when the three first
forces are made equal to the last. But the force of
adhesion, and the resistance of friction, being unknown,
may be made equal to the weight of the dyke multi¬
plied by the constant quantity ot, which must be deter¬
mined by experience. Now calling A the area of the sec¬
tion ABCD, we shall have <r A for its weight, and ot <r A
for the resistance which is opposed to the horizontal ef¬
forts of the water. But we have already seen that the
horizontal forces of the water upon M are equal to
s y y, whose fluent \ sa* (when a—y) is the sum of all
the horizontal forces, consequently when an equilibrium
takes place between these opposing forces we shall have
•? Cl^
(II). m tr Arr£ s 0* or Ar=- X —•
<r 2 OT
We might have added to the weight of the dyke the
vertical pressure of the water, but it has been neglected
for the purpose of having the dyke sufficiently strong
to resist an additional force.
61. We
Urm 1 Z^whidi^rpL003 y*01^ sufficiently strong to resist any additional force by neglecting tha
term c Z, which represents the vertical pressure of the water tending to keep the dyke upon its base.
I’l
$(.»
rr
wof
ijfl thl
in oft
•jit ire
«ts.Kf
’G
e tp. I. H Y D II O D
p snrr, 6l. We sliall now proceed to inquire into tlie form
, . of which the general equation assumes when the sides of
lids, the dyke are rectilineal. Let AC} BD, fig. 9. be
^ 7^ two lines inclined to the horizon tinder given angles
aftUeACD, BDC, and let AB, CD be two horizontal lines,
eq' ion Retaining the construction and symbols in art. 57. let
the fall AQ, BZ perpendicular to CD, and make AQ~
tid of the BZ—c/, CQrrr, and DZ~r'.
dy! are Qa account; 0f the similar triangles HPM, FTH we
ret neal. ° /
>• shall have a : b~y : and therefore x~~,
J a
Y N A M I C S.
and by multiplication
tuting this value of x, instead of a? in the general equa¬
tion, art. 54. we have^*|—b-\-x) —b
‘!)»=
+
s b 55 y y
sbbyy ^ s b b i/3
y=a)
sb’za
la
sb2a
(making
2 a 3 a*
} now the momentum of the dyke
2 6
ABCD with relation to C, is equal to the whole area
of the dyke ABCD collected in its centre of gravity,
and placed at the end of a lever whose length is the
horizontal distance of that centre of gravity from the
fulcrum C- But the area of ABQZ —QZ X ZR
— %—r'—r X d ; the area of the triangle ACQ
— - ^ ^ , and the area of the triangle BZD
2 2
DZxZB dtJ _T , , ,
~ ~—. fsiow the iever by which the
22
area ABQZ collected in its centre of gravity F, acts
upon the fulcrum, is evidently ™CCt) Q,/— CQ
4-lQR=r-|  ——, consequently the momentum ly
which the area ABCD resists the horizontal forces
that conspire to give it a motion of rotation about C
will be —z—d—-r X^Xr-f
2;—r1-
The lever by
which the triangle BZD acts, when collected in its cen¬
tre of gravity I, is evidently C i; but by the property of
2 7**
the centre of gravity Dj=r-|DZ=; —, hence CirzCD
2v^
-—1)/=2- consequently the energy of the trian¬
gle BZD to resist the efforts of the water acting hori-
The lever of the
2r
diJ 2f"/
zontally will be rz—X^-  
2 3
triangle ACQ is plainly C szzilCQ— consequent¬
ly the momentum of ACQ collected in its centre of
(Jr 2 f*
gravity S will be —— X —• Having thus found the
momentum of the rectangle ABQZ, and of the triangles
BZD, ACQ, the sum of these momenta will be the
momentum R, with which the dyke opposes the hori¬
zontal efforts of the water, therefore we shall have
21*
TL—*—r1—r X r +
s—r'—r dr1
X
dr 2r
+ TXF;
dv'x dr'd drr
By substituting this value of Z in the general equa¬
tion in art. 54. we shall have
709
Pressure,
&.t. of
Fluids.
(III.) n X vsa3=
sbza sbba Fdxw
dr' %
Suhsti- -}-
rdr'd <? d r r
a quadratic equation which will determine in general
the base % of a dyke when its sides are rectilineal and
inclined at any angle to the horizon.
62. When the angle ACQ is a right angle, or when
the posterior side AC of the dyke is perpendicular to
the horizon, the quantity r becomes rz 0, and the
last term of the preceding equation in which r appears
will vanish, consequently the equation will now be¬
come
(IV.) n x ^sa3-
r d r' r'
-j j—.
sbza sbba
■ d %
Heiultinjj
equation
for rinding
the thick¬
ness of a
dyke, when
both its
sides are
rectilineal
and inclin¬
ed.
Resulting
equation
wiiea the
posterior
side of the
dyke is ver¬
tical.
63. TV hen the angles ACQ and BDZ are both right, Resulting
the dyke becomes rectangular, with its sides perpendi-^^1*^^
cular to its base. In this case both r and r'become6ijes 0ftjie
each —0, and therefore all the terms in which they are dyke ate
found will vanish. In this case too DT~i becomes vt»deal.
— 0, and therefore the terms in which it appears will
likewise vanish. The general equation will now be¬
come
(V.) n X
rdz%
a pure quadratic.
64. In order to shew the application of the preceding APpdcati°n
formulae, and at the same time the advantages of jn. of^e<oi-
clining the sides of the dyke, let us suppose the depth
of the water and also the height of the dyke to be 18
feet, so that B will coincide with H. Let us also sup¬
pose, what is generally the case in practice, that the de¬
clivity of the sides is ^ of their altitude, that is DZ—
CQ=^BZ. Let the specific gravity of the dyke be to
that of water as 12 to 7 j and suppose it is wished to
make the stability of the dyke twice as great as the sta¬
bility of equilibrium, that is, to make it capable of
resisting a force twice as great as that which it really
sustains. Then, upon these conditions, wre shall have
BZ=HT or a=d=l8 feet j CQ=DZ=DT, or rf=
r~bzz$ feet; .v—7 $ 12, and n= 2. By substitut¬
ing these numerical values in the general equation
N° III. it becomes
3 3—3—1122 feet j
39
a quadratic equation which after reduction will give
%—i2 feet nearly. When s;=zl2, the area of the dyke
ABCD will be 162 square feet.
65. Let us now suppose the sides of the dyke to be ^lvai5faS‘*
vertical, the equation N° V. will give usarzii
2 inches, which makes the area of the dyke more than^
201 square feet. The area of the dyke with inclined
sides
7io
Pressure,
See. of
Fluids.
HYDROD
sides is therefore to its area with vertical sides nearly as
4 to 5 : and hence we may conclude that a dyke with
inclined sides has the same stability as a dyke with ver
tical sides 5 while it requires J less materials.
Prop. II.
YNAMICS. Parti.
2. The momentum of the part AMN of the dyke pressilrf
will be = ir/*xy the area of the surface AMN, multi-
plied by the distance of its centre of gravity from the ful-
Ifx X7J
. crum N, which is equal to
To find the 66. To find the dimensions of a dyke which can
dimensions neither slide upon its base, nor turn round its
posterior angle ; but which is composed of hori¬
zontal sections -which may be separated from
each other.
of the dyke
when the
water tends
to separate
it into ho¬
rizontal
reetions or
laminse.
Fig. to.
In solving this proposition we must find the curvature
of the side exposed to the pressure of the water, which
will make all the different sections or horizontal laminae
equally capable of resisting the different forces which
tend to separate them. If the lamina NM does not re¬
sist the column PM, which partly presses it in the di¬
rection MN as powerfully as the lamina nm resists the
horizontal pressure of the column jow, the lamina NM
is in danger of being separated from the lamina «#2.
But if all the laminae NM, nm resist with equal force
the horizontal effects of the water, and if the dyke
cannot be made to slide upon its base nor turn round its
posterior angle T, it cannot possibly yield to the pres¬
sure of the water ; for it is impossible to separate one
lamina from another, unless the one opposes a less re¬
sistance than the other. To simplify the investigation
as much as possible, let us suppose the posterior side of
the dyke to be vertical, and the depth of the water to
be equal to the height of the dyke.
67. Let ABC he the section of the dyke, AK the
surface of the water, AC the curvature required, AB
its posterior side ; MN nm a. horizontal lamina infinite¬
ly small, in the direction of which the dyke has a ten¬
dency to break in consequence of the efforts of the wa¬
ter upon AM.
If the dyke should break in the direction MN, the
superior part AMN will detach itself from the inferior
part MNBC, by moving from M towards N ; and at
the moment when the impulse takes place it will have
a small motion of rotation round the point N. We
must therefore determine the forces which act upon the
lamina MN nm, and form an equation expressing their
equilibrium round the point N. The forces alluded to
tion of the are evidently, 1. The horizontal efforts of the water j
lorces 2. The vertical efforts of the water j 3. The weight
upoifthe^ Part an(b 4* ^ie adhesion of the two
Enumera-
dyke.
surfaces MN, m n. Of these four forces the first is
the only one which has a tendency to overthrow the
portion AMN of the dyke ; and its efforts are resisted
by the three other forces. In order to find the mo¬
menta of these forces with regard to the point N let us
suppose
—x
AP=NM
PM
The specific gravity of water ~s
The specific gravity of the dyke
See Mechanics.
68. In order to simplify the calculus, and at the
same time increase the stability of the dyke, we shall
neglect the vertical force of the water, and the adhe¬
sion of the two surfaces MN, mn. The only forces
therefore which vve have to consider, are the horizontal
efforts of the water acting against the momentum of
the superior part AMN. By making an equilibrium
between these forces we shall have the following equa¬
tion
■y - r • ^fxxV . r •
| sifzzrjxy X  — = -s-t Xfxxy
f*y
By taking the fluxion we have
i$y*y~\rXxxy, Dividing by y we have
sy2 = 4 «• X which by reduction becomes
y=J~r
x*.
the sum of all the horizontal forces exerted by the wa- on tbe
ter is (by art. 58.) 4 sy*> and the adhesion may be re-snpposi-
presented by some multiple m, of its weight, the constant t’00 ^
quantity m being determined by experience. The ad-j^1*^
hesion will therefore be tti X rj** and the equation uPon iu
of equilibrium will be
4 sy* =zm X e-J'xy, the fluxion of which is
syyxzm'Xrxy Dividing by y we have
sy ~m<rx, and therefore
Then we shall have,
l— I. The momentum of the horizontal forces of the
forces 6 water vv'fi =4 slJii by the same reasoning that was
employed in art. 57.
Hence the base BC of the dyke is to its altitude BA
as the specific gravity of water is to a multiple m of the
specific gravity of the dyke, m being a constant quan¬
tity which experiments alone can determine.
In a work by the Abbe Bossut and M. Viallet, en¬
titled Recherches sur la Construction la plus advantageuse
des Digues, the reader will find a general solution of the
preceding problem, in which the vertical efforts of the
water and the adhesion of the surfaces are considered.
This able work, which we have followed in the pre¬
ceding investigation, contains much practical informa¬
tion on the construction of dykes of every kind j and
may be considered as a continuation of the second part
of Belidor’s Architecture Hudraulique.
Chap.
fptf
*-r
‘fate
MV|
Hi-
The 1 ine AMC therefore is rectilineal, and the base
BC is to the altitude BA as y'i : j that is, as the
square root of the specific gravity of the water is to the
square root of the specific gravity of the dyke.
69. In order to prevent the superior portion AMNEquatio*
from sliding on its base MN, we must procure an equili-containing
brium between the adhesion of the surfaces MN, m »t*16 com*''
and the horizontal force exerted by the water. ■^ow q^iiibrfum
maic.
Nike
‘tetter
P}
if
tl
C ip. II.
01 >ecific
G- ities.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
711
Chap. II. Of Specific Gravities.
Definition.
Spi ic
ura y
ild d.
70. THE absolute weights of difFerent bodies of the
same hoik, are called their specific gravities or densities ;
and one body is said to be specifically heavier, or specifi¬
cally lighter than another, when under the same bulk, it
contains a greater or less quantity of matter. Brass,
for example, is said to have eight times the specific gra¬
vity of water, because one cubic inch of brass contains
eight times the quantity of matter, or is eight times
heavier than a cubic inch of water.
Prop. I.
71. Fluids pressing against each other into two or
more communicating vessels, will be in equili-
brio when the perpendicular altitudes above the
level of their junction are in the inverse ratio of
their specific gravities.
lle If a quantity of mercury be poured into the vessel
c .XV. FMN> it
will be in equilibrio when it rises to the same,
level AHIB in both tubes. Take away an inch of
mercury ACDH, and substitute in its room 13I- inches
of water FCDG. Then since mercury is 13^- times
heavier than water, 13*- inches of water will have the
same absolute weight as one inch of mercury, and the
equilibrium will not be disturbed 5 for the column of
water FD will exert the same pressure upon the surface
CD of the mercury, as the smaller column of mercury
did formerly. The surface of the mercury, therefore,
will remain at IB : now, since AB, CF, are horizon¬
tal lines, AC will be equal to LK ; but FC was made
13^ times AC, therefore FC—13^ times IK, that is
FC : IKni34 : I, the ratio between the specific gra¬
vities of mercury and water.
Cor dc- 72. On this proposition depends the theory of the
’.iuifthe barometer. Let a quantity of mercury be introduced
i)ar' eler- into the tube FMN, and let the pressure of the atmo¬
sphere be removed from the surface IB ; the pressure of
the air upon the other surface CD wid be the same as
if the tube PD were continued to the top of the atmo¬
sphere, and therefore, instead of the column of water
FD we have a column of air equal to the height of the
atmosphere acting against the mercury CDMIB j the
mercury consequently will rise towards N, so that its
height will be to the height of the atmosphere as the
specific gravity of air is to the specific gravity of mer¬
cury ; but as the density of the air diminishes as it re¬
cedes from the earth, we must take the specific gravity
of the air at a mean height in the atmosphere. It is
obvious from the proposition, that the altitude of the co¬
lumn of mercury which balances the column of air must
be reckoned from CD the level of their junction j and
that, when the specific gravity of the air is diminished,
im- the mercury will fall, and will again rise when it re-
111 “gains its former density.
Bod
fter
laid
up.
"an viu,
a to,
<N the
7'f of
,!l«' ,n-
'">■ laid
HI
Prof. II.
73. If any body is immersed in a fluid, or floats
on its surface, it is pressed upwards with a force
equal to the weight of the quantity of fluid dis¬
placed.
Let wH be the section of a body immersed in the of Spccifit
vessel AB filled with a fluid. Any portion m n of its Gravities,
upper surface is pressed downwards by the column of ' v
fluid Cot rc D (43.) j but the similar portion EF of its
lower surface is pressed upwards with a column of fluid a paralleio-
equal to CEFD, therefore the part EF is pressed up-p'ped is on¬
wards with the difference of these forces, that is, with meiscd iu
a force equivalent to the column of fluid ot EF «, for l!1.®
CEFD—C OT n D=ot EF n. In the same way it may s
be shewn, that the remaining part FH is pressed up¬
wards with a force equal to the weight of a column
n FH 0; and therefore it follows, that the rectangle
OT EH 0 is pressed upwards with a force equivalent to
a column m EH 0, that is, to the quantity of fluid dis¬
placed.
74. If the body floats in the fluid like CH in the When the
vessel AB (fig. 3.) the same consequence will follow ^ I,arallel°pl-
for the body CH is evidently pressed upwards with » fluid
force equivalent to the column m EH 0, that is, to the Fio-. 3.
part immersed or the quantity of fluid displaced. Now
as the same may be demonstrated of every other section
ol a solid parallelepiped, we may conclude, that the
proportion is true with respect to every solid whose sec¬
tion is rectangular.
75. When the solid has any other form as CD, how- when the
ever irregular, we may conceive its section to be divi-solid has
ded into a number of very small rectangles n 0 ; then ^ olher
(41.) the small portion of the solid at n is pressed down-
wards by a column of particles mn, and the small por-
tion at 0 is pressed upwards by a column of particles
equal to no ; therefore the differences of these force*?,
viz. the column no, is the force witli which the portion
0 is pressed upward. In the same manner it can be
shewn, that every other similar portion of the lower sur¬
face of the solid CD is pressed upwards with a force
equal to a column of particles whose height is equal to
the vertical breadth of the solid ; but all these columns
of particles must occupy the same space as the solid it¬
self, therefore any solid body immersed in a fluid, or
floating on its surface, is pressed upwards with a force
equal to the weight of the quantity of fluid displaced.
76. Cor. I. When a body floats in a fluid, the The weight
weight of the quantity of fluid displaced is equal to^'a float-
the weight of the floating solid. For since the solid isin2 botl-v ls
in equilibrium with the fluid, the force which causes it *
to descend must be equal to the force which presses it the quan-
upward ; but the force which keeps a part of the solid tby ot fluid
immerged in the fluid is the weight of the solid, and displaced,
the force which presses the solid upward, and prevents
it from sinking, is equivalent to the weight of the
quantity of fluid displaced (73 ) j therefore these forces
and the weights to which they are equivalent must be
equal.
77* Cor. 2. A solid weighed in a fluid loses as much
of its weight as is equal to the weight of the quantity
of fluid displaced j for since the body is pressed up¬
wards with a force equal to the weight of the fluid dis¬
placed (3.), this pressure acts in direct opposition to
the natural gravity or absolute weight of the solid, and
therefore diminishes its absolute weight by a quantity
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. The part of
the weight thus lost is not destroyed : It is only sustain¬
ed by a force acting in a contrary direction.
78. Cor. 3. A solid immersed in a fluid will sink,
if its specific gravity exceed that of the fluid : It will
float
yi 2
Of Specific float on tlie surface, partly immersecl, If its specific gra-
Gncvities. vity be less than that ot the fluid j and it will remain
* * wholly immersed wherever it is placed, if the specific
gravities of the sr.lid and fluid are equal. In the first
case, the force with which the solid is pressed down¬
wardly exceeds the upwar, pressure, and therefore it
must sink. In the second case, the upward pressure ex¬
ceeds the pressure downwards, and therefore the body
must float 5 and, in the third case, the upward and
downward pressures being equal, the solid will lemain
wherever it is placed.
<79. Cor. 4. The specific gravities of two or more
fluids are to one another as the losses of weight sustained
by the same solid body, and specifically heavier than the
fluids, when weighed "in each fluid respectively. The
solid in this case displaces equal quantities ot each fluid $
but the losses of weight are respectively as the absolute
weights of the quantities displaced (Cor. 2.), therefore
the specific gravities, which are as the absolute weights
of equal quantities of any body (70 ), must be as the
Josses of weight sustained by the immersed solid.
80. Cor. 5. The specific gravity of a solid is to that
of a fluid as the absolute weight of the solid is to the
loss of weight which it sustains when weighed in the
fluid. For since the loss of weight sustained by the so¬
lid is equal to the absolute weight of the quantity of
fluid displaced, or of a quantity of fluid of the same
bulk as the solid, the specific gravities, which (70.)
are in the ratio of the absolute weights of equal volumes,
must be as the absolute weight of the solid to the less
weight which it sustains.
81. Cor. 6. The specific gravity of a solid floating
in a fluid, is to the specific gravity of the fluid itself, as
the bulk of the part immersed is to the total hulk of
the solid.
82. Cor. 7. Bodies which sustain equal losses of
weight are of the same bulk. For, since the losses of
weight are as the weights of the quantities of fluid dis¬
placed, and as the quantities displaced are as the bulks
of the solids which displace them, the bulks must be
equal when the losses of weight are equal.
The pre- 83. The preceding corollaries may be expressed al-
eeding co- gebraically, and may he deduced from a general equa-
roilariesde-tJoH Jn following manner. Let B he the total bulk
dveed from o;p a float;ng body, and C the part of it which is immer-
t^u'ofequj.sed j let S he the specific gravity of the solid, and s
librium. that of the fluid. Then it is obvious, that the absolute
weight of the solid will be expressed by B X S, and the
absolute weight of the fluid displaced by Cx-s; for
the fluid displaced has the same bulk as the part of the
solid which is immersed. In order that an equilibrium
may obtain between the solid and fluid, we must have
BXS=C Xs: Now, when we have Bt^C,
so that the solid will float, which is the second case of
Cor. 3.—When S—s we have B—C, which is the
third case of Cor. 3.—When we have C'^'B,
that is, the body will sink below the surface ; and it
will descend to the bottom, for it cannot be suspended
in the fluid without some power to support it j and if
such a power were necessary, we should have B X S
“P^Cxs, which is contrary to the equation of equili¬
brium.
84. From the equation BxS=Cxa' we have (Eu¬
clid VI. 16.) S: $=:B : C, which is Cor. 6."—When the
HYDRODYNAMICS. Chap. II. j,
body is completely immersed we have B=C, in which Of Specif fWC
case the equation becomes B X S = B X s; and when the G"raTities. [|yiti
solid is specifically heavier than the fluid, it will require
a counterweight to keep the solid suspended in the fluid.
Let W he the counterweight necessary for keeping the
solid suspended in the fluid, then in the case ot an equi¬
librium the equation will he B X v-f-W=B X S, or
B x S—W—B xst or S x B x —'V =r S x B x
whence (Euclid VI. 16.) SrszrBxStBx S—W,
w hich is Cor. 5.
85. If the same solid body is plunged in a second
fluid of a different specific gravity from the first let r
he the specific gravity of the second fluid, and w the
counterweight necessary to keep the solid suspended in
it. The equation for the first fluid was Bx^+Wiz:
BxS (84.), and the equation for the second fluid will
be B Xs^^'—B xS ; therefore we shall have, by tho
first equation SxB—W—sxB, and by the second
S X B—w’izrs-X B, and consequently ^xB : a-X B=:
Sx B—W : Sx B—w, or (Euclid V. 16.) s : o-zrSx
B—W : SxB—tv, which is Cor. 4.; for the losses
of weight in each fluid are evidently represented by
S x B—W and S x B—w.
86. If B and t? express the bulks of two solids, S
and s their specific gravities, <r the specific gravity of
the fluid, and W, w the counterweights which keep
them in equilibrium with the fluid. Then with the
solid S the equation will be SxB—W—^xB (85.) j
and with the solid s the equation will besx^—w—
c-xb‘ Wherefore, if the two solids sustain equal losses
of weight, we shall have SxB—W—a'X^—since
each side of the equation represents the loss of weight
sustained by each solid respectively. Consequently, <rX
BmrX^, and dividing by tr, we have B—b, which is
corollary 7.
87. From the preceding proposition and its corolla-0f
ries, we may deduce a method of detecting adultera-detecting
tion in the precious metals, and of resolving the pro-adultern-
blem proposed to Archimedes, by Hiero king of Syra-111 H1C"
case. Take a real guinea, and a counterfeit one
made of copper and gold. If the latter be lighter than
the former, when weighed in a pair of scales, the im¬
position is instantly detected : But should their weight
be the same, let the two coins be weighed in water,
and let the loss of weight sustained by each he careful¬
ly observed, it will then he found that the counterfeit
will lose more of its weight than the unadulterated coin.
For, since the specific gravity of copper exceeds that of
gold, and since the absolute weights of the coins were
equal, the counterfeit guinea must be greater in bulk
than the real one, and will therefore displace a greater
quantity of water, that is (77.), it will lose a greater
part of its weight.
88. Hiero, king of Syracuse, having employed a Problem
goldsmith to make him a crown of gold, suspected thatF°P®e<*
the metal had been adulterated, and inquired at Archi- ^
medes if his suspicions cotdd be verified or disproved ^
without injuring the crown. The particular method
by which Archimedes detected the fraud of the gold¬
smith is not certainly known ; but it is probable that
he did it in the following manner. A quantity of gold,
of the same absolute W’eight as the crown, would evi¬
dently have the same bulk also, if the crown were pure
gold, and would have a greater bulk if the crown were
made
c ap. II. H Y D R O D
Dl ,ecifli: made of adulterated gold. By weighing, therefore,
0 inties. the quantity of gold and the crown in water, and ob-
u v serving their respective losses of weight, Archimedes
found that the crown lost more of its weight than the
quantity of gold ; and therefore concluded, that as the
crown must have displaced a greater portion of water
than the piece of gold, its bulk must likewise have been
greater, and the metal adulterated of which it was com¬
posed.
Prop. TIT.
Bp. If two immisceable fluids, of different specific
gravities, and a solid of an intermediate specific
gravity, be put into a vessel, the part of the solid
in the lighter fluid will be to the whole solid, as
the difference between the specific gravities of
the solid and the heavier fluid, is to the differ¬
ence between the specific gravities of the two
fluids.
Fi 5.
Let AB (fig. 5.) be the vessel which contains the
two fluids, suppose mercury and water, and the solid
CD. The mercury being heavier than water will sink
to the bottom and have m n for its surface, and the
water will occupy the space AB m n. The solid ha¬
ving a greater specific gravity than water, will sink in
the water (78.) ; but having a less specific gravity than
mercury, it will float in the mercury. It will, there¬
fore, be suspended in the fluids, having one por¬
tion C in the water, and the other portion D in the
mercury. Now let S be the specific gravity of the
mercury, s the specific gravity of the water, <r that of
the solid, C the part of the solid in the water, and D
the part of the mercury. Then the bulk of the solid is
C + D, and its weight «■ X C-J-D: The quantity of wa¬
ter displaced by the part C, or the loss of weight sus¬
tained by the part C, will be C X s; and the quantity
of mercury displaced, or the loss of weight sustained by
part D, will be D X S. But as the solid is suspended
in the fluids, and therefore in equilibrio with them,
the whole of its weight is lost. Consequently, the part
of its weight which is lost in the water, added to
the part lost in the mercury, must be equal to its whole
weight, that is, C X s-f-D X S — ^ X C-f-D, orsC-f-
SD“fC-j-cD. Transposing <r C and SD, we have
s C—<r C = SD—«• D, or C x S—T— D x 8—0-, and
(Euclid VI. 16.) C : D—s—or : S—<r. Then, by in¬
version and composition (Euclid V. Propositions B and
18.) C : C+D = S—S^. Q. E. D.   
90. Cor. r. From the analogy C : D~s—<r : S—<r,
we learn that the part of the solid in the heavier fluid,
is to the part in the lighter fluid, as the difference be¬
tween the specific gravities of the solid and the lighter
fluid, is to the difference between the specific gravities
of the solid and the heavier fluid.
91. Cor. 2. When s is very small compared with S,
we may use the analogy C : C-f-Direr : though in
cases where great accuracy is necessary this ought not
to he done. When the specific gravity of a body,
lighter than water, is determined by comparing the
part immersed with the whole body, there is evidently
a small error in the result; for the body is suspended
partly in water and partly in air. It is in fact a solid
of an intermediate specific gravity floating in two im-
Vol. X. Part II. f
Y N A M I C S.
7r3
misceable fluids, and therefore its specific gravity should Of Specific
be ascertained, by the present proposition. Gravities.
Prop. IV.
92. If two bodies, whether solid or fluid, be mix¬
ed together so as to form a compound substance,
the bulk of the heavier is to the bulk of the
lighter ingredient, as the difference between the
specific gravities of the compound, and the
lighter ingredient, is to the difference between
the specific gravities of the compound ahd the
heavier ingredient.
Let S and s be the specific gravities of the two in-To find the
gredients, r the specific gravity of the compound, and of the
B, £ the bulks of the ingredients: then the bulk 0f
1 -n . n6 . » h • -i their speci-
tiie compound will be B -f- £>, and its weight c X fic gravities
B + A The weight of the ingredient B will bea,,d that of
B xS, and that of the other ingredient b X s > afid
the weight of the compound must be equal to the jng giTen,
weight of its ingredients, we have the following equa¬
tion. o-i-j-sr B —BS-{-i and by transposing tr and
BS, we shall have B r—BS—£ s—b <r, or B X *■—Sir
b X —0-$ therefore (Euclid VI. 16.) B ; £ n s—r:
o-—S. Q. E. D.
93. In the preceding proposition, it has been taken A com-
for granted that the magnitude of the compound isP01^
exactly equal to the sum of the magnitudes of the twothe'/solld"
ingredients. This, however, does not obtain univer-or fluij j,
sally either in fluids or solids ; for an increase or dimi-sometimes
notion of bulk often attends the combination of two£realer
different ingredients. A cubical inch of alcohol, for^
example, combined with a cubical inch of water, will ^ 0f
form a compound which will measure less than two cu-fts ingredi-
bical inches •, and a cubical inch of tin, when incorpo-ents.
rated in a fluid state with a cubical inch of lead, will
form a compound, whose hulk will exceed two cubical
inches. The preceding proposition, however, is, even
in these cases, of great use in ascertaining the increase
or decrease of bulk sustained by the compound, by
comparing the computed with the observed bulk. See
Specific Gravity.
« Prop. V. Problem.
94. How to determine the specific gravities of bo¬
dies whether solid or fluid.
The simplest and most natural way of finding theTodeter-
specific gravities of bodies would be to take the abso-m*nf the
lute weights of a cubic inch, or any other determinate8^.01^1® ^r®-
quantity, of each substance ; and the number thus found b°
would be their specific gravities. But as it is difficult fluids,
to form two bodies of the very same size, and often im¬
possible, as in the case of. precious stones, to give a deter¬
minate form to the substance under examination, we are
obliged to weigh them in a fluid, and deduce their spe¬
cific gravities from the losses of weight, which they se¬
verally sustain. Water is a fluid which is always employ¬
ed for this purpose, not only because it can be had with¬
out difficulty, but because it can be procured of the
same temperature, and of the same density, in every part
•of the world. The specific gravity of water is always
called 1.000, and with this, as a standard, the specific
gravity of every other substance is compared. Thus, if
7X4
Of Specific
G ruvities.
Hydiosta-
tic ba-
lauce.
To find tlie
specific
HYDRODYNAMICS.
a certain quantity of water weighed four pounds, and
a similar quantity of mercury 56 pounds, the specific
gravity of the mercury would be called 14, because'as
4 : 56“I : 14. In order, therefore, to determine the
densities of bodies, we have occasion for no other in¬
strument than a common balance with a hook fixed be¬
neath one of its scales. When fitted up in this way, it
has been called the hydrostatic balance, which has al¬
ready been described under the article Balance, Ily-
drostutical.
95. When the substance is heavier than its bulk of
water.—Suspend the solid by means of a fine silver
fodd^ffea* & w‘re to ^ie l,0°k beneath the scale, and find its weight
vier than in a’r* Fill a jai’ with pure distilled water, of the tem-
waler- perature of 62° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and find
the weight of the solid when immersed in this fluid.
The difference of these weights is the loss of weight sus¬
tained by the solid. Then, (80.) as the loss of W'eight
is to the weight of the solid in air, so is i.ooo the spe¬
cific gravity of water to a fourth proportional, which
will be the specific gravity of the solid. But as the
third term of the preceding analogy is always 1.000, the
fourth proportional, or density of the solid, will always
be had by dividing the weight of the solid in air by
its loss of weight in water. If the solid substance con¬
sists of grains of platina or metallic filings, place it in a
small glass bucket. Find the weight of the bucket in
air, when empty, and also its weight when it contains
the substance. The difference of these weights will be
the weight of the substance in air. Do the very same in
water, and its weight in water will be had. Its specific
gravity will then be found as formerly.—If the body is
soluble in water, or so porous as to absorb it, it should
be covered with varnish or some unctuous substance.
When it is weighed in water, it should never touch the
sides of the glass jar, and it must be carefully freed
from any bubbles of air that happen to adhere to it.
To Had the 96. When the substance is lighter than its bulk of
specific lyatm—t asten to it another solid heavier than water,
soUcTliihterS° t^iat t*le-v may s‘nIc together. Find the weight of the
*han wate^ ^enser b°ily> and also of the compound body, both in
air and in water } and by subtracting their weight in
water from their weight in air, find how much weight
they have severally lost. Then say as the difference
between their losses of weight is to the weight of the
light body in air, so is i.ooo to the specific gravity of
the body.
To find the 91' When the substance is a powder which absorbs
ipeeifiogra-ti’tffrr’, or is soluble in it.—Place a glass phial in one
vityotpow-scale, and counterpoise it by weights in the other. Fill
eis" tfi‘s phial with the powder to be examined ; and hav¬
ing rammed it as close as possible to the very top, find
the weight of the powder. Remove the powder from
the phial, and fill it with distilled water, and find its
weight. The weight of the powder, divided by the
weight of the water, will be the specific gravity of the
former.
To find the 98. If hen the substance is a fluid, its specific gravity
specific gra-may be determined very accurately by the method in
the preceding article, or by the following method de¬
duced from article 79—Take any solid specifically hea¬
vier than water, and the given fluid. Find the loss of
weight which it sustains in water, and also in the given
fluid. Then, since the specific gravities are as the
losses of weight sustained by the same solid, the specific
Part I,
gravity of the fluid required will he found by dividing Of Spwij*
the loss of weight sustained by the solid in the given Gravitkt,
fluid, by the loss weight which it sustains in water.
Sect. II. On the Hydrometer.
vity of
fluids.
99. In order to determine, with expedition, the strength Hydrome.
of spirituous liquors, which are inversely proportional ter inTtn-
to their specific gravities, an instrument more simple,ted ^
though less accurate, than the hydrostatic balance, has
been generally employed. This instrument is called a
hydrometer, sometimes an areometer and gravimeter,
and very erroneously a hygrometer by some foreign au¬
thors. It seems to have been invented by Hypathia,
the daughter of Theon Alexandrinus, who flourished
about the end of the fourth century $ though there is
some foundation for the opinion that the invention is
due to Archimedes.
IOO. The hydrometer of Fahrenheit, which is one ofFaken-
the simplest that has been constructed, is represented in l16*1’11 hf-
fig. 6. and may be formed either of glass or metal.droIueler*
AB is a cylindrical stem, and C, D two hollow balls1'^’6'
appended to it. Into the lower ball D is introduced a
quantity of mercury, sufficient to make the ball C sink
to F, a little below the surface of distilled water. If
this apparatus be plunged into a fluid lighter than wa¬
ter, the ball C will sink farther below the surface; and
if it be immersed in a heavier fluid, it will rise nearer
the surface. In this way we can tell whether one fluid
is more or less dense than another. But in order to de¬
termine the real specific gravities of the fluids, the hy¬
drometer must eitlier be loaded with different weights,
or have a scale AB engraven on its stem. The former
of these methods was employed by Fahrenheit. Having
placed some small weights on the top A, he marked
any point E, to which the instrument sunk in distil¬
led water. By weighing the instrument thus loaded,
he found the weight of a quantity of water equal to
the part immersed (76.). When the hydrometer was
placed in a fluid denser than water, he loaded it with
additional weights till it sunk to the same point E. TheHydrome- Hinin
weight of the hydrometer being again found, gave him ter wM
the weight of a quantity of the denser fluid equal to the wel8',t'’
part immersed ; but as the part immersed was the same
in both cases, the weights of the hydrometer were equal
to the absolute weights of equal quantities of the two
fluids ; and consequently the specific gravities of the
water and the other fluid were in the ratio of these
weights. When the fluid, whose density is required,
has less specific gravity than water, some of the weights
are to be removed from the top A till the instrument
sinks to E $ and the density of the fluid to be deter¬
mined as before.—Instead of making the weight ol Hydromt-
the hydrometer variable, it is more simple, thoughter
less accurate, to have a scale of equal parts upon the
stem AB. In order to graduate this scale, immerse
the hydrometer in distilled water, at the temperature of
6o° Fahrenheit, so that it may sink to B near the bot¬
tom of the stem, which may be easily effected, by dimi- ,
nishing or increasing the quantity of mercury in the
ball D. At B place the number 1.000, which shows
that every fluid, in which the hydrometer sinks to B,
has its specific gravity I.OOO, or that of distilled water.
The hydrometer is then to be plunged in another fluid
less dense than water, suppose oil, whose specific gra¬
vity
tit!,
tlilJUt
W,|
C ip. II.
9t icciCc vity may be .900, and the point A marked, to which
G cities, jt sinks. Every fluid, therefore, in which the hydro-
w meter sinks to A, has its specific gravity .900 j and if
the scale AB be divided into equal parts, every inter¬
mediate degree of specific gravity between .900 and
I.OOO will be marked. If the scale AB be divided in¬
to four parts in the points E, F, G, the fluid in which
the hydrometer sinks to G will have .975 for its spe¬
cific gravity ; the specific gravity of that in which it
sinks to F will be .950, and so on with the other points
of division. If it is required to extend the range of the
instrument, and to make it indicate the densities of
fluids specifically lighter than water, we have only to
load it in such a manner as to make it sink to the mid¬
dle of the scale F in distilled water j and by taking two
fluids, between whose densities the specific gravity of
every other fluid is contained, excepting mercury and
metals in a fluid state, to determine, as before, the ex¬
tremities of the scale.
101. When the weight of the hydrometer is variable,
let E be the point to which it sinks in two different
fluids; and let W be the absolute weight necessary to
make it sink to E in the denser fluid, and W:±=p the
weight necessary to make it sink to the same point m
the lighter fluid. Let S, s be the specific gravities of
the two fluids, and V the volume of the part of the hy¬
drometer that is constantly immersed. Then (83.)
W=SxV* Widbp—.? X V* From the first equation
W
we have, Vir —, and from the second equation V=
k>
Wz±=p w
i-, consequently and by reduction
HYDRODYNAMICS.
7‘5
Tl >rera
foi j'dro-
ai rs in
wi li the
w< lit is
ti ble.
Ti 6.
W:
Thus, by knowing W and the weight
T >rem
fo ydro-
m rs in
* h the
w ht is
taut.
,s X W z±zp
s~ w
pt and also S the specific gravity of one of the fluids,
which will be 1.000 if that fluid be water, we can find
s the specific gravity of the other fluid.
102. When the weight of the hydrometer is constant,
and the density of the fluid indicated by the depth to
which it descends, let F, E he the points to which it
sinks in two different fluids, whose specific gravities are
S, s, W the absolute weight of the hydrometer, V the
volume of the part immersed when the hydrometer has
sunk to E, and v its volume when sunk to F. Then
(83.), we have Wr=SxV, and W=sX», conse¬
quently sX «=S X V, and 5= —* If tl,e absolute
weight W, therefore, of the hydrometer be known, and
also the volumes V, v, and the specific gravity S ot one
of the fluids, which may be water, the specific gravity
of the other fluid may he determined by the preceding
formula. When the figure of the hydrometer is regu¬
lar, the volumes V, vt may be determined geometri¬
cally ; but as the instrument is generally of an irregular
form, the following method should be employed.
103. The hydrometers of Clarke and Desaguhers dif¬
fer so little from those which have now been described,
that they are not entitled to a more particular descrip¬
tion. The hydrometer invented by Mr William Jones
J .•*’* kr-0f Holborn, is a simple and accurate instrument, and
* requ;res only three weights to discover the strengths of
spirituous liquors from alcohol to water. Like other
instruments of the same kind, it is adjusted to the tem¬
perature of 6o° of Fahreuheit; but as every change ot
® :riptioa
^ irious
k ome-
t*
temperature produces a change in the specific gravity of Of Spetific
the spirits, Mr Jones found it necessary to attach a ther- Gravitie*.
mometer to the instrument, and thus make a proper al-_y-’—'
lowance for every variation of temperature. Almost
all bodies expand with heat and contract with cold ;
and as their volume becomes different at different tem¬
peratures, their specific gravities must also (70.) be va¬
riable, and will diminish with an increase of tempera¬
ture. M. Homberg, and M. Eisenschmed found that
the absolute weight of a cubic inch of brandy was four
drams 42 grains in winter, and only four drams 32
grains in summer, and that the difference in spirits of
nitre was still greater. It has been found, indeed,
upon an average, that 32 gallons of spirits in winter
will expand to 33 gallons in summer. As the strength
of spirituous liquors is inversely as their specific gra¬
vities, they will appear much stronger in summer than
in winter. This change in their strength had been for¬
merly estimated in a rough way ; but by the applica¬
tion of the thermometer, and by adjusting its divisions
experimentally, Mr Jones has reduced it to pretty ac¬
curate computation. It has already been stated (93.)
that where two substances are combined, the magnitude
of the compound body is sometimes greater and some¬
times less than the sum of the magnitudes of the two
ingredients, and that this mutual penetration particu¬
larly happened in the mixture of alcohol and water.
In strong spirits, this concentration is sometimes so
great, as to produce a diminution of four gallons in
the 100 ; for if to 100 gallons of spirit of wine found
by the hydrometer to be 66 gallons in the 100 over
proof, you add 66 gallons of water to reduce it to proof,
the mixture will consist only of 162 gallons instead of
166 of proof spirits. This mutual penetration of the
particles of alcohol and water has also been considered
in Mr Jones’s hydrometer, which we shall now describe
with greater minuteness.
104. In fig. 7. the whole instrument is represented Plate
with the thermometer attached to it. Its length AB CCLXV.
is about 9§- inches : the ball C is made of hard brass, 7*
and nearly oval, having its conjugate diameter about if
inches. The stem AD is a parallelepiped, on the four
sides of which the different strengths of spirits are en¬
graved : the three sides which do not appear in fig. 7.
are represented in fig. 8. with the three weights num-Fig. 8,
hered I, 2, 3, corresponding with the sides similarly
marked at the top. If the instrument when placed in
the spirits sinks to the divisions on the stem without a
weight, their strength will be shewn on the side AD
marked 0 at the top, and any degree of strength from
74 gallons in the 100 to 47 in the 100 above proof,
will thus be indicated. If the hydrometer does not sink
to the divisions without a weight, it must be loaded with
any of the weights I, 2, 3, till the hall C is completely
immersed. If the weight N° I is necessary, the side
marked I will show the strength of the spirits, from
46 to 13 gallons in the 100 above proof. If the weight
N° 2 is employed, the corresponding side will indicate
the remainder of overproof to proof, marked P in the in¬
strument, and likewise every gallon in 100 under proof,
down to 29. When the weight N° 3 is used, the side
similarly marked will show any strength from 30 gal¬
lons in the IQO under proof, down to water, which is
marked W in the scale. The small figures as 4 at 66,
at 61, 2f at 48 (fig. 7.) indicate the diminution
4X2 of
Dicas’fthy
dromeler
with a slid
ing rule.
7j6 HYDROD
Of Specific of bulk which takes place when water is mixed with
Cravities. spirits of wine in order to reduce it to proof: thus, if
the spirit be 6l gallons in the too over proof, and if
61 gallons of water are added in order to render it
proof, the magnitude of the mixture will be 3^ gallons
less than the sum of the magnitudes of the ingredients,
that is, instead of being 161 it will be only 157J gal¬
lons. The thermometer F connected with the hydro¬
meter, has four columns engraved upon it, two on one
side as seen in the figure, and two on the other side.
When any of the scales upon the hydrometer, marked
o, 1, 2, 3, are employed, the column of the thermome¬
ter similarly marked must be used, and the number at
which the mercury stands carefully observed. The di¬
visions commence at the middle of each column which
is marked 0, and is equivalent to a temperature of 60
degrees of Fahrenheit; then, whatever number of di¬
visions the mercury stands above the zero of the scale,
the same number of gallons in the 100 must the spirit
be reckoned weaker than the hydrometer indicates, and
whatever number of divisions the mercury stands below
the zero, so many gallons in the 180 must the spirit be
reckoned stronger.
105. The patent hydrometer invented by Mr Dicas of
Liverpool, possesses all the advantages of that which
has now been described, but is superior to it in regard
to the accuracy with which it estimates the aberration
arising from a change of temperature. It is construct¬
ed in the common form, with 3b different weights,
which are valued from o to 370, including the divisions
on the stem ; but the chief improvement consists in an
ivory sliding rule which accompanies the instrument.
In order to understand the construction of this slid¬
ing rule the reader must have recourse to the instru¬
ment itself.
106. Quin’s universal hydrometer is constructed in
such a manner, as to ascertain, with the greatest ex¬
pedition, the strength of any spirit from alcohol to wa¬
ter, and also the concentration and specific gravity of
each different strength. With the assistance of four
weights, it discovers likewise the gravity of worts, and
is therefore of more universal use than any other hydro¬
meter. The instrument is represented in fig. 9. with
the four sides of its stem graduated and marked at the
top so as to correspond with the weights below. The
side of the stem marked A, B, C, D, &c. to Z, shows
the strength of any spirit from alcohol to water, and the
three other sides numbered I, 2, 3. are adapted for
worts. The variation of density arising from the con¬
traction and dilatation of the fluid is determined by means
of a sliding rule, differing very little from that of Mr Di¬
cas. In order to use this instrument, place any of the
weights, if necessary, on the stem at C ; find the tem¬
perature of the spirit by a thermometer, and bring the
star on the sliding rule to the degree of heat on the
thermometer’s scale: then opposite to the number of
the weight and the letter on the stem, you have the
strength of the spirit pointed out on the sliding rule,
which is lettered and numbered in the same way as the
instrument and weights. In ascertaining the strength
of worts, the weight N° 4 is always to continue on the
hydrometer, and the weights, N° 1, 2, 3, are adapted
VkAoIson’*t0 t^e S1<^es ^T° I» 2»3» °f the square stem, which point
hydrome- out the exact 8rav‘ty of the worts.
ter, 107. A considerable improvement on the hydrometer
3
Quia's uni¬
versal hy¬
drometer.
Plate
Y N A M I C S.
has lately been made by Mr Nicholson, who has rendered
it capable of ascertaining the specific gravities both of
solids and fluids. In fig. 10. F is a hollow ball of cop¬
per attached to the dish AA by astern B, made of har¬
dened steel. To the lower extremity of the ball is af¬
fixed a kind of iron stirrup FF, carrying another dish
G of such a weight as to keep the stem vertical when
the instrument is afloat. The parts of the hydrometer
are so adjusted, that when the lower dish G is empty,
and the upper dish AA contains 1000 grains, it will
sink in distilled water at the temperature of 6o° of
Fahrenheit, so that the surface of the fluid may cut the
stem DB at the point D. In order to measure the
specific gravities of fluids, let the weight of the instru¬
ment, when loaded, be accurately ascertained. Then,
this weight is equal to that of a quantity of distilled
water at the temperature of 6o°, having the same vo¬
lume as that part of the instrument which is below the
point D of the stem. If the hydrometer, therefore, is
immersed to the point D in any other fluid of the same
temperature, which may be done by increasing or dimi¬
nishing the weights in the dish AA, the difl’erence be¬
tween this last weight and 1000 grains will express the
difl’erence between equal bulks of water and the other
fluid. Now as the weight of the mass of water is equal
to the weight of the instrument, which may be called
W, the above-mentioned difference or D must be either
added to or subtracted from W, (according as the
weight in the dish AA was increased or diminished) in
order to have the weight of an equal bulk of the fluid ;
then Wr±zD will be to W as the specific gravity of the
given fluid is to that of water. This ratio will be ex¬
pressed with considerable accuracy, as the cylindrical
stem of the instrument being no more than ^th of an
inch in diameter, will be elevated or depressed nearly
an inch by the subtraction or addition of T^- of a grain,
and will, therefore, easily point out any changes of
weight, not less than ^ of a grain, or -y^oo" ^ie
whole, which will give the specific gravities to five
places of figures. The solid bodies whose specific gra¬
vities are to be determined by this hydrometer, must not
exceed 1000 grains in weight. For this purpose, im¬
merse the instrument in distilled watertand load the up-!
per dish till the surface of the water is on a level witfi
the point D of the stem. Then, if the weight required
to produce this equilibrium be exactly 1000 grains, the
temperature of the water will be 6o° of Fahrenheit;
but if they be greater or less than 1000 grains, the wa¬
ter will be colder or warmer. After noting down the
weight necessary for producing an equilibrium, unload
the upper dish, and place on it the body whose specific
gravity is required. Increase the weight in the upper
dish, till the instrument sinks to the point D, and the
difference between this new weight and the weight for¬
merly noted down will be the weight of the body in
air. Place the body in the lower dish G, and add
weights in the upper dish till the hydrometer again
sinks to D. This weight will be the diflerence be¬
tween IOOO grains and the weight of the body in wa¬
ter j and since the weight of the body in air, and its
weight in water, are ascertained, its loss of weight
will be known, and consequently its specific gravi¬
ty (8°.). s ,
108. The areometer or hydrometer of M. de Parcieux
consists of a small glass phial EG, about two inches in
diameter
Part I lip
Of Specilc
Gravities.
Mg. ic.
Wjtcl
pate
Eijai
JDc Parci¬
eux’s aria-
meter.
Plate
c'cL*vr-
fig. ■
ci ip. ii.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
717
ite
XVJ.
ecific diameter and seven inches long, having its bottom as
ities. flat as possible. The mouth is closed with a cork stop¬
per, into which is inserted a straight iron or brass wire
EF, about a line in diameter, and 30 inches long.
When two fluids are to be compared, the bottle is load¬
ed in such a manner by the introduction of small shot,
that the instrument, when plunged in the lightest of the
fluids, sinks so deep as to leave only the extremity of
the wire above its surface, while in the heaviest fluid,
the wire is some inches below the surface. The same
effect may be produced by fixing a little dish F to the
top of the wire, and varying the weights, or by alter¬
ing the thickness of the wire. The areometer thus
constructed, will indicate the smallest differences of spe¬
cific gravity, and such minute variations of density, ari¬
sing from a change of temperature, which would be im¬
perceptible by any other hydrometer. The motion of
an instrument of this kind, says Montucla, was so sen¬
sible, that when immersed in water of the usual tempe¬
rature, it sunk several inches while the rays of the sun
fell upon the water, and instantly rose when his rays
were intercepted. In one of the areometers used by
Deparcieux, an interval of six lines in the stem corre¬
sponded to a change of density about °f tl16 whole.
{Mem. de VAcad. Paris 1766, p. 158.).
109. In order to determine the strength of spirits
with the greatest expedition, Professor Wilson of Glas¬
gow employed a very simple method. His hydrometer
consists of a number of glass beads, the specific gravi¬
ties of each of which vary in a known ratio. When
the strength of any spirit is to he tried, the glass beads,
ms
me-
wbicli are all numbered, are to be thrown into it. OfSpeeifio
Some of those whose specific gravity exceeds that of the Gravities,
spirit, will sink to the bottom, while others will swim Sl~' v
on the top, or remain suspended in the fluid. That
which neither sinks to the bottom nor swims on the
surface, will indicate by its number the specific gravity
of the spirits (78.). For an account of the Patent
Beads constructed by Mrs Lovi of Edinburgh, in all
respects the most accurate apparatus for this purpose,
see note under Spirituous Liquors.
Sect. III. On Tables of Specific Gravities.
no. As the knowledge of the specific gravities of of
bodies is of great use in all the branches of mechanical
philosophy, we have given the following table, publish-55
ed in the enlarged edition of Ferguson’s Lectures, ad
edition. It comprehends the greater part of Brisson’s
tables, and is one of the most extensive that has yet
been published. The names of the minerals, as given
in Kirvvan’s Mineralogy, have in general been adopt¬
ed ; and such as have been discovered since the publi¬
cation of that work will be found in later works. When
the specific gravities of any substance, as determined by
different authors, seem to be at variance, the different
results are frequently given, and the names of the che¬
mists prefixed fiy whom these results were obtained.
The substances in the table have, contrary to the usual
practice, been disposed in an alphabetical order. This
was deemed more convenient for the purposes of reie^
rence, than if they had been divided into classes, or ar¬
ranged according to the order of their densities.
Table of Specific Gravities.
ACACIA, inspissated juice of,
Acid, nitric,
muriatic,
red acetous,
white acetous,
distilled acetous,
acetic,
sulphuric,
highly concentrated,
nitric, highly concentrated,
fluoric,
formic,
phosphoric,
citric,
arsenic,
of oranges,
of gooseberries,
of grapes,
Actynolite, glassy,
/Ether, sulphuric,
nitric,
muriatic,
acetic,
Agate, oriental,
onyx,
speckled,
cloudy,
Kirwan,
{
I-5I53
1.2715
1.1940
1.0251
I-OI35
1.0095
1.0626
1.8409
2.1 2 C
I.580
I.500
O.9942
I-5575
I.°345
*•873!
1.0176
1.0581
x.0241
2.950
3-9°3
0.7306
0.9088
0.7296
0.8664
O.CQOI
26375
2.607
2.6253
29-75
32.
29.85
54°
}
Agate, stained,
veined,
Icelandic,
of Havre,
Jaspee,
Herboriseey
Irisee,
Air, atmospheric,
Barom.
Thermom.
Barom.
Thermom.
Alabaster of Valencia,
veined,
of Piedmont,
of Malta,
yellow,
Spanish saline,
oriental white,
ditto, semitransparent,
stained brown,
of Malaga pink,
of Dallas,
Alcohol, highly rectified,
commercial,
15 parts water 1
14 2
13 3
12 . 4
11 5
Lavoisier.
part
2.6324
2.6667
2.348
2.5881
2.6356
2.5801
2-5535
0.00122
0.0012308
2.638
2.691
2.693
2.699
2.699
2.713
2.730
2.762
2.744
2.8761
2.6110
0.829 a
o-737i
0.8527
0.8674
0.8815
0.8947
0.9075
Alcohol.
71S
of Specific Alcohol, io parts water 6
Gravities.
7
8
9
10
11
12
!3
14
15
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Asbestos, mountain cork, Bergman.
penetrated with
Alder wood,
Aloes, hepatic,
socotrine,
Alouchi, odoriferous gum,
Alumine, sulphate of,
Muschenbroek.
Musc/ienbroek.
saturated solution of,
temp. 4 2°, JFatson.
Amber, yellow transparent,
opaque,
red,
green,
Ambergris,
Amethyst, common. See Rock crystal.
Amianthus, long,
penetrated with water,
short,
penetrated with water,
Amianthinite from Raschau,
Bayreuth,
Ammoniac, liquid,
muriate of, Muschenbroek.
saturated solution of,
temp. 42% Watson.
Andalusite, or hardspar, Hduy.
Anime, oriental,
occidental,
Antimony, glass of,
in a metallic state, fused,
0.9199
0.9317
0.9427
0.9519
0.9594
0.9674
°-9733
0.9791
0.9852
0.9919
0.8000
I-3586
1-3795
1.0604
1.7140
1- 033
1.0780
1.0855
1.0834
1.0829
r 0.7800
10.9263
2.750
0.9088
1.5662
2- 3 r34
3- 3803
2.584
2.916
0.8970
I-453°
1.072
3-!65
1.0284
1.0426
4.9464
$ 6.624
16.860
Klaproth, 6.720
native,
sulphur of
Antimonial ore, gray and foliated, Kirwan.
ladiated, Kirwan.
red,
Apple tree,
Aquamarine. See Beryl.
Arcanson,
Areca, inspissated juice of,
Arctizite, or wernerite,
Argillite, or slate clay,
Arnotto,
Arragon spar,
Arsenic bloom, Pharmacolite,
fused,
native,
pyrites, common,
La Metherie.
Klaproth.
Muschenbroek.
4.0643
4.368
4.440
3-750
4.090
0.7930
Dandrada.
Kirwan
Hduy.
Klaproth.
Bergman.
Kirwan.
Stiltz.
La Metherie.
Brisson.
native, orpiment,
glass of, (arsenic of the shops),
Aabefrtinite, Kirwan.
water,
ripe, Brisson.
penetrated with water,
starry,
penetrated with water,
unripe,
penetrated with water,
Ash trunk, Muschenbroek.
dry,
Asphaltum, cohesive,
compact,
Assafoetida,
Aventurine, semitransparent,
opaque,
Angite, octahedral basaltes,
Azure stone, or lapis lazuli,
Turin.
oriental,
of Siberia,
Hduy.
Werner.
Beuss.
Brisson.
Kirwan.
Part I.
0.6806 Of Spetiij #c:
0-9933 Gravities.
1.2492
1- 3492
2- 5779
2.6994
3- °733
3.0808
2.9958
3-0343
0.8450
0.800
1.450
2.060
1.070
1.165
1- 3275
2.6667
2.6426
3.226
3-47r
3-777
2.7675
2.896
2- 7714
2-9454
B
Barolite, or witherite,
Baroselenite, or barytes,
white,
grey,
rhomboidal,
octahedral,
in stalactites,
|43°?
sulphate of, native,
carbonate of, native,
.4-338
S 4-400
14-865
4.4300
4.4909
4-4434
4-47ia
4.2984
Kirwan. 4-ooo
14.460
Basaltes,
1.0857
I-4573
3.606
r 2.600
* 2.680
0.5956
2.946
2.640
8.310
5.670
4.791
5.600
6.522
5-452
3-5942
000
310
Kirwan.
Bergman.
from the Giant’s causeway,
prismatic from Auvergne,
of St Tubery,
Baras, a juice of the pine,
Bay tree, Spanish, Muschenbroek.
Bdellium,
Beech-wood, Muschenbroek.
Beer, red,
white,
Benzoin,
Beryl, oriental aquamarine,
occidental,
or aquamarine,
schorlous, or shorlite,
Bezoar, oriental,
occidental,
Bismuth, native,
sulphurated,
ochre,
S 4-3°o
L 4-■ ‘
in a metallic state, fased,
338
2.979
3.000
2.864
2.4215
2.7948
1.0441
0.8220
I-I377
0.8520
1-0338
1.0231
1.0924
3- 5491
2.723
r«w.f 2-6i°
„ 1 2.759
Hduy. 3.514
1.666
2.233
9-570
6.1 31
4- 3 71
S91S6
£9.822
Bitumen,
Kirwan.
Kirwan.
Brisson.
HYDROD
ap. II.
jecific Bitumen, of Judea,
diies. Black-coal, pitch coal, Wiedemann.
slate coal, English, Kirwan.
Bielschowitz,
cannel coal,
Blende, yellow,
brown, foliated,
black,
Richter.
La Metherie.
Gellert. -T
Gcllert.
Blood, human,
Gellert.
Brisson.
auriferous from Nag-
yag, Von Muller.
crassamentum of,
serum of,
Jurin.
Jurin.
Jurin.
Kirwan.
Westrumb.
Boles,
Bone of an osr,
Boracite,
Borax,
saturated solution of,
temp. 42°, Watson.
Bournonite,
Boxwood, French, Muschenbroek.
Dutch, Muschenbroek.
dry, Jurin.
Brass, common, cast,
wiredrawn,
cast, not hammered,
Brazil wood, red,
Brick,
Butter,
Cacao butter,
Cachibou, guitt,
Calamine,
Calculus humanns,
Muschenbroek.
Brisson.
La Metherie.
Campechy wood, or logwood, Muschenbroek.
Camphor,
Caoutchouc, elastic gum, or India rubber,
Caragna, resin of the Mexican tree caragna,
Carbon of compact earth,
Carnelian, stalactite,
speckled,
veined,
onyx,
pale,
pointed,
herborisee,
1
Cat’s
eye,
Klaproth.
yellow,
blackish,
Catchew, juice of an Indian tree.
Caustic ammoniac, solution of, or fluid
volatile alkali,
Cedar tree, American, Muschenbroek.
1.104
1.308
1.250
1.370
1.321
1.382
1.270
4.044
4.048
3-77°
4.048
3-93°
4.166
5-398
1.054
1.126
1.030
1.400
2.000
1.656
2.566
I-7T4
I.OIO
5-576
0.9120
1.3280
1.030
7.824
8544
8.396
1.0310
2.000
0.9423
0.8916
1.0640
3-525
4.100
1.700
1.240
I-434
0.9130
0.9887
°-9335
1.1244
1.3292
1- 5977
2.6137
2.6234
2.6227
2- 6301
2.6120
2.6133
2.600
2.625
2-5675
2- 6573
3- 2593
1.3980
0.897
0.5608
Y N A M I C S.
Cedar, wild,
Palestine,
Indian,
Celestine,
foliated,
Ceylanite,
Chalcedony, bluish,
onyx,
veined,
transparent,
reddish,
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
Klaproth.
Hdmj.
{
common, Kii
Chalk,
Cherry-tree,
Chrysoberyl,
Chrysolite of the jewellers,
of Brasil,
irwan.
Muschenbroek.
Watson.
Muschenbroek.
Werner.
Hduy.
Brisson.
We,
Chrysoprase,
Crystal. See Rock.
Crystalline lens,
Cinnabar, dark red, from Deux
Fonts, Kirwan.
from Almaden, Brisson.
crystallized, Brisson.
Cinnamon, volatile oil of,
Citron tree, Muschenbroek.
Clinkstone, Klaproth.
Cloves, volatile oil of,
Cobalt, in a metallic state, fused,
ore, gray,
7J9
O.5608 Of Specific
O. 5960 Gravities.
I.315O ' - '
3-830
3-5°°
3-765
3-793
2.5867
2.6151
2.6059
2.6640
2.6645
2.600
2- 655
2.252
2.657
0.7150
3.600
3.720
3*79^
2.782
2.692
3- 340
3.410
2.489
3-250
1.100
Hduy.
Kirwan.
ochre, black, indurated, Gellert.
vitreous oxide of,
Cocoa wood, Muschenbroek.
Coccolite, Dandrada.
Columbium, Hatchet.
Copal, opaque,
transparent,
Madagascar,
Chinese,
Copper, native, Kirwan.
from Siberia, Hduy.
Hungary, Gellert.
ore, compact vitreous, Kirwan.
Cornish, Kirwan.
purple, from Bannat, Kirwan.
from Lorraine, La Metherie.
Kirwan.
Wiedemann.
pyrites, Kirwan.
Brisson.
ore, white, La Metherie.
gray, Hduy.
7.786
6.902
10.218
1.044
C.7263
2-575
1.03d
7-645
7.811
5-511
7.721
5-309
2.019
2.435
2.4405
1.0403
*316
5.918
1.1398
1.0452
1.0600
1.0628
7.60c
7.800
8.5084
7.728
4.129
5-452
4956
4.300
4- 983
5- 467
4.080
4-344
4.500
4.865
Copper
{
720
Of Specific Copper ore, foliated, florid, red, Wiedemann.
Gravities. azure, radiated, Wiedemann.
'' "—v — ' ' Brisson.
emerald, La Methene.
H'duy.
arsenlate, of,
sulphate of, saturated solution of,
temp. 420, Watson.
drawn Into wire,
fused,
Copper-sand, muriate of copper, La Metfierie.
Herr gen.
Cork,
Corundum of India,
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Flint,
Muschenbroek.
Klaproth.
Bournon.
of China,
Cross-stone, or Staurolyte,
Cryolite,
Cube iron ore,
spar,
Gyanlte,
Cyder,
Cypress-wood, Spanish,
Hdmj.
Hever.
Karsten.
Bournon.
H'duy.
Saussure,jun.
Hermann.
Muschenbroek.
D
Diamond oriental, colourless,
rose-coloured,
orange-coloured,
green-coloured,
blue-coloured,
Brazilian,
yellow,
Dragons blood,
Ebony, Indian,
American,
Elder tree,
Elemi,
Elm trunk,
Emerald,
of Peru,
of Brasil,
Euclase, H'duy.
Euphorbium.
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
Werner.
Brisson.
Hduy.
Fat of beef,
veal,
mutton,
hogs,
Felspar, fresh, Hduy.
Adularia, Struve.
Labrador stone, Brisson.
glassy,
Filbert tree, Muschenbroek.
Fir, male, Muschenbroek.
female, Muschenbroek,
Fishes eyes, name of a mineral,
3-95°
3-231
3.608
3-85°
3-30°
2- 549
1.150
8 878
7.788
3- 75°
4- 431
0.2400
3.710
3-875
3.981
2-333
2-353
2- 957
3.000
2.964
3- 5I7
2.622
1.0181
0.6440
3-5212
3-5310
3-5500
3-5238
3-5254
3-4444
3.5i85
1.2045
1.2090
1- 3310
0.6930
1.0182
0.6710
2.600
2- 7755
2.723 •
3- I555
3.062
1.1244
0.9232
0.9342
0-9235
0.9368
2.438
2.500
2.600
2.607
2.704
2.518
2.589
o.6coo
0.5500
0.4980
2.5782
Blumenbach.
olive,
spotted,
oynx,
of Rennes,
of England,
variegated, of Limosin,
veined,
Egyptian,
black,
Fluor, white,
red,
green,
blue,
violet,
spar,
Gadolinite,
Galbanum,
Galena. See Lead Glance.
Galipot, a juice of the pine,
Gamboge,
Garnet, precious, of Bohemia,
volcanic,
24 faces,
of Syria,
in dodecahedral crystals,
common,
Gas, atmospheric. See Air.
Gas, azotic, pure—
Barom. 29.75
Barom. 29.85 7
Therm. 54^ J,
oxygenous,
hydrogenous,
2- 594
2.6057
2.5867
2.6644
2.6538
2.6087
2.2431
2.6122
2.5648
2.582
3- I55
3.191
3.182
3.169
S-1?8
3-100
3.200
Hduy. 4.050
1.2120
1.0819
1.2220
4.085
4.188
4.230
4-352
2.468
Parti, pi
Of Specific '
Grariticj,
Klaproth.
Werner.
Kastner.
4.000
4.0637
Werner.
Kastner. 3.688
0.001146
Lavoisier. 0.0c 1189
carbonic acid,
nitrous,
0.001305
0.001387
0.001356
0.000099
0.000095
0.000123
0.001862
»- 29.85?
J-54i $
Barom. 29.85
Therm.
ammoniacal,
Barom. 29.857
• 54i 3
Therm
vapour, aqueous,
sulphurous, Bar. 29.85 1
Ther. 541 j"
acid sulphurous,
acid muriatic,
Girasol,
Davy..
Lavoisier,
Dalton.
Brisson.
Lavoisier. 0.001845
0.001411
Kirwan. 0.0c 1463
Brisson. 0.001302
0.000706
Brisson. 0.000654
Kirwan. 0.000735
Dalton. 0.000862
C C 0.000874
(_ 0.000923
Pictet. 0.000751
Watt. 0.000825
XT'. CO.OOI886
Kirwan. |3>I3I
0.002539
0.002135
Brisson. 4.000
Glance-coal,
C ap.
0: pecific
C vitKK.
II.
Glance-coal, slaty,
HYDBOD
Metherie. 1.300
Klaproth. 1.530
Glass, white flint, 3.00
crown, 2.520
common plate, 2.760
yellow plate, 2.520
white, or French crystal, 2.8922
St Gobins, 2.4882
gall, 2.8548
bottle, 2.7325
Leith crystal,
green, 2.6423
borax, 2.6070
fluid, . 3.329
of Bohemia, 2.3959
of Cherbourg, 2.5596
of St Cloud, 3'2549
animal, 2.5647
mineral, 2.2694
Gold, pure, of 24 carats fine, fused, but not
hammered, 19.258
the same hammered, 19.342
English standard, 22 carats fine, fused,
but not hammered, 18.888
guinea of George II. 17.150
guinea of George III. 17.629
Parisian standard, 22 carats, not ham¬
mered, 17.486
the same hammered, 17*589
Spanish gold coin, 17.655
Holland ducats, 19.352
trinket standard, 20 carats, not ham¬
mered,
the same hammered,
Portuguese coin,
French money, 21-f carats., fused,
coined,
French in the reign of Louis XIII.
Granite, red Egyptian,
gray, Egyptian,
beautiful red,
of Girardmor,
violet of Gyromagny,
red of Dauphiny,
green
Y N A M I C S.
Gum lac,
anime d’orient,
d’occident,
Gunpowder in a loose heap,
shaken,
solid,
Gypsum, opaque,
compact, specimen in the Leskean
collection,
radiated,
red of Semur,
gray of Bretagne,
yellowish,
of Carinthia, blue,
Granitelle,
of Dauphiny,
Graphic ore,
Graphite. See Plumbago.
Grenatite. See Staurotide.
Gum Arabic,
tragacanth,
seraphic,
cherry tree,
Bassora,
Acajou,
Monbain,
Gutte,
ammoniac,
Gayac,
Vol. X. Part II.
Kir
Muller.
15-775
17.9664
17.4022
7.6474
I7*553I
2.6541
2.7279
2.7609
2.7163
2.6852
2.6431
a.6836
2.6678
2.6384
2.7378
2.6136
2.9564
3.0626
2.8465
5-723
1-4523
i-3l61
1.201
1.4817
1.4346
1.4456
1.4206
1.2216
1.2071
1.2289
1.1390
1.0284
1.0426
0.836
0.932
1- 745
2.1679
2- 939
compact,
impure,
foliated, mixed with granular lime¬
stone, Kirwan.
alabaster, Ward.
semitransparent,
fine ditto,
opaque,
rhomboidal,
ditto, 10 faces,
cuniform, crystallised,
striated of France,
of China,
flowered,
spathic opaque,
semitransparent,
granularly foliated, in the Leskean
collection, Kirwan.
mixed with marl, of a slaty form,
H
Muschenbroek,
{I'*72
288
2-473
2.725
1.872
2.3062
2.2741
2.2642
2.3114
2.3H7
2.3060
2.3057
2.3088
2.3059
2.2746
S-S^8
2.900
2-473
Hazel,
Heavy spar, fresh, straight, lamellar,
columned,-—
Heliotropium,
0.606
S 4-3°o
14.500
not above 4.500
Kirwan. 2.629
Blumenbach.
Hematites. See Ironstone.
Hollow spar, Chiastolite,
Hone, razor, white,
penetrated with water,
razor, white and black,
Honey,
Honeystone, or Mellilite,
700
2.633
2.944
2.8763
2.8839
3-1271
I-450o
J 1-586
X 1.666
600
830
it
Horneblende, common, Kirwan.
resplendent, Labrador, Kirwan. \ 3'35°
Q , ... I 3-434
Schiller spar, Kirwan. 2.882
S 2.909
13-I55
Jieuss. X 3-150
t 3-220
3-333
Kirwan.
S 2.530
12.653
2.813
2.747
721
Of Specific
Gravities.
schistose,
basaltic,
Hornstone, or Petrosilex,
ferruginous,
veined,
Hornstone, gray. See Kirwan's Mineralogy. 2.6 cu
blackish gray, 2.744
yellowish white, 2.563
bluish, and partly yellowish gray, 2.626
dark purplish red iron shot, 2.638
4 Y Hornstone,
722
HYDRODYNAMICS,
Of Specific Horostone, greenish white, with reddish spots,
Gravities. from Lorraine,
s„- v   jron gjjQ^ brownish red, outside
bluish, gray inside,
Hyalite,
Hyacinth,
2-532
Hypocist,
Jade, or Neplirite, white,
green,
olive,
from the East Indies,
Kirwan. 2
Karsten. 4
Klaproth. ^ ^
I
.813
.110
.OOO
•545
.620
•5263
Kirwan. 2
3
_ 3
combined with the boracic acid and
boracited calx,
of Swisseriand,
'{
Muschenbroek.
Jasmin, Spanish,
Jasper, veined,
red,
brown,
yellow,
violet,
&ray>
cloudy,
green,
bright green,
deep green,
brownish green,
blackish,
blood coloured,
heliotrope,
onyx,
flowered, red and white,
red and yellow,
green and yellow,
red, green, and gray,
red, green, and yellow,
universal,
agate,
Jet, a bituminous substance,
Indigo,
penetrated with water,
Inspissated juice of liquorice,
Iridium, ore of, discovered by
nant,
Iron, chromate of, from the department of
Var,
from the Ouralian mountains, in
Siberia, Lauguier.
Sulphate of, saturated solution, temp.
Mr Ten-
Wollaston. 19
9592
9660
9829
977
310
389
566
77c0
6955
6612
691 r
7101
7111
764O
7354
6274
3587
6258
6814
6719
6277
6330
.8160
6228
75oo
6839
7323
7492
5630
6608
2590
7690
0095
7228
500
0326
4-0579
42.
Watson.
I.
7-
„ {?:
Hatchet. 4
Gellert. 4
Kirwan. 4
Brisson. 4
Hatchet.^
sand, magnetic sand, from Virginia, 4
fused, but not hammered,
forged into bars,
pyrites, dodecahedral,
from Frey berg,
Cornwall,
cubic,
radiated,
157
200
600
788
830
682
789
702
698
775
600
Iron ore, specular,
ore, specular,
micaceous,
Kirwan.
Brisson.
Kirwan,
Ironstone, red, ocbrey, Wiedemann.
compact, Kirwan.
from Siberia, Kirwan.
T , . C Brisson.
Lancashire,^ wiedem„n„,
compact, brown, from Bay-
Kirwan.
Kirwan.
Brisson.
. Kirwan.
Gellert.
Kirwan.
Gellert.
Wiedemann.
Kirwan.
Brisson.
Kii'wan.
Wiedemann.
Brisson.
Blumenbach.
clay, lenticular, Kirwan.
day, common, from Cathina at
Ivaschau, Kirwan.
from Roscommon in Ire¬
land, Rotheram.
Carron in )
Scotland, 3
clay, reniform iron ore, Wiedemann.
clay, pea ore, Molinghof.
Iron ore, lowland, from Sprottau, Kirwan.
Iserine, a mineral from the Iser in Bohemia,
Juniper tree, Muschenbroek.
Ivory, dry,
Ivy gum, from the hedera terrestris.
^ 4-793
1 5-I39
i 4-939
I5.21S
i 4-728
1 5-°70
2.952
3-423
3.760
3-573
3-863
Parti. Pf
()! SPtc,k j|riti
Gravities.
reuth,
from Tyrol,
cubic,
red hematites,
brown hematites,
sparry, or calcareous,
decomposed,
black, compact,
clay reddle,
{
Rotheram.
3-551
3-753
3-5°3
3-477
5-005
4.740
3-951
3-789
4.029
3.640
3.810
3.672
3-300
3.600
4.076
3-931
2.673
2.936
3-47r
5 3-205
i 3-357
2-574
5.207
2.944
4.500
0.5560
1.8250
1.2948
K
Keffekil, or Meerschaum,
Kinkina,
Klaproth. 1.6000
Muschenbroek. 0.7840
L
Labdanum, resin,
in tortis,
Lapis nephriticus,
hasmatites,
judaicus,
manatis,
hepaticus,
obsidianus,
lazuli. See Azure stone.
Lard,
Lavender, volatile oil of,
Lead glance, or galena, common,
from Derbyshire,
1.1862
2- 4933
2.804
4.360
2.500
2.270
2.666
3- 348
0.9478
0.894
Gellert. 7.290
■•{ts
Lead
Watson.
C*p. II.
|rjtie&, I^ea4 glance, compact,
ore
crystallized,
radiated,
from the Hartz,
Kautenbach,
Kirschwalder,
corneous,
reniform,
of black lead,
blue,
brown,
from Huguelgoet,
H Y D R O D
Gellcrt.$6MG
1 7-444
Kiriuan. \ 4-311
l 5-05
Brisson.
La Metherie.
Kir iv an.
Vanqnelin.
Vauquelin.
Chenevix.
Binclheirn,
Gellert.
Wiedemann.
Klaproth.
Hduy.
Gellert.
Chenevix.
Hduy.
phosphorated from Wanlock-
black,
white from Leadhills,
head,
Zschoppau,
Brisgaw,
red j or red lead spar,
Klaproth.
Klaproth.
Hduy.
Bindheim.
Brisson.
yellow, molybdenated,
Lead, Brisson.
Gellert.
acetite of, Muschenbroek.
vitriol from Anglesea, Klaproth.
Lemon tree, Muschenbroek.
Lenticular ore (arseniate of copper), Bournon.
Lepidoiite, lilalite,
Leuzite,
Lignum vitae,
Limestone, compact,
foliated,
granular,
green,
arenaceous,
white fluor,
calc, spar,
Linden wood,
Klaproth. ^
j'-3
1 2-7
l9
.o 52
7-5s7
5- 500
7.448
6.140
6.820
6.065
2.Q20
6- 745
5.461
6.974
6.600
6.909
5- 77°
7.236
6- 559
6.560
6.270
6.941
5-75°
6.027
5.092
ii-352
n-445
2-3953
6.300
0.7033
2.882
2.8x6
2.854
Klaproth.
Hduy.
455
„ 49°
Muschenbroek. 1.3330
3864
200
2.*7 10
Muschenbroek.
Logwood, or Campeacby wood, Muschenbroek.
M
Madder root, Muschenbroek.
Mahogany,
Magnesia, Kirwan.
sulphate of, saturated solution,
temp. 420 W atson.
Magnetic pyrites, Hatchet.
ironstone,
Malachite,
compact,
Manganese,
Brisson.
Brisson.
Muschenbroek.
Bergman.
Hielm.
{
0.7650
1.0630
2.3300
1.232
4-5l8
4.200
4-939
3-572
3.641
3-994
6.850
7.000
Y N A M I C S.
Manganese, gray ore of, striated,
gray, foliated,
red from Kapniek,
black,
Brisson.
Binmann,
Hagen.
Kirwan.
Gravities,
Dolomicu. •
Brisson.
penetrated with water,
scaly,
Maple wood, Muschenbroek.
Marble, Pyrenean,
black Biscayan,
Brocatelle,
Castilian,
Valencian,
Grenadian white,
Siennian,
Homan violet,
African,
Italian, violet,
Norwegian,
Siberian,
French,
Swisserland,
Egyptian, green,
yellow of Florence,
Mastic,
tree, Muschenbroek.
Medlar tree, Muschenbroek.
Meerschaum. See Keffekil.
Melanite, or black garnet,
Mellilite. See Honeystone,
Menachanite,
Karsten.
Werner.
Lampadius.
Gregor.
Mercurial hepatic ore, compact, Kirwan. ^
Gellert.
Mercury at 3 2° of heat,
~ at 6o°,
at 212°,
in a solid state, 40° below o
Fa hr. Biddle.
in a fluid state 470 above o, Biddle.
corrosive muriate of, saturated so¬
lution, temp. 420, Watson.
natural calx of,
precipitate per se,
red,
mineralized by sulphur, native
Ethiops. See also Cinna-
Hahn.
Brisson.
3.691
3.800
4.270
4.427
7.186
7-352
7-937
13.619
i3-58°
13-375
15.612
13-545
J-OS?
9-23°
10.871
s-399
bar,
Mica, or glimmer,
Blumenbach.
Milk, woman’s,
mare’s
ass’s,
goat’s,
ewe’s,
cow’s,
Mineral from Cornwall, supposed to be zeo¬
lite, at 550 Fahrenheit, Gregor.
4 Y 2
2.233
2.791
2-934
1.0203
1.0346
I-°355
1.0341
1.0409
1.03 24
2:253
Mineral
724 HYDRODYNAMICS.
GrS! Mineral pitch, clastic, or asphaltum, Hatchet. [ 0il> ''oktile of-
v~~1 La Metherie. 0.930 ~
Mineral tallow,
Molybdena in a metallic state, saturated with
water,
native, Kirwan.
Shumacher.
.Tins son.
Mountain crystal. See Rock Crystal.
Mulberry tree, Spanish, Muschenbroek.
Muricalcite, crystallized, or rhomb spar,
Myrrh,
0.770
7.500
4.048
4.667
4*7385
0.8970
2.480
1.3600
N
Naphtha,
Nephrite. See Jade.
Nickel in a metallic state,
copper,
Bergman.
Brisson.
0.8475
5" 7421
l
8.500
9*3333
r 6.6086
’16.6481
Gellert. 7.560
Nickel, ore of, called Kupfernickel of Saxe, 6.648
Kupfernickel of Bohemia, 6.607
sulphurated, 6.620
Nickeline, a metal discovered by Richter,
cast, Richter. 8.55
forged, Richter. 8.60
Nigrine, or calcareo-siliceous titanic
ore, Vauquelin. 3.700
Klaproth. 4.445
Lowit%. 4.673
Nitre, Muschenb?'oek. 1.9000
quadrangular, Muechenbroek. 2.2460
saturated solution of temperature 420
Watson. 1.095
Novaculite, or Turkey hone. See Slate, Whet.
O
Oak, 60 years old, heart of, Muscbienbroek.
Obsidian, or Icelandic agate. See Lapis Ob-
sidianus.
Octahedrite, Hauy.
Oil of filberts,
walnut,
hemp-seed,
poppies,
rape-seed,
lint-seed,
poppy-seed,
whale,
ben, a tree in Arabia,
beechmast,
codfish,
olives,
almonds, sweet,
volatile, of mint, common,
volatile, of sage,
thyme,
rosemary,
calamint,
cochlearia,
wormwood,
1.1700
3*857
0.9x6
0.9227
0.9258
0.9238
0.9193
0.9403
0.929
0.9233
0.9119
0.9176
O.9233
°-9'S3
0.9170
0.8982
0.9016
0.9023
0.0057
0.9116
0.9427
©•9073
Olibanum, gum,
Olive tree,
copper ore,
Olivine,
Opal, precious,
Roman camomile,
sabine,
fennel,
fennel-seed,
coriander-seed,
caraway-seed,
dill-seed,
anise-seed,
juniper-seed,
cloves,
cinnamon,
turpentine,
amber,
the flowers of orange,
lavender,
hyssop,
foliated,
fibrous,
Kirwan.
semiopal, reddish, from Telkoba-
nya, Klaproth.
ligniform, or wood,
Opium,
Ophites. See Porphyry Hornblende.
Opoponax,
Muschenbroek.
Part I.
0*9328 Of Specifia
O.9949 ®ra*‘ths.
0.8943  ^
O.9294
O.9294
I.0083
O.8655
9.9049
0.9128
O.9867
O.8577
I.0363
1*0439
O.8697
O.8865
O.8798
O.8938
O.8892
I.I732
O.9270
4.281
4.281
3.225
2.II4
Klaproth, y I,^58
/ 2.015
2.X44
Muschenbroek.
Bourtion.
Bournon.
Werner.
Blumenbach.
2.540
2.600
1*3365
Orange tree,
Orpiment,
Orpiroent, red.
Kirwan
See Realgar.
P
.j3
1 3*
1.6226
0*7°59
048
435
Muschen broek.
Pear tree,
Pearls, oriental.
Peat, hard,
Peruvian bark,
Petrol,
Petrosilex. See Hornstone.
Phosphorite, or Spargel stone, whitish, from
Spain, before absorbing water,
after absorbing water,
greenish, from Spain,
Saxon,
Phosphorus,
Pierre de volvic,
Pinite,
Pitch ore, or sulphurated uranite,
0.6610
2.683
1.329
0.7840
0.8783
Kirwan.
Guyton.
Hauy.
Klaproth.
Brisson.
Brisson.
Brisson.
Pitch-stone, black,
> yellow,
red,
brick red, from Misnia, Kirwan.
leek green, inclining to ,
olive, Kirwan.
„ pearl gray, Kirwan.
blackish, Brisson.
2.8249
2.8648
3.098
3.218
1.714
2.320
2.980
6.378
6*53°
7.500
2.0499
2.0860
2.6695
2.720
2.298
1.970
2.3191
Pitch-stone,
Cl ip.
Of! 'cific
Or ties.
II.
Pitch-stone, olive, Brisson.
dark green, Brisson.
Pitchy iron ore,
Platina drawn into wire,
a wedge of, sent by Admiral Gravina
to Mr Kirwan,
a bar of, sent by the king of Spain
to the king of Poland,
in grains purified by boiling in ni-fiy
trous acid, rS
HYDRODYNAMICS.
2- 3
2.3149
3- 956
21.0417
20.663
20.722
.500
500
5 15.601
\ 17.200
14.626
20.336
22.069
Muschenbi'oek. 0.7850
Kirwan.
native,
fused,
purified and forged,
compressed by a flatting mill,
Plum tree,
Plumbago, or graphite,
Pomegranate tree, Muschenbroek.
Poplar wood, Muschenbroek.
white Spanish, Muschenbroek.
Porcelain from China,
Seves, hard,
tender,
Saxony, modern,
Limoges,
of Vienna,
Saxony, called Petite Jaunet
Porphyry, green,
red,
red of Dauphiny,
red from Cordova,
green from ditto,
hornblende, or orphites,
itch-stone,
mullen,
sand-stone,
Potash, carbonate of,
muriate of, Muschenbroek.
tartrite of, acidulous, Muschenbroek.
antimonial,
sulphate of,
Prasium,
Prehnite of the Cape, Hauy.
Brisson.
of France, Hauy.
Proof spirit, according to the English excise
laws,
Pumice stone,
Pyrites, coppery,
cubical,
ferruginous cubic,
ditto round,
ditto of St Domingo,
magnetic. See Magnetic Pyrites.
Klaproth.
Wtruer.
l 5" 1'9%1
■ c 2.267
1- 3 54°
0.3830
0.5294
2.3847
2- 1457
2.1654
2.4932
2-341
2.5121
2.5450
2.6760
2.7651
2-7933
2.7542
2.7278
2.9722
2.452
C 2.600
\ 2.728
2.564
1-4594
1-8365
1.9000
2.2460
2.2980
2.5805
2.697
2.9423
2.610
Pyrope,
0.916
0.9145
4-9539
4.7016
3-900
4.101
3-440
3-7l8
3-941
Q
Quartz, crystallized, brown, red,
brittle,
gras,
crystallized,
2.6468
2.6404
2.6459
2.6546
Quartz, milky,
elastic,
Quince tree,
Realgar, or red orpiment,
Gerhard.
Kirwan.
Muschenbroek.
R
Bergman.
Brisson,
Resin of guaiacum,
of jalap,
Rock or mountain crystal from Madagascar,
clove brown, Karsten.
snow white from Marmerosch, Karsten.
crystal, European, pure, gelatinous,
of Brasil,
irisee,
rose-coloured,
yellow Bohemian,
blue,
violet, or amethyst,
violet purple, or Carthaginian
amethyst,
pale violet, white amethyst,
brown,
black,
Roucou,
penetrated with water,
Ruby, oriental,
Brazilian, or occidental,
spinell,
Klaproth.
ballas,
Rutile, or titanite,
Hduy.
La Metherie.
S
Sahlite,
Sal gemmae,
Salt of vitriol,
sedative, of Homberg
polychrest,
de Prunelle,
volatile, of hartshorn,
Sandarac,
Santal, white,
yellow,
red,
Sapagenum,
Sapphire, oriental, white,
of Puys,
oriental,
Brazilian, or occidental
Sarcocolla,
Sardonyx, pure,
pale,
pointed,
veined,
onyx,
herborisee,
blackish,
Dandrada.
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
I2 5
2.652 Of Specific
3.750 Gravities.
2.6240 —\r—
0.7050
3-225
3- 338
1.2289
1.2185
2.6530
2.605
2.888
2.6548
2.6526
2.6497
2.6701
2.6542
2.5818
2- 6535
2.6570
2.6513
2.6534
2.6536
0-5956
1.1450
4- 2833
3- 5311
3.7600
3-5700
3-6458
4.102
4.246
3-234
2.143
1.9000
1.4797
2.1410
2.1480
1.4760
1.0920
1.0410
0.8090
1.1280
1.2008
3-991
4.076
3-994
3-13°7
13-994
Hatchet. ^ 4.000
Greville. "£4.083
1.2684
Brisson.
Brisson.
Brisson.
Brisson.
Brisson.
Brisson.
Brisson.
2.6025
2.6060
2.6215
2-5951
2.5949
2.5988
2.6284
Sassafras.
726
Of Specific Sassafras,
Gravities. Scammony of Aleppo,
v~ ‘ Smyrna,
Scapolite,
Dandrada
HYDRODY
Muschenbroek. 0.4S 20
I'23S4
I,2743
6800
7000
Scliistus. See Slate, Hone, Stone.
Schmelstein, Hih/y.
Schoral, black, prismatic, hexabedral,
octahedral,
enneahedral,
black, sparry,
S3-(
‘Ud
2.630
3-3636
3.2265
3.0926
3-3852
amorphous, or ancient basaltes, 2.9225
cruciform,
violet of Daupbiny,
green,
common.
Brisson.
Gerhard.
Kirwan.
Brisson.
Hauy.
Werner.
tourmaline,
green,
blue,
Selenite, or broad foliated gypsum,
Serpentine, opaque, green, Italian,
penetrated with water,
ditto, red and black veined,
ditto, veined, black and olive,
semitransparent, grained,
ditto, fibrous,
ditto, from Dauphiny,
opaque, spotted black and white,
spotted black and gray,
spotted red and yellow,
green from Grenada,
deep green from Grenada, 2.7097
black from Dauphiny, or variolite, 2.9339
green from Dauphiny,
green,
yellow,
violet,
of Dauphiny,
Siderocalcite, or brown spar,
Silver ore, sulphurated, Brisson.
La Metherie.
3.2861
3-2956
3-4529
3.092
3-15°
3.212
3.086
3-362
3-155
2.322
2.4295
2.4729
2.6273
2-5939
2-5859
2.9997
2.6693
2.3767
2.2645
2.688 5
2.6849
red,
light red,
sooty,
native, common,
antimonial,
auriferous,
ore, dark red,
brittle,
Gellcrt.
Brisson.
Brisson.
Gellert.
Vnnquelin.
Gellert.
Selb.
Hduy,
Selb.
Kirwan. 10.000
Gellert. 5.684
Brisson.
2.9883
2.8960
2’730S
2.6424
2-79I3
2.837
6.910
7.200
7.208
5-564
5.5886
5-443
5-592
10.000
IO-333
9.4406
10.000
5-5637
2.178
2.340
4.7488
4-804
arseniated, ferruginous,-
penetrated with water,
ore, corneous, or horn ore, Brisson.
Gellert.
virgin, 12 deniers, fine, not hammered, 10.474
12 deniers, hammered, 10.510
Paris standard, u deniers, 10
grains, fused, IO-I75
hammered, *0.376
5
NAMICS.
Silver shilling of George IT,
George III.
French money, 10 deniers, 21 grains,
fused,
French money, 10 deniers, 21 grains,
coined,
Sinople, coarse jasper,
Slate clay. See Argillite,
common,
or schistus, common,
Parti.
10,000 Of Specific
*0-534 Gravities,
IO.O48
whet, or novaculite,
Isabella yellow,
stone,
fresh polished,
adhesive,
new-,
siliceous,
10.408
2.6913
2.6718
2.6718
penetrated with
water, 2.6905
Kir wan. 0’T12
2.609
Kirwan. 2.955
2.1861
2.7664
Klaproth. 2.080
2-8535
Kirwan. T 2'39^
12.641
horn, or schistose porphyry, Kirwan
Smalt, or blue glass of cobalt,
Soda, sulphate of, Muschenbroek.
muriate of, Muschenbroek.
saturated solution, tempera¬
ture 420, Watson.
tartrite of,saturated solution of, Watson.
fossil,
saturated solution of, tem¬
perature 420, Watson.
Sommite, or nepheline, Hduy.
Spar, common,
heavy,
brown. See Sidero-Calcite,
rhomb. See Muricalcite.
white sparkling,
red ditto,
green ditto,
blue ditto,
green and white do.
transparent do.
adamantine, or diamond,
schiller. See Hornblende, Labrador.
fluor, white,
red, or false ruby,
octahedral,
yellow, or false topaz,
green, or false emerald,
octahedral,
blue, or false sapphire,
1 2.70
2
700
2.44O
2.2460
2.1250
I.I98
I.II4
2.I43O
I.O54
3-2474
5 2.693
12.778
4.430
25946
2.4378
2.7045
2.6925
3-I05I
2- 5644
3- 873
3-*555
3*I911
3-*8i5
3.0967
3.1817
3.1838
3.1688
greenish blue, or false aquamarine, 3.1820
violet, or false amethyst,
violet, purple,
English,
of Auvergne,
in stalactites,
pearled,
calcareous rhomboidal,
of France,
prismatic,
and pyramidal,
3-*757
3-*857
3-*796
3-°943
3.1668
2.8378
2.7151
2.7146
2.7182
2.7115
pyramidal,
a p. li¬
ne
Gr
P*
cific
tie..
HYDROD
S^argel stone.
Spermaceti,
Spinelle,
pyramidal,
(puant gris),
(puant noir),
or flos ferri,
See Phosphorite.
2.7141
2.7121
2.6207
2.6747
Spirit of wine.
Spodumene,
See Alcohol.
Klaproth.
Wiedemann.
9-9433
3-57°
3.700
hi* tty.
Dandrada.
Stalactite, transparent,
opaque,
penetrated with water,
Staurolite. See Cross-stone.
Staurotite, or grenatite, Hatty.
Steatites of Bareight,
penetrated with water,
indurated,
penatrated with water,
Steel, soft,
hammered,
hardened in water,
hammered and then hardened in water,
St John’s wort, inspissated juice of,
Strontian, Kirtvan
3.192
3-2i8
2.3239
2 4783
2.5462
3.286
2.6149
2.6657
2-5834
2.6322
7-833i
7.8404
7.8163
7.8180
1-5263
S 3-400
'13-644
Klaproth. 3.675
Stone, sand, paving,
grinding,
cutlers,
Fountainbleau, glittering,
crystallized,
scythe, of Auvergne, mean grained, 2.5638
fine grained, 2.6090
2.4158
2.1429
2-1113
2.5616
2.6m
coarsegrained, 2.5686
2.5298
Lorraine,
Liege,
mill,
Bristol,
Burford,
Portland,
rag>
rotten,
St Cloud,
St Maur,
Notre Lame,
Clicard from Brachet,
Ouchain,
rock of Chatillon,
hard paving,
Siberian blue,
touch,
prismatic basaltes,
of the quarry of Boure,
of Cherence,
Storax,
Sugar, white,
Sulphur, native,
fused,
Sulphuric or vitriolic acid,
Sulphurate, triple, of lead, antimony, and cop¬
per, Hatchet. 5.766
Sylvanite, or tellurite, in a metallic state,
twice fused, 6.343
Muschenbroek.
2.6356
2.4835
2.510
2.049
2.496
2.470
1.981
2.201
2.034
2.378
2-357
2.274
2.122
2.460
2-945
2-415
2.722
1.3864
2.4682
1.1098
1.6060
2.0222
1.9907
1.841
Y N A M I C S.
Sylvan, native,
ore, yellow,
black,
Syringa,
Jaeqitin,jun.
Muller.
Klaproth.
Muller.
J aequin, jun.
Muller.
Muschenbroek.
727
4- 107
5- 723
6.115
10.678
6- 157
8.919
1.0989
Of Specific
Gravities.
T
Tacamahaca, resin,
Talc, black crayon,
ditto German,
yellow,
white,
of mercury,
black,
earthy,
common Venetian,
Tallow,
Tantalite,
Tartar,
Terra Japonica,
Thumerstone,
1.0462
2.080
2.246
2.655
2.704
2-79I7
2.9004
2-6325
$ 2.700
l 2.800
• 0.9419
Eckeberg. 7.953
Muschenbroek. 1.8490
Hatty, jj-
i-398°
Tin, pure, from Cornwall, fused,
213
_ 3°o
Gerhard. 3.250
Kirtvan. 3.2956
Watson. X 7-1 / o
1.7-29I
fused and hammered, 7.291
of Malacca, fused, 7.296
fused and hammered,
of Gallicia, Gellcrt.
of Ehrenfriedensdorf iti Saxony, Gellert.
pyrites,
Klaproth.
La Met her ie.
stone,
black,
red,
7.306
7.063
7.271
4-350
4-785
Gellert. T 6'3°Q0
l 6.989
Brume h. 6.750
Leysser. 6.880
Brisson. 6.901
Brisson. 6.9348
fibrous.
Klaproth. -T 3,845
l6-97o
new, fused,
fused and hammered,
fine, fused,
fused and hammered,
common,
called Cluire-etoffe,
ore, Cornish,
Werner.
Brunich.
Blumenbach.
stone, white,
Titanite. See Butile.
Topaz, oriental
Brazilian,
from Saxony,
oriental pistachio,
Saxony white,
Tourmaline. See Shorl.
Tungsten,
Brunich.
Klaproth.
7.000
5.800
6.450
7-30I3
7-3I15
7.4789
7-5194
7.9200
8.4869
5.800
6.450
6.008
4.0106
3-5365
3-5640
4.0615
3-5535
Leysser. 4.355
Tungsten,
72 B
Of Specific _
Gravities. lutlgSten,
Brisson. ^
Klaproth.
Turbeth mineral,
Turpentine, spirits of,
liquid.
Turquoise, ivory tinged by the blue calx of ^
U
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Kirivan.
copper,
5.800
6.028
6.066
6.01 c
5-570
8-235
0.870
0.991
2.500
2.908
Ultramarine, Desormes and Clement.
Uran, Mica, Champeaux.
Uranite in a metallic state, Klaproth.
sulphurated. See Pitch ore.
Uranitic ochre, indurated, La Metherie.
Hciuy.
Uranium, stone of,
Urine, human,
V
Vermeille, a kind of oriental ruby,
Vesuviane, Wiedemann.
of Siberia,
Klaproth.
Klaproth. <
Vine,
Vinegar, red,
white,
Vitriol, Dantzic,
Hauy.
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
W
Walnut-tree of France, Muschenbroek.
Water distilled at 3 2° temperature,
sea,
of Dead sea,
wells,
of Bareges,
of the Seine, filtered,
of Spa,
of Armeil,
Avray,
Seltzer,
Wavellite, or hydragillite, Davy.
Wax, Ourouchi,
bees,
2.360
3.1212
6.440
3-2438
7.500
1.015
1.026
4.2299
3-575
3.420
3-365
3-339
3-4e7
1.2370
1.0251
I-OI35
I-7I5
0.6710
1.0000
1.0263
1.2403
1.0017
1.00037
1.00015
1.0009
1.00046
1.00043
I-OCl35
2.7000
9.8970
0.9648
Wax, white,
shoemakers,
Whey, cows,
Willow,
Witherite. See Barolite.
Wine of Torrins, red,
white,
Champagne, white,
Pakaret,
Xeret,
Malmsy of Madeira,
Burgundy,
Jurancon,
Bourdeaux,
Malaga,
Constance,
Tokay
Canary,
Port,
Wolfram,
Wolf’s eye (name of a mineral),
Woodstone,
Muschenbroek.
Gmelin.
Elhuyar.
Leonhardi.
Hatchet.
H'duy.
Yew tree, Dutch,
Spanish,
Yttertantalite,
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
Eckeberg.
Part I,
O.9686 Of Specific
O.897 Gravities,
1.019  r—'
0.5850
0.9930
0.9876
0.9979
0.9997
0.9924
1.0382
0.9915
0.9932
0.9939
1.0221
1.0819
1.0538
0.997
5- 705
6.835
7.000
6- 955
7- 333
2.3507
2.045
2.675
0.7880
0.8070
5,I3°
Zeolite from Edelfors, red, scintillant,
white scintillant,
compact,
radiated, Hduy.
cubic, Hduy.
siliceous,
Zinc, pure and compressed,
in its usual state,
formed by sublimation and full of ca¬
vities, Kirwan.
sulphate of Muschenbroek.
saturated solution of, temp.420, W'itson.
Zircon, or jargon, Klaproth.
Karsten.
Wiedemann.
2.4868
2.0739
2.1344
2.083
2.716
2.515
7.1908
6.863
5-9lS
1.9000
1.386
4.615
4.666
4.700
Fluid* do
not rise to
tlie same
level ia a
system of
communi¬
cating ves¬
sels when
their dia¬
meters are
very mi-
HUte.
Chap. III. On Capillary Attraction^ and the Cohe¬
sion of Fluids.
in. We have already seen,when discussing the equi¬
librium of fluids, that when water or any other fluid is
poured into a vessel, or any number of communicating
vessels, its surface will be horizontal, or it will rise to
the same height in each vessel, whatever be its form or
position. This proposition, however, only holds true
when the diameter of these vessels or tubes exceeds the
fifteenth of an inch: for if a system of communicating ves¬
sels be composed of tubes of various diameters, the fluid
will rise to a level surface in all the tubes which exceed
one-fifteenth of an inch in diameter j but in the tubes
of a smaller bore, it will rise above that level to alti¬
tudes inversely proportional to the diameters of the
tubes. The power by which the fluid is raised above its
natural level is called capillary abaction, and the glass
tubes which are employed to exhibit its phenomena are
named capillary tubes. These appellations derive their
origin from the Latin word capillus, signifying a hair,
either
,lp.
ee«
tar-
s oi
!ate
LX Vr f.
F 5.
nr. H Y D R O D Y
liliary either because the bores of these tubes have the fineness
tction, of a hair, or because that substance is itself supposed to
ic-  he of a tubular structure.
112. When vve bring a piece of clean glass in con¬
tact with water or any other fluid, except mercury and
fused metals, and withdraw it gently from its surface,
a portion of the fluid will not only adhere to the glass,
but a small force is necessary to detach this glass from
the fluid mass, which seems to resist any separation of
eis an its parts. Hence it is obvious that there is an attrac-
hesion t*on ^ C(,1,es'on between glass and water, and that the
een constituent particles of water have also an attraction for
and each other. Hie suspension of a drop of water from the
and lower side of a plate of glass is a more palpable illustra¬
tion of the first of these truths j and the following ex¬
periment will completely verify the second. Place two
large drops of water on a smooth metallic surface, their
distance being about the tenth of an inch. With the
point of a pin unite these drops by two parallel canals,
and the drops will instantly rush to each other through
these canals, and fill the dry space that intervenes.
This experiment is exhibited in fig. 2. where AB is
the metallic plate, C, 13 the drops of water, and n
the two canals.
113. Upon these principles many attempts have been
made to account for the elevation of water in capillary
tubes; but all the explanations which have hitherto
been ofiered, are founded upon hypothesis, and are very
unt for ^ar ^rorn being satisfactory. Without presuming to sub-
ise of a better explanation in the room of those which
rin have been already given, and so frequently repeated,
we shall endeavour to illustrate that explanation of the
phenomena of capillary attraction which seems liable
to the fewest objections. For this purpose let E be a
drop of water laid upon a clean glass surface AB,
Every particle of the glass immediately below the drop
E, exerts an attractive force upon the particles of water.
This force will produce the same effect upon the drop
as a pressure in the opposite direction, the pressure of a
column of air, for instance, on the upper surface of the
drop. The effect of the attractive force, therefore,
tending to press the drop to the glass will be an en¬
largement of its size, and the water will occupy the
space EG; this increase of its dimensions will take
place when the surface AB is held downwards ; and that
it does not arise from atmospheric pressure maybe shown
by performing the experiment in vacuo. Now let AB
(fig. 2.) be a section of the plate of glass AB (fig. 3.)
held vertically, part of the water will descend by its
gravity, and form a drop B, while a small film of the
fluid will be supported at m by the attraction of the
glass. Bring a similar plate of glass CD into a position
parallel to AB, and make them approach, nearer and
nearer each other. When the drops B and D come in
contact, they will rush together from their mutual at¬
traction, and will fill the space op. The gravity of the
drops B and D being thus diminished, the film of wa¬
ter at m and » which was prevented from rising by their
gravity will move upwards. As the plates of glass con¬
tinue to approximate, the space between them will fill
with water, and the films at in and n being no longer
prevented from yielding to the action of the glass im¬
mediately below them (by the gravity of the water at
cp, which is diminished by the mutual action of the
Vol. X. Part II. f
lary
NAMICS. 729
fluid particles) will rise higher in proportion to the ap- Capillary
proach of the plates. Hence it may be easily under- Attraction,
stood how the water rises in capillary tubes, and how &c-
its altitude is inversely as their internal diameters. For
let A, a he the altitudes of the fluid in two tubes of^jesVi'*
different diameters D, d; and let C, c he the two cylin-fluids iu
ders ol fluid which are raised by virtue of the attraction capillary
of the glass. Now, as the force which raises the fluid ^ul)e* a,'e
must be as the number of attracting particles, that ^
as the surface of the tube in contact with the water, that meters,
is, as the diameter of the tubes, and as this same force
must he proportional to its effects on the cylinder of
water raised, we shall have D : c/=C : c. But (Geome¬
try, Sect. VIII. Timor. XI. Sect. IX. Theor. II.)
C : £’”D*A : d'a, therefore I)2A : d2a~D : d; hence
D*A dzzd^D, and DA= or DA=f/«, that
D d
is, D : d=a : A, or the altitudes of the water are in¬
versely as the diameters of the tubes. Since DArrr/a,
the product of the diameter by the altitude of the water
will always be a constant quantity. In a tube whose dia¬
meter is 0.01, or T§^ of an inch, the water has been
found to reach the altitude of 5.3 inches ; hence the
constant quantity 5.3 X 0.1=0.053 may fitly represent
the attraction of glass for water. According to the ex¬
periments of Muschenhroek, the constant quantity is
0.039 1 according to Weitbrecht 0.0428 ; according to
Monge 0.042, and according to Atwood 0.0530. When
a glass tube was immersed in melted lead, Gellert found
the depression multiplied by the bore to be 0.0054.
114. Having thus attempted to explain the causes Phenomena
of capillary action, we shall now proceed to considerof oal)il.laiy
some of its most interesting phenomena. In fig. 4. MN at)ractiott*
is a vessel of water in which tubes of various forms are 1
immersed. The water will rise in the tubes A, B, C to
different altitudes m, /?, 0, inversely proportional to their
diameters. If the tube B is broken at a, the water will
not rise to the very top of it at a, but will stand at b,
a little below the top, whatever be the length of the
tube or the diameter of its bore. If the tube be taken
from the fluid and laid in a horizontal position, the wa¬
ter will recede from the end that was immersed. These Julia’s by.
two facts seem to countenance the opinion of Dr Jurin *Potliesis-
and other philosophers, that the water is elevated
the tube by the attraction of the annulus, or ring oFn0 36 V
glass, immediately above the cylinder of rvater. This art. 2.'
hypothesis is sufficiently plausible ; but supposing it to
be true, the ring of glass immediately below the sur¬
face of the cylinder of fluid should produce an equal
and opposite effect, and therefore the water instead of
rising should be stationary, being influenced by two
forces of an equal and opposite kind.
115. If a tube D composed of two cylindrical tubes Phenomena
of different bores be immersed in water with the widest®1 caP*11aiy
part downwards, the water will rise to the altitude ^,jaUlacUon*
and if another tube E of the same size and form be
plunged in the fluid with the smaller end downwards,
the water will rise to the same height q as it did in the
tube D. This experiment seems to he a complete re¬
futation of the opinion of Dr Jurin, that the water is
raised by the action of the annulus of glass above the
fluid column ; for since the annular surface is the same
at q as at p, the same quantity of fluid ought to be
supported in both tubes, whereas the tube E evidently
4 ^ raises
73°
Fig. 4-
Capillary raises much less water than D. But if we admit the
Attraction, supposition in art. 1x3. that the fluid is supported by the
^-c> whole surface of glass in contact with the water, the
w““v phenomenon receives a complete explanation *, for since
the surface of glass in contact with the fluid in the tube
E is much less than the surface in contact with it in
the tube D, the quantity of fluid sustained in the former
ought to be much less than the quantity supported in
the latter.
Phenomena 116. When a vessel F v tv is plunged in water, and the
of capillary lower part f tf x; w filled by suction till the fluid enter
attraction. t|)e part p ^ t|ie water will rise to the same height as
it does in the capillary tube G, whose bore is equal to
the bore of the part F t. In this experiment the portions
of water t vx and ux w on each side of the column F x are
supported by the pressure o( the atmosphere on the sur¬
face of the water in the vessel MM j for if this vessel be
placed in the exhaused receiver of an air-pump, these
portions of water will not be sustained. Dr Jurin, in¬
deed, maintains that these portions will retain their po¬
sition in vacuo, but in his time the exhausting power of
the air purpp was not sufficiently great to determine a
point of so great nicety. The column tux, which is
not sustained by atmospherical pressure, is kept in its
position by the attraction of the water immediately
around and above it, and tbe column F tu is supported
by the attraction of the glass surface with which it is
in contact. According to Dr Jurin’s hypothesis, the
column tux is supported by the ring of glass immedi¬
ately above which is a very unlikely supposition.
117. The preceding experiment completely overturns
the hypothesis of Dr Hamilton, afterwards revived by
Dr Matthew Young. These philosophers maintained
that the fluid was sustained in the tube by the lower ring
of glass contiguous to the bottom of the tube, that this
ring raises the portion of water immediately below it,
and then other portions successively till the portion of
water thus raised be in equilibrium with the attraction
of the annulus in question. But if the elevation of the
fluid were produced in this way, the quantity supported
would be regulated by the form and magnitude of the
orifice at the bottom of the tube j whereas it is evident
from every experiment, that the cylinder of fluid sus¬
tained in capillary tubes has no reference whatever to
the form of the lower annulus, but depends solely upon
the diameter of the tube immediately above the ele¬
vated column of water.
118. If the experiments which we have now explained
be performed in the exhausted receiver of an air-pump,
takTplace ^ie water will rise to the same height as when they are
in the ex- performed in air. We may therefore conclude, that
liaustcd re- the ascent of the water is not occasioned, as some have
ceher of imagined, by the pressure of the atmosphere acting
more freely upon the surface of the water in the vessel
than upon the column of fluid in the capillary tube.
F.xperi- ng. It appeal's from tbe following tableconstructed by
Mt'b*M ir ^Drtin, that different fluids rise to very dit-
tin on the ferent heights in capillary tubes, and that spirituous
ascent of liquors, whose specific gravity is less than that of water,
difterent are not raised to the same altitude. Mr Martin’s expe-
tluids in ca-r;mentg were made with a tube about of an inch in
diameter. He found that when capillary tubes charged
with diflerent fluids were suspended in the sun for
months together, the enclosed fluid was not in the least
degree diminished by evaporation.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Names of the Fluids.
Altit.
Hypothesis
of Dr Ha¬
milton and
i)r Mat¬
thew
Young.
The capil¬
lary phe¬
nomena
an air-
pump.
pillary
tabes.
Common spring water
Spirit of urine
Tincture of galls
Recent urine
Spirit of salt
Ol. tart, per deliq.
Vinegar
Small beer
Strong spirit of nitre
Spirit of hartshorn
Cream
Skimmed milk
Aquafortis
lied wine
White wine
Ale
01. sul. per campanam
Oil of vitriol
Sweet oil
Oil of turpentine
Geneva
Hum
Brandy
White hard varnish
Spirit of wine
Tincture of mars
Inches 1.2
1.1
1.1
1.1
0.9
0.9
°-9S
0.9
0.85
0.85
0.8
c.8
o-75
o-75
°-75
o-75
0.65
0.65
0.6
o.J5
o-55
o-5
°’5
o-S
0.45
°-45
Constant
N umber
.048
.044
.044
.044
.036
.036
.038
.026
•°34
•034
.032
.032
.030
.030
.030
.030
.026
.026
.024
.022
.022
.020
.020
.020
.018
.018
Pavt I.
Capillary
Attraction
&c.
120. To the preceding table as given by Mr Martin We
have added the constant number for each fluid, or the pro¬
duct of the altitude of the liquid, and the diameter of
the tube (art. 115.). By this number, therefore, we can
find the altitude to which any of the preceding fluids will
rise in a tube of a given bore, or the diameter of the bore
when the altitude of the fluid is known $ for since the
constant number CrrDA (art. 113.) we shall have
C C
Dor —and Arr —. Since the constant number, how-
A D
ever, as deduced from the experiments of Martin, may
not be perfectly correct, it would be improper to de¬
rive from it the diameter of the capillary bore when
great accuracy is necessary. The following method,
therefore, may be adopted as the most correct that can ^ ^ (
be given. Put into the capillary tube a quantity of^1^.;^
mercury, whose weight in troy grains is W, and lettjie jn er-
the length F of the tube which it occupies be accurate-nal diame
ly ascertained •, then if the mercury be pure and at theternf9
temperature of 6o° of Fahrenheit, the diameter of thecai1'^fl1?
/w
tube.
tube D^r V -y X 0.019241, the specific gravity of
Xj
mercury being 13.580. The weight of a cubic inch
of mercury being 3438 grains, and the solid con¬
tent of the mercurial column being D1Lx 0.7854,
we shall have 1 : 3438=D2L X 0.7854 : W. Hence
(Geometry, Sect. IV.Theor. VIH.) DSL X0.7854X
W
2428—W, and dividing we have D2=r     ^
b FXO.7854X3438
/W
Lx 0.7854 x343a /xrX0-o,924‘-
If the whole tube be filled with mercury, and if W !)©■
the difference in troy grains between its weight when
empty*-
!>=/
w
-orD—
ctricity
1 Ity
it.
the as-
it of
ids be-
;eu two
dined
;te« of
li'ap. HI. H Y D R O D
ipillaiy empty, and when filled with mercury, the same theo-
mctioii, rem will serve for ascertaining the diameter of the tube.
&c. Should the temperature of the mercury happen to be
""v " ' 32°of Fahrenheit, its specific gravity will be 13.619,
which will alter a very little the constant multiplier
0.019241.
e motion I21* ^ ^en vvater is made to pass through a capillary
water hi tube of such a bore that the fluid is discharged only by
idlary successive drops $ the tube, when electrified, will fur-
ies acce-njsij a constant and accelerated stream, and the accele-
. ration is proportional to the smallness of the bore. A
similar effect may be produced by employing warm wa-
ter. Mr Leslie found that a jet of warm wrater rose to
a much greater height than a jet of cold water, though
the water in both cases moved through the same aper¬
ture, and was influenced by the same pressure. A sy¬
phon also which discharged cold water only by drops,
yielded warm water in an invariable stream.
122. Such are the leading phenomena of capillary
tubes. The rise of fluids between two plates of glass re¬
mains to be considered j and while it furnishes us with
a very beautiful experiment, it confirms the reasoning
by which we have accounted for the elevation of fluids
in cylindrical canals. Let ABEF and C.DEF be two
pieces of plate glass with smooth and clean surfaces,
having their sides EF joined together with wax, and
their sides AB, CD kept a little distance by ano-
Plate ther piece of wax W, so that their interior surfaces,
ftiXVI. whose common intersection is the line EF, may form a
'»■ 5- small angle. When this apparatus is immersed in a
vessel MN full of water, the fluid will rise in such a
manner between the glass panes as to form the curve
D oom E, which represents the surface of the elevated
water. By measuring the ordinates m n, 0p, &c. of this
curve, and also its abscissse F n, F p, &c. Mr Havvks-
bee found it to be the common Apollonian hyperbola,
having for its assymptotes the surface Db of the
fluid, and EF the common intersection of the two
planes. To the very same conclusion we are led by
the principles already laid down ; for as the distance
between the plates diminishes at every point of the
curve D q 0 m E from D towards E, the water ought
to rise higher at 0 than at q, still higher at rn, and
highest of all at E, where the distance between the
plates is a minimum. To illustrate this more clearly,
g. 6. let ABEF and CDEF be the same plates of glass,
(inclined at a greater angle for the sake of distinctness)
and let EmqD, and E 0 s B be the curves which
bound the surface of the elevated fluid. Then, since
the altitudes of the water in capillary tubes are in¬
versely as their diameters or the distances of their op¬
posite sides, the altitudes of the water between two
glass plates, should at any given point he inversely as the
distances of the plates at that point. Now, the distance
of the plates at the point m is obviously mo, or its equal
np, and tbe distance at y is ^ s or r/; and since m n
is the altitude of the water at m, and q r its altitude at
q, we have m n : q v ~ 11 p : v t $ but (GEOMETRY,
Sect. IV. Tiieor. XVII.) F n : F r—np therefore
in n : q ?'~F n \ F that is, the altitudes of the fluid at
the points m, q, which are equal to the abscissae I n, F r
(fig. j.) are proportional to the ordinates q t\ m n, equal
to F n, Fr, in fig. 5. But in the Apollonian hyper¬
bola the ordinates are inversely proportional to tiieir
respective abscissae, therefore the curve Y) qo m E is the
YNAMICS. 731
common hyperbola.—As the plates are infinitely near Capillary
each other at the apex E, the water will evidently rise AUraction,
to that point, whatever be the height of the plates. ^cc-
123. The phenomena which we have been endeavour- * J
ing to explain, are all referable to one simple fact, that
the particles of glass have a stronger attraction for the
particles of water than the particles of water have for
each other. This is the case with almost all other fluids jyieiCury
except mercury, the particles of which have a stronger descends in
attraction for each other than for glass. When capil-capdlary
lary tubes therefore are plunged in this fluid, a new se-tul>es*
ries of phenomena present themselves to our considera¬
tion. Let MN (fig. 7.) be a vessel full of mercury. Ds- 7-
Plunge into the fluid the capillary tube CD, and the
mercury, instead of rising in the tube, will remain sta¬
tionary atE, its depression below the level surface AB
being inversely proportional to the diameter of the
bore. This was formerly ascribed to a repulsive force
supposed to exist between mercury and glass, but we
shall presently see that it is owing to a very different
cause.
124. That the particles of mercury have a very strong Mercury
attraction for each other, appears from the globular form bss a
which a small portion of that fluid assumes, and from
, . 1 . * . f attraction
the resistance which it opposes to any separation ot itstor ils 0VVIl
parts. If a quantity of mercury is separated into a num- particles
her of minute parts, all these parts will be spherical; and than for
if two of these spheres be brought into contact, theyg^55*
will instantly rush together, and form a single drop of
the same form. There is also a very small degree of
attraction existing between glass and mercury 5 for a
globule of the latter very readily adheres to the
lower surface of a plate of glass. Now suppose a drop
of water laid upon a surface anointed with grease, to
prevent the attraction of cohesion from reducing it to a Cau?e of
film of fluid, this drop, if very small, will be spherical, the depres-
If its size is considerable, the gravity of its parts will s‘otl °/mer"
make it spheroidal, and as the drop increases in magni- Ca"
tude, it will become more and more flattened at its[uije5:,
poles, like AB in fig. 8. The drop, however, will Eig. 8,
still retain its convexity at the circumference, however
oblate be the spheroid into which it is moulded by the
force of gravity. Let two pieces of glass 0 A 7? B/r, he
now brought in contact with the circumference of the
drop j the mutual attraction between the particles of
water which enabled it to preserve the convexity of its
circumference, will yield to their superior attraction for
glass; the space m,n,o,p, will be immediately fil¬
led ; and the water will rise on the sides of the glass,
and the drop will have the appearance of A B in'fig. 9. Fig. 9.
If the drop AB fig. 8. be now supposed mercury instead
of water, it will also, by the gravity of its parts, assume
the form of an oblate spheroid ; but when the pieces of
glass 0 A. tn, p n are brought close to its periphery,
their attractive force upon the mercurial particles is
not sufficient to counteract the mutual attraction of
these particles ; the mercury therefore s’etains its con¬
vexity at the circumference, and assumes the form of
AB in fig. 10. The small spaces 0, p being filled fig* IO‘
by the pressure of the superincumbent fluid, while the
spaces in, n, still remain between the glass and the
mercury. Now if the two plates of glass, A, B he made
to approach each other, the depressions m, n will still
continue, and when the distance of the plates is so small
that these depressions or indentations meet, the mercury
4 Z 2 will
732
OapUlary will sink between the plates, and its descent will con-
Attraction, tinue as the pieces of glass approach. Hence the de-
HYDRODYNAMICS. Parti
the attraction of the tube upon the fluid exceeds the at- Capitlafv
Sue.
Fig- S-
feet contact
feetween
the solid
• and the
fluid.
presslon of the mercury in capillary tubes becomes very
intelligible.—If two glass planes forming a small angle,
as in fig. 5. be immersed in a vessel of mercury, the
fluid will sink below the surface of the mercury in
the vessel, and form an Apollonian hvperbola like
D 0 E, having for its assymptotes the common inter¬
section of the planes and the surface of mercury in the
vessel.
Thedeprcs- 125. The depression of mercury in capillary tubes is
s‘on 0/raer" evidently owing to the greater attraction that subsists
<diaiLTubes between the particles of mercury, than between the
owing ulti- particles of mercury and those of glass. The difference
mately to between these two attractions, however, arises from an
an impee- imperfect contact between the mercury and the capil¬
lary tube, occasioned by the interposition of a thin coat¬
ing of water which generally lines the interior surface
of the tube, and weakens the mutual action of the glass
and mercury j for this action always increases as the
thickness of the interposed film is diminished by boiling.
In the experiments which were made by Laplace and
Lavoisier on barometers, by boiling the mercury in them
for a long time, the convexity of the interior surface of
the mercury was often made to disappear. They even
succeeded in rendering it concave, but could always re¬
store the convexity by introducing a drop of water into
the tube. When the ebullition of the mercury is suf¬
ficiently strong to expel all foreign particles, it often
rises to the level of the surrounding fluid, and the de¬
pression is even converted into an elevation.
126. Newton, Clairaut, and other geometers, have
attraction maintained, that the action of the capillary tube is sensi-
se^n/to* ble at a small distance, and that it is extended to the
at any per- Part‘c^es °f fiu’d in the axis of the tube. Laplace and
other philosophers who have lately attended to this sub¬
ject, suppose capillary attraction to be like the refrac¬
tive force, and all the chemical affinities, which are not
sensible except at imperceptible distances; and it must
be allowed that this opinion is consistent with many of
the phenomena. It has been often observed that water
rises to the same height in glass tubes, of the same bore,
whether they be very thin or very thick. The zones of
the glass tube therefore, which are at a small distance
from the interior surface, do not contribute to the ascent
of the water, though in each of these zones, taken sepa¬
rately, the water would rise above its level. When
the interior surface of a capillary tube is lined with a
very thin coating of an unctuous substance, the water
will no longer ascend. Now if the attraction of the
glass tube were similar to the attraction of gravity, of
electricity, or magnetism, it ought to act through bodies
of all kinds, and, notwithstanding the thin coating of
grease, should elevate the fluid in which it is immersed.
But as the intervention of an attenuated film of grease
destroys capillary action, there is reason to conclude,
that it does not extend to sensible distances. The same
conclusion is deducible from the fact in the preceding
paragraph.
127. From these facts Laplace concludes, that the at¬
traction of capillary tubes has not any influence on the
elevation or depression of the fluids which they contain,
except by determining the inclination of the first planes
of the surface of the interior fluid, which are extreme¬
ly near the sides of the tube. He supposes that when
Capillary
ceptihie
distance.
Opinion of
Laplace.
traction of the fluid upon itself, the fluid will in that Auiactiw
case attach itself to the tube, and form an anterior tube, ^•c’
which alone will raise tbe fluid. \
128. ‘ It is interesting, says Laplace, to ascertain the
radius of curvature of the surface of water included in ca¬
pillary tubes of glass. This may be known by a curious
experiment, which shews at the same time the effects
of the concavity and convexity of surfaces. It consists
in plunging in water, to a known depth, a capillary
tube of which the diameter is likewise known. The
lower extremity of the tube is then to be closed with
the finger, and the tube being taken out of the water,
its external surface must be gently wiped. Upon with¬
drawing the finger in this last situation, the water is
seen to subside in the tube and form a drop at its lower
base ; but tbe height of tbe column is always greater
than the elevation of the water in the tube above the
level in tbe common experiment of plunging it in wa¬
ter. This excess in the height is owing to the action
of the drop upon tbe column on account of its convexi¬
ty ; and it is observable that the increase in the eleva¬
tion of the water is more considerable, tbe smaller the
diameter of the drop beneath. The length of the fluid
column which came out by subsidence to form tbe drop,
determines its mass ; and as its surface is spherical as
well as that of the interior fluid, if we know the height
of the fluid above the summit of the drop, and the dis¬
tance of this summit from the plane of the interior bore
of the tube, it will be easy to deduce the radii of these
two surfaces. Some experiments lead me to conclude
that the surface of the interior fluid approaches very
nearly to the figure of an hemisphere.’
129. ‘ The theory which I have adopted, observes the when a
same philosopher, likewise gives the explanation andfluidiselt
measure of a singular phenomenon presented by experi-'vaU<^ 0,)
ment. Whether the fluid be elevated or depressed be-. efr€„ .
tween two vertical planes, parallel to each other, andtvvopara
plunged in the fluid at their lower extremities, the planes lei rertic
tend to come together. Analysis shews us, that if thepl306®!1*
fluid be raised between them, each plane will undergo
from without inwards a pressure equal to that of a co-togCther,
lumn of the same fluid, of which tbe height would be
half the sum of the elevations above the level of the
points of contact of the interior and exterior surfaces
of the fluids with the plane, and of which the base
should be the parts of the plane comprised between the
two horizontal lines drawn through those points. If the
fluid be depressed between tbe planes, each of them will
in like manner undergo from without inwards, a pres¬
sure equal to that of a column of the same fluid, of
which the height would be half the sum of the depres¬
sions below the level of the points of contact of the in¬
terior and exterior surfaces of the fluid with the plane,
and of which the base should be tbe part of the plane
comprised between the two horizontal lines drawn
through those points.’
130. As most philosophers seem to agree in thinking Acbarif’
that all the capillary phenomena are referable to theexP*”n^*
cohesive attraction of the superficial particles only of®”ce,sar
the fluid, a variety of experiments has been made intorajge t
order to determine the force required to raise a horizon- smface 1
tal solid surface from the surface of a fluid. Mr Ach- a s0^ a
ard found that a disc of glass, i-§- French inches in dia- *
meter, required a weight of 91 French grains to raise
it
(
<
A
i
}
e
i
t
I
t
t
(
t
I
ap. III.
ii)ary it from the surface of the water at 69® of Fahrenheit,
iction, which is only 37 English grains for each square inch.
ic- At 44 J of Fahrenheit the force was greater, or 39*-
'v grains, the difference being T^T for each degree of
Fahrenheit. From these experiments Dr Young con¬
cludes that the height of ascent in a tube of a given
bore, which varies in the duplicate ratio of the height
of adhesion, is diminished about -rl-g- for every degree
of Fahrenheit that the temperature is raised above 50°;
and he conjectures that there must have been some con¬
siderable source of error in Achard’s experiments, as he
never found this diminution to exceed Accord¬
ing to the experiments of Dutour, the force necessary
to elevate the solid, or the quantity of water raised, is
equal to 44.1 grains for every square inch,
beau’s 131. According to the experiments of Morveau, the
rl* force necessary to elevate a circular inch of gold from
"orce ^ie sur^ace mercury is 446 grains j a circular inch of
ssary silver, 429 grains; a circular inch of tin, 418 grains;
iseme-a circular inch of lead, 397 grains ; a circular inch of
trorn bismuth, 372 grains ; a circular inch of zinc, 204 grains ;
ersury a c^rcu^ar inc^ copper, 142 grains ; a circular inch
of metallic antimony, 12-6 ; a circular inch of iron, 115
grains ; and a similar surface of cobalt required 8
grains. The order in which these metals are arranged
is the very order in which they are most easily amalga¬
mated with mercury.
he ap- 132. The approach of two floating bodies has been as-
don of cr^et^ by some to their mutual attraction, and by others
tag bo- to the attraction of the portions of fluid that are raised
round each by the attraction of cohesion. Dr Young,
however, observes that the approach of the two floating
bodies is produced by the excess of the atmospheric
pressure on the remote sides of the solids, above its pres¬
sure on their neighbouring sides ; or, if the experiments
are performed in a vacuum, by the equivalent hydrosta¬
tic pressure or suction derived from the weight and im¬
mediate cohesion of the intervening fluid. This force
varies alternately in the inverse ratio of the square of
the distance ; for when the two bodies approach each
other, the altitude of the fluid between them is increa¬
sed in the simple inverse ratio of the distance ; and
the mean action, or the negative pressure of the fluid
on each particle of the surface, is also increased in the
same ratio. When the floating bodies are surrounded
by a depression, the same law prevails, and its demon¬
stration is still more simple and obvious.
)eri- jgg. A number of experiments on the adhesion of
>t6°f flu ids have been lately made by Count Rumford, which
authorise him to conclude, that on account of the mu-
be ad. tual adhesion of the particles of fluid, a pellicle or film
ion of is formed at the superior and inferior surfaces of water,
and that the force of the film to resist the descent of
bodies specifically heavier than the fluid increases with
the viscidity of the water. He poured a stratum of
sulphuric ether upon a quantity of water, and intro¬
duced a variety of bodies specifically heavier than wa¬
ter into this compound fluid. A sewing needle, gra¬
nulated tin, and small globules of mercury, descended
through the ether, but floated upon the surface of the
water. When the eye was placed below the level of
the aqueous surface, the floating body, which was a
733
spherule of mercury, seemed suspended in a kind of bag Capillary
a little below the surface. When a larger spherule ot Attraction,
mercury was employed, about the 40th or 50th of an
inch in diameter, it broke the pellicle and descended
to the bottom. The same results were obtained by
using essential oil of turpentine or oil of olives instead
of ether. When a stratum of alcohol was incumbent
upon the water, a quantity of very fine powder of tin
thrown upon its surface, descended to the very bottom,
without seeming to have met with any resistance from
the film at the surface of the water. This unexpected
result Count Rumford endeavours to explain by sup-
posing that the aqueous film was destroyed by the che¬
mical action of the alcohol. In order to ascertain with
greater accuracy the existence of a pellicle at the sur¬
face of the water, Count Rumford employed a cylindrical
glass vessel 10 inches high and I £ inch in diameter, and
filled it with water and ether as before. A number of
small bodies thrown into the vessel descended through
the ether and floated on the surface of the water.
When the whole rvas perfectly tranquil, he turned the
cylinder three or four times round with considerable
rapidity in a vertical position. The floating bodies
turned round along with the glass, and stopped when it
was stopped ; but the liquid water below the surface
did not at first begin to turn along with the glass ; and
its motion of rotation did not cease with the motion of
the vessel. From this Count Rumford concludes that
there was a real pellicle at the surface of the water,
and that this pellicle was strongly attached to the sides
of the glass, so as to move along with it. When this
pellicle was touched by the point of a needle, all the
small bodies upon its surface trembled at the same time.
The apparatus was allowed to stand till the ether had
entirely evaporated, and when the pellicle was examin¬
ed with a magnifier, it was in the same state as formerly;
and the floating bodies had the same relative positions.
134. In order to shew that a pellicle was formed at
the inferior surface of water, Count Rumford poured
water upon mercury, and upon that a stratum of ether.
He threw into a vessel a spherule of mercury about one-
third of a line in diameter, which being too heavy to be
supported by the pellicle at the superior surface of the
water, broke it, and descending through that fluid, was
stopped at its inferior surface. When this spherule was
moved, and even compressed with a feather, it still pre¬
served its spherical form, and refused to mix with the
mass of mercury. When the viscidity of the water was
increased by the infusion of gum-arabic, much larger
spherules were supported by the pellicle. From the
very rapid evaporation of ether, and its inability to sup¬
port the lightest particles of a solid upon its surface.
Count Rumford very justly concludes, that the mutual
adhesion of its particles is very small.
I35- Th ose who wish to extend their inquiries con-References
cerning the cohesion of fluids, may consult an ingeniousto works
paper on Capillary Action by Professor Leslie, in the®n c®*
Phil. Mag. for 1802 ; Dr Thomas Young’s Essay onfl^°n °
the Cohesion of Fluids, in the Phil. Trans. 1805 ; an
Abstract of a Memoir of Laplace, in Nicholson’s Jour¬
nal, N° 57.; and an Account of Rumford’s Experi¬
ments in the same Journal, N° 60, 61, and 62.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
PART
734
Motioa of
Fluids, &c.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
PART II. HYDRAULICS.
Part ]
Motion
Fluids, £
Defuiitioa. 136. HYDHAUL1CS is that branch of the sci¬
ence of hydrodynamics which relates to tiuids in mo¬
tion. It comprehends the theory of running water,
whether issuing from orifices in reservoirs by the pres¬
sure of the superincumbent mass, or rising perpendi¬
cularly in jets cVeaux from the pressure of the atmos¬
phere ; whether moving in pipes and canals, or roll¬
ing in the beds of rivers. It comprehends also the re¬
sistance or the percussion of fluids, and the oscillation
of waves.
Chap. I. Theory of Fluids issuing from Orifices in
Reservoirsy either in a Lateral or a Vertical di¬
rection. '
Prelimina¬
ry observa¬
tions.
Plate
CCLXVII.
fisr- r.
Cause of
the vena
eontracta,
which was
discovered
by New¬
ton.
tn n
half its diameter, so that 0 in— j and the breadth Descripi
2 of the v
of the vein or column of fluid at 0 is to the width contract
of the orifice as 5 to 8 according to Bossut, or as
5.197 to 8 according to the experiments of Miche-
lotti, the orifice being perforated in a thin plate.
But when the water is made to issue through a short
cylindrical tube, the same contraction, though not ob¬
vious to the eye, is so considerable, that the diameter
of the contracted vein is to that of the orifice as 6.5 to
8. If A therefore be the real size of the orifice in a
thin plate, its corrected size, or the breadth of the con-
5.107 X A
tracted vein, will be   ^ , and when a cylindri-
O
137. If water issues from an orifice either in the bot¬
tom or side of a reservoir, the surface of the fluid in the
reservoir is always horizontal till it reaches within a
little of the bottom. When a vesse therefore is em¬
ptying itself, the particles of the fluid descend in ver¬
tical lines, as is represented in fig. 1. j but when they
have reached within three or four inches of the orifice
m «, the particles which are not immediately above it
change the direction of their motion, and make for the
orifice in directions of diflerent degrees of obliquity.
The velocities of these particles may be decomposed
into two others, one in a horizontal direction, by which
they move parallel to the orifice, and the other in a
vertical direction by which they approach that orifice.
Now, as the particles about C and D move with great¬
er obliquity than those nearer E, their horizontal ve¬
locities must also be greater, and their vertical veloci¬
ties less. But the particles near E move with so little
obliquity that their vertical are much greater than their
horizontal velocities, and very little less than their ab¬
solute ones. The different particles of the fluid, there¬
fore, will rush through the orifice m n with very differ¬
ent velocities, and in various directions, and will arrive
at a certain distance from the orifice in different times.
On account of the mutual adhesion of the fluid parti¬
cles, however, those which have the greatest velocity
drag the rest along with them and as the former move
through the centre, of the orifice, the breadth of the
issuing column of fluid will be less At op than the width
of the orifice inn.
138. That the preceding phenomena really exist when
a vessel of water is discharging its contents through an
aperture, experience sufficiently testifies. If some small
substances specifically heavier than water be thrown in¬
to the fluid when the vessel is emptying itself, they will
at first descend vertically, and when they come within a
few inches of the bottom they will deviate from this direc¬
tion, and describe oblique curves similar to those in the
figure. The contraction of the vein or column of fluid
at 0p is also manifest from observation. It was first
discovered by Sir Isaac Newton, and denominated the
vena contractu. The greatest contraction takes place
at a point 0 whose distance from the orifice is equal to
cal tube is employed it will be
13 X A
16
In the first
case the height of the rvater in the reservoir most be
reckoned from the surface of the fluid to the point 0,
where the vein ceases to contract; and when a cylindri¬
cal tube is employed, it must be reckoned from the
same surface to the exterior aperture of the tube.
139. Suppose the fluid ABCD divided into an infinite ^ejall0
number of equal strata or laminae hy the horizontal betweei
surfaces MN,g'A infinitely near each other 5 and letthevek y
mnophe. asmall column of fluid which issues from the01 'j1®
orifice in the same time that the surface MN descends j!^1^
to g k. The column mnop is evidently equal to the t},aJ 0f :
lamina MN g /i, for the quantity of fluid which is interiors.]
discharged during the time that MN descends to g7/,lani>nft‘
is evidently MN hg ; and to the quantity discharged in
that time, the column m n op was equal by hypothesis.
Let A be the area of the base MN, and B the area of
the base mn; let x be the height of a column equal to
MN g h, and having A for its base, and let y be the
height of the column mnop. Then, since the column
mnop is equal to the lamina MNg//, we shall have
A#—By, and (Geometry, Sect. IV. Theor. IX.) x : y
“A : B } but as the surface MN descends to gh in the
same time that m n descends to 0 p, x will represent the
mean velocity of the lamina MNg/z, and y the mean
velocity of the column mnop. The preceding analogy,
therefore, informs us, that the mean velocity of any la¬
mina is to the velocity of the fluid issuing from the orifice
reciprocally as the area of the orifice is to the area of the
base of the lamina MN^/z. Hence it follows, that, if the
area of the orifice is infinitely small, with regard to the
area of the base of the lamina into which the fluid is
supposed to be divided, the mean velocity of the fluid
at the orifice will he infinitely greater than that of the
laminae j that is, while the velocity at the orifice is finite,
that of the laminae will be infinitely small.
14c. Before applying these principles to the theory
of hydraulics, it may be proper to observe, that several
distinguished philosophers have founded the science
upon the same general law from which we have dedu¬
ced the principles of hydrostatics (32.). In this way
they have represented the motion of fluids in general
formulae 5 but these formula; are so complicated from the
very
a
c
}i
FI
r
HYDRODYNAMICS.
ip. II.
very nature of the theory, anil the calculations are so in-
^ tricate, and sometimes impracticable horn their length,
. C' that they can afford no assistance to the practical en¬
gineer.
Definition.
i41. If the water issues at m n with the same veloci-
’’ ty V that a heavy body would acquire by falling free¬
ly through a given height H, this velocity is said to
be due to the height H, and inversely the height H is
said to he due to the velocity V.
Prop. T.
142. The velocity of a fluid issuing from an infi¬
nitely small orifice in the bottom or side of a
vessel, is equal to that which is due to the height
of the surface of the fluid above that orifice, the
vessel being supposed constantly full.
Let AB be the vessel containing the fluid, its velo-
11 city when issuing from the aperture m n will be that
which is due to the height Dm, or equal to that which
a heavy body would acquire by falling through that
height. Because the orifice mn is infinitely small, the
velocity of the laminae into which the fluid may be sup¬
posed to be divided, will also be infinitely small (art.
138.). But since all the fluid particles, by virtue of their
gravity, have a tendency to descend with the same ve¬
locity ; and since the different laminae of the fluid lose
this velocity, the column ffi n s t must be pressed by the
superincumbent column D vi v ; and calling S the spe¬
cific gravity of the fluid, the moving force which pushes
out the column must will be S X Dm X ^ (art. 42'.).
Now let us suppose, that, when this moving force is
pushing out the column m 11 s t, the absolute weight of
the columil m n 0 p, which may he represented by
S x m ny. np, causes itself to fall through the height np.
Thus, if V, U be the velocities impressed upon the co¬
lumns m n x t, and m « 0^, by the moving forces S X D m
X m n, and S X " X » P > these moving forces must be
proportional to their effects, or to the quantities of
motion which they produce, that is, to \ Y,m n $ t and
UXtnn°P> because the quantity of motion is equal to
the velocity and mass conjointly ; hence we shall have
S x Dm x w m2 : S X mn x V x m nst: U X m nop.
But since the volumes inn s t, m n op are to one anoJiei
as their heights 0, 0 s, and as their heights are inn
through in equal times, and consequently represent
the velocity of their motion, m n s t may be represented
by V x m n and m n 0/1 by U X m n; therefore we shall
have S X D m X w « : *8 X m nXn P—^ X ^ X m n '■ I X
U ysm n, and dividing by m n, S X D?« : np—\ 2 : L\
Now let v he the velocity due to the height D m, then
(see Mechanics) np : U2=:D m : c2; but since Sx
Dm : Sx«;>=V* : U* ; then by (Euclid V. 15.). ail<l
by permutation D tn : Y'^znp : U% therefore by substi¬
tution (Euclid V. 11.) Dm : Y'—Dm : v\ and (Eu¬
clid V. 9.) V1 —t-2 or Vrry. But V is the velocity
with which the fluid issues from the orifice m v, and v is
the velocity due to the height Dm ; therefoie, smce^the
velocities are equal, the proposition is demonstrated.
143. Cor. I. If the vessel AB empties itself by the
small orifice m n, so that the surface of the fluid takes
successively the positions DP, QR, Si, the velocities
with which the water will issue when the surfaces have
these positions will be those due to the heights E «, F n, Motion <>»'
G/j, for in these difl’erent positions the moving forces Fluids,
are the columns D mn, Fm n, Gm n. 1—y——
144. CoR. I. Since the velocities of the issuing fluid
when its surface is at E, F, G, are those due to the heights
E n, F n, Gn, it follows from the properties of falling
bodies (see Mechanics), that if these velocities were
continued uniformly, the fluid would run through spaces
equal to 2 E 2 F 2 G « respectively, in the same
time that a heavy body would fall through E n, F n, Gn,
respectively.
14$. Cor. 3. As fluids press equally in all direc¬
tions, the preceding proposition will hold true, when the
orifices are at the sides of vessels, and when they are
formed to throw the fluid upwards, either in a vertical
or an inclined direction, provided that the orifices are
in these several cases at an equal distance from the up¬
per surface of the fluid. This corollary holds also in
the case mentioned in Cor. 1.
146. Cor. 4. When the fluid issues vertically, it will
rise to a height equal to the perpendicular distance of
the orifice from the surface of the fluid j for (see Me¬
chanics), this is true of falling bodies in general, and
must therefore be true in the case of water: owing to
the resistance of the air, however, and the friction of.
the issuing fluid upon the sides of the orifice, jets of
water do not exactly rise to this height.
147. Cor. 5. As the velocities of falling bodies are
as the square roots of the heights through which they
fall (see Mechanics), the velocity V of the effluent
water when the surface is at E, will be to its velocity
v when the surface is at G, as sjD 11 : *jGn, (Cor. 1.)
that is, the velocities of fluids issuing from a very small
orifice are as the square roots of the altitude of the wa¬
ter above these orifices. As the quantities of fluids
discharged are as the velocities, they will also be as the
square roots of the altitude of the fluid. This corollary
holds true of fluids of difl'erent specific gravities, not¬
withstanding Belidor (Architec. Hydraul. tom. i. p.
187.) has maintained the contrary; for though a co¬
lumn of mercury D/« n presses with 14 times the force
of a similar column of water, yet the column m nop ofpiV ^
mercury which is pushed out is also 14 times as heavy &
as a similar column of water; and as the resistance bears
the same proportion to the moving force, the velocities
must be equal.
148. CoR. 6. When a vessel is emptying itself, if
the area of the lamince into which we may suppose it
divided, be everywhere the same, the velocity with
which the surface of the fluid descends, and also the ve¬
locity of efflux, will be uniformly retarded. For (art.
138.) as the velocity V with which the surface descends
is to the velocity v at the orifice, as the area a of the
orifice to the area A of the surface, then V : v—a : A ;
but the ratio of c : A is constant, therefore V varies as
t>, that is, V : Y'—v: v'-, but, (Cor. 1.) t;: *>'=^4: ^/A',
h being the height of the surface above the orifice, there¬
fore V : Y'—^Jh : But this is the properly of a
body projected vertically from the earth’s surface, and
as the retarding force is uniform in the one case (sec
Mechanics), it must also be uniform in the other.
149. Cor. 7. If a cylindrical vessel be kept constantly
full, twice the quantity contained in the vessel will run
out during the time in which the vessel would haveemp-,
tied.
736 H Y D R O D
Motion of tied Itself. For (Cor. 2. anti 6.) the space through which
Fluids, &c. the surface of the fluid at D would descend il its velo-
v—city continued uniform being 2Dm, double of Dm the
2‘ space which it actually describes in the time it empties
itself, the quantity discharged in the former case will
also be double the quantity discharged in the latter :
because the quantity discharged when the vessel is kept
full, may be measured by what the descent ot the sur*
face would be, if it could descend with its first velocity.
r N A M I C S. Part
Moti&n
Prop. II. Funds,;
151. To find the quantity of water discharged
from a very small orifice in the side or bottom
of a reservoir, the time of discharge, and the
altitude of the fluid, the vessel being kept con¬
stantly full, and any two of these quantities be¬
ing given.
Fig.*-
Scholium.
150. The reader will probably be surprised when he
finds in some of our elementary works on hydrostatics,
that the velocity of the water at the orifice is only equal
to that which a heavy body would acquire by falling
through half the height of the fluid above the orifice.
This was first maintained by Sir Isaac Newton, who
found that the diameter of the ve?ia contractu was to
that of the orifice as 21 to 25. The area therefore of
the one was to the area of the other as 21* to 25*,
which is nearly the ratio of x to \/ 2. But by mea¬
suring the quantity of water discharged in a given time,
and also the area of the vena contracta. Sir Isaac found
that the velocity at the vena contractu was that which
was due to the whole altitude of the fluid above the ori¬
fice. He therefore concluded, that since the velocity
at the orifice was to that at the vena contractu as (h)
1 : ,y/T, and in the latter velocity was that which was
due to the whole altitude of the fluid, the former velo¬
city, or that at the orifice, must be that which is due
to only half that altitude, the velocities being as the
square roots of the heights. Now the difference be¬
tween this theory and that contained in the preceding
proposition may be thus reconciled. The velocity found
by the preceding proposition is evidently the vertical
velocity of the filaments at E, which being immediately
above the centre.of the aperture mn are not diverted
from their course, and have therefore their vertical
equal to their absolute velocity. But the vertical ve¬
locity of the particles between C and E, and E and D,
is much less than their absolute velocity, on account of
the obliquity of their motion, and also on account of
their friction on the sides of the orifice. The mean ver¬
tical velocity, consequently, of the issuing fluid will be
much less than the vertical velocity of the particles at
E, that is, than the velocity found by the above pro¬
position, or that due to the height Dm. Now7 the ve¬
locity found by Sir Isaac Newton from measuring the
quantity of water discharged, was evidently the mean
velocity, which ought to be less than the velocity given
by the preceding proposition, the two velocities being
as I : y'li or as 1 : 1.414. The theorem of Newton
therefore may be considered as giving the mean velocity
at the orifice, while our proposition gives the velocity of
the particles at D, or the velocity at the vena contracta.
H=
W
4 A*T* x 16.887
T=
2Tx/ jJ x 16.087
w
Let A be the area of the orifice mn; W the quanti- Pktt
ty of water discharged in the time T j H the constant
height Dm of the water in the vessel, and let 16.087
feet be the height through which a heavy body de¬
scends in a second of time. Now, as the times of de¬
scription are proportional to the square roots of the
heights described, the time in which a heavy body will
fall through the height H, will be found from the follow-
    /~Fi
ing analogy, V16.087 : VH
= 1 : 16 o'Sy* ^ie t*me
required. But as the velocity at the orifice is uniform,
a column of fluid whose base is m n and altitude 2 H
(Prop. I. Cor. 2.) will issue in the time 16.087^/ or
since A is the area of the orifice mn. Ax 2H or 2HA
will represent the column of fluid discharged in that time.
Now since the quantities of fluid discharged in different
times must be as the times of discharge, the velocity at the
/ "JJ
orifice being always the same, we shall have ~—5- : T
16.087
=32IIA : W, and(GEOMETRY, Sect.IV.Theor. VIII.)
W^H TTAri, 2HATx 16.087 , .
■■>■ -n - =2HAI or vV= and since
16.087 /H
TT  
.— ~ sj H we shall have W=2AT ^/Hx 16.087,
\/ ^
an equation from which we deduce the following for¬
mulae, which determine the quantity of water dischar¬
ged, the time of discharge, the altitude of the fluid,
and the area of the orifice, any three of these four quan¬
tities being given :
W=2ATV/Hx 16.087 A=- W
2Av/ H=i6.o87
152. It is supposed in the preceding proposition that
the orifice in the side of the vessel is so small that every
part of it is equally distant from the surface of the fluid.
But'when the orifice is large like M (113.3.), ^ieFig. 3-1
depths of different parts of the orifice below the sur¬
face of the fluid are very different, and consequently
the preceding formulae will ix>t give very accurate re¬
sults.
(h) When a fluid runs through a conical tube kept continually full, the velocities of the fluid in different sec¬
tions will be inversely as the. area of the sections. For as the same quantity of fluid runs through every section
in the same time, it is evident that the velocity must be greater in a smaller section, and as much greater as the
section is smaller, otherwise the same quantity of water would not pass through each section in the same time.
Now the area of the vena contracta is to the area of the orifice, as I : \l~i, therefore the velocity at the vena
contracta must be to the velocity at the orifice as 2 : 1.
wp. I. H Y D R O D
btion of eults> If we suppose the orifice M divided into anum-
ds, See. her of smaller orifices <7, c, it is evident that the
water will issue at o, with a velocity due to the height
D ay the water at by with a velocity due to the height
E by and the water at c, with a velocity due to the
height F c. When the whole orifice, therefore, is open¬
ed, the fluid will issue with different velocities at dif¬
ferent parts of its section. Consequently, in order to
find new formula expressing the quantity of w'ater dis¬
charged, we must conceive the orifice to be divided
into an infinite number of areas or portions by horizon¬
tal planes j and by considering each area as an orifice,
and finding the quantity which it will discharge in a
given time, the sum of all these quantities will be the
quantity discharged by the whole orifice M.
Prop. III.
153. To find the quantity of water discharged by
a rectangular orifice in the side of a vessel kept
constantly full.
Let ABD be the vessel with the rectangular orifice
GL, and let AB be the surface of the fluid. Draw
the lines MNOP, mnop infinitely near each other,
and from any point D draw the perpendicular DC
meeting the surface of the fluid in C. Then regarding
the infinitely small rectangle MO in 0 as an orifice
whose depth below the surface of the fluid is H, we
shall have by the first of the preceding formulae, the
quantity of water discharged in the time T, or W—
T X X 2MO X N «, CN being equal
to II and MOxN n to the area. As the preceding
formula represents the quantity of fluid discharged by
each elementary rectangular orifice, into which the
whole orifice GL is supposed to be divided, we must
find the sum of all the quantities discharged in the
time T, in order to have the total quantity afforded by
the finite orifice in the same time. Upon DC as the
principal axis, describe the parabola CHE, having its
parameter P equal to 4DC. Continue FG and DK
to H and E. The area NP/?» may be expressed by
NPxN n. But (Conic Sections, Part I. Prop. X.)
N P1—CN X P (T being the parameter of the parabola)
therefore NPzr^/CN X F, and multiplying by N « we
haveNP X NnrzNw^/CN X P, which expresses the area
Now this expression of the elementary area being
MO
'Stile
LXVII.
multiplied by the constant quantity T^/16.087 X
v^P
gives for a productT*y/i 6.087 X sjX 2MO x N
MOXv/P_2Ma Buttbat
WF
for ^/iFzrl^/F and
product is the very same formula which expresses the
quantity of water discharged in the time T by the ori¬
fice MOow. Therefore since the elementary area
MPjdtt* multiplied by the constant quantity 1^/16.087
X -Mil, gives the quantity of water discharged by the
\/ ■JF
orifice MOom in a given time, and since the same
may be proved of every other orifice of the same kind
into which the whole orifice is supposed divided, we
may conclude that the quantity of water discharged bv
Vol. X. Part II. t
Y N A M I C S.
7.37
the whole orifice GL will be found by multiplying Motion of
the parabolic area FHED by the same constant quan-Fluids, &c.
  MO ■1 , A
tity T^/i6.087 x—t=. Now the area FHED is
V ^ F
equal to the difference between the areas CDE and
CFH. But (Conic Sections, Part I. Prop. X.) the
area CDF—yCDxDEj and since P—4 CD, and
(Conic Sections, Part I. Prop. X.) DFF=CD x P
we have DEJ=CDx4CD—4CD,,that is DE=2CD,
then by substituting this value of DE in the expression
of the area CDE, we have CDErr^CD2. The area
CFHrr-fCF XFH, consequently the area FHEDrr
4CD3—X FH, which multiplied by the constant
quantity, gives for the quantity of water discharged,
(|P* being substituted instead of its equal 4CD3,)
W— ri\/16.087 XMO X 4F2—4€FxFH
n/|F
But by the property of the parabola FH2=CF xP and
III—^/CFxF» therefore substituting this value of
FH in the preceding formula, and also 4>/F for its
equal F, we have
•yY_ T \/16.087 X MO x |F* — 4CF X y/CFx F
Vf"
and dividing by Vf gives us '  '
"WinTy/16.087 ;xMO X 4PVF-T(M'x-v/CF]
hence
W
T—    — =  
V16.087 X MO X |P\/P_ 4CFx V'CF;
w
MO=
T \/i6.o87x4Pv/P-4CFx v/CF ’
9 w
4 1 16.087
and since P—4CD
+ 3 CF VCF
CD —
XT
CF
16I V 16.087
gVT
-j- 12 cf x VW
16 r v 16.087
-gP-y/^
In these formulae W represents the quantity of water
discharged, T the time of discharge, MO the horizon¬
tal width of the rectangular orifice, P the parameter of
the parabola =4CD, CD the depth of the water in
the vessel or the altitude of the water above the bot¬
tom of the orifice, and CF the altitude of the water
above the top of the orifice. The vertical breadth of
the orifice is equal to CD—CF.
154. Let x be the mean height of the fluid above the
orifice, or the height due to a velocity, which, if commu¬
nicated to all the particles of the issuing fluid, would
make the same quantity of water issue in the time I as it
all the particles moved with the different velocities due to
their difl’erent depths below the surface, then by Prop. II.
the quantity discharged or Wzr 2T X MO X CD—CF
X \A' X 16^087, the area of the orifice being MQ
5 A XOD—CF3
738
Motion of
Fluids,: See.
XCD—CF, and by making this value of W equal to
its value in the preceding article, we have the follow¬
ing equation.  
aTxMOxCD—CF X 16.087
XMOX-f^s/^* -tCFx/CF, which by division and
reduction, and the substitution of instead of CD its
equal, becomes
4(P4yp_4crx/cF)**
4(iP—CF)*
Now this value of x is evidently different from the
distance of the centre of gravity of the orifice from the
. CD + CF
surface of the fluid, for this distance is or
HYDRODYNAMICS. Parti
of the area of the surface at DE divided by the ordi- Motion
nate HF. Now (Conic Sections, Part I. Prop. X.) Fluid*, &
HF=HPxP, or HF=x/HPxv/P,thatisj!s/HP^ 'r"
HF , .   DE _DEXv/p
HF ’
DE
HF
=:Hr, consequently—r=.=Hr X \/p* The elemen-
~ —jzz ; and since 0 m— HP:
Vp V»
by the construction of the curve MN, we have
DE
But
JP + CF
But in proportion as CE increases, the
Plate
CCLXVIL
5>
DExoi
other qualities remaining the same, the value of .r will
approach nearer the distance of the centre of gravity
of the orifice from the surface of the fluid \ for when
CF becomes infinite, the parabolic arch CHE will be¬
come a straight line, and consequently the mean ordi¬
nate of the curve, which is represented by the mean ve¬
locity of the water, will pass through the middle of FD
or the centre of gravity of the orifice.
Prop. IV.
155. To find the time in which a quantity of fluid
equal to ABRT, will issue out of a small ori¬
fice in the side or bottom of the vessel AB, that
is, the time in which the surface AB will de¬
scend to RT.
Draw DE, at an infinitely small distance and pa-
• rallel to AB. The lamina of fluid D JeE may be re¬
presented by DE X 0 ^ > DE expressing the area of
the surface. When the surface of the water has de¬
scended to DE, the quantity of fluid which will be
discharged by an uniform velocity in the time T, will
he T 16.087 X 2 A X ^ being the area of the
orifice, as in Prop. II. But as the variation in the ve¬
locity of the water will be infinitely small, when the
surface descends from DE to de, its velocity may be
regarded as uniform. The time, therefore, in which
the surface describes the small height o b will be found
by the following analogy; T ^/i6.o87 X 2 A X \/0 w ;
T-DEx°«: ,    Nowagthis
v' 16.087 X 2Ax v 0 m
formula expresses the time in which the surface descends
from DE to de, and as the same may be shewn of
every other elementary portion of the height CS, the
sum of all these elementary times will give us the value
of T, the time in which the surface AB falls down to
RT. For this purpose, draw GP equal and parallel
to C n, and upon it as an axis, describe the parabola
PV Qr having its parameter P equal to 4 GP. Con¬
tinue the lines AB, DE, de, RT, so as to form the or¬
dinates HF, hf, UV, of the parabola. Upon GP as
an axis describe a second curve, so that the ordinate
GM may be equal to the area of the surface at AB,
divided by the corresponding ordinate GQ of the pa¬
rabola, and that the ordinate H may be the quotient
0 m
tary time therefore, expressed by-    
v 16.087 x 2A X vom
will, by the different substitutions now mentioned, be
Hrx«6\/P V'P TT , „ ,
——jj==== or ■■ ■ X Hrxo 6. But the
2 Av 16.087 2AV16.087
V'P
factor   consisting of constant quantities is
2 Av 16.087
itself constant, and the other factor HrXo£ represents
the variable curvilineal area H r s/*. Now as the
same may be shown of every other element of the time
T, compared with the corresponding elements of the
area GU t M, it follows that the time T required,
will be found by multiplying the constant quantity
^P
by the curvilineal area GU / M ; there-
2 A V* 16,087
fore Tz=
VT
X-
the
V 16.087
surface descends
GU t M
2 A
to mn.
and the time in which
or in which the vessel
Vp gpnm
X
2 A
empties itself, will be equal to  
V 16.087
Cor. The quantity of fluid discharged in the given
time T may he found by measuring the contents of the
vessel AB between the planes AB, and RT, the de¬
scent of the surface AB, viz. the depth CS, being
known.
Prop. V.
156. To find the time in which a quantity of fluid
equal to ABRT will issue out of a small orifice
in the side or bottom of the cylindrical vessel
AB, that is, the time in which the surface AB
will descend to RT.
Let
height
that
a body ascends through the
- 5 CCIAI
fig.
increasing m the same
us suppose
m C with a velocity
manner as if the vessel AB were inverted, and the
body fell from m to C. The velocity of the ascending
body at different points of its path being proportional
to tbe square roots of the heights described, will be ex¬
pressed by the ordinates of the parabola PVQ. The line
DE being infinitely near to de, as soon as the body ar¬
rives at b it will describe the small space bo or h H
in a portion of time infinitely small, with a velocity
represented by the ordinate HF. Now the time in
which the body will ascend through the space m C or its
VpQ.  
eciual PG will be —   because ^ 16.087 : V^PG
V16.087 ‘
(See Mechanics) ; and if the velocity
impressed
Vpg
v/16.087
mp. I.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
739
)tion of impressed upon the body when at C were conti-
ids, &c. nued uniformly, it would run through a space equal
to 2 GP or GQ in the time  r—But (Dyna-
16.087
Mies, 22.) the times of description are as the spaces
described directly, and the Velocities inversely, and
therefore the time of describing the space 2 GP or GQ
. , . Jpg
uniformly, viz. the time ^
the latter instead of II r, which is equal to it by
^P Uk </P
construction, will become ■ ^ x
DE x H h
J 16.087
will be to the time
GQ K7i
of describing the space h II uniformly, as, : -pj-p
gq Jpg _ ha Jpg
that ts, as GQ S/Tl3'7~ hf :
X ^IIL the time in which the ascending body will de-
HF
scribe H h uniformly ; but PG being equal to | P,
the parameter of the parabola, we shall have J PG
= N/iP = f V7- Substituting this value of y^PG
in the last formula, we shall have for the expression of
T .P , iJV HA
the time of describing HA uniformly--^==== X
But by Prop. IV. the time in which the surface DH de¬
scends into the position d/i, that is, in which it describes
/p
HA, is represented by —-—.———= X H r X 0 A or
2Ay 16.087
^ v ^ Therefore the time in which the
J 2A
ascendingbody moves through AH, is to the time in which
the descending surface moves through HA as
V 16.087 HF \/16,087
^ , DE representing, in this and in the fol-
Ax HI 1 &
lowing proposition, the area of the surface of the fluid at
D. Now, if we multiply the first of these expressions by
DE, and the second by A, we shall find the two pro¬
ducts equal j consequently (Euclid VI. 16.) the first ex¬
pression is to the second, or the time of the body’s ascent
through AII is to the time of the surface’s descent
through HA, as the area A of the orifice is to the area
DE of the base of the cylindrical vessel ; and as the
same may be demonstrated of every elementary time
in which the ascending body and the descending sur¬
face describe equal spaces, it follows that the whole
time in which the ascending body will describe the
height in C or PG, is to the whole time in which the
surface AB will descend to mn, or in which the vessel
will empty itself, as the area A of the orifice is to the
area of the surface DE, that is A : DE
J
PG
J
PG
X
DE
the time in which
16.087
the vessel
H r x H A
J 16.087
  which expressions
* HF 2A ’
after being multiplied by 2, and after substituting m
HA JP
16.087 ^
AB will empty itself. If RT m n be the vessel,
it may be shewn in the same manner, that the
time in which it will empty itself will be  
V 16.087
DE
X HE being equal to RT. But the difference
between the time in which the vessel AB m n empties
itself, and the time in which the vessel RT m n empties
itself, will be equal to the time required in the propo¬
sition, during which the surface AB descends to RT.
This time therefore will be
/PG DE /PU  DE_DE JPG—DE ^PU
-J 16.087X A * 16.087X A ~ A^/i^oSy
,_DE x ypc-yro J. e
T=:
Ax/i6.o87
PIt_(R an/i6lo87
PG
DE
^T, A -y/ig.oSy
DE
VPg)*
*/pu)‘
PG—PU or UG=
aT, Ax HE x/PGx 16.087—T* A* x 16.807
DE*
As the quantity of fluid discharged while the surface AB descends to RT is equal to DExUG, we shall have
aT, AxDE x/PGx 16.087—T3A*x 16.087
DE*
W=DE X
a_dex x/PGxPU
T^/16.087
DE=
T, A J\6.o%i
Jpg—Jpg
5 a 2
Prop.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
-740
Motion of
Fluids, &c.
Figs,
7*
Prop. VI.
157. If two cylindrical vessels are filled with water,
the time in which their surfaces will descend
through similar heights will be in the compound
ratio of their bases, and the difference between
the square roots of the altitudes of each surface
at the beginning and end of its motion, directly,
and the area of the orifices inversely.
an j Let AB m n, A' B', m' n' be the two vessels •, then,
by the last proposition, the time T, in which the surface
AC of the. first descends to RT, will be to the time 1'
in which the surface A' B' of the second descends to
Fart I
. -pn .. ... , DEx v/PG Mati*iu
since ru vanishes, the times will be as 1—- Fiuici, &
to -
D'E'x v/P'G
A
Prop. VII,
I1<rT.( DEx v'PGx v/PU t D'E'xP'G'-
JEl'T'as ——-rr- to
VP'C'
A\/i6'087
or, by dividing by vGb-cSy, as
AVib.oSy
DE x A/PG—A/PU
A
to
D'E' x \/PG—v/PC
Q. E. D.
158. Cor. Hence tbe time in which two cylindrical
vessels full of water will empty themselves, will be in the
compound ratio of their bases and the square roots of
their altitudes directly, and the area of the orifices in¬
versely ", for in this time the surfaces AB, A'B'descend to
vi n, mV respectively, and therefore -v/PG—PU~/y/PG;
159. To explain tbe theory and construction of Theory 0i
clepsydrae or water-clocks. ciepinhJ
or water.
A clepsydra or water-clock, is a machine which,eloc|is*
filled with water, measures time by the descent of the
fluid surface. See Part III. on Hydraulic Machinery.
It has already been demonstrated in Pryp IV. that Fig. 5*
the times in which the surface AB descends to DE
and RT, See. are as the areas GM r H, GM t U, &c.
If such a form therefore is given to the vessel that
the areas GM r H, GM t U, 8ec. increase uniformly as
the times, or are to one another as the numbers x, 2, 3,
4, 5, &c. the time in which the surface AB descends
to DE, and RT, &c. will be in the same ratio, and the
vessel will form a machine for measuring time. If the
vessel is cylindrical and empties itself in 12 hours, its
altitude may be divided in such a manner that the lluid
surface may take exactly an hour to descend through
each division. Let the cylindrical vessel, for example,
be divided into 144 equal parts, then the surface of the
water, when the twelve hours begins to run, will be
144 parts above the bottom of the vessel j when one
hour is completed, the surface will he 121 parts above
the bottom, and so on in the following manner.
Hours.
Distance of each Hour 1
above the bottom. 3
Number of Parts in
each Hour.
}
0x2345
144 x 21 100 81 64 49
23 21 19 17 15 13
6
36
11
7
25
8
16
10
4
3
11
1
12
o
Lateral;
communi¬
cation of
motion in
fluids.
Fig. 9.
For since the velocity with which the surface AB
descends, the area of that surface being always the
same, is as the square roots of its altitude above tlie ori¬
fice (Prop. I. Con. 6.) 5 and since the velocities are as
the times of description, the times will also be as the
square roots of the altitudes, that is, when
12 11 10 9 &c. are the times
144 121 IOO 81 will be the altitudes of the sur¬
face. Q. E. D,
Prop. VIII.
160. To explain the lateral communication of mo¬
tion in fluids.
This property of fluids in motion was discovered by M.
Venturi, professor of natural philosophy in the university
of Modena, who has illustrated it by a variety of ex¬
periments in his work on the lateral communication of
motion in fluids. Let a pipe AC, about half an inch
in diameter and a foot long, proceeding from the re¬
servoir AB, and having its extremity bent into the
form CD, be inserted into the vessel CDG, whose side
DG gradually rises till it passes over the rim of the
vessel. Fill this vessel with water, and pour the same
fluid into the reservoir AB, till, running down the pipe
AC, it foTms the stream EGH. In a short while, the
water in the vessel CDG will be carried ofTby the current
EG, which communicates its motion to the adjacent
fluid. In the same way, when a stream of water runs
through air, it drags the air along with it, and produces
wind. Hence we have the water blowing machine \yattr
which conveys a blast to furnaces, and which shall be Wowing
described in a future part of this article. The lateral i),ac^*1!C
communication of motion, whether the surrounding
fluid be air or water, is well illustrated by the follow¬
ing beautiful experiments of Venturi’s. In the side of Fig, 9.
the reservoir AB insert the horizontal line P about an
inch and a half in diameter, and five inches long. At the
point 0 of this pipe, about seven-tenths of an inch from
the reservoir, fasten the bent glass tube 0 n m, whose ca¬
vity communicates with that of the pipe, whilst its other
extremity is immersed in coloured water contained in the
small vessel F. When water is poured into the reservoir
AB, having no connection with the pipe C, so that it
may issue from the horizontal pipe, the red liquor will
rise towards m in fche incurvated tube 0 nm. If the de¬
scending leg of this glass syphon be six inches and a half
longer than the other, the red liquor will rise to the very
top of the syphon, enter the pipe P,acd running out with
the other water will in a short time leave the vessel F
empty. Now the cause of this phenomenon is evidently
this : When the water begins to flow from the pipe P,
it communicates with the air in the syphon onm, and
drags
| jap. I* _ :
tion of «lraga a portion along with it. Tlie air in the syphon
1 is, &c is therefore rarefied, and this process of rarefaction is
-v—constantly going on as long as the water runs through
the horizontal pipe. The equilibrium between the ex¬
ternal air pressing upon the fluid in the vessel F, and
that included in the syphon, being thus destroyed, the
red liquor will rise in the syphon, till it communicates
with the issuing fluid, and is dragged along with it
through the orifice of the pipe P, till the vessel F is
emptied.
Prop. IX.
i<5i. To find the horizontal distance to which fluids
will spout from an orifice perforated in the side
of a vessel, and the curve which it will de¬
scribe.
HYDRODYNAMICS. ' 741
CG, gravity has caused it to fall through GPI. Now, Motion of
since the spaces are as the squares of the times in which Fluids, &:c.
they are described, (Dynamics, 37. 2.) we shall have v 1
EF : GH=C£2 : CG*. But on account of the paral¬
lelograms CEFM, CGHN, EF and GH are equal to
CM and CN respectively, and MF, NH to CE, CG
respectively, therefore CM : CN=MF* : NH1, which
is the property of the parabola, CM, CN being the ab¬
scissae, and ME, NH. the ordinates (Conic Sections,
Part I. Prop. IX. Cor.).
162. On account ofthe paral!elsLP,CX,LC,GX,the
triangles LCP, GCX are similar, and therefore (Geom.
Sect. IV.Theor. XX.) CG: CX=PC: PL and GX: CX
CX v PC
= CL : PL. Hence CG = , and GX=
;ory of
I tical
oblique
Plate
LX VI11
Let AB he a vessel filled with water, and C an ori¬
fice in its side, so inclined to the horizon as to discharge
the fluid in the direction CP. If the issuing fluid
were influenced by no other force except that which
impels it out ofthe orifice, it would move with an uni¬
form motion in the direction CP. But immediately
upon its exit from the orifice C it is subject to the force
of gravity, and is therefore influenced by two forces,
one of which impels it in the direction CP, and the
other draws it downwards in vertical lines. Make CE
equal to EG, and CP double of CS the altitude of the
fluid. Draw PL parallel to CK. and join SL. Draw
also EF, GH parallel to CN, and FM, PIN parallel to
CG, and let CM, CN represent the force of gravity, or
the spaces through which it would cause a portion of fluid
to descend in the time that this portion would move
through CE, CG respectively by virtue ofthe impulsive
force. Now, it follows from the composition of forces,
(Dynamics, 135.) that the fluid atC, being solicited in
the direction CE by a force which would carry itthrough
CE in the same time that the force of gravity would make
it fall through CM, will describe the diagonal CF ofthe
parallelogram CEFM, and will arrive at F in the same
time that it would have reached E by its impulsive
force, or M by the force of gravity ; and for the same
reason the portion of the fluid will arrive at H in the
same time that it would hare readied G by the one
force, and N by the other. The fluid therefore being
continually deflected from its rectilineal direction CP by
the force of gravity, will describe a curve line CEHP,
which will he a parabola: for since the motion along CP
must be uniform, CE, CG will be to one another as the
times in which they are described •, and may therefore
represent the times in which the fluid would arrive at E
and G, if influenced by no other force. But in the time
that the fluid has described CE gravity Iras made it fall
through EF, and in the time that it would have described
CXxCL
PL
cx X2 cs
PL"
QII CX x CL
PL
but since PC =r 2 CS, we have CG =
, and since GX=:GX—HX, we shall have
-HX. But as the parameter of the
PL
parabola CHK is equal to 4 CS (1), we have, by the
property of this conic section, NH2 = CN X 4 CS, or
CGs=r4GHxCS$ therefore, bysubstitutinginthisequa-
tion the preceding values of CG and GH, we shall have
CX2X CS~CX X CL X PL—HX x PL*. Now, it is
evident, from this equation, that FIX is nothing, or
vanishes when CX=o, or when CXzr
CS
for
HX being =0, HXxPL*, will also he —0, and the
equation will become CX*xCSziCX X CL X PL, or
dividing by CX and CS, it becomes
But when HX vanishes towards K, CX is equal to
CK, consequently CK=:— . Bisect CK in T,
CS
CLxPL
2 cs
Draw TK per-
CFC
then CT= , and CT:
2
- CL*
pendicular to CK, and TR will he found 1= —-—.
r 4 CS
Then if Hr* be drawn at right angles to HX, we
shall have CX=CT—Hm=z-—and HX
2CS
=RT—Rra=
CL
4CS
-Rr«. After substituting these
values of CX and IIX in the equation CX* X CSrrCX
XCLxPL—HXxPL*, it will became, after the ne-
FD
"Cs"
is
cessary reductions, HX ThecurveCRK
(1) The parameter of the parabola described by the issuing fluid, is equal to four times the altitude of the fluid
above the orifice. For since the fluid issues at C with a velocity equal to that acquired by falling through SC, if
this velocity were continued uniform, the fluid would move through 2 CS or CP, in the same time that a heavy
body would fall through SC. Draw PQ parallel to CS, and QW to CP; then since Q is in the parabola, the
fluid will describe CP uniformly in the same time that it falls through CW by the force ot gravity, therefore
CW—CS. Now CP=2CS, and(IP*=4 CS2=4XCSxCS=4xCSxCW j hut it is a property of the para¬
bola, that the square of the ordinate VVQ or CP is equal to the product of the abscissa C W and the parameter,
therefore 4 CS is the parameter of the parabola.
742 H Y I) R O D
Motion of it* therefore a parabola whose vertex is R, its axis
Fluids- &lc. PL*
v~w RT and its parameter-^—-, R??j being an abscissa of the
axis, and H m its correspondent ordinate. Now, mak¬
ing rfz=CS, the altitude of the reservoir 5 R = radius*,
PL the sine of the angle PCL ; and «=rCL, the
cosine of the same angle, CP being radius. Then CP :
PL=R : m, therefore PLxR=CPx^, and dividing
by R and substituting 2 a.or 2 CS instead of its equal
CP, we have PLrr and by the very same reason-
Fig. 3.
ing, we have CL:
2 a n
~R~
— divided by 4 a, or RT=a X
CL X PR 4 a9 mn inn
.      O /7 N/  
R
C i 2
Hence RTx—tttt will be
4 Co
R*’
and CT:
2 CS 2a X R2
— 2a X-iT7» and the parameter
r . 1 .1 PR* 4 q1 mZ m
or the parabola =-—7 =——^—4 a X
CS «xRa
Ra*
163. Hence we have the following construction. With
-JCS as radius, describe the semicircle SGC, which the
direction CR of the jet or issuing fluid meets in G. Draw
GN perpendicular to CS, and having prolonged it to¬
wards R, make GR equal to GN. From R let fall RT
perpendicular to CK and meeting it in T, and upon
RT, CT describe the parabola CRK having its vertex
in R, this parabola shall be the course of the issuing
fluid. For by the construction NR or CT=:2 GN, and
on account of the similar triangles SGC, CGN, SC :
SG=CG : GNj hence SC x GN = SG x CG, or
2 SG x CG
2 GN, or CT=  . Butfrom the’similarity of
triangles CS : CG=SG : GN and CS : CG=CG : CN,
consequently, when CG is radius or =R, GN will be
the sine m of the angle GCS, and CN its cosine n ;
and we shall then have, by Euclid VI. 16. and reduc¬
tion SG=~^ ^, and CG: CSX”
But substitut-
R '  R
ing these values of SG and CG in the equation CT=
2 SGxCG 2 CSxw CSx«
have CT= ^ X—X—r- =
2 CS x X CS x « 2 CS x
CS x R x R
R»
mn.
= 2 a X But the
parameter P of the parabola CRK is equal to
CTa
RT
T»
because it is a third proportional to the abscissa and its
ordinate, therefore P=^2X^” . Now RT=CN,
NGx»
and CN=r   , because CN : NG=rm : n. or CN
m 1
= RT=o X j^j; hy substituting the preceding value of NG.
Therefore the parameter P= ^4f* ^
m2 , . , . ,
=4cX^i, which is the same value of the parameter
as was found in the preceding article, and therefore ve¬
rifies the construction.
164. Cor. 1. Since NG~GR and CTizrTK, the am-
Y N A M I C S. Fart ]
plitude or distance CK, (0 which the fluid will reach on Metion
a horizontal plane, will be 4 NG, or quadruple the sine Fluids, m
of the angle formed by the direction of the jet and v—■
a vertical line, the chord of the arch. CG being ra¬
dius.
165. Cor. 2. If S 7? be made equal to CN, and ng be
drawn parallel to CT, and gr be made equal to n g;
then if the direction of the jet be Cg, the fluid will
describe the parabola CrK whose vertex isr, and will
meet the horizontal line in K, because «g~NG, and
4ng=4 NG=CK. The same may be shewn of every
other pair of parabolas whose vertices I!/* are equidis¬
tant from oca horizontal line passing through the cen¬
tre of the circle.
166. Cor. 3. Draw the ordinate ab through the cen¬
tre a, and since this is the greatest ordinate that can he
drawn, the distance to which the water will spout, being
equal to 4a, will he the greatest when its line of di¬
rection passes through b, that is, when it makes an
angle of 450 with the horizon.
167. Cor. 4. If an orifice be made in the vessel AB
at N, and the water issues horizontally in the direction
NG, it will describe the parabola NT, and CT will
be equal to 2NG. For (by Prop. IX. note) the para¬
meter of the parabola NT is equal to 4 NS, and by
the property of the parabola CT*= NC X 4 NS, or
-|CT= 2x/NCxNSj but by the property of the circle
(Geom. Sect. IV. Theor. XXVIII.) NCP^NC x NS,
and NGrry^NCx NS,hence CT=2NG. If the fluid is
discharged from the orifice at n, so that Sn=rCN,«g-, will
be =NG, and it will spout to the same distance CT.
Prop. X.
*
168. To determine the pressure exerted upon pipes
by the water which flows through them.
Ret us suppose the column of fluid CD divided into an jrjg, j
infinite number of laminae EFy'e. Then friction being
abstracted, every particle of each lamina will move with
the same velocity when the pipe CD is horizontal. Now
the velocity at the vena contracta m n may be expressed
by v/A, Abeing the altitude of the fluid in the reservoir.
But the velocity at the vena contracta is to the velocity
in the pipe, as the area of the latter is to the area of the
former. Therefore § being the diameter of the vena
contracta, and d that of the pipe CD, the area of the
one will be to the area of the other, as §2 : d*, (Geo¬
metry, Sect. VI. Prop. IV.) consequently we shall have
S2 v'A
d9 : , the velocity of the water in the
pipe. But since the velocity -\/ A is due to the altitude
32 */ 4.
A, the velocity —-— will be due to the altitude
d\'
d*
Now as each particle of fluid which successively
reaches the extremity DH of the pipe, has a tendency
to move with the velocity A, while it moves only
with the velocity - , the extremity D n of the pipe
will sustain a pressure equal to the difference of the pres-
Jz ./A
sures produced by the velocities A and - that is,
HYDRODYNAMICS.
iap.
II.
by a pressure A —, A representing the pressure
xpeif-
Imts on
i Motion y
Plnids. which produces the velocity v/A, and —the pressure
which produces the velocity
r x/A.
d* ’
But this pressure
is distributed through every part of the pipe CD, con¬
sequently the pressure sustained by the sides of the pipe
$4A
will be
cl
169. Cor. 1. If a very small aperture be made in the
side of the pipe, the water will issue with a velocity due to
34 A J
the height A—When the diameter § of the ori¬
fice is equal to the diameter d of the pipe, the altitude
becomes A—A or nothing; and if the orifice is in this
case below the pipe, the water will descend through it
by drops. Hence we see the mistake of those who have
maintained, that when a lateral orifice is pierced in
the side of a pipe, the water will rise to a height due to
the velocity of the included water.
170. Cor. 2. Since the quantities of water, discharged
by the same orifice, are proportional to the square roots of
the altitudes of the reservoir, or to the pressures exerted
at the orifice, the quantity of water discharged by a la¬
teral orifice may be easily found. Let W be the quan¬
tity of water discharged in a given time by the proposed
aperture under the pressure A, and let w be the quan-
$4 a
tity-discharged under the pressure A— "IT-* Then W :
/ ^
tv— \/A: V A —consequently, w X W X
cl*
d* and w—
Wx
/. 24A J d*—
=w —
24
V/A
Therefore, since W may be determined by the experi¬
ments in the following chapter, w is known.
Chap. II. Account of Experiments on the Motion
of Water discharged from vessels, either by Ori¬
fices or additional Tubes, or running in Pipes or
open Canals.
tw be- 171. In the preceding chapter, we have taken notice of
tiie the contraction produced upon the vein of fluid issuing
a of the from an 01jfice in a tin plate, and have endeavoured
,ta an(j to ascertain its cause. According to Sir Isaac Newton,
; oriEce. the diameter of the vena contracta is to that of the ori¬
fice as 21 to 25. Polenus makes it as 11 to 13 ; Ber-
noi/illi as 3 to 7; the Chevalier de Buat ns 6 to 7; Bossut
as 41 to 50 ; Michelotti, as 4 to 5; and Venturi, as 4 to
5. This ratio, however, is by no means constants It
varies with the form and position of the orifice, with the
thickness of the plate in which the orifice is made, and
likewise with the form of the vessel and the weight of
the superincumbent fluid. But these variations are too
trifling to be regarded in practice.—We shall now lay
before the reader an account of the results of the
experiments of different philosophers, but particular¬
ly those of the Abbe Bossut, to whom the science is
deeply indebted both for the accuracy and extent of
his labours.
743
Kxperi-
Sect. I. On the Quantity of Water discharged from menu on
Vessels constantly full by Orifices in thin Plates. Mod0*1
^ * J of Fluids.
172. In the following experiments, which were fre¬
quently repeated in various ways, the orifice was pierced
in a plate of copper about half a line thick. When the
orifice is in the bottom of the vessel, it is called a hori-
zontal orifice, and when it is in the side of it, it is call¬
ed a lateral orifice.
Table I. Shewing the Quantity of Water discharged in
one minute, by orifices differing in form and position.
Quantities
of water
discharged
by orifices
in thin
plates, ac¬
cording to
the experi¬
ments of
Bossxt.
Altitude of
the fluid a-
bove the
centre of
the orifioe.
Form and position
of the orifice.
The ori¬
fice’s dia¬
meter.
N° of
cub. in.
dischar.
gjed in a
minute.
Ft. In. JLin
II 8 IO
9OO
4OO
5 0 7
Circular and Horizontal
Circular and Horizontal
Circular and Horizontal
Rectangular and Hori
zontal
Horizontal and Square
Horizontal and Square
Lateral and Circular
Lateral and Circular
Lateral and Circular
Lateral and Circular
Lateral and Circular
6 lines
I inch
2 inches
1 inch by
3 lines
1 inch, side
2 inch, side
6 lines
1 inch
6 lines
1 inch
1 inch
2311
9281
37203
2933
11817
4736i
2018
8i35
J353
5436
628
173. From the results contained in the preceding
table, we may draw the following conclusions.
1. That the quantities of water discharged in equal
times by dift’erent apertures, the altitudes of the fluid
being the same, are very nearly as the areas of the ori¬
fices. That is, if A or o represent the areas of the ori¬
fices, and W, w the quantities of water discharged,
W : tv—A. : a.
2. The quantities discharged in equal times by the
same aperture, the altitude of the fluid being different,
are to one another very nearly as the square roots of
the altitudes of the water in the reservoir, reckoning
from the centres of the orifices. That is, if H, h be
the different altitudes of the fluid, we shall have
W : w= v/H ;
3. Hence we may conclude in general that the quan¬
tities discharged in the same time by different apertures,
and under different altitudes in the reservoir, are in the
compound ratio of the areas of the orifices, and the
square roots of the altitudes.—Thus, if W, tv be the
quantities discharged in the same time from the ori¬
fices A, o, under the same altitude of water; and if
W', tv be the quantities discharged in the same time by
the same aperture a under different altitudes, H,/z;
then by the first of the tw7o preceding articles.
W : tv—A : a, and by the second
w : W= : xA* Multiplying these ana¬
logies together, gives us
W w : Ni'w—A. y^H: afh, and dividing by w,
W : W' ^kfil-.afh.
This
2
HYDRODYNAMICS:
Part I
Comparison
?>e tween
the theore-
tica! and
the real dis¬
charges
from a cir-
c itlai' ori¬
fice.
This rule is sufficiently correct in practice ; but when
great accuracy is required, the following remarks must
be attended to.
4. Small orifices discharge less water in proportion
than great ones, the altitude of the fluid being the same.
The circumference of the small orifices being greater
in proportion to the issuing column of fluid than the cir¬
cumferences of greater ones, the friction, which in¬
creases with the area of the rubbing surfaces, will also
be greater, and will therefore diminish the velocity,
and consequently the quantity discharged.
5. Hence of several orifices whose areas are equal,
that which has the smallest circumference will discharge^
more water than the rest under the same altitude ot
fluid in the reservoir, because in this case the friction
will be least.—Circular orifices, therefore, are the most
advantageous of all, for the circumference of a circle
is the shortest of all lines that can be employed to in¬
close a given space.
6. In consequence of a small increase which the con¬
traction of the vein of fluid undergoes, in proportion as
the altitude of the water in the reservoir augments, the
quantity discharged ought also to diminish a little as
that altitude increases.
By attending to the preceding observations, the re¬
sults of theory may be so corrected, that the quantities
of water discharged in a given time may he determined
with the greatest accuracy possible.
174. The abbe Bossut has given the following table
containing a comparison of the theoretical with the real
discharges, for an orifice one inch diameter, and for
different altitudes of the. fluid in the reservoir. The
real discharges were not found immediately by experi¬
ment, hut were determined by the precautions pointed
out in the preceding articles, and may he regarded to
be as accurate as if direct experiments had been employ¬
ed. The fourth column was computed by M. Prony.
Table II. Comparison of the Theoretic with the Real
discharges from an orifice o?ie inch in diameter.
Constant al¬
titude of the
water in the
reservoir
above the
centre of
the orifice.
Paris ifeet.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
J3
J4
1.?
Theoretical
dist'harjies
through a
circular ori¬
fice one inch
in diameter.
Cubic Inchet.
43Sl
6196
7589
8763
9797
10732
11592
12392
I3I44
13855
M530
15180
I5797
1^393
16968
Real dischar¬
ges 19 the
same time
through the
same orifice.
Cubic laches.
2722
3846
4710
5436
6c75
6654
7‘83
7672
8t35
8574
8990
9384
9764
I0I3°
10472
Ratio of the theore¬
tical to the real
discharges.
I to 0.62133
I to 0.62073
I to 0.62064
I to 0.62034
l to 0.62010
I to 0.62000
I to 0.61965
l to 0.61911
I to 0.61892
1 to O 61883
I to 0.61873
I to o 61819
I to 0.61810
i to 0.61795
I to 0.61716
175. It is evident from the preceding table, that the Experj,
theoretical, as well as the real discharges, are nearlypro- meuts 0
portional to the square roots of the altitudes of the fluidtiie Moli
in the reservoir. Thus, if we take the altitudes 1 and 4, ,0(1
whose square roots are as 1 to 2, the real discharges Dcductk
taken from the table are 2722, 5436, which are to one from the
another very nearly as I to 2, their real ratio being as Preocdin
table.
Z to I.997.
The fourth column of the preceding table also shows
ns that the theoretical are to the real discharges nearly
in the ratio of I to 0.62, or more accurately, as 1 to
0.61938; therefore 0.62 is the number by which we
must multiply the discharges as found by the formulae
in the preceding chapter, in order to have the quanti¬
ties of water actually discharged.
176. In order to find the quantities of fluid discharged Applioa-
by orifices of different sizes, and under different altitudestlon ^
I • 1 . , ... use of ti
01 water in the reservoir, we must use the table in the preoedi)!
following manner. Let it be required, for example, to table,
find the quantity of water furnished by an orifice three
inches in diameter, the altitude of the water in the re¬
servoir being 30 feet. As the real discharges are in
the compound ratio of the area of the orifices, and the
square roots of the altitudes of the fluid, (art. 173. N°3.)
and as the theoretical quantity of water discharged by
an orifice one inch in diameter, is by the second column
of the table 16918 cubic inches in a minute, we shall
have this analogy, I 15 : 9 30= 16968 : 215961 cu¬
bic inches, the quantity required. This quantity being
diminished in the ratio of I to .62, being the ratio of
the theoretical to the actual discharges, gives 133896
for the real quantity of water discharged by the given
orifice. But (by N° 5. of art. 173.) the quantity dis¬
charged ought to be a little greater than 133896, be¬
cause greater orifices discharge more than small ones;
and by N° 6. the quantity ought to be less than 133896,
because the altitude of the fluid is double that in the
table. These two causes therefore having a tendency to
increase and diminish the quantity deduced from the
preceding table, we may regard 133896 as very near
the truth. Had the orifice been less than one inch,
or the altitude less than 15 feet, it would have been
necessary to diminish the preceding answer by a few
cubic inches. Since the velocities of the issuing fluid
are as the quantities discharged, the preceding results
may he employed also to find the real velocities from
those which are deduced from theory.
177. As the velocity of falling bodies is 16.087 feet
per second, the velocity due to 16.087 feet will be 32.174
feet per second, and as the velocities are as the square
roots of the height, we shall have .y/16.087: \/H~
32.174: V the velocity due to any other height, con-
Beqllentiy = 32-174VH = 8.0.6 VH,
^16.087 4-on
so that 8.016 is the coefficient by which we must al¬
ways multiply the altitude of the fluid in order to have
its theoretical velocity.
178. According to the experiments of M. Eytel-
wein, published at Berlin in 1801, in his treatise ,
Handbuch der Mechanik vnd der Hydranlik, the fol- .
lowing are the ratios between the theoretical and
actual discharges, and the coefficients by which the
height may be multiplied in order to And the veloci¬
ties of the issuing fluid.
5 Table
hap. II.
;ipefi-
ents oa
Motion
Fiuidi.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Table III. Results of 'Eytelwein's Experiments.
\
745
N°
Nature of the orifiees employed.
When the orifice has the form of the contracted stream
For wide openings whose bottom is on a level with that of the reservoir
For sluices with walls in a line with the orifice
For bridges with pointed piers
For narrow openings whose bottom is on a level with that of the reservoir
For smaller openings in a sluice with side walls
For abrupt projections and square piers of bridges
For openings in sluices without side walls
For orifices in a thin plate
Ratio between the
theoretical and
real discharges.
I to O.973
I to 0.961
I to 0.961
I to 0.961
I to 0.861
I to 0.861
I to 0.861
I to 0.635
I to 0.625
Goefficients
for finding,
the veloci¬
ties.
7.8
7-7
7-7
7-7
6.9
6.9
6.9
5-1
5-o
Experi¬
ments on
the Motion
of Fluids.
179. M. Eytelwein has likewise shown, that the
quantity of water discharged from rectangular orifices
in the side of a reservoir extending to the surface, may
be found by taking two-thirds of the velocity due to
the mean height, and allowing for the contraction ac¬
cording to the form of the orifice.
Sect. II. On the Quantity of Water dischargedfrom
Vessels constantly full, by small Tubes adapted to
Circular Orifices.
unities I®0, difference between the natural discharges,
rater and those deduced from theory, arises from the con-
iaarged traction of the fluid vein, and from the friction of the
mall vvater against the circumference of the orifice. If the
operation of any of these causes could be prevented, the
quantities of water actually discharged would approach
nearer the theoretical discharges. There is no proba¬
bility of diminishing friction in the present case by the
application of unguents •, but if a short cylindrical tube
be inserted in the orifice of the vessel, the water will
follow the sides of the tube, the contraction of the fluid
vein will be in a great measure prevented, and the ac¬
tual discharges will approximate much nearer to those
deduced from theory, than when the fluid'issues through
a simple orifice.
»n the I^1, If a cylindrical tube two inches long, and two
adrical inches in diameter, be inserted in the reservoir, and if this
* is two orifice is stopped by a piston till the reservoir is filled
with water, the fluid, when permitted to escape, will
ieter not follow the sides of the tube, that is, the tube will
ttoid not be filled with water, and the contraction in the
iscon-vein of fluid will take place in the same manner as if
taf>LS ^ie or'flce "ere pierced in a thin plate. When the
cylindrical tube was one inch in diameter, and two
inches long, the water followed the sides of the tube,
and the vein of fluid ceased to contract. While M.
Bossut was repeating this experiment, he prevented the
escape of the fluid by placing the instrument MN, con¬
sisting of a handle and a circular head, upon the inte¬
rior extremity of the tube, and found, to his great sur¬
prise, that when he withdrew the instrument MN, to
give passage to the water, it sometimes followed the
sides of the tube, and sometimes detached itself from
them, and produced a contraction in the fluid vein
similar to that which took place when the first tube
Vol. X. Part II. f
tuple
ces.
late
■XVIIl'
»• 4-
was employed. After a little practice, he could pro¬
duce either of these effects at pleasure. The same phe¬
nomenon was exhibited when the length of the tube
was diminished to one inch six lines j only it was more
difficult to make the fluid follow the circumference of
the tube. This effect was still more difficult to pro¬
duce when its length was reduced to one inch ; and
when it was so small as half an inch, the water uni¬
formly detached itself from its circumference, and
formed the vena contracta.
182. Table IV. Shewing the Quantities of Water dis¬
charged by Cylindrical Tubes one inch in diameter
with different lengths.
Constant altitude
of the fluid above
the superior base
of the tube being
11 feet 8 inches
and 10 lines.
Variable lengths of the tubes
expressed in lines.
The tube being filled ^ ^
with the issuing fluid I ^
The tube not filled") g
with the issuing fluid J 1
Cubicinehes
discharged
in a minute,
I2274
12188
12168
9282
Quantities
of Said dis¬
charged
from cyliu-l
drical tubes
of the same
diameters
but differ¬
ent lengths.
The experiments in the preceding table were made
with tubes inserted in the bottom of the vessel. When
the tubes were fixed horizontally in the side of the re¬
servoir, they furnished the very same quantities of fluid,
their dimensions and the altitude of the fluid remain-
ing the same.
It appears from the preceding results, that the quan¬
tities ol water discharged increase with the length of
the tube, and that these quantities are very nearly as
the square roots of the altitudes of the fluid above the
interior orifice of the vertical tube.
We have already seen that the theoretical are to
real discharges, as 1 to 0.62, or nearly as 16.1 to
10. But by comparing the two last experiments in
the preceding table, it appears that the quantity of
fluid discharged by a cylindrical tube where the water
follows its sides, is to the quantity discharged by the
same tube when the vena contracta is formed, as i 3 to
10 j and since the same quantity must be discharged by
the latter method as by a simple orifice, we may con-
S ^ elude
74*5
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Expert- c^U(^e ^at ^,e quantity discharged according to theory,
menfcs on and tiiat which is discharged by a cylindrical tube and
the Motion foy a simple orifice, are to one another very nearly as
of Fluids. tj)e outers 16, 13, 10. Though the water there¬
fore follows the sides of the cylindrical tube, the con¬
traction of the fluid vein is not wholly destroyed ; for
the difference between the quantity discharged in this
case, and that deduced from theory, is too great to be
ascribed to the Increase of friction which arises from
the water following the circumference of the tube.
183. In order to determine the effect of tubes of dif¬
ferent diameters, under different altitudes of water in
the reservoir, M. Bossut instituted the experiments, the
results of which are exhibited in the following table.
Table V. Shewing the Quantities of Hater discharg¬
ed by Cylindrical Tubes tivo inches long, with dif¬
ferent diameters.
Quantities
ml water
discharged
by cylindri¬
cal tubes of
the same
length but
different
diameters.
Constant altitude
of thewater above
the orifice.
10
Diameter of the tube.
Feet. Inches. Dines
The tube being filled f 6
with the issuing fluid. \ 10
The tube not filled y 6
with the issuing fluid. \ 1
The tube being filled T 6
with the issuing fluid. \ l°
The tube not filled f" 6
1 (with the issuing fluid. X 10
Quantity of
water dis¬
charged in a
minute.
Cubic inches,
1689
47°3
1293
3598
1222
3402
935
2603
Table VI. Comparison of the Theoretical
Real Discharges from a Cylindrical Tube
in Diameter and two inches Long.
Constant al¬
titude Bf the
water in the
reservoir a-
bove the
centre of the
orifice.
Paris Feet.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
x3
*4
I5
Theoretical
diseharge*
through a cir¬
cular orifice
one inch in
diameter.
(lubic inches
43Sl
6196
7589
8763
9797
10732
II592
12392
I3I44
i3855
14530
15180
*5797
1639.3
16968
Real discharges
in the same linn
by a cyHndrvcal
tube one inch in
diameter and
two inches
long.
Cubic inches.
3539
5002
6126
7070
7900
8654
9340
9975
I0579
11151
11693
12205
12699
I3I77
13620
Part I
. 7 Experi-
With the jnonts 0
one inch ^ Mott
of Fluid
Comparis
of the the
retical wi
the real
diseharge
in lytind
cat tubes
Ratio of the
theoretical to
the real dis¬
charges.
I to O,
I to O
I to O,
I to O.
I to o,
I to O
I to O.
I to o,
I to o,
I to o
I to o
I to o
I to O
I to O
I to O
181781
80729
80724
80681
80638
80638
80573
80496
80485
,80483
,80477
,80403
.80390
.80382
,80270
184. By comparing the different numbers in this
table we may conclude,
I. That the quantities of water discharged by differ¬
ent cylindrical tubes of the same length, the altitude
of the fluid remaining the same, are nearly as the areas
of the orifices, or the squares of their diameter.
£. That the quantities discharged by cylindrical
tubes of the same diameter and length, are nearly as
the square roots of the altitude of the fluid in the re¬
servoir.
3. Hence the quantities discharged during the same
time, by tubes of different diameters, under different al¬
titudes of fluid in the reservoir, are nearly in the com¬
pound ratio of the squares of the diameters of the tube,
and the square roots of the altitudes of the water in the
reservoir.
4. By comparing these results with those which were
deduced from the experiments with simple orifices, it
will be seen that the discharges follow the same laws in
cylindrical tubes as in simple orifices.
* 185. The following table is deduced from the fore¬
going experiments, and contains a comparative view of
the quantities of water discharged by a simple orifice,
according to theory, and those discharged by a cylin¬
drical tube of the same diameter under different alti¬
tudes of water. The numbers might have been more
accurate by attending to some of the preceding re¬
marks •, but they are sufficiently exact for any practi¬
cal purpose. The fourth column, containing the ratio
between the theoretical and actual discharges, was com¬
puted by M. Prony.
By comparing the preceding table with that in art-
174. we shall find that cylindrical tubes discharge a
much greater quantity of water than simple orifices of
the same diameter, and that the quantities discharged
are as 81 to 62 nearly. This is a curious phenomenon,
and will be afterwards explained.
186. The application of this table to other additional
tubes under difl'erent altitudes of the fluid, not contain¬
ed in the first column, is very simple. Let it be re¬
quired, for example, to find the quantity of water dis¬
charged by a cylindrical tube, 4 inches in diameter,
and 8 inches long, the altitude of the fluid in the re¬
servoir being 25 feet. In order to resolve this question,
find (by art. 176.) the theoretical quantity discharged
which in the present instance will be 350490 cubic
inches, and this number diminished in the ratio of I to
0.8l will give 284773 for the quantity required. The
length of the tube in this example was made 8 inches,
because, when the length of the tube is less than twice
its diameter, the water does not easily follow its interior
circumference. If the tube were longer than 8 inches,
the quantity of fluid discharged would have been
greater, because it uniformly increases with the length
of the tube; the greatest length of the tube being al¬
ways small, in comparison with the altitude of the fluid
in the reservoir.
187. Hitherto we have supposed the tube to be ex¬
actly cylindrical. When its interior surface, however,
is conical, the quantities discharged undergo a consi¬
derable variation, which may be estimated from the fol¬
lowing experiments of the marquis Poleni, published in
his work De Castellis per (ptce derivantur fluviorum
aqua, &c. which appeared at Padua in 1718.
Table
;iiap. II. HYDRODYNAMICS.
Table VII. Shewing the Quantities of Water discharged by Conical Tubes of different Diameters.
747
Aperi-
tiUs on
: Motion
Fluids*
Constant alti¬
tude of the water
in the reservoir,
256 lines, or 1
foot 9 indies and
4 lines.
Length of
each tube
92 lines,
or 7
inches
8 lines.
Apertures employed.
Orifice in a thin plate,
Cylindrical tube,
1st Conical tube,
2d Conical tube,
3d Conical tube,
4th Conical tube,
Interior
diameter.
26 line;
26
33
42
60
118
Fxterior
diameter.
26
26
26
26
26
26
Experi¬
ments on
the Motion
of Fluids.
Q,uan tit) discharged
in a min. in cubic ft.
23434
24758
24619
24345
23687
rimeinwhicli73035.cub.
inches were discharged
4' 36"
3' 7"
2' 57"
2' 58"
o"
3' 5"
From these experiments we are authorised to con¬
clude, 1. That the real discharges are less than those
deduced from theory, which in the present case is 27425
cubic inches in a minute, and 2. That when the inte¬
rior orifice of the tube is enlarged to a certain degree,
the quantity discharged is increased ; but that when this
enlargement is too great, a contraction takes place with¬
out the exterior orifice, and the quantity discharged
suffers a diminution. If the smallest base of the coni¬
cal tube be inserted in the side of the reservoir, it will
furnish more water than a cylindrical tube whose diame¬
ter is equal to the smallest diameter of the conical tube $
for the divergency of its sides changes the oblique mo¬
tion which the particles would otherwise have had, when
passing from the reservoir into the tube.
188. The experiments of Poleni and Bossut having
been made only with tubes of a conical and cylindrical ®xPer‘"
form, M. Venturi was induced to institute a set of ex-
periments, in which he employed tubes of the various vviti,
forms exhibited in fig. 4. The results of his researches of various
are contained in the following table, for which we have forms,
computed the column containing the number of cubic Plate
inches discharged in one minute, in order that the ex-CCLXVII/.
periments of the Italian philosopher may be more easily 4-
compared with those which are exhibited in the pre¬
ceding tables. The constant altitude of the water in
the reservoir was 32.5 French inches, or 34.642 Eng¬
lish inches. The quantity of water which flowed out '
of the vessel in the times contained in the first column
was 4 French cubic feet, or 4.845 English cubic feet.
The measures in the table are all English, unless the
contrary be expressed.
Table VIII. Shewing the Quantities of Water discharged from Orifices of various forms, the constant Altitude
of the Fluid being 32.5 French, or 34.642 English inches.
N°
9
10
Nature and dimensions of the tubes and orifices.
A simple circular orifice in a thin plate, the diameter of the aperture being
1.6 inches,
A cylindrical tube 1.6 inches in diameter, and 4.8 inches long,
A tube similar to B, figure 4. which differs from the preceding only in ha¬
ving the contraction in the shape of the natural contracted vein,
The short conical adjutage, A, figure 4. being the first conical part of the
preceding tube,
The tube D, figure 4. being a cylindrical tube adapted to the small conical
end A, m n being 3.2 inches long,
The same adjutage, m n being 12.8 inches,
The same adjutage, m n being 25.6 inches,
The tube C, consisting of the cylindrical tube of Exp. 2. placed over the
conical part of A,
The double conical pipe E, a izza c= 1.6 inches, c ^=0.977 inches, 1.376
inches, and the length c e of the outer €0116=4.351 inches,
The tube F, consisting of a cylindrical tube 3.2 inches long, and 1.376 inches
in diameter, interposed between the two conical parts of the preceding,
Time in which
’4 Paris cub. ft.
were discharged.
Seconds.
41
3*
31
42
42.5
45
48
32-5
27-5
28.5.
Paris cubic in
ehesdischacged
in a minute
101 J5
*3378
13378
9874
9758
9216
8640
12760
15081
14516
“portant 189. These experiments of Venturi inform us of a
cudeda- curious/act, extremely useful to the practical hydrau-
‘e roni list. They incontestably prove, that when water is
conveyed through a straight cylindrical pipe of an un¬
limited length, the discharge of water may be increased
only by altering the form of the terminations of the
pipe, that is, by making the end of the pipe A of the
euUri’»
tptiu
ents.
‘i 4-
same form as the vena contractu, and by forming the
other extremity BC into a truncated one, having its
length BC about 9 times the diameter of the cylin¬
drical tube AB, and the aperture at C to that at B, as
18 to 10. By giving this form to the pipe, it will dis¬
charge more than twice as much water in a given time,
the quantity discharged by the cylindrical pipe being to
5 B 2 the
7+8
Bxperi- the quantity discharged by the pipe of the form ABC,
meats on as 10 to 24.
190. M. Venturi also found, that the quantities of wa¬
ter discharged out of a straight tube, a curved tube form¬
ing a quadrantal arc, and an elbowed tube with an angle
of 90°, each branch having a horizontal position, are
to one another nearly as the numbers 70, 50, 45.
Hence we see the disadvantages of sinuosities and bend¬
ings in conduit pipes. In the construction of hydraulic
machines, any variation in the internal diameter of the
pipe ought to be carefully avoided, excepting those al¬
terations at the extremities which we have recommend-
- ed in the preceding paragraph.
Results of 191. It appears from the researches of Eytelwein,
Eytehyein s w[jen t],e shortest tube that will make the water
Hients on f0^°'v sides is applied to the reservoir, the quantity
additional discharged will be to that deduced from theory, as
tubes. 0.810 to 1.000, and the multiplier for finding the ve¬
locity will be 6.5. When the lengths of the tubes are
increased from two to four times their diameter, the
ratio of the actual and theoretical discharge will be
0.822 to 1.000, and the constant multiplier for finding
the velocity will be 6.6. In employing a conical tube
approaching to the figure of the vena co?itracta, the
ratio of the discharges was as 0.92 to 1.00, and when
its edges were rounded off, as 0.98 to 1.00 computing
from its least section. He found also that the smallest
quantity of water was discharged, when the interior
extremity of the tube projected within the reservoir,
the quantity furnished in this case being reduced to one
half of what was discharged when the tube had its pro¬
per position.
Reason 192. When a cylindrical tube is applied to an ori-
wby cylin- ftce, the oblique motion of the particles which enter it
“e‘ diminished j the vertical velocity of the particles,
more watc»t‘iere^ore* *s "‘Creased, and consequently the quantity
than ori- ol water discharged. M. Venturi maintains that the
fices of the pressure of the atmosphere increases the expence of wa-
neter^ a" tei t^1'ou8‘1 a simple cylindrical tube, and that in coni¬
cal tubes, the pressure of the atmosphere increases the
expenditure in the ratio of the exterior section of the
lube to the section of* the contracted vein, whatever be
the position of the tube.
193. Of all the tubes that can he employed for dis-
, charging water, that is the most advantageous which
dbctafige10 *iaS tl,e form oi a contracted vein. Hence, it will be a
water. 8 truncated cone with its greatest base next the reservoir,
having its length equal to half the diameter of that
base, and the area of the two orifices as 8 to 5, or their
diameters in the subduplicate ratio of these numbers,
viz. as y/S : ^5*
Sect. III. Experiments on the Exhaustion oj Vessels,
Difl'iculty J94* ^ almost impossible to determinethe exacttime
in deter- in which any vessel of water is completely exhausted.
Ume'when W!ien t!ie surf'ace the fluid has descended within a
a vessel 'f5w inches of the oririce, a kInd of conoidal funnel is
completely lorined immediately above the orifice. The pressure of
eubausted. tlle superincumbent column being therefore removed
the time of exhaustion is prolonged. The water falls
in drops j and it is next to impossible to determine the
moment when the vessel is empty. Instead, therefore,
of endeavouring to ascertain the time in which vessels
are completely exhausted, the abbe Bossut has determi¬
HYDRO DYNAMICS.
ned the times in which the superior surface of the fluid
descends through a certain vertical height, and his re¬
sults will be found in the following table.
Part II,
Experi¬
ments on
the Motion!
ol' Eluids.
Be«t form
for tubes
Table. IX. Shewing the times in which Vessels are
partly exhausted.
Primitive
altitude of
the water
iu the
vessel.
Paris Feet.
11.6666
PG
Constant
area of a
horizontal
section of
the vessel.
SquarcFeet.
r
L
HE
Diameter
of the circu¬
lar oiifice
Inches.
1
2
1
2
7:
7854
Depression
of the up¬
per surface
of the
fluid.
Feet.
4
4
9
9
PG—PU
Time in
which this
depression
takes
place.
Mia. Sec,
7 254
1 52
20 24
5 6
T
Plate
CCLXVH.
195. In order to compare these experimental results^’ ^<5‘
with those deduced from theory, we must employ the 0f the exp«
formula (in Prop. V. 156.) where the time in which riments
the surface descends through any height is T=w‘lhthe
deXv/fg=vpu. r rti'r1
 — , in which DE is the area of a sec- 60 ^
A^/16.087
tion of the vessel, PG the primitive altitude of the sur¬
face above the centre of the orifice, PU the altitude
of the surface after the time T is elapsed, A the area of
the orifice, and 16.087 tke 8Pace through which a hea¬
vy body descends in one second of time. That the pre¬
ceding formula may be corrected, we must substitute
0.62 A or instead of A, in the formula, 0.62, A
being the area of the vena eontracta ; and as the mea¬
sures in the preceding table are in Paris feet, we must
use 15.085 instead of 16.087, the former being the di¬
stance in Paris feet, and the latter the distance in Eng¬
lish feet, which falling bodies describe in a second. The
formula, therefore, will become T=—^ *
o.62A/V/ 15.085
and when the computations are made for the different
diameters of the orifices and the different depressions of
the fluid surface, the results will be had, which are ex¬
hibited in the last column of the following table, con¬
taining the values of T, according to theory and expe¬
rience.
Table X. Comparison of the results of Theory with
those of Fjxperience.
Diameter
of the circa-
lar orifice.
Inches.
1
2
1
2
Depression
ef the up
per surface
of the
fluid.
Feet.
4
4
9
9
Time of tin
depression
of the sur
face by ex¬
periment.
Min. Sec.
254
52
20 244
5 6
Time of the
depression
of the sur
face by the
formula
Min. Sec.
7 22.36
1 5°*59
20 l6
5 4
Difference
let ween the
theory and
the expe¬
riments.
Seconds.
3-J4
1.41
8.50
2.00
It
I tap. II. H Y D R O D
:(iei-i. It appears from this table that the times of discharge,
uts on by experiment, differ very little from those deduced
i Motion from tj,e corrected formula; and that the latter always
, ** s,l err in defect. This may arise from 0.62 being too
great a multiplier for finding the corrected diameter of
the orifice.—When the orifices are in the sides of the
reservoir, the altitude PG, PU of the surface may be
reckoned from the centre of gravity of the orifice, un¬
less when it is very large.
lt N A M I C S. 749
Sect. IV. Expei'itnents on Vertical and Oblique Jets. ,^^5
196. We have already seen, that, according to theory,1^
vertical jets should rise to the same altitude as that of,
the reservoirs from which they are supplied. It will ap* Vertical
pear, however, from the following experiments of Bossut,jels do not
that jets do not rise exactly to this height. This arises rise 4®
from the friction at the orifice, the resistance of the a'rJ that
and other causes which shall afterwards be explained. 0f their re¬
servoirs.
Table XI. Containing the Altitudes to which Jets rise through Adjutages of different forms, the Altitude of the
Reservoir being Eleven Feet, reckoning from the upper surface oj' the horizontal Tubes m n P, opR.
Plate
-XVIfl.
i|. 6.
Diameter
of the ho¬
rizontal
tubes mP,
reR, each
being six
feet long.
Inch. Lines,
3 8
3 8 '
3 8
3 8
3 8
o 9I
0 9f
0 9i
Form of the
orifices.
Simple"?
orifice j
Conical 1
tube 4
Cylindri-1
cal tube J
Simple i
orifice 4
Referen¬
ces to
Fig. 6.
H
G
F
E
D
M
L
K
Diameter
of the
orifice.
Lines.
2
4
8
94 l,y 7°
4 by 7°
2
4
8
Altitude of the
jet when rising
vertically,
reckoniig Irom
m.
Feet. Inch Lines
10 O 10
10 5 10
10 6 6
964
916
9 11 o
9 7 10
7100
Altitude of the
jet when in¬
clined a little
to the ver¬
tical.
Feet. Inch. Lines.
IO46
10 7
10 8
S- 6
Description of the jets.
The vertical jet beautiful.
The vertical jet beautiful, not much
enlarged at the top.
All the jets occasionally rise to dif¬
ferent heights. This very percep¬
tible in the present experiment.
The vertical jet much enlarged at
top. The inclined one less so, and
more beautiful.
The vertical jet beautiful.
The vertical jet beautiful.
The jet beautiful.
The jet much deformed, and very
much enlarged at top.
The column much broken ; and the
successive jets are detached from
each other.
197. It appears, from the three first experiments of
the preceding table, tivit great jets rise higher than small
ones; and from the three last experiments, that
do be- jets rise higher than great ones when the horizontal tube
:en the is narrow. There is therefore a certain propor-
heM) t‘on between the diameter of the horizontal tube and
tbead.that of the adjutage or orifice, which will give a maxi-
>ge for mum height to the jet. This proportion may be found
hieing tbe following manner. Let 1) be the, diameter of
?(imuinthe tube, d that of the adjutage, a the altitude B m of
’jett0 the reservoir, b the velocity along the tube; and as the
velocity at the adjutage is constant, it may be expressed
by V a. Now (art. 150. note) the velocity in the tube
is to the velocity at the adjutage as the area of their le-
spective sections, that is, as the square of the diameter
of the one is to the square of the diameter of the other.
Therefore, : bzzD1 : d\ and consequently b —
J2*/,
v «
I3J
If there is another tube and another adjutage,
the corresponding quantities may be the same letters in
the Greek character, viz. A, /3, and we shall have
the equation /3— V^-. If we wish, therefore, that the
two jets be furnished in the same manner, then if the
velocity in the first tube leaves to the first jet all the
height possible, the velocity in the second tube leaves
also to the second jet all the height passible, and we
, , d9A/a rx iv* . A*
shall have bzz/3, or —H61106 L ; A —
ddfa : Mfx, that is, the squares of the diameters of
the horizontal tubes ought to be to one another in the
compound ratio of the squares of the diameters of the ad-
jutages, and the square roots oj the altitudes of the reser¬
voir.
750
HYDRODY
Experi- vair. Now, it appears from the experiments of Ma-
ments on riotte (TraitS de mouvemcnt des eaux), that when the
the Alotiou a!titude of the reservoir is 16 feet, ami the diameter of
of Fluids.^ tjie a(]]ntage six lines, the diameter of the horizontal
' v ' tube ought to be 28 lines and a half. By taking this
as a standard, therefore, the diameters of the horizontal
tube may be easily found by the preceding rule, what¬
ever be the altitude of the reservoir and the diameter
of the adjutage.
It results from the three last experiments, that the
jets rise to the smaller height when the adjutage is
a cylindrical tube (see D fig. 6.), that a conical adju¬
tage throws the fluid very much higher, and that when
the adjutage is a simple orifice the jet rises highest of
all.
198, By comparing the preceding experiments with
those of Mariotte, it appears, that the differences be¬
tween the heights of vertical jets, and the heights of the
reservoir, are nearly as the squares of the heights of the
jets. Thus, ab : cdz=Y.b* : therefore, if ab be
. abx^d* ,
known by experiment, we shall have cd———> anc*
by adding c dtoY d, we shall have the altitude of the
reservoir. But if F r were given, and it were required
to find F d, the height of the jet, we have, by the pre-
, fTTS Eb'Xcd
ceding analogy, I a _——^—.
Fig. 6.
But cd is an unknown
quantity,and is equal toFc—F(/,therefore,bysubstitution,
^-r tj?xVc—Yd E £2 x F c
Fj2= —, , or F«z x —r X I1 d= 7 ,
a o a b a b
which is evidently a quadratic equation, which, after re-
/= X Fc j Yb* __ Ylf
ab '4 2
duction, becomes F dz
A small in- 199* From a comparison of the 5th and 6th columns
clination of0f tjie table, it appears that a small inclination of the
ereaseVits jet» to a vert*ca^ ^ne> ma^es ^ rise higher than when it
altitude. ascends exactly vertical (k) j but even then it still falls
short of the height of the reservoir. When the water
first escapes from the adjutage, it generally springs
higher than the reservoir j but this effect is merely mo¬
mentary, as the jet instantly subsides, and continues at
The jet the altitudes exhibited in the foregoing tables. The
rises higher great size of the jet at its first formation, and itssubse-
than the quent diminution, have been ascribed by some philoso-
feservoir at p[iers to elasticity of the air which follows the wa¬
ter in its passage through the orifice $ but it is obvious,
that this air, which moves along with the fluid, can ne¬
ver give it an impulsive force. In order to explain this
phenomenon, let us suppose the adjutage to be stopped ;
then the air which the water drags along with it, will
lodge itself at the extremity of the adjutage, so that there
will be no water contiguous to the body which covers
the orifice. As soon as the cover is removed from the
adjutage, the imprisoned air escapes j the water imme¬
diately behind it rushes into the space which it leaves,
and thus acquires in the tube a certain velocity which
increases at the orifice in the ratio of the area of the sec¬
tion of the tube to the area of the section of the orifice
(art. 150. note). When the orifice is small in compa-
its com
mence-
*neiiL
N A M I C S, Part II.
rison with the tube, the velocity of the issuing fluid must Exj)eri.
be considerable, and will raise it higher than the reser- mentson
voir. But as the jet is resisted by the air, and retard-^6 Motion
ed by the descending fluid, its altitude diminishes, and ^
the simple pressure of the fluid becomes the only per- v-*-'
manent source of its velocity. The preceding pheno¬
menon was first noticed by Ton icellius *, who seems* DeMotv
to ascribe the diminution in the altitude of the jet toProjeeto.
the gravity of the descending particles. °Pfr
200. The following table exhibits all that is neces-p^^'
sary in the formation of jets. The two first columns
are taken from Mariotte f, and shew the altitude eff T'aitedu
the reservoir requisite to producing a jet of a certain^^1^
height. The third column contains, in Paris pints, 36£awx
of which are equal to a cubic foot, the quantity of wa-partiv.
ter discharged in a minute by an orifice six lines in di-disc. t.
ameter. The fourth column, computed from the hypc-P'3°3‘
thesis in art. 197. contains the diameters of the hori¬
zontal tubes for an adjutage six lines in diameter, rela¬
tive to the altitudes in the second column. The thick¬
ness of the horizontal tubes will be determined in a
subsequent section.
Table XII. Containing the Altitudes of Reservoirs,
the Diameters of the Horizontal Tubes, Sfc. for Jets
of different heights.
Altitude of
die jet.
Paris Feet.
5
10
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Altitude of the
reservoir.
Feet. Inches.
5
10
15
21
27
33
39
45 4
51
58
6S
72
79
86
93
101
109
117
J25
133
Quantity of wa-
er discharged
in a minute from
an adjutage 6
lines in diam.
Diameters of the
horizontal tubes
suited to the
two preceding
columns.
Paris Pints.
32
45
56
65
73
81
88
95
101
108
”4
120
J25
*3*
136
142
I47
152
158
163
Fines.
21
26
28
31
33
34
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
201. We have already seen that jets do not rise to
the heights of their reservoirs j and have remarked that
the difference between theory and experiment arises
from the friction at the orifice, and the resistance of the
air. The diminution of velocity produced by friction
is very small, and the resistance of the air is a very in¬
considerable
(k) This was also observed by Wolfius, Opera Mathematical tom. i. p. 802. Schol. ivi
/
(rap. II. H Y D R O D
iperi- considerable source of retardation, unless when the jet
nts on rises to a great altitude. We must seek therefore for
tj Motion another cause of obstruction to the rising jet, which,
"'hen combined with these, may be adequate to the ef-
l Salfii ^ec*; Pro^uced. Wolfius * has very properly ascribed
( ra Ma-the diminution in the altitude of the jet to the gravity
t nat. of the falling water. When the velocity of the fore-
t • *• most particles is completely spent, those immediately
P °|4' behind by impinging against them lose their velocity,
and, in consequence of this constant struggle between
the ascending and descending fluid, the jet continues
at an altitude less than that of the reservoir. Hence
vve may discover the reason why an inclination of the
jet increases its altitude ; for the descending fluid falling
a little to one side does not encounter the rising parti¬
cles, and therefore permits them to reach a greater al¬
titude, than when their ascension is in a vertical line.
Wolfius observes, in proof of his remark that the di¬
minution is occasioned also by the weight of the ascend¬
ing fluid, that mercury rises to a less height than water :
but this cannot be owing to the greater specific gravity
of mercury ; for though the weight of the mercurial
particles is greater than that of water, yet the momen¬
tum with which they ascend is proportionally greater,
and therefore the resistance which opposes their ten¬
dency downwards, has the same relation to their gravi¬
ty, as the resistance in the case of water has to the
weight of the aqueous particles.
] ieri- 202. The theory of oblique jets has already been
i ats on discussed in Prop. IX. art. 161. The two following ex-
i ique jet»perjments 0f Bossut contain all that is necessary to be
Plate known in practice. When the height NS of the reser-
( "XVIII- voir AB was 9 feet, and the diameter of the adjutage at
^ N, 6 lines, a vertical abscissa CN of 4 feet 3 inches and
7 lines, answered to a horizontal ordinate CT of 11 feet
3 inches and 3 lines. When the altitude NS of the
reservoir was 4 feet, the adjutage remaining the same, a
vertical abscissa CN of 4 feet 3 inches, and 7 lines, cor¬
responded with a horizontal ordinate CT of 8 feet 2 in¬
ches and 8 lines. The real amplitudes, therefore, are less
than those deduced from theory; and both are very
nearly as the square roots of the altitudes of the reser¬
voirs. Hence, to find the amplitude of a jet when the
height of the reservoir is 10 feet, and the vertical ab-
YNAMICS. 751
scissa the same, we have \/ 9 feet :»,/ 16 feetmi feet Experi-
3 inches 3 lines : 15 feet 4 lines, the amplitude of the jet ments on
required. This rule, however, will apply only to small
reservoirs 5 for when the jets enlarge, the curve which . ^ ‘
they describe cannot be determined by theory, and
therefore the relation between the amplitudes and the
heights of the reservoirs must be uncertain.
Sect. V. Experiments on the Motion of Water in Con¬
duit Pipes.
203. The experiments of the chevalier de Buat, will
be given at great length in the article WATEU-Works,
for which we have been indebted to the late learned
Dr Robison. That the reader, however, may be in
possession of every thing valuable on a subject of such
public importance, we shall at present give a concise
view of the experiments of Couplet and Bossut, and of
the practical conclusions which they authorize us to
form.
204. It must be evident to every reader, that, when
water is conducted from a reservoir by means of a long
horizontal pipe, the velocity with which the water en¬
ters the pipe will be much greater than the velocity
with which it issues from its farther extremity J and,
that if the pipe has various flexures or bendings, the ve¬
locity with which the water leaves the pipe will be still
farther diminished. The diflerence, therefore, between
the initial velocity of the water, and the velocity with
which it issues, will increase with the length of the pipe
and the number of its flexures. By means of the
theory, corrected by the preceding experiments, it is
easy to determine with great accuracy the initial velo¬
city of the water, or that with which it enters the
pipe; but on the obstructions which the fluid experi¬
ences in its progress through the pipe, and on the causes
of these obstructions, theory throws but a feeble light.
The experiments of Bossut afford much instruction on
this subject; and it is from them that we have arranged
the following table, containing the quantities of water
discharged by pipes of different lengths and diameters,
compared with the quantities discharged from addition¬
al tubes.
Table
f H Y D R O D Y N A M I C S. Part II.
Experi.
nientt m
tiie Motion TaBLE XIII.—Containing the Quantities of fFater discharged by Conduit Pipes of different lengths and diame-Motion
nr Fluids.. ters, compared with the Quantities discharged from additional tubes inserted in the same Peservoir. of Fluidt.
Experi¬
ments OH
Constant
altitude of
the water
in the reser¬
voir above
the axis of
the tube,
Length of
the conduit
Pipes.
Feet.
Feet.
30
60
90
120
l8o
30
60
90
120
150
180
Quantity of
water dis¬
charged in a
minute by an
additional
tube.
Quantity of
water dis¬
charged by
the conduit
pipe in a mi¬
nute.
Tube and pipe 16 lines diam.
Cubic Inches.
6330
6330
6330
6330
6330
6330
8939
8939
8939
8939
8939
8939
Cubic Inches.
2778
*957
i587
1178
1052
4066
2888
2352
2011
1762
Ratio between
the quantities of
water furnished
by the tube and
the pipe of 16
lines diameter.
I to .4389
I to .3091
I to .2507
I to .2134
I to .1861
I to .1662
I to .4548
I to .3231
I to .2631
I to .2250
I to .1971
I to .1770
Quantity of
water dis¬
charged by
an additional
tube in a mi¬
nute
Quantity of
water dis¬
charged by
the conduit
pipe in a mi¬
nute.
Tube and pipe 24 lines diam.
Cubic Inches.
I4243
14243
M243
14243
14243
14243
20112
20112
201X2
2011 2
2011 2
20112
Cubic Inches.
7680
5564
4534
3944
3486
3ll9
112x9
8190
6812
5885
5232
47x0
Ratio between
the quantities of
water furnished
by the tube and
the pipe of 24
lines diameter.
I to .5392
1 to .3906
I to .3183
I to .2769
I to .2448
I to .2190
I to .5578
I to .4072
I to .3387
i to .2926
I to .2601
I to .2341
8
Deductions 205. The third column of the preceding table con-
from the tains the quantity of water discharged through an ad-
preceding ditional cylindrical tube 16 lines in diameter, or the
table. quantity discharged from the reservoir into a conduit
pipe of the same diameter j and the fourth column con¬
tains the quantity discharged by the conduit pipe. The
fifth column, therefore, which contains the ratio between
these quantities, will also contain the ratio between
the velocity of the water at its entrance into the con¬
duit pipe, which we shall afterwards call its initial ve¬
locity, and its velocity when it issues from the pipe,
which shall be denominated its final velocity ; for
the velocities are as the quantities discharged, when
the orifices are the same. The same may he said of the
6th, 7th, and 8th columns, with this difference only,
that they apply to a cylindrical tube and a conduit
pipe 24 lines in diameter.
Cause of 206. By examining some of the experiments in the
the Feta*da-foregoing table, it will appear, that the water sometimes
tian wa. ]0Ses-jfLths of its initial velocity. The velocity thus
tei in mov.]ost. jg consumed by the friction of the water on the sides
a ^ ' ■ of the pipe, as the quantities discharged, and consequent¬
ly the velocities, diminish when the length of the pipe is
increased. In simple orifices, the friction is in the inverse
ratio of their diameter*, and it appears from the table,
that the velocity of the water is more retarded in the
pipe 16 lines in diameter, than in the other, which lias a
diameter of 24 lines. But though the velocity decreases
when the length of the tube is increased, it by no
means decreases in a regular arithmetical progression,
as some authors have maintained. This is obvious
from the table, from which it appears, that the differ¬
ences between the quantities discharged, which repre¬
sent also the differences between the velocities, always
degrease, whereas the differences would have been equal,
3
had the velocities decreased in an arithmetical progres¬
sion. The same truth is capable of a physical explana¬
tion. If every filament of the fluid rubbed against the
sides of the conduit pipe, then, since in equal times they
all experience the same degree of friction, the velocities
must diminish in the direct ratio of the lengths of the
tubes, and will form a regular arithmetical progression,
of which the first term will be the final, and the
last the initial velocity of the water. But it is only the
lateral filaments that are exposed to friction. This re¬
tards their motion ; and the adjacent filaments which-
do not touch the pipe, by the adhesion to those which
do touch it, experience also a retardation, but in a less
degree, and go on with the rest, each filament sustain¬
ing a diminution of velocity inversely proportional to
its distance from the sides of the pipe. The lateral
filaments alone, therefore, provided they always remain
in contact with the sides of the pipe, will have then*
velocities diminished in arithmetical progression, while
the velocities of the central filaments will not decrease
in a much slower progression j consequently, the mean
velocity of the fluid, or that to which the quantities
discharged are proportional, will decrease less rapidly
than the terms of an arithmetical progression.
207. When the altitude of the reservoir was two feet, The rctar-
the diminution of discharge, and consequently of veloci-nation di-
ty, was greater than when the height of the reservoir1™11'*11?6!^
was only one foot. The cause of this is manifest. Fric-^^^^.
tion increases with the velocity, because a greater number vojr in-
of obstructions are encountered in a certain time, and creeses,
the velocities are as the square roots of the altitudes ;
therefore friction must also he as the square roots of the
altitudes of the reservoir. On some occasions Coulomb
found that the friction of solid bodies diminished with
an augmentation of velocity, but there is no ground
for
hap.' U. HYDRODYNAMICS.
Experi- for supposing that this takes place in the case of
uents on fluids.
e Motion 208. W hen the pipe is inclined to the horizon, as
1 ^01 s', CGF, the water will move with a greater velocity than
inclined in horizontal tube CG hj\ In the former case, the
;es the relative gravity of the water, which is to its absolute
loeity of gravity as F/'to €/*, or as the height of the inclined
’leased8 P*ane t0 accelerates its motion along the tube,
itsiela- ^ut; t*lis acceleration takes place only when the incli-
e gravity, nation is considerable •, for if the angle which the direc-
Plate tion of the pipe forms with the horizon were no
H.XVill, more than one degree, the retardation of friction would
completely counterbalance the acceleration of gravity.
Tlius when the pipe CF, 16 lines in diameter, was 177
feet, and was divided into three equal parts in the points
D and E, so that CD was 59 feet, CE 118 feet j and
when CF was to Ff as 2124 to 241, the quantity of
water discharged at F was 5795 cubic inches in a mi¬
nute, the quantity discharged at E was 5801 cubic
inches in a minute, and the quantity at D 5808 cubic
inches. The quantities discharged therefore, and con¬
sequently the velocities, decreased from C to F; whereas
if there had been no friction, and no adhesion between
the aqueous particles, the velocities would have increas¬
ed along the line CF in the subduplicate ratio of the
altitudes CB, D m, E w, and I 0; AB being the sur¬
face of the water in the resesvoir. The preceding
numbers, representing the quantities discharged at F, E,
and D, decrease very slowly; consequently by increasing
the relative gravity of the water, that is, by inclining
the tube more to the horizon, the effects of friction may
be exactly counterbalanced. This happens when the
angle/CF is about 6° 31', or when F/is the eighth
or ninth part of CF. The quantities discharged at
C, D, E, and F, will be then equal, and friction will
have consumed the velocity arising from the relative
gravity of the included water.
209. In order to determine the effects produced by
flexures or sinuosities in conduit pipes, M. Bossut made
the following experiments.
753
Experi¬
ments on
the Motion
of Fluids.
*
Friction de¬
stroys this
increase of
velocity
when tlu
inclination
ol the pipe
is 6° 31'.
Table XIV. Shewing the Quantities of Water discharged by rectilineal and curvilineal Pipes 50 Feet long.
and 1 Inch in Diameter,
pen-
uts with
vilineal
Altitude oi
ihe Water
in the Re¬
servoir;
eet. Inches
O 4
I o
0 4
I o
o 4
Form of the conduit Pipes.—See Figures S. and 9.
The rectilineal tube MN placed horizontally,
The same tube similarly placed,
The same tube bent into the curvilineal form ABC,
fig. 8. eacli flexure lying flat on a horizontal plane,
ABC being a horizontal section,
The same tube similarly placed, >
The same tube placed as in fig. 9. where ABCD is a
vertical section, the parts A, B, C, D rising above a
horizontal plane, and the parts a,btc lying upon it,
The same tube similarly placed,
Quantities
of Water
discharged
in a Minute
Cubic Inches
IO30
540
IO30
520
1028
210. I. The two first experiments of the foregoing
table shew, that the quantities discharged diminish as
the altitude of the reservoir. This arises from an
increase of velocity, which produces an increase of
friction.
2. The four first experiments shew, that a curvili¬
neal pipe, in which the flexures lie horizontally, dis¬
charges less water than a rectilineal pipe of the same
length. The friction being the same in both cases, this
difference must arise from the impulse of the fluid
against the angles of the tube ; for if the tube formed
an accurate curve, it is demonstrable that the curva¬
ture would not diminish the velocity of the water.
3. By comparing the 1st and 5th, and the 2d and
6th experiments, it appears, that when the flexures are
vertical, the quantity discharged is diminished. This
also arises from the imperfection of curvature.
4. It appears from a comparison of the 3d and 5th,
with the 4th and 6th experiments, that when the flex¬
ures are vertical, the quantity discharged is less than
when they are horizontal. In the former case, the mo¬
tion of the fluid arises from the central impulsion of the
Vol. X, Part II. f
water, retarded by its gravity in the ascending parts of
the pipe, and accelerated in the descending parts; where¬
as the motion, in the latter case, arises wholly from the
central impulsion of the fluid. To these points of differ¬
ence the diminution of velocity may somehow or other
be owing.
When a large pipe has a number of contrary flexures,
the air sometimes mixes with the water, and occupies
the highest parts of each flexure as at B and C, fig. 9. Fig y.
By this means the velocity of the fluid is greatly re¬
tarded, and the quantities discharged much diminished.
Ibis ought to be prevented by placing small tubes at
B and C, having a small valve at their top.
211. A set of valuable experiments on a large scaleExperi-
were made by M. Couplet upon the motion of water inn,e,lts of
conduit pipes, and are detailed in the Memoirs of the^ou^et*
Academy for 1732. in his paper entitled Des Recherches
sur le mouvement des eaux dans les tuyaux de conduite.
These experiments are combined with those of the Abbe
Bossut in the following table, which gives a distinct
view of all that they have done on this subject, and will
be of great use to the practical hydraulist.
Table
HYDRODYNAMICS.
754
Experi¬
ments on
tlie Motion
of Fluids.
Table con¬
taining the
results of
the experi¬
ments of
Couplet and
Bossut on
conduit
pipes of va¬
rious kinds.
Part I
-Xjteri-
Table XV. Containing the results of the Experiments of Couplet and Bossut on Conduit Pipes differing in meats <
for711, length, diameter, and in the materials of which they are composed,—under different Altitudes of water ^ Motic
in the Reservoir. m Fluids
Altitude of the
Water in the
Reservoir.
Feet. Inch. Line-
040
o
4
o
4
o
o
o
o
o
11
I
o
I
o
I
1
2
1
2
20
I3
6
1
2
o
o
o
o
1
1
2
12
4 8
8 4
5 3
5 7
11
4
9
1
1
12
4
20 30
1 3
7 6
Length
of the
Conduit
Pipes.
Feet.
50
50
50
5°
50
50
180
180
180
180
177
Il8
J59
1782
1782
1782
1710
1710
7020
7020
7020
7020
7020
3600
3600
4740
14040
Diame
ter of
the Con¬
duit
Pipes.
Lines.
12
12
12
12
12
12
16
l6
24
24
16
16
l6
48
48
72
72
60
60
60
60
60
I44
216
2l6
144
Nature, Position, and Form of the Conduct Pipes.
Ratio between tin
Quai titles whic!
would bi! dischar
’ t-d if the Fluid ex-
peiieneed no resis¬
tance in the pipes,
and the Quantities
actually dischar.
ited:—or the Ratii
between the ini¬
tial and the Jinal
Velocities of the
Fluid.
Rectilineal and horizontal pipe made of lead,
The same pipe similarly placed,
The same pipe with several horizontal flexures,
Same pipe,
The same pipe with several vertical flexures,
Same pipe,
Rectilineal and horizontal pipe made of white iron,
Same pipe,
Rectilineal and horizontal pipe made of white iron,
Same pipe,
Rectilineal pipe made of white iron, and inclined so that CF
(fig. 7.) is to Fy as 2124 is to 241,
Rectilineal pipe made of white iron, and inclined like the last,
Rectilineal pipe made of white iron, and inclined like the last,
Conduit pipe almost entirely of iron, with several flexures both
horizontal and vertical,
Same pipe,
Same pipe,
Conduit pipe almost entirely of iron, with several flexures both
horizontal and vertical,
Same pipe,
Conduit pipe, partly stone and partly lead, with several flexures
both horizontal and vertical,
Same pipe,
Same pipe,
Same pipe,
Same pipe,
Conduit pipe made of iron, with flexures both horizontal and
vertical,
Conduit pipe made of iron, with several flexures both horizon¬
tal and vertical,
Conduit pipe made of iron, with several flexures both horizon¬
tal and vertical,
Conduit pipe made of iron, with several flexures both horizon¬
tal and vertical,
1 to 0.281
1 to 0.305
to 0.264
to 0.291
to 0.254
to 0.290
to 0.166
to 0.177
to 0.218
to O.234
I to 0.2000
I to 0.2500
I to 0.354
I to 0.350
I to 0.0376
I to 0.0387
I to 0.0809
I to 0.0878
I to 0.0432
I to 0.0476
I to 0.0513
I to 0.0532
I to 0.0541
I to c.0992
I to 0.1653
I to 0.0989
I to 0.0517
Application 2X2. In order to shew the application of the preced-
and use of ing results, let us suppose, that a spring, or number of
^ tabled" sPring8 combined, furnishes 40,000 cubic inches of wa-
e- ter in one minute ; and that it is required to conduct
it to a given place 4 feet below the level of the spring,
and so situated that the length of the pipe must be
2400 feet. It appears from Table VI. art. 185. that
the quantity of water furnished in a minute by a short
cylindrical tube, when the altitude of the fluid in the
reservoir is 4 feet, is 7070 cubic inches $ and since the
quantities furnished by two cylindrical pipes under the
same altitude of water are as the squares of their dia¬
meters, we shall have by the following analogy the dia¬
meter of the tube necessary for discharging 40,000 cu¬
bic inches in a minute 5 jf’jo’jio : ^740000=12 lines
or I inch : 28.-J lines, the diameter required. But by
comparing some of the experiments in the preceding
table, it appears, that when the length of the pipe is
nearly 2400 feet, it will admit only about one-eighth of
the water, that is, about 5000 cubic inches. That the
pipe, however, may transmit the whole 40000 cubic
inches, its diameter must be increased. The following
analogy, therefore, will furnish us with thisnewdiameter j
f $ooo ; 40000= 28.54 lines: 80.73 lines, or 6 inches
8*5
(lap. II. H Y D R O D
x,,eii- Sts- lines, the diameter of the pipe which will discharge
;nts on 40000 cub. inches of water when its length is 2400 feet.
1 Fluids. Sect. VI. Experiments on the Pressure exerted upon
-v——' Pipes by the water which flows through them.
,eri-
i its on 213. The pressure exerted upon the sides of conduit
i pressure pipes by the included water, has been already investi-
: ained gated theoretically in Prop. X. Part II. The only way
3ipes' of ascertaining by experiment the magnitude of this
lateral pressure is to make an orifice in the side of the
YNAMICS. 755
pipe, and find the quantity of water which it dis- Expew-
charges in a given time. This lateral pressure is the ments on
force which impels the water through the orifice $ and
therefore the quantity discharged, or the effect produ- , ^ .
ced, must be always proportional to that pressure as its
producing cause, and may be employed to represent it.
The following table, founded on the experiments of
Bossut, contains the quantities of water discharged from
a lateral orifice about 3|- lines in diameter, according
to theory and experiment.
Table XVI. Containing the Quantities discharged by a Lateral Orifice, or the Pressures on the Sides of
Pipes, according to Theory and Experiment.
Altitude
of the
Water in
the Re¬
servoir.
Feet.
I
I
I
I
I
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
Length
of the
Conduit
Pipe.
Quantities of Water
discharged in 1 Mi¬
nute, according to
Theorv.
Feet.
30
60
90
120
MO
l8o
3°
60
90
120
I5°
180
Quantities of Water
discharged in 1 Mi¬
nute according to
Experiment.
Cubic Inches.
176
186
190
191
192
*93
244
259
264
267
268
269
Cubic Inches.
I7I
186
190
191
,93
J94
240
256
261
264
26 c
266
It appears from the preceding table, that the real
lateral pressure in conduit pipes differs very little from
that which is computed from the formula $ but in or¬
der that this accordance may take place, the orifice
must be so perforated, that its circumference is exactly
perpendicular to the direction of the water, otherwise a
portion of the water discharged would be owing to the
direct motion of the included fluid.
Sect. VII. Experiments ontheMotionof Water inCanals.
peri- 214. Among the numerous experiments which have
uts on been made on this important subject, those of the Abbe
TOteTin Bossut seem entitled to the greatest confidence. His ex-
ieontal periments were made on a rectangular canal 105 feet
ials. long, 5 inches broad at the bottom, and from 8 to 9
inches deep. The orifice which transmitted the water
from the reservoir into the canal was rectangular, having
its horizontal base constantly 5 inches, and its vertical
height sometimes half an inch, and at other times an
inch. The sides of this orifice were made of copper, and
rising perpendicularly from the side of the reservoir
they formed two vertical planes parallel to each other.
This projecting orifice was fitted into the canal, which
was divided into 5 equal parts of 21 feet each, and also
into 3 equal parts of 35, and the time was noted which
the water employed in reaching these points of division.
The arrival of the water at these points was signified
by the motion of a very small water wheel placed at
each, and impelled by the stream. When the canal was
horizontal, the following results were obtained.
Table XVII. Containing the Velocity of Water in a Rectangular Hori%ontal Canal 105 Feet long, under dif¬
ferent Altitudes of Fluid in the Reservoir.
Altitude of the water‘d Ft. In.
in the reservoir. ^ 11 8
Vertical breadth of the 1 , an inch
orifice. 3
\ an inch. | an inch
Time in which the f
number of feet in j
column seventh are ^
run through by the J
water. L
2"
5—
10—
16—
23 +
Ft. In.
7 8
3 —
7
J3—
20—
28-f
Ft. In.
3 8
3" +
9
I7 +
27 +
38 +
actions    
I'cedhi 215. Itappears from column 1st, that the times succes-
peti- ^ sively employed to run through spaces of 2 x feet each, are
‘Ms. as the numbers 2, 3—, 5? 7 + > which form nearly an
Ft. In.
11 8
1 inch.
2"
4
7
11
i6|
Ft. In.
7 8
1 inch.
2'
5
9
14
20
'+
Ft. In.
3 8
1 inch.
3
6+
11 -j-
18 +
26
Space run through
by the water.
Feet.
21
42
63
84
I05
arithmetical progression, whose terms differ nearly by 1,
sothatby continuing the progression, we may determine
very nearly the time in which the fluid would run
5 C 2
through
756
Experi¬
ments on
the Motion
of Flhids.
through any number of feet not contained in the 7th
column. The same may be done with the other co¬
lumns of the table.
If we compute theoretically the time which the wa¬
ter should employ in running through the whole length
of the canal, or 105 feet, we shall find, that under the
circumstances for each column of the preceding table
the times, reckoning from the first column, are
7'.834, 11 .330, 6".350, 7".834, ll".330. It ap¬
pears, therefore, by comparing these times with those
found by experiment, that the velocity of the stream is
very much retarded by friction, and that this retarda-
Part II.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
tion is less as the breadth of the orifice is increased; for Expen.
since a greater quantity of water issues in this case from nieniso'n
the reservoir, it has more power to overcome the ob-the Motion
stacles which obstruct its progress. The signs -j~ and ,ot glui(b-
— affixed to the numbers in the preceding table indicate, r ^
that these numbers are a little too great or too small.
216. The following experiments were made on in- Experi-
clined canals with different declivities, and will be 0fllieiits on
great use to the practical hydraulist. The inclination Jjate?51
of the canal is the vertical distance of one of its extre-inclined ^
mities from a horizontal line which passes through its canals,
other extremity.
Table of the
velocity of
water in
rectangu¬
lar inclined
canals.
Table XVIII. Containing the Velocity of Water in a Rectangular inclined Canal 103 Feet long, and under
different Altitudes of Fluid in the Reservoir.
Altitude of water in
the reservoir.
If;
Ft. In,
8
.Inclination of theT Ft. In,
canal. L 0 3
Height of the orifice 4
i an inch. |
t 22
Inclination of theT Ft. In.
canal. (_ O 6
Height of the orifice \
I inch. "l
3
8
Inclination of the
canal.
n-
In.
O
Ft. In.
7 8
Ft. In.
0 3
4"+
14 +
26
Ft. In.
o 6
4"—
9 +
J9—
Ft. In.
3 8
Ft. In.
0 3
6"-f
*8 +
34 +
Ft. In.
o 6
Ft. In.
2 o
Height of the orifice J
l inch. "l
2"-f
7
*3
Inclination of thej Ft. In.
canal. (.60
Height of the orifice
I inch.
1
2"-f-
6
10
Inclination of theC
canal. 7
Feet.
II
In the three first co- f Half sec.
lumns the height | 2-f
of the orifice was j
■f an inch, and in
the three last 1
inch.
Inclination of the f
canal. 1
Height of the orifice
i-J inches.
Half sec.
2
5
84.
12
*5 +
L'lme in
4"—
9—
I5—
Ft. In.
6 o
3"
7 +
12
Feet.
II
Half sec.
3 +
8 -j-
13 +
18-j-
23 +
Feet.
11
Half sec.
3—
6
10—
*3 +
17
5"-
J3—
23—
Ft. In.
2 O
4"
I of
Ft. In.
6 o
4"
9—
*4—
Feet.
11
Half sec,
4 +
IO
16
22
28
Feet.
II
Half sec,
3 +
7
11 +
IJ
20
Ft. In,
11 8
Ft. In,
o 6
3
11*-
21
"JL
Ft. In.
1 o
3 —
7i
J4
Ft. In.
4 o
2"4-
6f
12
Ft. In.
9 o
2"4-
6—
Feet.
11
Half sec.
2
5
9
J3
J7
Ft. In.
7 8
Ft. In.
o 6
4 +
M
25+
Ft. In.
3 8
Ft. In.
o 6
Ft. In.
1 o
4 —
9
16
Ft. In.
4 °
3"+
8
J3
Ft. In.
9 °
3"+
6f
10
Feet.
11
Half sec.
3 +
7
11
J9
6
18—
3' +
Fl. In.
1 o
5-
12
21
Ft. In.
4' o
4 +
9 +
15 +
Ft. In.
9 °
4"-
8—
12—
Feet.
II
Half sec.
3
8
I3
18—
22
winch the number of feet in the last col, is run through
Space run through
by the Water.
Feet.
35
70
35
70
T05
35
70
105
35
70
105
21
42
63
84
!05
21
42
63
84
105
).
II.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
^xpen- 2iy. In the preceding experiments the velocity of the
ents on fjr3t portion of water that issues from the reservoir was
Fluids11 only observed; but when the current is once establish-
> pfl, and its velocity permanent, it mo\res with greater
e veloci-rapidity, and there is always a fixed proportion between
ot the t]ie velocity of the first portion of water and the perma-
wate^011 nent velocIty t^e estahlished current. The cause of
it issues this dift’erence Bossut does not seem to have thoroughly
ui the comprehended, when he ascribes it to a diminution of
eiyoir is friction when the velocity becomes permanent. The
^ of1 the veloc*ty the first portion of water that issues from the
hlished reservoir was measured by its arrival at certain divisions
rent. of the canal, consequently the velocity thus determined
ssut a- was the mean velocity of the water. The velocity of
ihes tin'st|ie established current, on the contrary, was measured
by light bodies floating upon its surface, at the centre
ion of
757
of the canal, therefore the velocity thus determined was Experi-
the superficial velocity of the stream. But the veloci- ments on
ty of the superficial central filaments must be the great-^ 'lot'011
est of all, because being at the greatest distance from of Fhluh\
the sides and bottom of the canal they are less affected It is owjnrr
by friction than any of the adjacent or inferior fila- to a differ"
ments, and are not retarded by the weight of any su-eat cause;
perincumbent fluid. The superficial velocity of the the-w^cr/t-
current must of consequence be greater than its city having
velocity, or, in other words, the velocity of the esta- been mea-
blished current must exceed the velocity of the first sured in
portion of water. The following table contains the ex- lbe one
periments of Bossut on this subject; the canal being of^e’t^d
the same size as in the former experiments, but 600 mean VeJo-
feet long, and its inclination one-tenth of the whole, or city in the.
59.702 feet, other.
Table XIX. Containing a Comparison between the Velocity of the First Portion of Water, and that of the
Established Current.
\ltitude of the
water in the
reservoir.
Feet, leches.
4 °
4
4
4
4
4
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
i
1
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
c
o
o
6
6
6
V erucul bread th ot the orifice
1 inch.
Vel. of the 1st
portion of
water.
Seconds.
10
20
31—
42—
527
624-
11
23
35
46 +
58
69
12 +
25 V
39
11—
22
32
Vel. of the
established
current.
Seconds.
8
17
26
35
43+
52
10
20
3^
40
49
58
12
23 +
33
9
18—
27
Vertical breadth of the orifice
2 inches.
Vel. of the isf
portion of
water.
Seconds.
8
J7
26
35—
43 +
52—
9
19
29
39
49
58
!5
31
47,
26}
39*
Vel. of the
established
current.
Seconds.
7
i4t
22
29 +
37—
44 +
8—
16
24
32
40
48
!3
26f
39t
ni
23
33^
Space run
through by
the water.
Feet.
100
200
300
400
500
600
ICO
200
300
400
500
600
100
200
300
100
200
300
! com- 218. In all the experiments related in this chapter,
| theory and in those of the Chevalier Buat, which are given in
te mo- tjie artjcje JfrATER.}frorks, the temperature of the wa¬
ter employed has never been taken into consideration.
That the fluidity of water is increased by heat can
scarcely admit of a doubt. Professor Leslie, in his in¬
genious paper on Capillary Action, has proved by ex-
1 of
l s de-
ive in
'! consi- scarcely admit of a doubt
ig the • J r1 mi
t j,era. gemous paper on Capilla _ . . . ,
t of the periment that a jet of warm water will spring much
r em- higher than a jet of cold water, and that a syphon which
i- 1 11 . 1 j  mi j: 1 
y ed.
o   — J - - -    ' # / »
discharges cold water only by drops, will discharge wa¬
ter of a high temperature in a continued stream. A si¬
milar fact was observed by the ancients. Plutarch (l) Warm wa¬
in particular assures us, that the clepsydrae or waterter moves
clocks went slower in winter than in summer, and hefajl.e'vthan
seems to attribute this retardation to a diminution ofC° ' "atei*
fluidity. It is therefore obvious, that warm water will
issue from an aperture with greater velocity than cold wa¬
ter, and that the quantities of fluid discharged from the
same orifice, and under the same pressure, will increase
with the temperature of the fluid. Hence we may dis¬
cover the cause of the great discrepancy between the
experiments of different philosophers on the motion of
fluidso
(l) EAflftiyas-* y*g tj to -rroia /Zxq-j xcti crufi^rahg, ug imv it rxtg xte\f/v$gxts xxrxfMiduv, (Z^xhtw yx%
tXy.xn xupvvtg h 0sga?. Aquam enim impellent frigus gravem facit et crassam, quod in clepsydris licet observarc ;
tardius enim trakunt hyeme quam (estate. Plutarch, Quest. Natural..
758
On the fluids. Their experiments were performed in different
Resistance climates and at different seasons of the year j and, as the
ol i onds. temperature of the water would be variable from these
and from other causes, a variation in their results was
the inevitable consequence.
IDxperi- 219. The writer of this article has a set of experi¬
ments for ments in view, by which he expects to determine the
'^'theef precise effects of heat upon the motion of fluids, and to
reels of furnish the practical hydraulist with a more correct for-
heaton the mula than that of the Chevalier Buat, for finding, un¬
motion of der any given circumstances, the velocity of water and
fluids. {fog quantities discharged. He hopes also to be able to
determine whether or not the friction of rvater in con¬
duit pipes varies, as in the case of solid bodies, with
the nature of the substances of which the pipes are
formed j and to ascertain the effects of different un¬
guents in diminishing the resistance of friction. The
result of these experiments will probably he communi¬
cated in a subsequent article of this work.
Chap. III. On the Resistance of Fluids.
Reference _ 220. In the article Resistance of Fluids, the reader
to the arti- will find that important subject treated at great length,
cle Resist-and with great ability, by the late learned Dr Robison.
FfojVfo ^ie researc^es preceding philosophers are there gi¬
ven in full detail; their different theories are compar¬
ed with experiments, ar*d the defects of these minutely
considered. Since that article was composed, this in¬
tricate subject has been investigated by other writers,
and though they have not enriched the science of hy¬
draulics with a legitimate theory of the resistance of
fluids, the results of their labours cannot fail to be in¬
teresting to every philosopher.
Researches 221. The celebrated Coulomb has very successfully
of Coulomb, employed the principle of torsion, to determine the co¬
hesion of fluids, and the laws of their resistance in very
slow motions. His experiments are new, and were
performed with the greatest accuracy; and the results
which he obtained were perfectly conformable to the
deductions of theory. We shall therefore endeavour to
give the reader some idea of the discoveries which he
has made.
222. When a body is struck by a fluid with a velocity
exceeding eight or nine inches per second, the resistance
has been found proportional to the square of the velo¬
city, whether the body in motion strikes the fluid at rest,
or the body is struck by the moving fluid. But when
the velocity is so slow as not to exceed four-tenths of an
inch in a second, the resistance is represented by two
terms, one of which is proportional to the simple velo¬
city, and the other to the square of the velocity. The
first of these sources of resistance arises from the cohe¬
sion of the fluid particles which separate from one ano¬
ther, the number of particles thus separated^being pro¬
portional to the velocity of the body. The other cause
of resistance is the inertia of the particles, which when
struck by the fluid, acquire a certain degree of velocity
proportional to the velocity of the body ; and as the
number of these particles is also proportional to that
velocity, the resistance generated by their inertia must
he proportional to the square of the velocity.
* Pnncipia 223. When Sir Isaac Newton * was determining the
hb. 11. prop, resistance which the air opposed to the oscillatory motion
of a globe in small oscillations, he employed a formula of
Part II.
three terms, one of them being as the square of the ve- on the
locity, the second the | power of the velocity, and the Resistance
third as the simple velocity; and in another part of ot ^luids-
the work he reduces the formula to two terms, one of ,777 ^
which is as the square of the velocity, and the other Newton* °f
constant. D. Bernouilli (Comment. Petropol. tom. iii. Bemomlli,
and v.) also supposes the resistance to be represented by andGra''es-
tvvo terms, one as the square of the velocity, and the6"^6,
other constant. M. Gravesende (Elements of Nat. Phil.
ai t. 1911), has found that the pressure of a fluid in
motion against a body at rest, is partly proportional to
the simple velocity, and partly to the square of the ve¬
locity. But when the body moves in a fluid at rest, he
found (art. 1975) the resistance proportional to the
square of the velocity, and to a constant quantity.—
When the body in motion, therefore, meets the fluid at
rest, these three philosophers have agreed, that'the for¬
mula which represents the resistance of fluids consists of
two terms, one of which is as the square of the veloci¬
ty, and the other constant. The experiments of Cou¬
lomb, however, incontestably prove, that the pressure
which the moving body in this case sustains, is repre¬
sented by two terms, one proportional to the simple
velocity, and the other to its square, and that if there
is a constant quantity, it is so very small as to escape
detection.
224. In order to apply the principle of torsion to the Apparatus
resistance of fluids, M. Coulomb made use of the appa-emPloye4in
ratus represented in fig. 1. On the horizontal armCou!omb s
LK, which may be supported by a vertical stand, is
fixed the small circleyV, perforated in the centre, so Jat
as to admit the cylindrical pin b a. Into a slit in the Cf;LXIX.
extremity of this pin is fastened, by means of a screw, (5o-. r.
the brass wire a g, whose force of torsion is to be com¬
pared with the resistance of the fluid ; and its lower ex¬
tremity is fixed in the same way into a cylinder of cop¬
per g d, whose diameter is about four-tenths of an inch.
The cylinder g d is perpendicular to the disc DS, whose
circumference is divided into 480 equal parts. When
this horizontal disc is at rest, which happens when the
torsion of the brass wire is nothing, the index RS is
placed upon the point o, the zero of the circular scale.
The small rule R m may be elevated or depressed at
pleasure round its axis n, and the stand GH which sup¬
ports it may be brought into any position round the
horizontal disc. The lower extremity of the cylinder
g d is immersed about two inches in the vessel of water
MNOP, and to the extremity d is attached the planes,
or the bodies whose resistance is to be determined when
they oscillate in the fluid by the torsion of the brass
wire. In order to produce these oscillations, the disc j^j;eli10d 0f
DS, supported by both hands, must be turned gently using it.
round to a certain distance from the index, without de¬
ranging the vertical position of the suspended wire.
The disc is then left to itself; the force of torsion
causes it to oscillate, and the successive diminutions of
these oscillations are carefully observed. A simple
formula gives in weights the force of torsion that
produces the oscillations; and another formula well
known to geometers, determines (by an approximation
sufficiently accurate in practice), by means of the suc¬
cessive diminution of the oscillations compared with
their amplitude, what is the law of the resistance, re¬
lative to the velocity, which produces these diminu¬
tions.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
22J.
)hap. III.
HYDRODYNAMIC S.
ie m hies
imt em-
loyed by
(rewton
nd other
hiloso-
On the 225. The method employed by Coulomb, in redu-
esfstance cing his experiments, is similar to that adopted by
jfFluids. Newton and other mathematicians, when they wished
7 , to determine the resistance of fluids, f rom the successive
dopted by oinmautions ot the osculations or a pendulum moving
onload) in a resisting medium ; hut it is much better fitted for
detecting the small quantities which are to be estimated
in such researches. When the pendulum is employed,
the specific gravity of the body, relative to that of the
fluid, must be determined 5 and the least error in this
point leads to very uncertain results. When the pen-
liers vv|10 dulum is in different points of the arc in which it os-
li ^wcill" cillates, the wire or pendulum rod is plunged more or
ions of a ^ess *n t^“e 5 an^ the alterations which may result
endulum from this are frequently more considerable than the
» resisting6ma|] quantities which are the object of research. It
iedia. jg Qnjv ja 8mau oscillations, too, that the force which
Jisadvan- brings the pendulum from the vertical, is proportional
to the angle which the pendulum rod, in different posi¬
tions, forms with this vertical line; a condition which
is necessary before the formula; can be applied. But
email oscillations are attended with great disadvanta¬
ges; and their successive diminutions cannot be deter¬
mined but by quantities which it is difficult to estimate
exactly, and which are changed by the smallest motion
either of the fluid in the vessel, or of the air in the
chamber. In small velocities, the pendulum rod ex-
Iperiences a greater resistance at the point of floatation
than at any other part. This resistance, too, is very
changeable ; for the water rises from its level along the
pendulum rod to greater or less heights, according to
the velocity of the pendulum.
idrautages 226. These and other inconveniences which might
feotnpa- fog mentioned, are’ so inseparable from (lie use ot the
Utaucc of" Pendul um, that Newton and Bernoulli have not been
dds with to fleterm>ne the laws of the resistance ot fluids
he force of in very slow motions. W hen the resistance ol fluids
orsion. js compared with the force of torsion, these disadvan¬
tages do not exist. The body is in this case entirely
immersed in the fluid ; and as every point of its surface
oscillates in a horizontal plane, the relation between
the densities of the fluid and the oscillating body has
no influence whatever on the moving force. One or
two circles of amplitude may be given to the oscilla¬
tions ; and their duration may he increased at pleasure,
either by diminishing the diameter of the wire, or in¬
creasing its length ; or, which may be more convenient,
by augmenting the momentum of the horizontal disc.
Coulomb, however, found that when each oscillation
was so long as to continue about 100 seconds, the least
motion of the fluid, or the tremor occasioned by the
passing of a carriage, produced a sensible alteration on
the results. The oscillations best fitted for experiments
of this kind, continued from 20 to 30 seconds, and the
amplitude of those that gave the most regular results,
was comprehended between 480 degrees, the entire di¬
vision oi the disc, and 8 or 10 divisions reckoned from
the zero of the scale. I? rom tiiese observations it will
be readily seen, that it is only in very slow motions that
an oscillating body can be employed for determining
the resistance of fluids. In small oscillations, or in quick
circular motions, the fluid struck by the body is conti¬
nually in motion ; and when the oscillating body returns
to its former position, its velocity is either increased or
759
retarded by the motion communicated to the fluid, and On the
not extinguished. Resistance
227. In the first set of experiments made by Con- t'ands.
lomb, he attached to the lower extremity of the cylin- wTeTthc
tier g d a circular plate of white iron, about 195 milli- velocity is
metres in diameter, and made it move so slowly, that very small,
the part of the resistance proportional to the square of1*16 P111'.1 ot
the velocity, wholly disappeared. For if, in any parti-llie ,'=S!St*
cular case, the portion ot the resistance proportional t0porljouii t0
the simple velocity, should be equal to the portion that the square
is proportional to the square of the velocity when theol't5lc; vel°-
body has a velocity of one-tenth of an inch per second ; Clty (’isaP‘
then, when the velocity is 100 tenths of an inch per l’ears'
second, the part proportional to the square of the velo¬
city will be a hundred times greater than that propor¬
tional to the simple velocity ; but if the velocity is on¬
ly the lODdth part of the tenth of an inch per second,
then the part proportional to the simple velocity will
he loo times greater than the part proportional to the
square of the velocity.
228. When the oscillations of the white iron plate Remit oT
were so slow, that the part of the resistance which varies Coulomb’s
with the second power of the velocity was greatly in-ex’Pun,,ienls
ferior to the other part, he found, from a variety of ex - shtanceA
periments, that the resistance which diminished the os-water to a
cillatjons of the horizontal plate was uniformly proper-horizontal
tional to the simple velocity, and that the other part of ,1I0V-
tbe resistance, which follows the ratio of the square of
the velocity, produced no sensible change upon the mo-tiie pial)e of
tion of the white iron disc.— He found also, in con-its superfi-
formity with theory, that the momenta of resistance in
different circular plates moving round their centre in a
fluid, are as the fourth power of the diameters of these
circles; and that, when a circle of 195 millimetres
(6.677 inches) in diameter, moved round its
centre in water, so that its circumference had a ve¬
locity of 140 millimetres (5.512 English inches) pec
second, the momentum of resistance which the fluid
opposed to its circular motion was equal to one-tenth of
a gramme (1.544 English troy grains) placed at the
end of a lever 143 millimetres (5.63 English inches)
in length.
229. M. Coulomb repeated the same experiments in Similar rc-
a vessel of clarified oil, at the temperature of 16 Je. S1,b obtam-
grees of Reaumur. He found, as before, that the mo- aiU
menta of the resistance of different circles, moving
round their centre in the plane of their superficies, were Ratio bo¬
as the fourth power of their diameters ; and that thetween ^
difficulty with which the same horizontal plate, moving ^j0*
with the same velocity, separated the particles of oil, the par-
was to the difficulty with which it separated the parti-tides of oil,
cles of water, as 17.5 to I, which is therefore the ratio an(^ the mu-
that the mutual cohesion of the particles of oil has to^J
the mutual cohesion of the particles of water. particles of
230. In order to ascertain whether or not the resist- water,
ance of a body moving in a fluid was influenced by theq,^ resj-gt_
nature of its surface, M. Coulomb anointed the surface anee not in
of the white iron plate with tallow, and wiped it part-fluenced by
ly away, so that the thickness of the plate might not lHe nalure
be sensibly increased. The plate was then made to *
oscillate in water, and the oscillations were found to di-mov;ng
minish in the same manner as before the application ofdy.
the unguent. Over the surface of the tallow upon the
plate, he afterwards scattered, by means of a sieve, a
quantity
760
HYDRODYNAMICS.
of Fluids.
Experi¬
ments for
finding- if
the resist-
On the quantity of coarse sand which adhered to the greasy sur-
Resistance face j but when the plate, thus prepared, was caused to
oscillate, the augmentation of resistance was so small,
that it could scarcely be appreciated. We may there¬
fore conclude, that the part of the resistance which is
proportional to the simple velocity, is owing to the mu¬
tual adhesion of the particles of the fluid, and not to the
adhesion of these particles to the surface of the body.
231. If the part of the resistance varying with the
simple velocity were increased when the white iron plate
w'as immerged at greater depths in the water, we might
ance is in- suppose it to he owing to the friction of the water on the
creased by horizontal surface, which, like the friction of solid bodies,
increasing should be proportional to the superincumbent pressure.
inc'inibcnt or^er *-0 set^e this point, M. Coulomb made the
ilsid. white iron plate oscillate at the depth of two centi¬
metres (.787 English inches), and also at the depth of
50 centimetres (19.6855 English inches), and found no
diflerence in the resistance^ but as the surface of the wa¬
ter was loaded with the whole weight of the atmosphere,
and as an additional load of 50 centimetres of water could
scarcely produce a perceptible augmentation of the re¬
sistance, M. Coulomb employed another method of de¬
ciding the question. Having placed a vessel full of wa¬
ter under the receiver of an air-pump, the receiver be¬
ing furnished with a rod and collar of leather at its top,
he fixed to the hook, at the end of the rod, a harpsi¬
chord wire, numbered 7 in commerce, and suspended to
it a cylinder of copper, likeg-t/, fig. 1. which plunged
in the water of the vessel, and under this cylinder he
fixed a circular plane, whose diameter was 101 milli¬
metres (3.976 English inches). When the oscillations
were finished, and consequently the force of torsion no¬
thing, the zero of torsion was marked by the aid of an
index fixed to the cylinder. The rod was then made
to turn quickly round through a complete circle, which
gave to the wire a complete circle of torsion, and the
successive diminutions of the oscillations were carefully
observed. I he diminution for a complete circle of tor¬
sion was found to be nearly a fourth part of the circle
for the first oscillation, but always the same whether
the experiment was made in a vacuum or in the atmo¬
sphere. A small pallet 50 millimetres long (1.969
English inches) and xo millimetres broad, (0.3937
English inches) which struck the water perpendicular
to its plane, furnished a similar result. We may there¬
fore conclude, that when a submerged body moves in a
fluid, the pressure which it sustains, measured by the al¬
titude ot the superior fluid, does not perceptibly increase
the resistance ; and consequently, that the part of this
resistance proportional to the simple velocity, can in no
respect he compared with the friction of solid bodies,
which is always proportional to the pressure.
On the re- 232. The next object of M. Coulomb was to ascertain
cviinder°f the resistance experienced by cylinders that moved
moving B veiy s!owly, and perpendicular to their axes ; but as the
per pencil- particles of fluid struck by the cylinder necessarily par-
eulai to took of its motion, it was impossible to neglect the part
their axes. 0f the resistance proportional to the square of the velo¬
city, and therefore he was obliged to perform the ex¬
periments in such a manner that both parts of the re¬
sistance might be computed. The three cylinders
wdiich he employed were 249 millimetres (.9803 Eng¬
lish inches) long. The hist cylinder was 0.87 milli¬
metres (0.0342 English inches or of an inch) in
5
Part IIt
circumference, the second 11.2 millimetres (0.4409 On tbe
English inches), and the third 21.1 millimetres (.88307 Resistance
English inches). They were fixed by their middle uu- of FJu“ls.
der the cylindrical piece r/g, so as to form two horizon-
tal radii, whose length was 124.5 millimetres (.4901 ancVduet
English inches) or half the length of each cylinder.the simple1
After making the necessary experiments and computa-vef°city is
tions, he found that the part of the resistance propor-n.ot prul,0,:-
tional to the simple velocity, which, to avoid circum-^g^10
locution we shall call r, did not vary with the circum-terenceT™*
ferences of the cylinders. The circumferences of the the cyliu.
first and third cylinders were to one another as 24 : i,ders«
whereas the resistances were in the ratio of 3 : 1. The
same conclusion was deduced by comparing the experi¬
ments made with the first and second cylinder.
233. In order to explain these results, M. Coulomb Cause of
very justly supposes, that in consequence of the mutual this,
adhesion of the particles of water, the motion of the cy¬
linder is communicated to the particles at a small di¬
stance from it. The particles which touch the cylinder
havfc the same velocity as the cylinder, those at a great¬
er distance have a less velocity, and at the distance of
about one-tenth of an inch the velocity ceases entirely,
so that it is only at that distance from the cylinder that
the mutual adhesion of the fluid molecules ceases to in¬
fluence the resistance. The resistance r therefore should The resist-
not be proportional to the circumference of the real cy-ance due
linder, but to the circumferenee of a cylinder whose10 tlie
radius is greater than the real cylinder by one-tenth of^^ro
an inch. It consequently becomes a matter of import-poftionia0
ance to determine with accuracy the quantity which to the cir-
must be added to the real cylinder in order to have thecumferenoe
radius of the cylinder to which the resistance r is pro-
portional, and from which it must be computed. Cou- when'heir
Jomb found the quantity by which the radius should be radii are
increased, to be 1.5 millimetres (j^g-of an English
inch) so that the diameter of the augmented cylinder by tMs
will exceed the diameter of the real cylinder by double of an inc^'
that quantity, or XVA of an inch.
234. The part of the resistance varying with the xhe resist-
square of the velocity, or that arising from the inertia ance due to
of the fluid, which we shall call R, was likewise notthe
proportional to the circumferences of the cylinder ; but
the augmentation of the radii amounts in this case only
to ritt of an inch, which is only one-fifth of the aug-al to the
mentation necessary for finding the resistance r. The ciicumfar-
reason of this difference is obvious ; all the particles ofencesoftk
the fluid when they are separated from each other °P-when^their
pose the same resistance, whatever be their velocity ; radii are
consequently as the value of r depends only on the ad-augmented
hesion of the particles, the resistances due to this ad-by-in¬
hesion will reach to the distance from the cylinderof au
where the velocity of the particles is o. In comparing cause of
the different values of R, the part of the resistance this differ*
which varies as the square of the velocity, all the par-e3ice*
tides are supposed to have a velocity equal to that of
the cylinder ; but as it is only the particles which touch
the cylinder that have this velocity, it follows that the
augmentation of the diameter necessary for finding R
must be less than the augmentation necessary for find¬
ing Relation
235. In determining experimentally the part of theJ^YSt-
monieutum of resistance proportional to the velocity, byanCeand
two cylinders of the same diameter, but of different the diame-
lengths, M. Coulomb found that this momentum wasters °/lhe
proportional 0Jli“d“'
ikiilt
jpret
!W
Mi
iilti m
iitil
( tap.
in the
J ;istnnce
fluids.
I 1 renst-
a|! of a/
o n ev¬
il er.
Unit of
t pieced-
ii eicperi-
n ts
» n made
Mil.
nr. h y d it o d
proportional to the third power of their lengths. The
same re.-ult may he deduced from theory ; for supposing
each cylinder divided into any number of parts, the
length of each part will he proportional to the whole
length. The velocity of the corresponding parts will
he as these lengths, and also as the distance of the same
parts from the centre of rotation. The theory likewise
proves, that the {nomenturn of resistance depending on
the square of the velocity, in two cylinders of the
same diameter but of different lengths, is proportional
to the fourth power of the length of the cylinder.
236. When the cylinder 0.9803 inches in length, and
0.04409 inches in circumference, was made to oscillate
in the fluid with a velocity of 5.51 inches per second,
the part of the resistance r was equal to 58 milligrammes,
or .8932 troy grains. And when the velocity was
O.3937 inches per second, the resistance r was 0.00414
grammes, or 0.637 troy grains.
237. The preceding experiments were also made in
the oil formerly mentioned ; and it likewise appeared,
from their results, that the mutual adhesion of the
particles of oil was to the mutual adhesion of the par¬
ticles of water as 17 to 1. But though this be the
case, M. Coulomb discovered that the quantity by
which the radii of the cylinder must be augmented in
order to have the resistance r, is the very same as when
the cylinder oscillated in water. This result w'as very
unexpected, as the greater adhesion between the parti¬
cles of oil might have led us to anticipate a much
greater augmentation. When the cylinders oscillated
both in oil and water with the same velocity, the part
of the resistance R produced by the inertia of the fluid
particles which the cylinder put in motion, was almost
Y N A M I C S. 76
the same in both. As this part of the resistance depends On tle-
on the quantity of particles put in motion, and not on kesiNtance
their adhesion, the resistances due to the inertia of the ol fr|ui<is-
particles will be in different fluids as their densities. v "! f
238. In a subsequent memoir Coulomb proposes to Coulomb
determine numerically the part of the resistance pro promises to
portional to the square of the velocity, and to ascertain exU?rid
the resistance of globes with plain, convex, and concave
surfaces. He has found in general that the resistance sistance of
of bodies not entirely immersed in the fluid is much fluids,
greater than that of bodies which are wholly immersed ;
and he promises to make farther experiments upon this
point. We intended on the present occasion to have
given the reader a more complete view of the research¬
es of this ingenious philosopher; but these could not
well be understood without a knowledge of bis investi¬
gations respecting the force of torsion, which we have
not yet had an opportunity of communicating. In the
article Mfxhanics, however, we shall introduce the
reader to this interesting subject ; and may afterwards
have an opportunity of making him farther acquainted
with those researches of Coulomb, of which we have at
present given only a general view.
239. The subject of the resistance of fluids has been Rejearches,
recently treated by the learned Dr Hutton of Woolwich.of Hut-
His experiments were made in air, with bodies of vari-toil'
ous forms, moving with different velocities, and inclined
at various angles to the direction of their motion. Thfe ,
following table contains the results of many interesting
experiments. The numbers in the 9th column represent
the exponents of the power of the velocity which the
resistances in the 8th column bear to each other.
Table I. She wing the Resistance of Hemispheres, Cones, Cylinders, and Globes, in different Positions, and
moving with different Velocities.
Velocity per se¬
cond.
Feet.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
*3
15
16
17
18
19
20
Small he¬
misphere,
inches
lia flat side.
Mean proporti¬
onal numbers.
Ounces av,
.028
.048
.072
.103
.141
.184
•233
.287
•349
.418
•49 2
•573
.661
•754
.853
•959
I*°73
1.196
Large hemisphere £•§
inches diameter.
Flat side.
I40
Ounces av
.OJI
.096
.148
.211
.284
.368
.464
•573
.698
.836
.988
i-i54
^336
i-538
i-757
1.928
2.998
2.542
R. und side,
288
Ounces av.
.020
•°39
.063
.092
.123
.160
.199
.242
.292
•347
•4°9
•478
•552
•634
722
.818
.921
I-°33
Cone inches diameter
Vertex.
119
Vol. X. Part ii.
Ounces av.
.028
.048
.oyi
.098
.129
.168
.211
.260
•3l5
•376
.440
.512
•589
•$73
.762
•858
•959
1.069
126
Base.
Ounces av.
.064
.109
.162
.22C
.298
.382
.478
•587
.712
.850
1.000
1.166
1.346
!.546
1.763
2 002
2.260
2.540
Cylinder Cfl
inches dia¬
meter.
29I
Ounces av.
.050
.090
•J43
.20C
.278
.360
•456
•565
.688
.826
•979
I,I45
J-327
1.526
J-745
1.986
2.246
2.528
G’obe
inches dia¬
meter.
Power of the vcl
to which the re-
dstance is prepor
tional.
285
Ounces av,
.027
.047
.068
.094
^62
.205
•255
.310
•37°
•435
•5°5
.581
.663
•752
.848
•949
1-057
■ 124
2.052
2.042
2.036
2.031
2.031
2.033
2.038
2.044
2.047
2.051
2.040
From
762
On the 240. From the preceding experiments we may draw
Resistance the following conclusions: 1. That the resistance is near-
of Fluids. ]y proportional to the surfaces, a small increase taking
F -"ftsTf P^ace when the surfaces and the velocities are great,
the pieced- 2- The resistance to the same surface moving with difier-
jpg experiment velocities, is nearly as the square ot the velocity ;
meats. but it appears from the pth column that the exponent
increases with the velocity. 3. The round and sharp ends
of solids sustain a greater resistance than the flat ends
of the same diameter. 4. The resistance to the. base of
the hemisphere is to the resistance on the convex side,
or the whole sphere, as 2y to 1, instead of 2 to 1, as
given by theory. 5. The resistance on the base of the
cone is to the resistance on the vertex nearly as 2rV to
I j and in the same ratio is radius to the sine of half
the angle at the vertex. Hence in this case the resist¬
ance is directly as the sine of the angle of incidence,
the transverse section being the same. 6. The resistance
of the base of a hemisphere, the base of a cone, and the
base of a cylinder, are all different, though these bases
be exactly equal and similar.
241. The following table contains the resistance sus¬
tained by a globe 1.965 *nches in diameter. The fourth
column is the quotient of the resistance by experiment,
divided by the theoretical resistance.
Part II,
242. It appears from a comparison of the 2d, 3d, and y., jj)e
4th columns, that when the velocity is small the re- Rekisuw*
sistance by experiment is nearly equal to that deduced ol fluids,
from theory •, but that as the velocity increases, the
former gradually exceeds the latter till the velocity is
1300 feet per second, when it becomes twice as great.
The difference between the two resistances then in¬
creases, and reaches its maximum between the veloci¬
ties of 1600 and 1700 feet. It afterwards decreases
gradually as the velocity increases, and at the velocity
of 2000 the resistance by experiment is again double
of the theoretical resistance.—By considering the num¬
bers in column 5th it will he seen, that in slow motions
the resistances are nearly as the squares of the velocities;
that this ratio increases gradually, though not regularly,
till at the velocity of 1500 or 1600 feet it arrives at its
maximum. It then gradually diminishes as the velo¬
city increases.
Conclusions similar to these were deduced from ex¬
periments made with globes of a larger size.
243. The following table contains the resistance of a
plane inclined at various angles, according to experi¬
ment, and according to a formula deduced from the
experiments.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Experi¬
ments with
a globe
i.9tf5
inches in
diameter.
Table II. Containing the Resistance to a Globe 1.965
Inches in Diameter, moving with various Velocities,
according to Theory and Experiment.
Table III. Containing the Resistances to a Plane in¬
clined at various Angles to the Line of its Motion.
Velocity
of the
Globe
per se
cond.
b'eet.
5
10
20
25
30
40
5°
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
ioqo
IIQO
1200
I3Q0
I4OO
1500
1600
1700
1800
I9OO
2000
Itesjstance by
experiment.
Oz. avoir.
0.006
O.0245
O.O55
0.100
0-157
0.23
0.4 2
O.67
2.72
II
25
45
72
107
I5I
20 c
271
35°-
442.
546
661
7%
916
1 act
1186
l3l9
*447
Resist¬
ance b y
theory.
Oz. avoir
O.OO5
0.020
O.044
O.079
0-i23
0.177
0.314
0.491
1.964
7*9
18.7
3i 4
49
71
96
126
<59
196
238
283
[332
385.
442
503
568
636
709-
786
tCatio be¬
tween the
experimental
and theoreti¬
cal resistance
1.20
1.23
1.25
1.27
1.28
1.3°
i-33
1.36
1.38
1.40
I*4L
1-43
1,47
l-57
1.63
1.70
1,78
1.86
1.90
1.99
2.04
2.07
2.09
2.08
2.07
1 2.04
2.00
4
Lower of the
velocity to
which the re
sistance is pro¬
portional.
2.022
2.O59
2.068
2-075
2.O59
2.04I
2.039
2.039
2.O44
2.O5I
2.059
2.067
2.077
2.086
2.O95
2.102
2.107
2.111
2.II3
2.112
2.111
2.108
2.104
2.098
Inclination
of the plane
Degrees,
O
5
IO
J5
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
6o
65
70
75
80
85
90
tesistances by
experiment
Oz. avoir.
.000
.015
.044
.082
-l33
.200
.278
.362
.448
•534
.619
.684
.729
.770
.803
.823
.835
•839
.840
Resistances by
the lormala
0.845*- 84V.
Oz. avoir.
.000
.009
•035
.076
'l3*
.199
.278
•363
•45°
•535
.613
.680
•73^
•778
.808
.826
.836
•839
.840
Sines of the
angles to ra¬
dius .S40.
.000
•°73
.146
.217
.287
•355
.420
.482
•540
•594
•643
.688
•727
.761
.789
.811
.827
.838
.840
244. The plane with which the preceding experiments
were performed was 32 square inches, and always mo¬
ved with a velocity of 12 feet per second. The resist¬
ances which this plane experienced are contained in
column 2d. From the numbers in that column Dr
Hutton deduced the formula .84$*,84V, where s is the
sine, and c is the cosine of the angles of inclination in the
first column. The resistances computed from this for¬
mula are contained in column 3d, and agree very near-
]y
hap. III.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
763
in the ly the resistances deduced from experiment. The
sistance 4th column contains the sines of the angles in the first
Fluids, column to a radius .84, in order to compare them with
the resistances which have obviously no relation either
to the sines of the angles or to any power of the sines.
From the angle of o to about 6o° the resistances are
less than the sines j but from 6o° to 90° they are some¬
what greater.
■sesrelics 245. The experiments of Mr Vince were made with
Mr bodies at a considerable depth below the surface of wa-
nce‘ ter ; and he determined the resistance which they expe¬
rienced, both when they moved in the fluid at rest, and
when they received the impulse, of the moving fluid.
In the experiments contained in the following table,
the body moved in the fluid with a velocity of 0.66
feet in a second. The angles at which the planes
struck the fluid are contained in the first column.
termina-Xhe second column shews the resistance by experiment
a of die jn t^e 4;rection 0f their motion in troy ounces. The
eu the third column exhibits the resistance by theory, the per-
jy mo- pendicular distance being supposed the same as by ex-
l in the periment. The fourth column shews the power of the
;i* sine of the angle to which the resistance is proportional,
and was computed in the following manner. Let 0 be
the sine of the angle, radius being I, and r the resist¬
ance at that angle. Suppose r to vary as sn, then we
r ; hence = , and
have r”
10-2321
Log. r-
-Log. 0.2321
0.2321
therefore m— —  s    —, and by substi-
Log. s
tuting their corresponding values, instead of 7’ and s we
shall have the values of m or the numbers in the fourth
column.
Table IV. Containing the Resistance of a Rlane Sur¬
face moving in a Fluid, and placed at different
Angles to the Rath oj its Motion.
Angle of
inclination.
Degrees.
10
20
3°
40
50
60
70
80
90
Resistance by
experiment.
Troy ounces
0.0X12
O.O364
0.0769
O.II74
O.I552
O.1902
0.21 25
O.2237
O.232I
Resistance by
theory.
Troy ounces.
0.001 2
O.OO93
O.O29O
O.0616
O.IO43
O.I476
O.I926
0.2217
O.232I
Power of the sine
of the angle to
which the resist¬
ance is propor¬
tional.
Exjkoinnts.
i-73
I-73
I-54
i-54
I*5I
1.38
1.42
2 41
246. According to the theory the resistance should
vary as the cube of the sine, whereas from an angle of 90°
it decreases in a less ratio, but not as any constant power,
nor as any function of the sine and cosine. Hence the
actual resistance always exceeds that which is deduced
from theory, assuming the perpendicular resistance to be
the same. The cause of this difference is partly owing
to our theory neglecting that part of the force which Oscillation
after resolution acts parallel to the plane, hut which ac- of Fluids,
cording to experiments is really a part of the force which
acts upon the plane. v lJ
247. Mr Vince made also a number of experiments Experi-
on the resistance of hemispheres, globes, and cylinders, mtmts with
which moved with a velocity of 0.542 feet per second.
He found that the resistance to the spherical side of ao|0bes'and
hemisphere was to the resistance on its base as 0.034 is cylinders,
to 0.08339 j that the resistance of the flat side of a
hemisphere was to the resistance of a cylinder of the
same diameter, and moving with the same velocity, as
0.08339 is to 0.07998 j and that the resistance to a
complete globe is to the resistance of a cylinder of the
same diameter, and with the same velocity, as 1 : 2.23.
248. The following results were obtained, when the Determina-
plane was struck by the moving fluid. The 2d column tion of the
of the following table contains the resistance by experi-re|Slsta"oc
ment, and the 3d column the resistance by theory from j)0C,v‘ -s
the perpendicular force, supposing it to vary as the sine struck by
of the inclination. the moving
fluid.
Table V. Containing the Resistance of a Plane struck
by the Fluid in Motion, and inclined at different
Angles to the direction of its Path.
Angle of
incliiiHtion.
Degrees-
90
80
70
60
5°
40
30
20
10
Resistance by
experiment.
Oz. dwts. grs.
17
J7
15
12
18
4
18
12
6
12
o
12
12
10
10
18
12
4
Resistance by
theory.
Oz. dwts, grs.
I 17 12
16 22
r5 6
12 II
18 17
4 2
18 18
12 19
6 12
249. It appears from the preceding results, that the
resistance varies as the sine of the angle at which the
fluid strikes the plane, the difl’erence between theory
and experiment being such as might he expected from
the necessary inaccuracy of the experiments.
By comparing the preceding table with Table IV.
it will be found that the resistance of a plane moving .
in a fluid is to the resistance of the same plane when
struck by the fluid in motion as 5 to 6. In both these
cases the actual effect on the plane must be the same,
and therefore the difference in the resistance can arise
only from the action of the fluid behind the body in
the former case.
Chap. IV. On the Oscillation of Fluids, and the
Undulation of Waves.
Prop. I.
250. The oscillations of water in a syphon, con-0n tjie os
sisting of two vertical branches and a horizontal dilation of
one, are isochronous, and have the same dura-waler in »
tion ‘W1'011,
HYDRODYNAMICS.
tion as the oscillations of a pendulum, whose
length is equal to half the length of the oscilla¬
ting column of water.
Part II. IClia
Into the tube MNOP, having its internal diame¬
ter everywhere the same, introduce a quantity of water.
When the water is in equilibrio, the two surfaces AB,
CD will be in the same horizontal line AD. If this
equilibrium be disturbed by making the syphon oscil¬
late round the point y, the water will rise and fall al¬
ternately in the vertical branches after the syphon is at
rest. Suppose the water to rise to EF in the branch
MO, it will evidently fall to GH in the other
branch, so that CG is equal to AE. Then it is evi¬
dent, that the force which makes the water oscillate,
is the weight of the column EFKL, which is double
the column EABF; and that this force is to the
whole weight of the water, as 2AE is to AOPD.
Tig'. 3. Now, let P be a pendulum, whose length is equal to
half the length of the oscillating column AOPD, and
which describes to the lowest point S arches PS, equal
to AE 5 then 2AE : AOPDrzAE : QP, because AE
is one-half of 2AE, and QP one-half of AOPD.
Consequently, since AOPD is a constant quantity, the
force which makes the water oscillate is always propor¬
tional to the space which it runs through, and its oscil¬
lations are therefore isochronous. The force which
makes the pendulum describe the arch PS, is to the
weight of the pendulum as PS is to PQ, or as AE is
to PQ,, since AE=PS ; but the force which makes the
water oscillate, is to the weight of the whole water in
the same ratio; consequently, since the pendulum P,
and the column AOPD, are influenced by the very
same force, their oscillations must be performed in the
same time. Q. E. D.
251. Cor. As the oscillations of water and of pen¬
dulums are regulated by the same laws, if the oscillat¬
ing column of water is increased or diminished, the
time in which the oscillations are performed will in¬
crease or diminish in the subduplicate ratio of the
.length of the pendulum.
Scholium.
252. This subject has been treated in a general man¬
ner, by Newton and different philosophers, who have
shewn how to determine the time of an oscillation,
whatever be the form of the syphon. See the Principia,
iib. li. Prop. 45, 46. Bossut’s Traite (Pllydrodyna-
micjiie, tom. i. Notes sur let Chap. II. Part II. Per-
noudh Opera, tom. hi. p. 125. and Encyclopedia, art.
Ondes.
On the un-
d«!atioti of
waves.
Fig 4.
Prop. II.
253. The undulations of waves are performed in
the same time as the oscillations of a pendulum
whose length is equal to the breadth of a wave,
or to the distance between two neighbouring
cavities or eminences.
In the waves A B C D E F, the undulations are
performed in such a manner, that the highest parts
A, C, E become the lowest; and as the force which
2
depresses the eminences A, C, E, is always the weight Oscillation
of water contained in these eminences, it is obvious, ofFiaids
that the undulations of waves are of the same kind as &«.
the undulations or oscillations of water in a syphon. It
follows, therefore, from Prop. I. that if we take a
pendulum, whose length is one-half BM, or half the
distance between the highest and lowest parts of the
wave, the highest parts of each wave will descend to
the lowest parts during one oscillation of the pendulum,
and in the time of another oscillation will again be¬
come the highest parts. The pendulum, therefore, will
perform two oscillations in the time that each wave
performs one undulation, that is, in the time that each
wave describes the space AC or BD, between two
neighbouring eminences or cavities, which is called the
breadth of the wave. Now it a pendulum, whose length
is one-half BM, performs two oscillations in the above
time, it will require a pendulum four times that length
to perform only one oscillation in the same time, that
is, a pendulum whose length is AC or BD, since 4X7
BM=2BM=AC or BD. Q. E. D.
Scholium.
254. The explanation of the oscillation of waves con¬
tained in the two preceding propositions, was first given
by Sir Isaac Newton, in his Principia, lib. ii. Prop. 44,
He considered it only as an approximation to the truth,
since it supposes the waves to rise and fall perpendicu¬
larly like the water in the vertical branches of the sy¬
phon, while their real motion is partly circular. The
theory of Newton was, nevertheless, adopted by suc¬
ceeding philosophers, and gave rise to many analogous
discussions respecting the undulation of waves. Very Xew theory
lately, however, an attempt has been made by M. Flau-of the for-'
gergues, to overturn the theory of Newton. From &niation of
number of experiments on the motion and figure 0|'wave*by
waves, an account of which may he seen in the/owrwo/^j.^'
des Sfavans, for October 1789, M. Flaugergues con-'"’ °
eludes, that a wave is not the result of a motion in the
particles of water, by which they ascend and descend
alternately in a serpentine line, when moving from the
place where the water received the shock ; but that it
is an intumescence which this shock occasions around
the place where it is received, by the depression that
is there produced. This intumescence afterwards
propagates itself circularly, while it removes from
the place where the shock first raised it above the
level of the stagnant water. A portion of the stagnant
water then flows from all sides into the hollow formed
at the place where the shock was received ; this hollow
is thus heaped with fluid, and the water is elevated so
as to produce all around another intumescence, or a new
wave, which propagates itself circularly as before.
The repetition of this effect produces on the surface of
the water a number of concentric rings, successively
elevated and depressed, which have the appearance of
an undulatory motion. This interesting subject has
also been discussed by M. La Grange, in Ins Mecha-
nique Analytiqve, to which we must refer the reader
for farther information. See also some excellent re¬
marks on this subject, in Mr Leslie’s Essay on Heat,
p. 223. and note 29.
Fiiei
«Ui 0
Inier-
tkeis.
Jsienp
<(ia 01
iot-wli
Plan
fix
PART
HYDRODYNAMICS.
I lap. I.
< Water-
wheels.
PART III. ON HYDRAULIC MACHINERY.
765
On Water-
Wheels.
] Iran lie 255. TO describe the various machines in which
i ihmes. Water is the impelling power, would be an endless and
unprofitable task. Those machines which can be dri-
ven by wind, steam, and the force of men or horses, as
well as they can be driven by water, do not properly
belong to the science of hydraulics. By hydraulic ma¬
chinery, therefore, we are to understand those various
contrivances by which water can be employed as the
impelling power of machinery ; and those machines
which are employed to raise water, or which could not
operate without the assistance of that fluid.
Chap. I. On Heater-Wheels.
1 erent 256. Water-WHEELS are divided into three kinds,
1 3s of overshot-wheels, breast-wheels, and undershot-wheels,
’ which derive their names from the manner in which the
' e18, water is delivered upon their circumferences.
Sect. I. On Overshot-Wheels.
J cription 257. An overshot-wheel is a wheel driven by the
c n over- weight of water, conveyed into buckets disposed on its
* j]W['ee*’ circumference* It is represented in fig. 5. where ABC
LXIX circum^erence °f the wheel furnished with a num-
ig. 1. ' ^er °f buckets. The canal MN conveys the water in¬
to the second bucket from the top A <7. The equili¬
brium of the wheel is therefore destroyed j and the
power of the bucket A to turn the wheel round its
centre of motion O, is the same as if the weight of the
water in the bucket were suspended at zs, the extremi¬
ty of the lever O m, c being the centre of gravity of
the bucket, and O a perpendicular let fall from the
fulcrum O to the direction cm, in which the force is
exerted. In consequence of this destruction of equili¬
brium, the wheel will move round in the direction AB,
the bucket A a will be at d, and the empty bucket b
will take the place of A a, and receive water from the
spout N. The force acting on the wheel is now the
water in the bucket d acting with a lever « O, and
the water in the bucket A a acting with a lever m O.
The velocity of the wheel will therefore increase with
the number of loaded buckets, and with their distance
from the vertex of the wheel ; for the lever by which
they tend to turn the wheel about its axis, increases as
the buckets approach to c, where their power, repre¬
sented by e O, is a maximum. After the buckets have
passed e, the lever by which they act gradually dimi¬
nishes, thev lose by degrees a small portion of their wa¬
ter j and as soon as they reach B it is completely dis¬
charged. When the wheel begins to move, its velocity
will increase rapidly till the quadrant of buckets b e is
completely filled. While these buckets are descending
through the inferior quadrant e P, and the buckets on
the left band of b are receiving water from the spout,
the velocity of the wheel will still increase j but the in¬
crements of velocity will be smaller and smaller, since the
levers by which the inferior buckets act are gradually
diminishing. As soon as the highest bucket A c has
reached the point B where it is emptied, the whole se¬
micircumference nearly of the wheel is loaded with wa¬
ter j and when the bucket at B is discharging its con¬
tents, the bucket at A is filling, so that the load in
the buckets, by which the wheel is impelled, will be
always the same, and the velocity of the wheel will be¬
come uniform.
258. In order to find the power of the loaded arch Method of
to turn the wheel, or, which is the same thing, to find compudng
a weight which suspended at the opposite extremity C, l^e )n0*
will balance the loaded arch or keep it in equilibrio, thTwater^
we must multiply the weight of water in each bucketin the load-
by the length of the virtual lever by which it acts,edarch-
and take the sum of all these momenta for the momen¬
tum of the loaded arch. It will be much easier, how¬
ever, and the result will be the same, if we multiply
the weight of all the water on the arch AB, by the
distance of its centre of gravity G, from the fulcrum
or centre of motion O. Now, by the property of the
centre of gravity (see Mechanics), the distance of the.
centre of gravity of a circular arch from its centre, is a
fourth proportional to half the arch, the radius, and the
sine of half the arch. Since the vertical bucket b has no
power to turn the wheel if it were filled, and since two
or three buckets between B and P are always empty, we
may safely suppose that the loaded arch never exceeds
l6o°, so that if R, zr radius of the wheel in feet, we
shall have the length of hall the loaded arch, or 8n°—
2 B X X X 1*396 ; and the distance of
the centre of gravity from the fulcrum O, =GO—
R X Sin, 8o°
Now, if N be the number of buckets
160 N 4N
KX 1.396
in the wheel —  , or ——, will be the number of
360 9
buckets in the loaded arch ; and if G be the number
of ale gallons contained in each bucket, the weight
of the water in each bucket will be I.02XG pounds
avoirdupois. The weight of the water, therefore, in
4 N
the loaded arch, will be — X 10.2 G, and conse-
, t 9
quentiy the momentum of the loaded arch will be ~
4^ r< R X Sin. 8o° 4N
T X~Kx..396 = X10.20x0.6338
4 N
— —^— X 6.465 G pounds avoirdupois. Hence, we
have the following rule : Multiply the constant number
6.465 by 4 of the number of buckets in the wheel, and
this pioduct by the number of ale gallons in each buc¬
ket; and the result will be the effective weight, or mo¬
mentum of the water in the loaded arch. For a de¬
scription of the best form that can be given to the buc¬
kets, see the article WATER-Works. Hr Robison has
there recommended a mode of constructing the buckets
invented by Mr Burns, who divided each bucket into
two by means of a partition ; but the writer of this
article is assured, on the authority of an ingenious mill¬
wright, who wrought with Mr Burns at the time
when wheels of this kind were constructed, that the
inner bucket is never filled with water, and that much
of the power is thus lost. The partition prevents the
introduction
7 66
On Water
Wheels.
Oa the dia
meter of
overfhot-
w heels re¬
latively to
the height
of the fall.
Diameter* of
the Cylinders.
On the pro¬
per velocity
pfovers})ot-
wlieels.
Experi¬
ments of
,I>«parcieux
ott the ve-
loaity of
orershot-
wheels.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
. Introtlnction of tlie fluid, and the water is driven back¬
wards bv the escape of the included air.
259. In the construction of overshot-wheels, it is of
'great importance to determine what should be the dia¬
meter of the wheel relatively to the height of the fall.
It is evident that its diameter cannot exceed the height
of the fall. Some mechanical writers have demonstra¬
ted that, in theory, an overshot-wheel will produce a
maximum effect when its diameter is two-thirds of that
height, the water being supposed to fall into the buck¬
ets with the velocity of the wheel. But this rule is
palpably erroneous, and directly repugnant to the results
of experiment. For if the height of the fall be 48 feet,
the diameter of the wheel will, according to this rule,
he 32 feet j and the water having to fall through 16
feet before it reaches the buckets, will have a velocity
of 32 feet per second, which, according to the hypo¬
thesis, must also be the velocity of the wheel’s circum¬
ference. But Smeaton has proved, that a maximum ef¬
fect is produced by an overshot-wheel of any diameter,
when its velocity is only three feet per second. The
chevalier de Bor da lias shewn, that overshot-wheels
will produce a maximum effect when their diameter is
equal to the height of the fall ; and this is completely
confirmed by Mr Smeaton’s experiments. From a
great number of trials, Mr Smeaton has concluded,
“ that the higher the wheel is in proportion to the
whole descent, the greater will be the effect.” Nor is
it difficult to assign the reason of this. The water
which is conveyed into the buckets can produce very
little effect by its impulse, even if its velocity be great ;
both on account of the obliquity with which it strikes
the buckets, and in consequence of the loss of water
occasioned by a considerable quantity of the fluid being
dashed over their sides. Instead, therefore, of expect¬
ing an increase of effect from the impulse of the water
occasioned by its fall through one-third of the whole
height, we should allow it to act through this height
by its gravity, and therefore make the diameter of the
wheel as great as possible. But a disadvantage attends
even this rule ; for if the water is conveyed into the
buckets without any velocity, which must be the case
when the diameter of the wheel equals the height of
the fall, the velocity of the wheel will be retarded by
the impulse of the buckets against the water, and much
power would be lost by the water dashing over them.
In order, therefore, to avoid all inconveniences, the
distance of the spout from the receiving bucket should,
in general, be about two or three inches, that the wa¬
ter may he delivered with a velocity a little greater
than that of the wheel j or, in other words, the diame¬
ter of an overshot-wheel should be two or three inches
less than the greatest height of the fall 5 and yet it is
no uncommon thing to see the diameters of these wheels
scarcely one-half ot that height. In such a construction
the loss of power is prodigious.
26c. The proper velocity of overshot-wheels is a sub¬
ject on which mechanical writers have entertained dif¬
ferent sentiments. While some have maintained that
there is a certain velocity which produces a maximum
effect, Deparcieux has endeavoured to prove by a set
of ingenious experiments that most work is performed
by an overshot-wheel when it moves slowly, and that
the more its motion is retarded by increasing the work
to be performed, the greater will he the performance
3
Part III.
of the wheel. In these experiments he employed a small Qn
wheel, 20 inches in diameter, having its circumference WimU
furnished with 48 buckets. On the centre or axle of this' —-v——
wheel were placed 4 cylinders of different diameters,
the first being 1 inch in diameter, the second 2 inches,
the third 3 incites, and the fourth 4 inches. When
the experiments are made, a cord is attached to one of
the cylinders, and after passing over a pulley a weight
is suspended at its other extremity. By moving the
wheel upon its axis, the cord winds round the cylinder
and raises the weight. In order to diminish the fric¬
tion, the gudgeons of the wheel are supported by two
friction rollers, and before the wheel, a little higher
than its axis, is placed a small table which supports a
vessel filled with water, having an orifice in the side
next the wheel. Above this vessel is placed a large
bottle full of water and inverted, having its mouth im¬
mersed a few lines in the water, so that it empties it¬
self in proportion as the water in the vessel is dischar¬
ged from the orifice. The quantity of water thus dis¬
charged is always the same, and is conveyed from the
orifice by means of a canal to the buckets of the wheel.
With this apparatus he obtained the following x'esults.
Inches.
1
2
3
4
Altitude through
which 12 ounces
were elevated.
Indies.
69
80
85
87
.Lines.
I
6
9
Altitude through
which 24 ounces
were elevated.
Inches. Lines.
40
43
44
45
261. When the large cylinders were used, the velo¬
city of the wheel was smaller, because the resistances
are proportional to their diameter, the weight being the
same. Hence, it appears, by comparing the four re-j^(.su!ls 0f
suits in column 2d with one another, and also the four the prece-
results in column 3d, that when the wheel turns more ding-cxpe-
slowly, the effect, which is in this case measured by the nmc,lts'
elevation of the weight, always increases. When the
weight of 24 ounces was used, the resistance was twice
as great, and the velocity twice as slow, as when the
12 ounce weight was employed. But by comparing
the results in column 2d with the corresponding results
in column 3d, it appears, that when the 24 ounce
weight was employed, and the velocity was only one-
half of what it was when the 12 ounce weight was used,
the effect was more than onc-ha/f, the numbers in the
3d column being more than one-half the numbers in
the 2d. Hence we may conclude, that the slower an
overshot-wheel moves, the greater will he its perform-An over-
shot-wheel
anGe* “ ()ore
262. These experiments of Deparcieux presented such W(Jt|: t])e
unexpected results, as to induce other philosophers to ex-slower it
amine them with care. The chevalier d’Arcy, in par-moves,
ticular, considered them attentively. He maintained
that there was a determinate velocity when the effect
of the wheel reached its maximum; and he has shewn, that t!>,!r®
by comparing the experiments of Deparcieux with his is a veloo*-
own formulte, that the overshot-wheel which Depar-17
cieux employed never moved with such a small veloci-
ty as corresponded with the maximum effect, and that effect.
if
( an. I. HYDRODYNAMICS. 767
C \Wer-*^,e ^ia<^ inereaseil tlie diameter of his cylinders, or the
heels, magnitude of the weights, his own experiments would
e -v—^ have exhibited the degree of velocity, when the effect
was the greatest possible.
HI opinion 263. The reasoning of the chevalier d’Arcy is com-
, i rmed pletely confirmed by the experiments of Smeaton. This
t>. je ex- celebrated engineer concludes with Deparcieux that, cce-
mnts teris paribus, the less the velocity of the wheel, the
* ica °n’ greater will be its effect. But he observes, on the con¬
trary, that when the wheel of his model made about
30 turns in a minute, the effect was nearly the greatest j
when it made 30 turns, the effect was diminished about
one-twentieth part j and that when it made 40 it was
diminished about one-fourth j when it made less than
18J turns, its motion was irregular, and when it was
loaded so that it could not make 18 turns, the wheel
was overpowered by its load. Mr Smeaton likewise
observes, that when the circumferences of overshot
wheels, whether high or low, move with the velocity
of three feet per second, and when the other parts
of the woik are properly adapted to it, they will pro¬
duce the greatest possible effect. He allows, however,
that high wheels may deviate farther from this rule be¬
fore losing their power than low ones can be permitted
to do *, and assures us that he has seen a wheel 24 feeton Water-
high moving at the rate of six feet per second, without Wheels,
losing any considerable part of its power, and likewise * ' 1 ^
a wheel 33 feet high moving very steadily and well
with a velocity but little exceeding two feet.
264. The experiments of the abbe Bossut may also And also
he brought forward in support of the same reasoning.by the rx-
He employed a wheel 3 feet in diameter, furnished with^1^*®”1*
48 buckets, having each three inches of depth, and four
inches of width. The canal which conveyed the wa¬
ter into the buckets was perfectly horizontal, and was
five inches wide. It furnished uniformly 1194 cu¬
bic inches of water in a minute. The resistance to be
overcome was a variety of weights fixed to the extre¬
mity of a cord, which, after passing over a pulley as in
Deparcieux’s experiments, winded round the cylindrical
axle of the wheel. The diameter of this cylinder was
two inches and seven lines, and that of the gudgeons
or pivots of the wheel two lines and a half. The num¬
ber of turns which the wheel made in a minute was
not reckoned till its motion became uniform, which al¬
ways happened when it had performed five or six revo¬
lutions. When the wheel was unloaded it made 40^
turns in a minute.
Number
of pounds
raised
II
1 2
l3
*4
15
16
17
18
20
Number ol
seconds in
which the
load was
raised.
Number of
revolutions
performed by
the wheel.
T T4<t
II
60"
60
60
60
60
60
60
6°
The wheel turned but ex¬
ceedingly slow.
The wheel stopped though
first put in motion by
the hand to make it
catch the water.
9lir
8 A
7lt
Effect of the
wheel, or the pro.
duct of the num
her of turns mul¬
tiplied by the
load.
13411-
13^7
i37tI
i3^A
139A
138
265. It appears evidently from the last column,
which we have computed on purpose, that the effect in¬
creases as the velocity diminishes ; but that the effect
is a maximum when the number of turns is 8/3- in a
minute, being then 139/^. Wl,ei1 the velocity was
farther diminished by adding an additional pound to
the resistance, the effect was diminished to 138,and when
the velocity was still less, the wheel ceased to move.
Now since the wheel was three feet in diameter,
and 9.42 feet in circumference, the velocity of its cir¬
cumference will he about one foot four inches per se¬
cond,, when it performs 84V turns in a minute, or when
the maximum effect is produced. With Mr Smeaton’s
model, the maximum effect was produced when the ve¬
locity of the wheel’s circumference was two feet per se¬
cond. So that the experiments both of Smeaton and
Bossut concur to prove, that the power of overshot
wheels increases as the velocity diminishes } but that,
there is a certain velocity, between one and two feet
per second, when the wheel produces a maximum effect.
Since when the wheel was unloaded it turned 40J
times in a minute, and performed only 8-3^ revolutions
when its power was a maximum, the velocity of the
wheel when unloaded will he to its velocity when the
effect is the greatest, as five to one, nearly.
266. The chevalier de Borda maintains that an over*Oa the ef-
shot wheel, will raise through the height of the fall a feet of
quantity of water equal to that by which it is driven, 0,er9b«*-
and Albert Euler has shewn that the effect of these w^1€e*t’
wheels is very much inferior to the momentum
or force which impels them. It appears, however,
from Mr Smeaton’s experiments, that when the work
performed was a maximum, the ratio of the power to ,
the effect was as four to three, when the height of the
fall,
768
HYDRODYNAMICS.
On Water-fall ami the quantities of water expended were the
Wheels, least j but that it was as four to two when the heights
L’ of the fall and the quantities discharged were the
greatest. By taking a mean between these ratio«, we
may conclude, in general, that in overshot wheels the
power is to the effect as three to one. In this case the
power is supposed to be computed from the whole
height of the fall; because the water must be raised to
that height in order to be in a condition of producing
the same effect a second time.. When the power of the
water is estimated only from the height of the wheel,
the ratio of the power to the effect was more constant,
being nearly as five to four.
Investiga- 267. The theory of overshot wheels has been ably
trons of Al-tjjscusge(j k Albert Euler, and Lambert. The former
bert Eider. - J
of these philosophers has shown that the altitude of the
Fart III,
wheel should be made as great as possible: that the On Water,
buckets should be made as capacious as other circum- Wheels,
stances will permit $ that their form should be such as —-
to convey the water as near the lowest point of the
wheel as can be conveniently done 5 and that the mo¬
tion of the wheel sjiould be slow, that the buckets may
be completely filled. He has likewise shown that the
effect of the wheel increases as its velocity is diminish¬
ed j and that overshot wheels should be used only when
there is a sufficient height of fall. The results of Lam- Results of
bert’s investigations are less consonant with the ex peri-Lambert’s
ments of Smeaton. By examining the following table, resea,,e'16!i’
which contains these results, it will appear at once that
he makes the diameter of the wheel much smaller than
it ought to he.
Table /or Overshot Mills.
Height of
the fall,
reckoning
from the sur
face of the
stream.
Feet.
7
8
9
10
11
12
Radius of the
wheel,
reckoning
from the
extremity of
the buckets.
Feet.
2.83
3.22
3- 63
4.04
4- 45
4.86
Width 0!
the
buckets.
Feet.
I.OO
1.14
I.27
0.43
°-57
0.71
Depth of
the
buckets.
Feet.
2.02
I.44
I.07
0.82
O.65
O.52
Velocity
of the
wheel pei
second.
Feet.
5-27
5 63
5-94
6.30
6.60
6.89
Time
in which
the wheel
performs
one re¬
volution
Seconds
3-3 8
3.61
3-83
4.04
4*23
4.42
Turns 0'
the mill¬
stone for
one of the
wheel.
F orce of
the water
upon the
buckets.
8,45
9.02
9-57
10.10
11.05
lbs. Avoir
636
595
565
531
511
486
8
The
length of
m. n, in
Fij. 6.
Plate
JCLXIX
Feet.
o-33
0.38
0.42
0.48
o. 52
o-57
The
length of
w, 0, in
Fig. 6.
Plate
CCLXIX.
F eet.
l-\S
1.32
1.48
1.65
1.81
1.98
i o
Quantity
of water
required
per second
to turn tlx
wheel.
dub. Feet
10*55
9>23
8.21
7-38
6.71
6.15
Description
af breast-
wheels.
Plate
GCLXIX.
Sg. 6.
Sect. II. On Breast Wheels.
268. A breast wheel partakes of the nature both of
an overshot and an undershot wheel, and is driven part¬
ly by the impulse, but chiefly by the weight of the
water. A water wheel of this kind is represented in
fig. 6. where MC is the stream of water falling on the
floatboard 0, with a velocity corresponding to the alti¬
tude m«, and afterwards acting by its weight on the
floatboards between 0 and B. The mill course 0 B is
made concentric with the wheel, which is fitted to it in
such a manner that very little water is allowed to es¬
cape at the sides and extremities of the floatboards.
According to Mr Smeaton, the effect of a wheel driven
in this manner is equal “ to the effect of an undershot
wheel whose head of water is equal to the difference of
level between the surface of water in the reservoir, and
the point where it strikes the wheel, added to that of
an overshot whose height is equal to the difference of
level between the point where it strikes the wheel and
the level of the tail water (m).” That is, the effect of
the wheel A is equal to that of an undershot w-heel
driven by a fall of water equal to mn, added to that of
an overshot wheel whose height is equal to n D.
269. Mr Lambert of the academy of sciences at Ber-Results of
lin (n) has shewn that when the floatboards arrive atihe imesti-
the position op% they ought to be horizontal: the pointgatl0.ns
p should be lower than 0, in order that the whole spaceJjam 6
between any two adjacent floatboards may be filled
with water $ and that C m should be equal to the depth
of the floatboards. He observes also, that a breast
wheel should be used when the fall of water is above
four feet in height, and below ten. The following
table is calculated from Lambert’s formulae, and exhi¬
bits at one view the results of his investigations.
Table
««!!
iibtes
•Hxi
(m) Smeaton on Mills, schol. p. 36.
(n) Nouv. Mem. de PAcademic de Berlin, 1775, p. 71.
hap. I. HYDRODYNAMICS.
Water-
Vliee!'.
k ‘ Table for Breast Mills.
769
Ob Water
Wheels
Height ef
the fall in
feet~CD,
fig. 6. Plate
CCJLXIX
of
Breadth
the float-
boards.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Feet.
O.17
°*34
0.51
0.69
0.86
1.03
1.20
i-37
i-54
1.71
Depth of
the float-
botu'd 4.
Feet.
198.6
35-i
12.7
6.2
3-57
2.25
I,53
1.10
0.81
0.79
Radius of the
water wheel
reckoned from
the extremity
of the float-
boards.
Feet*
°-75
1.50
2.26
3.01
3- 76
4- 51
5.26
6.02
6.77
7-52
Velocity
of the
wheel per
second
Feet
2.l8
3-°9
3- ?8
4- 36
4.88
5- 35
5- 77
6.17
6- 55
6.90
Time in
which the
wheel per¬
forms one
revolution
Seconds.
I.92
2.72
3-33
3*84
4.28
4.70
5.08
5*43
5-76
6.07
Turns of
the mill¬
stone for
one of tht
wheel
4.80
6.80
8.32
9.60
10.70
II.76
12.70
14.40
15.18
Force of
the water
upon the
float-
boards
lbs. Avoir.
i536
1084
886
768
686
626
581
543
5*2
486
8
The
length of
m, n, in
Fig. 6.
Plate
CCLXIX.
Feet.
O.08
O.I5
O.23
0.20
O.38
O.46
<M3
0.60
0.68
0.76
9
The
length of
n, 0, in
Fig. 6.
Plate
CCL.X1X.
Feel.
O.23
O.46
0.68
0.91
1.14
'•37
1.60
1.83
2.0 c
2.28
Water
required
per second
to turn the
wheel.
Cub. Feet
74-30
37-15
24.77
18.57
14.86
12.38
10.61
9.29
8.26
7-43
11
270. It appears from the preceding table, (bat when
the altitude of the fall of water is below three feet, there
is such an unsuitable proportion between the depth and
width of the floathoards, that a breast wheel cannot
well he employed. It is also evident, on the other hand,
that when the height of the fall approaches to ten feet,
the depth of the floatboards is too small in relation to
their width. These two extremes, therefore, ought to
be avoided in practice. The eleventh column of the
table contains the quantity of water necessary to drive
the wheel j hut the total quantity of water should al¬
ways exceed this, by the quantity, at least, that escapes
between the mill course and the sides and extremities
of the floatboards (o).
I eanons 271. The following are the dimensions of an excellent
u eTea5t kreast water wheel, differing very little from that which
‘late ‘s rRPresented in fig. 6. The water, however, instead of
1 LXIX. falling through the height cn which is 16 inches, is
delivered on the floathoard 0p, through an adjutage
six inches and a half high.—The height » D is four
feet two inches ; and therefore the whole height CD
must be five feet and a half. The radius of the wheel
AB is six feet and a half, the breadth of each float-
>. board six inches and a half, and their depth 28 inches.
The point 1J of the wheel moves with the velocity of
7.588 feet in a second. The quantity of water dis¬
charged in a second is 3.266 cubic feet, and the force of
impulsion upon the floatboards 356 pounds avoirdupois.
On some occasions buckets have been used in breast
wheels instead of floatboards ; hut this is evidently a
disadvantage, as the height through which the water
acts is diminished by the number of inches through
which the water must fall in order to acquire the velo¬
city of the wheel, and also by the versed sine of the
arch above the lowest point of the wheel which may be
considered as not loaded with water.
Sect. III. On Undershot Wheels.
272. An undershot wheel is a wheel with a number of^etcr,"ptiott
floatboards disposed on its circumference, which re.ofanu»-
ceive the impulse of the water conveyed to the lowest
point of the wheel by an inclined canal. It is repre- Plate
sented in fig. r. where WW is the water wheel, and CCJLXX.
ABDFHKMV the canal or mill course, which conveys f,S- x*
the water to K, where it strikes the plane floatboards
noy &c. and makes the wheel revolve about its axis.
273. In order toconstruct the mill course to thegreatest<~on*truc-
advantage, we must give but a very small declivity totion oftl,e
the canal which conducts the water from the river. It""11 cour8e*
will be sufficient to make AB slope about one inch in
200 yards, making the declivity, however, about half
an inch for the first 48 yards, in order that the water
may have sufficient velocity to prevent it from falling
back into the river. The inclination of the fall, re¬
presented by the angle GCK, should be 250 50', or
CR the radius should he to GR, the tangent of this an¬
gle, as 100 to 28, or as 25 to 12 ; and since the sur¬
face of the water S5 is bent from ab into a c before it
is precipitated down the fall, it will be necessary to in-
curvate the upper part BCD of the course into BD,
that the water in the bottom may move parallel to the
water at the suiface of the stream. lor this purpose
take the points B, D about 12 inches distant from C, and
raise the perpendiculars BE, DE. The point of inter¬
section E will he the centre from which the arch BD
is to be described ; the radius being about iox— inches.
Now, in order that the water may act more advanta¬
geously upon the floathoards of the wheel WW, it must
assume a horizontal direction, with the same velocity
which it would have acquired when it came to the point
G. But, if the water were allowed to fall from C to
G, it would dash upon the horizontal part HG, and
thus
(o) See Appendix to Ferguson’s Lectures, vol. ii. p. 189. edit. 2d.
Vol. X. Part II. f 5 E
770
On Water-thus lose a great part of its velocity. It will be neces-
Wheds. sarv,‘therefore, to make it move along FH, an arch of
11 v~' a circle to which DF and Ivfl are tangents in the
points F and H. For this purpose make GF and
OH each equal to three feet ; and raise the perpendi¬
culars HI, FI which will intersect one another in (he
point I, distant about four feet nine inches from the
points F and H, and the centre of the arch FH will he
determined. The distance HK, through which the w7a-
ter runs before it acts upon the wheel, should not be
less than two or three feet, in order that the different
filaments of the fluid may have attained a horizontal
direction. If HK were too large, the steam would
suffer a diminution of velocity by its friction on the bot¬
tom of the course. That no water may escape between
the bottom of the course KII and the extremities of the
floatboards, KL should he about three inches, and the
extremity o of the fioatboard no ought to reach below
the line FIKX, sufficient room being left between o and
M for the play of the wheel ; or KLM may he formed
into the arch of a circle KM concentric vvith the
wheel. The line LMV, which has been called the
course of impulsion, should be prolonged so as to sup¬
port the water as long as it can act upon the float-
hoards, and should he about nine inches distant from
OP, a horizontal line passing through O the lowest
point of the fall ; for il OL were much less than nine
inches, the water having spent the greatest part of its
force in impelling the floathoard, rvould accumulate
below the wheel, and retard its motion. For the same
reason another course, which has been called the course
of discharge, should he connected with LMV by the
curve VN to preserve the remaining velocity of the
water, which would otherwise be discharged by falling
perpendicularly from V to N. The course of dis¬
charge, which is represented by the line VZ, sloping
from the point O, should be about 16 yards long, ha¬
ving an inch of declivity for every two yards. The
canal which reconducts the water from the course of
discharge to the river should slope about four inches in
the first 200 yards, three inches in the second 200
yards, decreasing gradually till it terminates in the ri¬
ver. But if the river to which the water is conveyed
should, when swelled by the rains, force the water hack
upon the wheel, the. canal must have a greater declivi-
ty to prevent this from taking place. Hence it is evi¬
dent that very accurate levelling is requisite to the
proper formation of the mill course.
Plate As it is of great importance that none of the water
CXLXX. should escape either below the floatboards, or at their
*'»• sides, without contributing to turn the wheel, the course
of impulsion KY should be wider than the course atK,
as represented in fig. 2. where CD the course of impul¬
sion corresponds with LYT in fig. i. AB corresponds
with HK and BC with KL. The breadth of the float-
hoards therefore •should be wider than m n, and their
extremities should reach a little below B, like n o in
fig. i. When these precautions are properly taken,
no water can escape without exerting its force upon the
floatboards.
Part III.
273. It lias been disputed among philosophers, whe-On Water,
ther the wheel should be furnished with a small or Wheels,
a great number of floatboards. M. Pitot has shewn, —J
that when the floatboards have different degrees of ob-^" ^
liquity, the force of impulsion upon the different sur- floatbolir^
faces will he reciprocally as their breadths: Thus in in rnaer-
fig. 3. the force of impulsion upon he will he to the‘•hot wheels,
force upon DO, as DO to he (p). Hence be con-^ 3-
eludes that the distance between the floatboards should
he equal to one-half of the immersed arch, or that when
one floathoard is at the bottom of the wheel, and per¬
pendicular to the current, as DE, the preceding float-
hoard BC should be just leaving the stream, and the
succeeding one FG just immerging into it. For when Rule girea
the three floatboards FG, DE, BC have the same po-^
sition as in the figure, the whole force of the current
NM will act upon DE when it is in the most advan¬
tageous position for receiving it, whereas, if another
floathoard de were inserted between FG and DE, the
part tg would cover DO, and by thus substituting an
oblique for a perpendicular surface, the effect would he
diminished in the proportion of DO to ig. Hence it
is evident that, upon this principle, the depth of the
floathoard DE should be always equal to the versed
sine of the arch EG (q_).
274. Notwithstanding the plausibility of tin’s reason-P'^ved to
ing, it will not he difficult to shew that it is destitute b“ inaccu*
of foundation. It is evident from fig. 3. that when one
of the floatboards DE is perpendicular to the stream, it S' J,
receives the whole impulse of the water in the most
advantageous manner. But when it arrives at the po¬
sition de, and the succeeding one EG at the position
f g, sa that the angle e k g may he bisected by the
perpendicular AE ; the situation of these floatboards
will be the most disadvantageous, for a great part of
the water will escape between the extremities »• and e
of the floathoards without striking them, and the part ig
of the floathoard, which is really impelled, is less than
DE, and oblique to the current. The wheel, there¬
fore, must move irregularly, sometimes quick and some¬
times slow, according to the position of the floathoards
with respect to the stream : and this inequality will in¬
crease with the arch plunged in the water. The rea¬
soning of M. Pitot, indeed, is founded on the supposi¬
tion, that if another floatboard^g were placed between
FG and DF it would annihilate the force of tiie water
that impels it, and prevent any of the fluid from stri¬
king the corresponding part DO of the preceding float-
board. But this is not the case. For when the water
has acted upon fg, it still retains a part of its motion,
and after bending round the extremity g strikes DE
vvith its remaining force. We are entitled, therefore,
to conclude that advantage must be gained by using
more floatboards than are recommended" by Pitot.
275. It is evident from the preceding remarks, that in Hie num-
order to remove any inequality of motion in the wheel,!ier ot t!ie,1
and prevent the water from escaping below the extre-
mities of the floathoards, the wheel should he furnished a^great»«
with the greatest possible number of floatboards, without possible,
loading it too much, or enfeebling the rim on which they
are
HYDRODYNAMICS.
(p) Mem. de VAcad. Paris, 1729, 8vo. p. 359.
(q.) A table containing the number of floatboards for wheels of different diameters, and founded on this prin¬
ciple, has been computed by Mr Brewster. See Appendix to Ferguson’s Lectures, vol. n. p, 149. 2d Edit.
ihiap. I. H Y D R O D
( Water-are fixed, This rule was first given by M. Dupetit
Hfheels. Vandin (r) ; and it is easily perceived, that if the mill*
’”’"v "" wright should err in using too many floatboards, this
error in excess will be perfectly trifling, and that a
much greater loss of power would be occasioned by an
error in defect.
i mofthe 276. 1 he section of the floatboards ought not to be
( tboards. rectangular like ab nc in fig. 3. but. should be bevelled
It,'-3- like abmc. For if they were rectangular, the extre¬
mity bn would interrupt a portion of the water which
would otherwise fall on the corresponding part of the
preceding floathoard. In order to find the angle abm,
subtract (rom 180 degrees the number of degrees con¬
tained in the immersed arch CEG, and the half of the
remainder will be the angle required.
1 ition of 277. It has been maintained bv M. Pitot and other
t float- philosophers, that the floatboards should be acontinuation
of the radius, or perpendicular to the rim, as in fig. 1.
This indeed is true in theory, but it appears from the
most unquestionable experiments, that they should be
inclined to the radius. This important fact was dis¬
covered by Deparcieux in 1753, and proved by several
experiments. When the floatboards are inclined, the
water heaps up on their surface, and acts not only by its
impulse but also by its weight. The same truth has
also been confirmed by the abbe Bossut, the most ac¬
curate of whose experiments are contained in the fol¬
lowing table. The wheel that was employed was im¬
mersed four inches vertically in the water, and it was
furnished with 12 floatboards.
i. ids.
Inclination of
the floatboard
O
15
3°
37
NT umber of
pounds rais¬
ed.
40
40
40
40
Time in wide!
the loud was
raised in
seconds.
40
40
40
40
Number of
turns made bs
the wheel.
1 4ts'
Mil
278. It is obvious, from the preceding table, that
the wheel made the greatest number of turns, or moved
with the greatest velocity, when the number of float-
boards was between 15 and 30. When the water¬
wheels are placed on canals that have little declivity,
and in which the water can escape freely after its im¬
pulse upon the floatboards, it would be proper to make
the floatboards a continuation of the radius. But when
they move in an inclined mill-course, an augmentation
of velocity may be expected from an inclination of the
floatboards.
C the pro JIavi'ng ^1US pointed out the most scientific me-
P velocity thod of constructing the wheel, and delivering the wa-
ol ider- ter upon its floatboards, we have now to determine the
d wheels velocity with which it should move. It is evident, that
e' tig 6 t^ie velocity t^ie wheel must be always less than that
ni imuni.
Y N A M ICS. 77[
of the water which impels it, even when there is no On Water-
work to be performed ; for a part of the impelling Wheels,
power is necessarily spent in overcoming the inertia of —'
tiie wheel and the resistance of friction. It is likewise
obvious, that when the wheel has little or no velocity,
its performance will be very trifling. There is, conse¬
quently, a certain proportion between the velocity of
the water and the wheel, when its effect is a maximum.
By the reasoning which is employed in the section on
undershot wheels in the article Water-Works, Parent
and Pitot found, that a maximum effect was produced
when tire velocity of the wheel was one-third of the velo¬
city ol the water; and Desaguliers (s) Maclaurin (t),
Lambert (u), and Atwood (x), have adopted their
conclusions. In the calculus from which this result
tvas deduced, it was taken for granted, that the mo¬
mentum or force of water upon the wheel is in the
duplicate ratio of the relative velocity, or as the square
of the difference between the velocity of the water and
that of the wheel. This supposition, indeed, is per-The force
fectly correct when the water impels a single floatboard ;ot a current
for as the number of particles which strike the float-,ni^e^'n^
board in a given time, and also the momentum of these, shot "v Lie el
are each as the relative velocity of the floatboards, thei* as the re¬
momentum must be as the square of the relative velo-lative velo¬
city, that is, M:±IP, M being the momentum, and RCM-
the relative velocity. But we have seen, in some of
the preceding paragraphs, that the water acts on more
than one floathoard at a time. Flow the number of
floalboards acted upon in a given time will be as the
velocity of the wheel, or inversely as the relative velo¬
city ; for if you increase the relative velocity, the velo¬
city of the water remaining the same, you must dimi¬
nish the velocity of the wheel. Consequently, we shall
. B3
have Mrz— or ; that is, the momentum of the
water acting upon tiie wheel, is directly as the relative
velocity.
280. Let V he now the velocity of the stream, and
F the force with which it would strike the floatboard
at rest, and v the velocity of the wheel. Then the re¬
lative velocity will be V—v; and since the velocity of
the water will be to its momentum, or the force with
which it would strike the floatboard at rest, as the re- ^
lative velocity is to the real force which the water ex¬
erts against the moving floatboards, we shall have
V : V—F : FX= YX V—But the ef¬
fect of the wheel is measured by the product of the mo¬
mentum of the water and the velocity of the wheel,
consequently the effect of the undershot wheel will be
F vr
y X V-
-v= x Vv—v\
Now this effect is to
be a maximum, and therefore its fluxion must be equal
to o, that is, v, being the variable quantity, V v 
2tifzro, or 2vvzzVv, Dividing by v, we have o. n—•
5 E 2 yf
(r) Memoires des Sfdvans Etrangers, tom. i.
(s) Desaguliers’ Experimental Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 424. lect. 12.
(t) Atwood on Rectilineal and Rotatory Motion, p. 275 284.
(u) Maclaurin’s Fluxions, art. 907. p. 728.
(x) Nouv. Memoii'es de l'Acad. Berlin, 1775,.p. 63.
772
On Water-
Wheels
Confirmed
ky Smea-
ton’s cxpe-
rimcnts,
and by the
experi¬
ments of
Bossut.
V
V, and t’=: —, that is, the velocity of the wheel will
be one half the velocity of the fluid when the effect is a
maximum.
281. This result, which was first obtained by the
chevalier de Borda, has been amply confirmed by the
experiments of Mr Smeaton. “ The velocity ot the
stream (says he) varies at the maximum between one-
third and one-half that of the water; but in all the
cases in which most work is performed in proportion to
the water expended, and which approach the nearest to
the circumstances of great works, when properly exe¬
cuted, the maximum lies much nearer one-half than one-
third, one "half seeming to be the true maximum, if no¬
thing were lost by the resistance of the air, the scatter¬
ing of the water carried up by the wheel, &C.1’
282. A result, nearly similar to this, was deduced
from the experiments of Bossut. He employed a wheel
whose diameter was three feet. The number of float-
hoards was at one time 48, and at another 24, their
width being five inches, and their depth six. Uhe ex¬
periments with the wheel, when it had 48 floatboards,
were made in an inclined canal, supplied from a reser¬
voir by an orifice two inches deep, the velocity being
300 feet in 27 seconds. The experiments with the
wheel, when it had 24 floatboards, were made in a ca¬
nal, contained between two vertical walls, 12 or 13
feet distant. The depth of the water was about seven
or eight inches, and its mean velocity about 2740 inches
in 40 seconds. The floatboards of the wheel were im¬
mersed about four inches in the stream.
HYDRODYNAMICS. Part HI.
ter of the wheel, and the number of turns which it Oh Watei-
Time in
which
the ioad
is raised
Seconds
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
No. of
pounds
rained.
Number of
turns made
by the
wh6ei.
48 Fioatboards.
3°?
31
31*
32
322
33
33^
34
34»
35
SSi
22^|
22tV
21A
«044
20^|-
20A
I9U
No. of
pounds
raised.
Number of
turns made
by the
wheel.
4S Floatboards
30
35
40
45
50
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
i7tI'
16U
15II
13^4
12A
T O * ®
I2a:ir
,1 9
‘‘ZV
?10
12A
u£4
11 z%
I I 1 9
* * ~nr
124
124
11
'zs
7
zv
10
1 5
TS"
283. As the effect of the machine is measured by
the product of the load raised, and the time employed,
it will appear, by multiplying the second and third
columns, that the effect was a maximum when the
load was 34^ pounds, the wheel performing 2of~J re¬
volutions in 40 seconds. By comparing the velocity
of the centre .of impression computed from the diame-
makes in 40 seconds, with the velocity of the current, Wheels,
it will be found, that the velocity of the wheel, when 1 J
its effect is the greatest possible, is nearly two-fifths
that of the stream. From the two last columns of the
table, where the effect is a maximum when the load is
60 pounds, the same conclusion may be deduced.
284. The proper velocity of the wheel being thus
established, we shall proceed to point out the method construct.
of constructing a mill-wright’s table for undershot ins; a Kill,
wheels, taking it for granted, that the velocily of the w‘ight'i
wheel should be one-half the velocity of the stream,
and that water moves with the same velocity as falling
bodies.
1. Find the perpendicular height of the fall of water
above the bottom of the mill-course, and having dimi¬
nished this number by one-half the depth of the water
at K, call that the height of the fall.
2. Since bodies acquire a velocity of 32.174 feet, by
falling through the height of 16.087 feet; and as the
velocities of falling bodies are as the square roots of
the heights through which they fall, the square root of
16.087 will be to the square root of the height of the
fall as 32.174 to a fouith number, which will be the
velocity of the water. Therefore the velocity of the
water may be always found by multiplying 32.174 by
the square root of the height of the fall, and dividing
that product by the square root of 16.087. Or it may
be found more easily by multiplying the height of the
fall by the constant quantity 64-348=2X 32.174, and
extracting the square root of the product. This root,
abstracting from the effects of friction, will he the ve¬
locity of the water required.
3. Take one-half the velocity of the water, ami it
will be the velocity which must be given to the float-
hoards, or the number of feet they must move through
in a second, in order to produce a maximum effect.
4. Divide the circumference of the wheel by the ve¬
locity of its floatboards per second, and the quotient
will be the number of seconds in which the wheel re¬
volves.
5. Divide 60 by the number last found, and the
quotient will be the number of turns made by the
wheel in a minute.—Or the number of revolutions per¬
formed by the wheel in a minute may be found, by
multiplying the velocity of the floatboards by 60, and
dividing the product by the circumference of the
wheel.
6. Divide 90, the number of revolutions which a
millstone, five feet diameter, should make in a minute,
by the number of revolutions made by the wheel in a
minute; and the quotient will be the number of turns
which the millstone ought to make for one revolution
of the wheel.
7. Then as the number of revolutions of the wheel
in a minute, is to the number of revolutions of the mill¬
stone in a minute, so must the number of staves in the
trundle be to the number of teeth in the wheel, in the
nearest whole numbers that can be found.
8. Multiply the number of revolutions performed by
the wheel in a minute, by the number of revolutions
made by the millstone for one of the wheel, and the pro¬
duct will he the number of revolutions made by the mill¬
stone in a minute.
285. By these rules, the following table has been
computed
i iap. X. HYDRODYNAMICS.
t Water- computed for a water wheel fifteen feet in diameter,
heels, which is a good medium size, the millstone being
1 “ seven feet in diameter, and revolving 90 times in a
minute.
Table T. A New Mill-Wright'1 s Table, in which the
Velocity of the Wheel is one half the Velocity of the
Stream, the effects of Friction riot being considered.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
*3
14
*5
16
»7
18
J9
20
Velocity
of the
water per
second,
friction
not
being
consider¬
ed.
S J
8.02
11-34
13.89
16.04
17-94
19.65
21.22
22.69
24.06
25-37
26.60
27.79
28.92
30.01
3 ,-°7
22.00
33- 07
34- 03
34- 97
35- 97
Velocity
of the
wheel per
second,
being
one-half
that of
the
water.
4.OI
5- 67
6- 95
8.02
8.97
982
10.61
II-34
12.03
12.69
13-30
13.00
14.46
I5-°I
15-53
16.04
16.54
17.02
17.48
I7-99
Revela¬
tions of
the wheel
per
minute,
its dia¬
meter
being 15
feet.
CX
o rt
O
M O
5.1°
7.22
8.85
10.20
n-43
12.50
13- 5I
14- 45
15- 3I
16.17
16.95
17.70
1841
19.11
19.80
20.40
21.05
21.66
22 26
22.86
Revolu¬
tions of
the mill¬
stone for
one of
the
wheel.
> o c«
>7-65
12.47
10.17
8.82
7.87
7.20
6.66
6.23
5-38
5-57
5-31
5.08
4.89
4-71
4-55
4-45
4.28
4.16
4-°4
3-94
Teeth in
the
wheel
and
slaves
in the
trundle.
Revolu¬
tions of
the mill¬
stone per
minute
by thesi
staves
and
teeth.
106
87
8l
79
71
65
60
56
53
56 10
53 10
51 10
49 10
47 *o
48 11
44 Jo
47 11
t[0 12
44 ^
48 12
6
90.01
90.03
90.00
89.96
89.95
90.00
89.98
90.02
90.02
90.06
90.00
89.91
9.0.02
90.00
90.09
89.96
90.09
90.10
89-93
90.07
286. The preceding table, computed by Mr Brew¬
ster (Appendix to Ferguson’s Lectures, vol. ii. p. 174*)
supposes, according to theory, that the velocity ot the
wheel, at the maximum eftect, is one-half that of the
stream, which is nearly the case in practice, when the
quantities of water discharged by the stream are consi¬
derable. “ When we consider, however, (observes the
“ editor of the work now quoted), that after every
“ precaution has been observed, a small quantity of
“ water will escape between the mill course and the
“ extremities of the floatboards, and that the effect is
“ diminished by the resistance of the air and the dis-
“ persion of water carried up by the wheel, the pro-
“ priety of making the wheel move with three-sevenths
“ tlle velocity of the water will appear. The chevalier
“ de Borda supposes it never to exceed three-eighths; Cn
“ and MrSmeaton and the abbe Bossut found two-fifths W
“ to he the proper medium (y). With three-sevenths, '
therefore, as the best medium, which iliffers only
“ -yyth from -J-ths, the numbers in the following talile
“ have been computed. In Table I. the water was sup-
“ posed to move with the same velocity as falling bo-
“ dies, but owing to its friction on the mill-course, &c.
“ this is not exactly the case. We have therefore
“ deduced the velocity of the water in column second,
“ from the following formula, b ^^ Pig. t.
3 2 ’
“ in which \ is the velocity of the water, II £ the ab-
“ solute height of the fall, and H h the depth of the /
“ water at the bottom of the course. The formula is
“ founded on the experiments of Bossut, from wliich it
“ appears, that if a canal be inclined one-tenth part of
“ its length, this additional declivity will restore that ve-
“ locity to the water which was destroyed by friction.”
Table II. A New Mill-Wrights Table, in which the
Velocity of the Wheel is three-sevenths of the Veloci¬
ty of the Water, and the effects of Friction on the
Velocity of the stream reduced to computation.
773
Water-
d*.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
'3
r4
15
16
17
18
20
Velocity
of the
water per
second,
friction
being
consider¬
ed.
7.62
IO.77
13.20
I5-24
18.67
20.15
21.56
22.86
24.10
25-27
26.40
27.47
28.51
29.52
30.48
31.42
32- 33
33- 22
34- I7
Velocity
of the
wheel
per se¬
cond, be-
ing3-7ths
that of
the
water.
3-27
4.62
5.66
5-53
7-30
8.00
8.64
9.24
9.80
*o-33
10.83
11.31
n.77
12.22
12.65
13.06
13.46
13.86
14.24
14.64
3
Revolu¬
tions of
thewheel
per
minute,
its dia¬
meter
being 15
feet,
Oh 0
o a
4.16
5.88
7.20
8.32
9.28
10.19
10.99
n.76
12.47
12.15
I3-79
14.40
14.99
!5-56
16.13
16.63
17.14
16.65
1813
18.64
Revolu
tions of
mill¬
stone for
one of
the
wheel.
21.63
*5-3l
22. co
10.81
9.70
8.83
8.19
7-65
7.22
6.84
6-53
6.25
6.00
5-78
5-i§
5-41
5-25
5-IQ
4.96
4-83
Teeth in
the
wheel
and
staves
in the
trundle,
H
130
92
too
97 9
97 *0
97 u
90 11
84 11
72 10
82 12
85 13
72 12
72 12
75 !3
67 12
65 12
63 12
61 12
64 13
58 12
Revolu¬
tions of
the mill-
-tone per
minute
by these
*t aves
and
teeth.
89.98
90.02
90.00
89-94
90.02
89.98
90.01
89.96
90.03
89-95
90.05
'90.00
89.94
90.04
90.01
89.97
89.99
90.01
89.92
89.84
287.
(y) The great hydraulic machine at Marly was found to produce a maximum effect, when its velocity was
two-fifths that of the stream.
Different
methods of
measuring
the veloci¬
ty of the
stieaui.
Simple in¬
strument -
for this pur¬
pose.
Plate
CCLXX.
fig. 4.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
287. In order that the wheel may move with a velo¬
city duly adjusted to that of the current, we would not
advise the mechanic to trust to the second column of
Table II. for the true velocity of the stream, or to any
theoretical results, even when deduced from formulae
founded on experiments. Eossut, with great justice,
remarks, that “ it would not be exact in practice to
compute the velocity of a current from its declivity.
This velocity ought to be determined by immediate
experiment in every particular case.” Let the velo-
citv of the water, therefore, where it strikes the wheel,
be determined by the method in the following para¬
graph. With this velocity, as an argument, enter co¬
lumn second of either of these tables, according as the
velocity of the wheel is to be one-half or three-sevenths
that of the stream, and take out the other numbers from
the table.
288. Various methods have been proposed by differ¬
ent philosophers for measuring the velocity of running
water; the method, by floating bodies, which Mari-
otte (z) employed, the bent tube of Pitot (a), the re¬
gulator of Guglielmini (b), the quadrant (c), the little
wheel (ft), and the method proposed by tbe Abbe
Mann (e), have each their advantages and disadvan¬
tages. Tbe little wheel was employed in the experi¬
ments of Bossut. It is the most convenient mode of
determining the superficial velocity of the water; and,
when constructed in the following manner, will be
more accurate, it is hoped, than any instrument that
lias hitherto been used. The small wheel WW should
be formed of the lightest materials. It should be about
10 or 12 inches in diameter, and furnished with 14 or
16 floathoards. This wheel moves upon a delicate
screw c B, passing through its axle B£; and when
impelled by the stream it will gradually approach to¬
wards D, each revolution of the wheel coresponding
with a thread of the screw. The number of revolutions
performed in a given time are determined upon the
scale mo, by means of the index O h fixed at O, and
moveable with the wheel, each division of the scale be¬
ing equal to the breadth of a thread of the screw, and
the extremity h of the index O A coinciding with the
beginning of the scale, when the shoulder b of the
wheel is screwed close to a. The parts of a revolution
are indicated by the bent index m n pointing to the
periphery of the wheel, which is divided into IOO
parts. When this instrument is to be used, take it by
the handles C, D, or when great accuracy is required,
make it rest on the handles C, D 5 and screw the shoul¬
der n of the wheel close to rt, so that the indices may
both point to 0 the commencement of the scales.
Then, by means of a stop-watch or pendulum, find
how many revolutions of the wheel are performed in a
given time. Multiply the mean circumference of the
wheel (or the circumference deduced from the mean
Part III,
radius, which is equal to the distance of the centre of On Water,
impulsion or impression from the axis &B) by the num- Wheels,
her of revolutions, and the product will be the number
of feet through which the water moves in the given
time. On account of the friction of the screw, the re¬
sistance of the air, and the weight of the wheel, its
centre of impression will revolve with a little less velo¬
city than that of the stream ; but the diminution of ve¬
locity, arising from these causes, may be estimated
with sufficient precision for all the purposes of the prac¬
tical mechanic. {Appendix to Ferguson's Lectures,
vol. ii. p. 177.)
289. It appears, from a comparison of the numerousRe uks of
and accurate experiments of Mr Smeaton, that, in un. Smtajon’s
dershot wheels, the power employed to turn the wheel
is to the effect produced as 3 to I ; and that the load
which the wheel will carry at its maximum, is to the
load which will totally stop it, as 3 to 4. The same
experiments inform us, that the impulse of the water
on the wheel, in the case of a maximum, is more than
double of what is assigned by theory, that is, instead of
four-sevenths of the column, it is nearly equal to the
whole column. In order to account for this, Mr Smea¬
ton observes, that the wheel was not, in this case, pla¬
ced in an open river, where the natural current, after
it had communicated its impulse to the float, has room
on all sides to escape, as the theory supposes ; but in a
conduit or race, to which the float being adapted, the
water could not otherwise escape than by moving along
with the wheel. He likewise remarks, that when a
wheel works in this manner, the water, as soon as it
meets the float, receives a sudden check, and rises up
against it like a wave against a fixed object; insomuch,
that when the sheet of water is not a quarter of an inch
thick before it meets the float, yet this sheet will act
upon the whole surface of a float, whose height is three
inches. Were the flo^t, therefore, no higher than the
thickness of the sheet of water, as the theory supposes,
a great part of the force would be lost by the water
dashing over it. In order to try what would be the
effect of diminishing the number of floatboards, Mr
Smeaton reduced the floatboards, which were original¬
ly 24, to 12. This change produced a diminution of
the effect, as a greater quantity of water escaped be¬
tween the floats and the floor. But when a circular
sweep was adapted to the floor, and made of such a
length that one float entered the curve before the pre¬
ceding one quitted it, the effect came so near to the for¬
mer, as to afford no hopes of increasing it by augment¬
ing the number of floats beyond 24 in this particular
wheel. Mr Smeaton likewise deduced, from his ex¬
periments, the following maxims.
I. That the virtual or effective head being the
same, the efl’ect will be nearly as the quantity of wa¬
ter expended.
2. That
(z) Traite du Mouvement des Faux.
(a) Mem. del'A cad. Paris, X 73 2.
(b) Aquarum Fluentium Mensura, lib. iv.
(c) Bossut Traite d'Hydrodynamique, art. 654.
(D) Id. id. art. 655.
(e) Philosophical Transactions, vol. Ixix.
I. HYDRODYNAMICS.
2. That the expence of water being the same, the
775
effect will be nearly as the height of the virtual or ef¬
fective head.
3. That the quantity of water expended being the
same,
tv.
the effect is nearly as the square of the veloci-
4. The aperture being the same, the effect will be
nearly as the cube of the velocity of the water,
lilorshot 290. We have hitherto supposed the floatboards,
*‘ though inclined to the radius, to be perpendicular to
i ,ned to P^:ine of the wheel. Undershot-wheels, however,
tjplane have sometimes been constructed with floatboards in-
i|!ie dined to the plane of the wheel. A wheel of this kind
is represented in fig. 5. where AB is the wheel, and
'LXX. UDEFGH the oblique floatboards. The horizon-
ig. ta! current MN is delivered on the floatboards, so as
to strike them perpendicularly. On account of the size
of the floatboards, every filament of the water contri-
botes to turn the wheel j and therefore its effect will
be greater than in undershot wheels of the common
form. Albert Euler imagines that the effect will be twice
as great, and observes, that in order to produce such
an effect, the velocity of the centre of impression should
be to the velocity of the water, as radius is to triple the
sine of the angle by which the floatboards are inclined
to the plane of the wheel. If this inclination, therefore,
be 6o°, the velocity of the wheel at the centre of im¬
pression ought to be to the velocity of the impelling fluid
as 1 to   that is, as 5 to 13 nearly, because Sin.
\7 3
When the inclination is 320, the ratio of
| also to
I radirs
the velocities will be found to be as 2 to 3.
291. In wheels of this kind, the floats may also be
advantageously inclined to the radius. In this case,
the stream, which still strikes them perpendicularly, is
inclined to the horizon. If the angle formed by the
common section of the wheel and floathoards with the
radius of the wheel, be ~m; and if the angle by
which the floatboards are inclined to the plane of the
wheel be “ «, then the angle which the floatboards
should form with the direction in which the wheel
moves, will be Cos. m x Sm. n. In order, there¬
fore, that the stream may strike the floatboards with a
perpendicular impulse, its inclination to the horizon
must be — m, and its inclination to the plane of the
wheel =90°—n. The Jess that the velocity of the
water is, the greater should be the angle m; for there
is, in this case, no danger that the celerity of the
wheel be too great. The area of the floathoards ought
to be much greater than the section of the current ;
and the interval between two adjacent floatboards should
be so great, that before the one completely withdraws
itself from the action of the water, the other should be¬
gin to receive its impulse.
C horizon- 292, Horizontal water-wheels have been much used
i water- on the continent, and are strongly recommended to our
jph* notice by the simplicity of their construction. In
fig. 6. AB is the large water-wheel which moves ho¬
rizontally upon its arbor CD. This arbor passes through
the immoveable millstone EF at D, and being fixed to
the upper one GH, carries it once round for every re¬
volution of the great wheel. The mill-course is con¬
structed in the same manner for horizontal as for verti-
5
cal wheels, with this difference only, that the part On Water-
mB « C, fig. 2. of which KL in fig. I. is a section, Wheels,
instead of being rectilineal like mn, must be circular ''1 """v '
likewP, and concentric with the rim of the wheel,
sufficient room being left between it and the tips of the
floatboards for the play of the wheel. In this construc¬
tion, where the water moves in a horizontal direction
before it strikes the wheel, the floatboards should be
inclined about 230 to the plane of the wheel, and the
same number of degrees to the radius, so that the low¬
est and outermost sides of the floathoards may be far¬
thest up the stream.
293. Instead of making the canal horizontal before
it delivers the water on the floatboards, they are fre¬
quently inclined in such a manner as to receive the
impulse perpendicularly, and in the direction of the de¬
clivity of the mill-corrse. When this construction is
adopted, the maximum effect will be produced when the
velocity of the floatboards is not less than ^
2 bin. A
where H represents the height of the fall, and A the
angle which the direction of the fall makes with a
vertical line. But as the quantity
5.67 a/H
evidently
2 Sin. A
increases as the sine of A decreases, it follows, that
without lessening the effect of these wheels, we may di¬
minish the angle A, and thus augment considerably the
velocity of the floathoards, according to the nature of
the machinery employed •, whereas, in vertical wheels,
there is only one determinate velocity which produces
a maximum effect.
294. In the southern provinces of France, where horx- With cur-
zontal wheels are generally employed, the floathcards vilineal.
are made of a curvilineal form, so as to be concave to- S|)at-ljoar^s*
wards the stream. The Chevalier de Borda observes,
that in theory a double effect is produced when the
floathoards are concave ; but that the effect is diminished
in practice, from the difficulty of making the fluid enter
and leave the curve in a proper direction. Notwith¬
standing this difficulty, however, and other defects
which might be pointed out, horizontal wheels with
concave floatboards are always superior to those in
which the floatboards are plane, and even to vertical
wheels, when there is a sufficient fall of water. When
the floatboards are plane, the wheel is driven merely
by the impulse of the stream ; hut when they are con¬
cave, a part of the water acts by its weight and in¬
creases the velocity of the wheel. If the fall of water
be 5 or 6 feet, a horizontal wheel with concave float-
boards may be erected, whose maximum effect will he
to that of the ordinary vertical wheels as 3 to 2.
295. An advantage attending horizontal wheels is,
that the water may be divided into several canals, and
delivered upon several floatboards at the same time.
Each stream will heap up on its corresponding float-
board, and produce a greater effect than if the force of
the water had been concentrated on a single floatboard.
Horizontal wheels may be employed with greatest adr
vantage when a small quantity of water falls through a
considerable height.
296. It has been disputed among mechanical philoso* oVer.shot
pliers, whether overshot or undershot wheels produce the wheels Mi-
greatest effect. M. Belidor maintained that the former perior to
were inferior to the latter, while a contrary opinion ‘mdeishot
ones:
was
776
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Part III.
Machines was entertained by Desaguliers. It appears, however,
driven by from Mr Smeaton’s experiments, that in overshot wheels
the lleac- t|le power is to the effect nearly as 3 to 2 or as 5 to 4
Watev ,n gencral» whereas in undershot wheels, it is only as 3
», - Y- - 1 . to 1. The effect of overshot wheels therefore is nearly
double that of undershot wheels, other circumstances
being the same. In comparing the relative effects of
water-wheels, the Chevalier de Borda remarks that
overshot wheels will raise through the height of the
fall, a quantity of water equal to that by which they are
driven j that undershot vertical wheels will produce
only three-eighths of this effect ; that horizontal wheels
will produce a little less than one half of it when the
floatboards are plain, and a little more than one-half of
it when the floatboards have a curvilineal form.
BesanCs Undershot Wheel.
Description 297. The water-wheel invented by Mr Besant of
of Besant’sgron)pfor, |s constructed in the form of a hollow drum,
wheel" 80 as to res*st ^ie admission of the water. The floatboards
Plate are fixed obliquely in pairs on the periphery of the
CCfiXXL wheel, so that each pair may form an acute angle open
'• at its vertex, while one of the floatboards extends be¬
yond the vertex of the angle. A section of the water¬
wheel is represented in fig. I. where AB is the wheel,
CD its axis, m n, op the position of the floatboards.
The motion of common undershot wheels is greatly re¬
tarded by the resistance which the tail-water and the
atmosphere oppose to the ascending floatboards $ but in
Besant’s wheel this resistance is greatly diminished, as
the floats emerge from the stream in an oblique direc¬
tion. Although this wheel is much heavier than those
of the common construction, yet it revolves more easily
upon its axis, as the stream has a tendency to make it
float.
Conical Horizontal Wheel with Spiral Floatboards.
Description 298. In Guyenne and Languedoc, in the south of
of a conical France, a kind of conical horizontal wheel is sometimes
horizontal empl0yed for turning machinery. It is constructed in
the form 0f an inverted cone AB, with spiral float-
boaids. boards winding round its surface. J he wheel moves on
t'ja-. 2. a vertical axis AB, in the building DD, and is driven
chiefly by the impulse of the water conveyed by the
canal B to the oblique floatboards, the direction of the
current being perpendicular to the floatboards at the
place of impact. When the impulsive force of the wa¬
ter is annihilated, it descends along the spirals, and con¬
tinues to act by its weight till it reaches the bottom,
when it is carried off by the canal M.
Chap. II. On Machines driven by the Reaction of
Water.
Water pro. 299. We have hitherto considered the mechanical ef-
ducesgreat-fects of water as the impelling power of machinerv, when
ee effect* jj. actg ejtj,er by J^s impulse or by its gravity. The re-
actioVthan act>on water may be employed to communicate mo-
Uy its im- tion to machinery j and though this principle has not
pulse or yet been adopted in practice, it appears from theory,
weight. an(] f10m some detached experiments on a small scale,
3
that a given quantity of water, falling through a given
height, will produce greater effects by its reaction than
by its impulse or its weight.
Sect. I. On Dr Barker's Mill.
Maeh nes
driven by
t lie Re^..
tion of
Water,
300. This machine, which is sometimes called Pa- Descriptiba
rent’s mill, is represented in fig. 3. where A is the ca-of Dr Bar-
nal that conveys the water into the upright tube Brier s m i!,
which communicates with the horizontal arm C. The cciXXI
water will therefore descend through the upright tube fig"*
into this arm, and will exert upon the inside of it a
pressure proportioned to the height of the fall. But if
two orifices d and e be perforated at the extremities of
the arm, and on contrary sides, the pressure upon these
orifices will be removed by the efflux of the water, and
the unbalanced pressure upon the opposite sides of the
arm will make the tube and the horizontal arm revolve
upon the spindle D as an axis. This will be more easi¬
ly understood, if we suppose the orifices to be shut up,
and consider the pressure upon a circular inch of the
arm opposite to the orifice, the orifice being of the same
size. The pressure upon this circular inch will be equal
to a cylinder of water whose base is one inch in diame¬
ter, and whose altitude is the height of the fall j and
the same force is exerted upon the shut-up orifice.
These two pressures, therefore, being equal and oppo¬
site, the arm C will remain at rest. But as soon as you
open the orifice, the water will issue with a velocity due
to the height of the fall : the pressure upon the orifice
will of consequence be removed j and as the pressure
upon the circular inch opposite to the orifice still con¬
tinues, the equilibrium will be destroyed, aad the arm
C will move in a retrograde direction.
301. The upright spindle D, on which the arm re¬
volves, is fixed in the bottom of the arm, and screwed to
it below by the nut g. It is fixed to the upright tube
by two cross bars atj^ so as to move along with it. If
a corn mill is to be driven, the top of the spindle is
fixed into the upper millstone II. The lower qui¬
escent millstone I rests upon the floor K, in which is
the hole L, to let the meal pass into a trough about
M. The bridgetree GF, which supports the millstone,
lube, &c. is moveable on a pin at h, and its other end
is supported by an iron rod fixed into it, the top of the
rod going through the fixed bracket o, furnished with a
nut 0. By screwing this nut, the millstone may be
raised or lowered at pleasure. If any other kind of
machinery is to be driven, the spindle D must be pro¬
longed to X, and a small wheel W fixed to its extre¬
mity, which will communicate its motion to any species
of mechanism. An improvement on this machine by
M. Mathon de la Cour, and some excellent observations
on the subject by Professor Ilobison, will be found in
the article WATER-Works.
302. Mr Waring of the American Philosophical So¬
ciety, has given a theory of Barker’s mill with the im¬
provement of M. Mathon de la Cour, which he has
strangely ascribed to a Mr Rumsey about 20 years after
it was published in Bezier's Journal de Physique, Jan.
and August 1775. Contrary to every other philosopher,
he makes the effect of the machine equal only to that
of a good undershot-wheel, moved with the same quan¬
tity of water, falling though the same height. The fol¬
lowing
hap. II. H Y D K O D
achincs lowing rules, however, deduced from his calculus may
iveu by be of use to those who may wish to make experiments
e, ^-ea^‘ on the effect of this interesting machine.
^ater I* Mak.® the arm of the rotatory tube or arm C,
 v i from the centre of motion to the centre of the aperture,
ao.tical of any convenient length, not less than one-third (one-
es. ninth according to Mr Gregory (f), who has corrected
some of Waring’s numbers) of the perpendicular height
of the water’s surface above their centres.
2. Multiply the length of the arm in feet by .614,
and take the square root of the product for the proper
time of a revolution in seconds, and adapt the other
parts of the machinery to this velocity; or, if the
time of a revolution be given, multiply the square of
this time by 1.63 for the proportional length of the
arm.
3. Multiply together the breadth, depth, and veloci¬
ty per second, of the race, and divide the last product
by 18.47 t*014,8 (I4-27 according to Mr Gregory) the
square root of the height, for the area of either aper¬
ture.
4. Multiply the area of either aperture by the height
of the fall of water, and the product by 41^ pounds
(55.775 according to Mr Gregory), for the moving
force estimated at the centres of the apertures in
pounds avoirdupois.
5. The power and velocity at the aperture may be
easily reduced to any part of the machinery by the
simplest mechanical rules.
jrm .riven 303’ •^'onS after t*16 preceding machine had been de-
Ba^er’s scribed in several of our English treatises on machines,
liil by Professor Segner published in his hydraulics, as an inven-
■ofessor tion of his own, the account of a machine, differing from
®aet' this only in form. MN was the axis of the machine, cor¬
responding with DX in Barker’s mill, and a number
^ of tubes AB were also so arranged round this axis that
their higher extremities A formed a circular superficies
into which the water flowed from a reservoir. When
the machine has this form, it has been shewn by Albert
Euler that the maximum effect is produced when the
velocity is infinite, and that the effect is equal to the
power. As a considerable portion of the power, how¬
ever, must be consumed in communicating to the fluid
the circular motion of the tubes j and as the portion
Vox.. X. Part II. f
Y N A M I C S. 777
thus lost must increase with the velocity of the tube, Machines
the effect will in reality sustain a diminution from an driven by
increase of velocity. ^ Reac-
J turn et
Water.
Sect. II. Description of Albert Killer's Machine driven' ” ~v"
by the Reaction of the Water.
304. This machine consists of two vessels, the lowest Plate
of which EEFF is moveable round the vertical axis 00, CCLXXI.
while the higher vessel remains immoveable. The form a‘ ”
of the lowest vessel, which is represented by itself in
fig. 6. is similar to that of a truncated bell, which is Fig. 5.
fastened by the cross beams m, n to the axis O so as
to move along with it. The annular cavity h h h h
terminates at e in several tubes ef efef, diverging
from the axis. Through the lower extremities of these
tubes, which are bent into a right angle, the water flow¬
ing from the cavity hhhh issues with a velocity due to
the altitude of its surface in A, h, and produces by its
reaction a rotatory and retrograde motion round the axis
OO. The cavity of the ring h, h receives the water
from the superior vessel GGHH, similar to the inferior
vessel in fig. 6. but not connected with the axis 00.
This vessel has also an annular cavity PP, into which
the water is conveyed from a reservoir by the canal R.
Around the lower part HH of the cavity, this vessel is
divided into several apertures I f, placed obliquely that
the water may descend with proper obliquity into the
inferior vessel. The width of the higher vessel at HH
ought to be equal to the width of the lower vessel at
EE, that the water which issues from the former may
exactly fill the annular cavity //, A, h.
When the machine is constructed in this way, its
maximum effect will be equal to the power, provided
all its parts be proportioned and adjusted according to
the results in the following table, computed from the
formulae of Albert Euler. In the table,
Q=the quantity of water, or number of cubic feet of
water furnished in a second.
T=the time, or number of seconds in which the lower
vessel revolves.
B = the breadth of the annular orifice in inches.
5 F Table
(f) Gregory’s Mechanics, vol. ii. p. in.
77 8
JVlacliines
driven by
the Reac¬
tion of
Water.
Table for
mills driven
by the re¬
action of
water.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Table for Mills driven by the Reaction of Water.
Height
of the
fall of
water.
Feet.
I
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
i r
12
*3
H
*5
i6
*7
18
Sum of the area^
of all the orifices
at/>/./. &c*
Square Feet.
O.17888XQ
O.12649XQ
0.103228 xQ
0.08944 xQ
0.08000 xQ
0.07303 xQ
0.06761 x Q
0.06325XQ
0.05963XQ
0.05657 x Q
0-05394 xQ
0.05104 xQ
0.04961 xQ
0.04781 xQ
0.04619 xQ
0.04472 xQ
0*°4339XQ
0.04216XQ
Sum of the areas
of all the orifices
at/>/./.
Square Inches.
2-5759 XQ
18.214XQ
14.872XQ
12.880X Q
11.520 xQ
10.516XQ
9-73^ XQ
9*107 x Q
8.586XQ
8.146XQ
7-767XQ
7-436 xQ
7.144 xQ
6.885XQ
6.651 xQ
6.440 x Q
6.248 xQ
6.072 xQ
Mean radius of
the annular ori¬
fice HH.
Feet.
0.8897 xT
I.2582XT
I.54IOXT
I-7794XT
1.9894XT
2*1793 XT
2.3540 xT
2.5165XT
2.6691 xT
2.8135XT
2.9508 xT
3.0820 xT
3.2078XT
3.3290 xT
3.4458 xT
3-5588 XT
3.6683 xT
3-7747XT
Difference between
the altitude of the
two vessels.
Inches.
, QQ
o.jS98.r||g
. QQ
°'4424Ttbb
QQ
a3539'rTBB
QQ
°-2949TTBB
n QQ
0.2528-—
TTBB
QQ
0.221 2TTBB
.. QQ
°.i966TTBB
0.1769,-
QQ
TTBB
. QQ
0,i6o9ttbb
QQ
0‘I475TTBB
QQ
o-1361 TTBB
. QQ
O.I264ttbb
QQ
°'II79ttbb
, QQ
0.1 Io6^iH
Tl’BB
QQ
0'I04ITtbb
o QQ
0-°983TTbB
Tangent of the in¬
clination of the
tubes to the ho¬
rizon.
O.064OC;
0.38400^|
Q
°. 19200^
0.12800^
^ Q
0.09600^-
1 B
Q
0-07680,^
Q
TB
Q Q
0.04800^
< Q
0.04267—
q QJ
0.03840^
Q
0,°349lfB
Q
0.03200^
Q
0,02954tb
Q
0'02743tb
. Q
0.02560 —
Q
0.02400—
QJ
0.02259^
Q
°'C2I33Tb
Part III.
Machines
driven by
the Reac¬
tion of
Water.
E-xplana- The determinations in the preceding table are exhi-
tmn of the bited in a general manner, that the machine may be
nrrnmmnrlcifori f«  t  ftm . • r
reservoir furnishes one cubic foot of water in a second.
- . _ —~j __ In this case Q=l, and therefore, by column 3d, the
accommodated to local circumstances. The time of sum of the areas of the orifices will be U.52 square
a revolution T, for instance, is left undeterttf-''''1 1 ~ —L— ^ * 1 -•
Example.
lined, be¬
cause upon this time depends the magnitude of the ma¬
chine ; and T may be assumed of such a value that the
dimensions of the machine may be suitable to the given
place, or to the nature of the work to be performed.
3°5* I*1 order to shew the application of the preced¬
ing table, let it be required to construct the machine
when the height of the fall is five feet, and when the
inches. Consequently, if there are twelve orifices, the
area of each orifice will be - —0.96 of a square
inch. Suppose the time of a revolution to be =1 se¬
cond or T=zi, then the 4th column will give the mean
radius of the annular orifice =1.9894 fee^> or nearly
two feet. Let the breadth of the annular orifice or
an inch, then the diflerence between the altitude
of
Chap. III.
H Y D R O D Y
On Ma- _ qq
cjiinesfor each vessel will be C.3539X fpTTTp-jr = 0.3539 X
raising ±li>±>
Water. I X I I
V—  >“x4x 1 XI= c-3539X7=0-3539X4=i*4I56inch(>s*
ISow as the sum of the heights of the vessels must be
always equal to the height of the fall, half that sum
will in the present case be two feet six inches ; and
since half the difference of their altitudes is 7-tenths of
an inch, the altitude of the superior vessel will he two
feet six inches and seven-tenths, and that of the infe¬
rior vessel two feet five inches and three-tenths. It ap¬
pears from the last column of the table, that the tangent
of the inclination of the tubes is o. 1536, which corre¬
sponds with an angle of 8° 44'.
teferencej Ihe theory of this machine has also been dis-
0 the re- cussed by Leonhard Euler in the Mem. de /’ Acad. Ber-
Leonkard V0^ v‘* P- 311* 5 and its application to all kinds of
iuier. work has been pointed out in a subsequent paper, en¬
titled, Application de la Machine Hydravhque de M.
Segner a toutes sorts d'ouvrage, ct de ses avantages sur
les autres Machines Hydrauliques clout on se sert ordi-
nairement, Mem. Acad. Berlin, tom. vii. 1752, p. 271.
Ine results of Euler’s analysis are not sufficiently prac¬
tical for the use of the general reader. But it appears
from his investigations, as well as from those of John
Bernouilli and other philosophers, that the reaction of
water is the most powerful way in which the force of
that fluid can be employed.
3°7* I1 I,as often occurred to the writer of this ar¬
ticle, that a very powerful hydraulic machine might be
constructed by combining the impulse with the reaction
of water. If the spout «, for example, instead of deli¬
vering the water into the higher vessel, were to throw
it upon a number of curvilineal floatboards fixed on its
circumference, and so formed as to convey the water
easily into the spiral canals, rve should have a machine
something like the conical horizontal wheel in fig. 2.
with spiral channels instead of spiral floatboards ; and
which would in some measure be moved both by the
impulse, weight, and reaction of the water.
Chap. III. On Machines for raising Water.
Sect. I. On Bumps.
308. The subject of pumps has been fully and ably
discussed by Dr Hobison under the article Pump, to
which we must refer the reader for a complete view of
the theory of the machine. In that article, however
a reference is made to the present for a description of
the ancient pump of Ctesibius, and of those in com¬
mon use to which it has given rise. To these subjects,
therefore, we must now coniine our attention.
309. The pump was invented by Ctesibius, a ma¬
thematician of Alexandria, who flourished under Ptole-
my Psychon, about 120 years before Christ. In its
original state it is represented in fig. 1. where ABCD
is a brass cylinder with a valve L in its bottom. It
is furnished with a piston INIlv made of yreen wood,
so as not to swell in water, and adjusted to the bore of
the cylinder by the interposition of a ring of leather.
The tube Cl connects the cylinder ABCD with ano¬
ther tube NH, the bottom of which is furnished with a
valve I opening upwards. Now when the extremity
DC of the cylinder is immersed in water, and the pis-
'J'ew kind
f water-
rfeee) sug.
esled,
Plate
ICLXXL
ig, 2
eference
> the arti
le Pump.
leseription
[ the ori-
inal pump
f Ctea-
iut.
Plate
CLXXIJ.
k-1.
N A M I C S. 779
ton MK elevated, the pressure of the water upon the On Ma-
valve L Irom below will be proportioned to the depth chines for
below the surface (qO* Ihe valve will therefore open raising
and admit the water into the cylinder. But when the , Watei' .
piston is depressed, it will force the water into the tube
CH, and through the valve I into the tube NH. As
soon as the portion of water that was admitted into the
cylinder ABCD, is thus impelled into the tube NH,
the valve I will close. A second elevation of the pis¬
ton will admit another quantity of fluid into the cylin¬
der, and a second depression will force it into the tube
NH ; so that, by continuing the motion of the piston,
the water may be elevated to any altitude in the tube.
Irom this pump of Ctesihius are derived the three
kinds of pumps now commonly used, the sucking, the
forcing, and the lifting pump.
310. lire common sucking pump is represented in Description
fig. 2. where ICBL is the body of the pump im-the suck-
nursed in the water at A. The moveable piston DGin8 l)Ural’*
is composed of the piston rod D d, the piston or bucket Fig. 2.
G, and the valve a: lire bucket H, which is fixed to
the body of the pump, is likewise furnished with a valve
h, which, like the valve a, should by its own weight lie
close upon the hole in the bucket till the working of
the engine commences. The valves are made of brass,
and have their lower surface covered with leather, in
order to fit the holes in the bucket more exactly. The
moveable bucket G is covered with leather, so as to
suit exactly the bore of the cylinder, and to prevent
any air from escaping between it and the pump. The
piston DG may be elevated or depressed by the lever
DQ, whose fulcrum is r, the extremity of the bent
arm R r.
311. Let us now suppose the piston G to he depres-1’vf()(je 0f
sed so that its inferior surface may rest upon the valve 6.operation.
'I hen if the piston G he raised to C, there would have
been a vacuum between H and G if the valve h were
immoveable. But as the valve b is moveable, and as
the pi assure of the air is removed from its superior sur¬
face, the air in the tube HL will, by its elasticity, force
open the valve b, and expand itself through the whole
cavity LC. This air, however, will be much rarer than
thatof theatmospherej and since theequilibrium between
the external air and that in the tube LII is destroyed
by the rarefaction of the latter, the pressure of the atmo¬
sphere on the surface of the water in the vessel K will
predominate, and raise the water to about e in the
suction pipe HL, so that the air formerly included
in the space LC will be condensed to the same state as
that of the atmosphere. The elasticity of the air both
above and below the valve b being now equal, that
valve will fall by its own weight.—Let the piston DG
be now depressed to b. The air would evidently resist
*ts descent, did not the valve a open and give a free
exit to the air in the space CH, for it cannot escape
through the inferior valve b. When the piston reach¬
es b, the valve a will fall by its weight; and when the
piston is again elevated, the incumbent air will press
the valve a firmly upon its orifice. During the second
ascent ot the piston to C the valve b will rise, the air
between e H will rush into HC ; and in consequence of
its rarefaction, and inability to counteract the pressure
of the atmosphere, the water will rise to^ In the
same way it may be shewn, that at the next stroke of
the piston the water will rise through the box H to B,
5 ^ 2 and
The suck¬
ing pump
will not
raise water
higher than
33 feet.
Descrip¬
tion of the
forcing
pump.
Plate
GCJLXXH.
f'S* 3-
Mode of its
operation.
and then the valve b which was raised by it will fall
when the bucket G is at C. Upon depressing the
bucket G again, the water cannot be driven through
the valve Z>, which is pressed to its orifice by the water
above it. At the next ascent of the piston a new quan¬
tity of water will rise through H, and follow the piston
to C. When the piston again descends, the valve a
will open ; and as the water between C and II cannot
be pushed through the valve &, it will rise through o,
and have its surface at C when the piston G is at b ;
but when the piston rises, the valve a being shut by the
water above it, this water will be raised up towards I,
and issue at the pipe F. A new quantity of water will
rush through H and fill the space HC j consequently,
the surface of the fluid will always remain at C, and
every succeeding ele'vation of the piston from to C will
make the column of water CH run out at the pipe F.
312. As the water rises in the pipe CL solely by the
pressure of the atmosphere 5 and as a column of water,
33 feet high, is equal in weight to a column of air of
the same base, reaching from the earth’s surface to the
top of the atmosphere, the water in the vessel K will
not follow the piston G to a greater altitude than 33
feet j for when it reaches this height, the column of wa¬
ter completely balances, or is in equilibrium with, the
atmosphere, and therefore cannot be raised higher by
the pressure of the external air.
313. The forcing pump is represented in fig. 3.
where D d is the piston attached to a solid plunger gy
adjusted to the bore of the pipe BC by the interposition
of a ring of leather. The rectangular pipe MMN
communicates with the tube BC by the cavity round
H j and its upper extremity P is furnished with a valve
a opening upwards. An air-vessel KK is fastened to
P, and the tube FGI is introduced into it so as to reach
as near as possible to the valve a.—Let us now suppose
the plunger Dg- to be depressed to b. As soon as it is
elevated to C the air below it will be rarefied, and the
water will ascend through the valve b in the same way
as in the sucking pump, till the pipe is filled to C.
The valve b will now be shut by the weight of the in¬
cumbent w ater ; and therefore when the plunger D g
is depressed, it will force the water between C and b
through the rectangular pipe MMN, into the air ves¬
sel KK. Before the water enters the air vessel, it opens
the valve a, which shuts as soon as the plunger is again
raised, because the pressure of the water upon its under
side is removed. In this way the water is driven into
the air vessel by repeated strokes of the plunger, till its
surface is above the lower extremity of the pipe IG.
Nowt, as the air in the vessel KK has no communication
with the external air when the water is above I, it must
be condensed more and more, as new quantities of wa¬
ter are injected. It will therefore endeavour to ex¬
pand itself, and by pressing upon the surface H of the
water in the air vessel, it will drive the water through
the tube IG, and make it issue at F in a continued
stream, even when the plunger is rising to C. If the
pipe GHI were joined to the pipe MMN at P, without
the intervention of an air vessel, the stream of water
would issue at F only when the plunger was depressed.
HYDRODYNAMICS. Part HI,
314. The lifting pump, which is only a particular <)tl ^
/U
modification of the forcing pump, is represented in fig. dimes for
4. The barrel AB is fixed in the immoveable frame raising
KILM, the lower part of which is immersed in the ^ afe|-
water to be raised. The frame GEQHO consists of ^
two strong iron rods EQ, GH which move through t on
holes in IK and LM, the upper and lower ends of lifting
the pump. To the bottom GH of this frame is fixed pump,
an inverted piston with its bucket and valve uppermost■‘fe
at D. An inclined branch KH, either fixed to the top
of the barre’, or moveable by a ball and socket, as re¬
presented at F, must be fitted to the barrel so exactly as
to resist the admission both of air and water. The
branch KH is furnished with a valve C opening up- .
wards. Let the pump be now plunged in the water to Mode
the depth of H. Then if the piston frame be thrust operation,
down into the fluid, the piston will descend, and the
water by its upward pressure will open the valve at D
and gain admission above the piston. When the piston
frame is elevated, it will raise the water above D along
with it, and forcing it through the valve, it will be
carried off" by the spout.
315. An ingenious pump, invented by De la Hire, isDelaHkes
represented in fig. 5. It raises water equally quick by pump,
the descent as by the ascent of the piston. The pipes
B, C, E, F, all communicate with the barrel MD, and Fig. 5.
have each a valve at their top, viz. at b, S, e,f. The
piston rod LM and plunger K never rise higher
than K, nor descend lower than I), KD being the
length of the stroke. When the plunger K is raised
from I) to K, the pressure of the atmosphere forces the
water through the valve bt and fills the barrel up to
the plunger, in the very same way as in the forcing
pump. When the plunger K is depressed to D, it
forces the water between K and b up the pipe E and
through the valve e into the box G, where it issues at
the orifice O. During the descent of the plunger K
the valve falls, and covers the top of the pipe F j
and as the piston rod LM moves in a collar of leather
at M, and is air-tight, the air above the plunger, be¬
tween Q and M, will be rarefied, and likewise the
air in the pipe CS, which communicates with the rare¬
fied air by the valve S. The pressure of the air there¬
fore will raise the water in CS, force it through the
valve S, and fill the space above the plunger, expelling
the rarefied air through the valve f. When the piston
is raised from D to K, it will force the water through
the bent pipe F into the box G, so that the same quan¬
tity of water will be discharged at O through the pipe
F, during the ascent of the piston, as was discharged
through the pipe E during the piston’s descent. A-
bove the pipe O is a close air-vessel P, so that when
the water is driven above the spout O, it compresses the
air in the vessel P, and this air acting by its elasticity
on the surface of the water, forces it out at O in a con¬
stant and nearly equal stream. As the effect of the
machine depends on a proper proportion between the
height O of the spout above the surface of the well,
and the diameter of the barrel, the following table will
be of use to the practical mechanic.
On
nil
ffa
\okle
fiiinp
iij.6
Height
Chap. III.
HYDRODYNAMICS..
781'
Height of the
spout O above
the well.
Feet.
JO
20
25
3°
35
40
45
5°
Diameter of
the barrel D
Inches.
6.9
5 6
4.9
4.4
4.0
3-7
3-5
3-3
3-1
Height o! ihe
spout O above
the well.
Feet.
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Diameter of
the barrel D.
Inches.
2.8
2.7
2.6
25
2.5
2.4
2-3
2.2
2.1
When the proportions in the preceding table are
observed, a man of common strength will raise water
much higher than he could do with a pump of the com¬
mon construction.
oble’s 316. A very simple pump which furnishes a continued
jmp! * stream is represented in fig. 6. It was invented by a Mr
!g. 6. Noble, and consists of a working barrel AB with two pis¬
tons C and B, which are moved up and down alternately
by the rods fixed to the lever EMN. The rod of the piston
B passes through the piston C, and the piston C moves
upon the rod AB. When the piston rod B is depressed
and elevated, it will make the water rise in the barrel
A, in the same way as in the sucking pump, whether the
valve C be moveable or not. Let us now suppose that
the water is raised to A, Then if the piston B is elevated
by depressing the extremity N of the lever, the water
at A will be raised higher in the barrel, and issue at
the spout P, and when the same piston B is depressed
by elevating the end N of the lever, the piston C is evi¬
dently raised, and the water above it will be expelled
at P. This pump, therefore, will give a continued
stream, for as the pistons ascend and descend alternate¬
ly, one of them must always be forcing the water out
at P. The pistons are elevated and depressed by means
of toothed arches, c and d, working in the teeth of a
rack, at the extremities a, b of the piston rod.,
iiehauan’s 317* The pump invented by Mr Buchanan is shewn
im[>. *n ^ Jn the vertical section DGA, A is the suc-
S*7* tion barrel, D the working barrel, E the piston, G the
spout, B the inner valve, and C the outer valve. These
valves are of the kind called clack valves, and have
their hinges generally of metal. It is easily seen that
when the piston E is raised, the water will rise through
the suction barrel A, into the working barrel D, in
the same way as in the sucking pump j and that when
the piston E is depressed, it will force the water be¬
tween it and the valve B, through the valve C, and
make it issue at G. The points of difference between
this pump and those of the common form, are,—
that it discharges the water below the piston, and has
its valves lying near each other. Hence the sand or
mud which may be in the water, is discharged without
injuring the barrel or the piston leathers j and as the
valves B, C may be of any size, they will transmit,
without being choked, any rubbish which may rise in
the suction barrels. If any obstruction should happen
* to the valves, they are within the reach of the work-
• man’s hand, and may be cleared without taking the
pump to pieces. This simple machine may be quickly
converted into a fire engine, by adding the air-vessel
El, which is screwed like a hosepipe, and by fixing in
the spout G a perforated stopple fitted to receive such
pipes as are employed in fire engines. When these addi¬
tions are made, the water, as in the case of the forcing'
pump, will be driven into the air vessel IE, and repelled
through the perforated stopple G, by the elasticity of
the included air.
On Ma¬
chines for'
raising
Water.
318. A simple method of working two pumps at once Balance-
by means of a balance, is exhibited in fig. 8. where AB PumP*
is the balance, having a large iron ball at each end, Figs-s & 9-
placed in equilibrium on the two spindles C, see fig. 9.
The person who works the pump stands on two hoards
I, I, nailed to two cross pieces fastened to the axis of
the machine, and supports himself by a cross bar E) d
joined to the two parts D, E. At the distance of ten
inches on each side of the axis are suspended the iron rods
M, N, to which the pistons are attached. The work¬
man, by bearing alternately on the right and left foot,
puts the balance in motion. The pistons M, N are
alternately elevated and depressed, and the water raised
in the barrel of each, is driven into the pipe HIE, in
which it is elevated to a height proportional to the
diameter of the valves, and the power of the balance.
In order to make the oscillations of the balance equal,
and prevent it from acquiring too great a velocity, iron
springs F, G are fixed to the upright posts, which limit
the length of its oscillations.
319. The chain pump is represented in fig. 1. It con-Chaiii-
sists of a chain MTHG, about 30 feet long, carryingPUU1P-
a number of flat pistons M, N, O, P, Q, which are
made to revolve in the barrels ABC1) and GH, by \
driving the wheel F. When the flat pistons are at the
lower part of the barrel T, they are immersed in the
water RR, and as they rise in the barrel GH, they
bring up the water along with them into the reservoir
MG, from which it is conveyed by the spout S. The
teeth of the wheel F are so contrived as to receive one-
half of the flat pistons, and let them fold in; and some¬
times another wheel like F is fixed at the bottom D.
The distance of the pistons from the side of the barrel
is about half an inch j but as the machine is ge¬
nerally worked with great velocity, the ascending pis¬
tons bring along with them into the reservoir as much
water as fills the cavity GH. Sometimes chain pumps
are constructed without the barrels ABCD and GEI.
In this case, the flat pistons are converted into buckets
connected with a chain, which dip in the water with
their mouths downwards, and convey it to the reservoir.
The buckets are moved by hexagonal axles, and the
distance between each is nearly equal to the depth of
the buckets. Chain pumps are frequently in an inclin¬
ed position, and in this position they raise the greatest
quantity of water when the distance of the flat pistons
is equal to their breadth, and when the inclination of
the barrels is about 240 21'.
320. The hair-rope machine, invented by the SieurHair-rope
Vera, operates on the same principle as the chain pump, machine ot
Instead of a chain of pistons moving round the wheel F, s’eur
a hair rope is substituted. The part of the rope at T^era*
that is lowest always dips in the water, which adhering Fig- 1.
to the rope is raised along with it. When the rope
reaches the top at G and M, it passes through two
small tubes, which being fixed in the bottom of the re¬
servoir
Machine
%vith cu¬
shions in¬
stead of fiat
pistons.
Common
squirting
engine.
rig. 2.
Improved
fire engine.
r}8- 3-
Newsham’s
fire-engine.
Fig. 4.
H Y D R O D
servolr prevent tlie water from returning into the well.
Sometimes a common rope is employed, having a num¬
ber of stuffed cushions fixed to it instead of the flat pis¬
tons in the chain pump. These cushions carry the
water along with them through the barrel HG, and
deliver it into the reservoir.—For the description of
other pumps, see the article Pump j and for pump mills,
see the article Mill.
Sect. II. On Engines for Extinguishing Fire.
321. The common fire engine which discharges water
in successive jets is represented in fig. 2. and is only a
modification of the lifting pump. In the vessel AB
full of water, is immersed the frame DC of a common
lifting pump. This frame, and consequently the pis¬
ton N, is elevated and depressed by means of the le¬
vers E, F, and the water which is raised is forced
through the pipe G, which may be moved in any di¬
rection by means of the elastic leather pipe H, or by a
ball and socket screwed on the top of the pump. While
the piston N is descending, the stream at G is evident¬
ly discontinued, and issues only at each elevation of the
piston. The vessel AB is supplied with water by
buckets, and the pump is prevented from being chok¬
ed by the strainer LK which separates from the water
any mud that it may happen to contain.
322. As this fire engine does not afford a continued
stream, it is not so useful in case of accidents as when
the stream is uninterrupted. An improved engine of
this sort is represented in fig. 3, where D, E, are
two forcing pumps connected with the large vessel OG,
and wrought by the levers F, G, moving upon H as a
fulcrum. This apparatus is plunged and fastened in
the vessel AB partly filled with water, and by means
of the forcing pump DE, the operation of which has
already been described, the water is driven through the
valves I, L into the large vessel OG, where the in¬
cluded air is condensed. Into this vessel is inserted the
tube PO communicating with the leathern pipe ORQS.
The elasticity of the condensed air in the vessel OG
pressing upon the surface of the water in that vessel,
forces it up through the tube PO into the leathern
pipe, from whose extremity S, it issues with great force
and velocity ; and as the condensed air is continually
pressing upon the water in the vessel OG, the stream at
$ will be constant and uniform.
323. A section of the fire engine, as improved by Mr
Newsham, is represented in fig. 4. where TU and
WX are the forcing pumps corresponding with D and
C in fig. 3. YZ the large vessel corresponding with
GO, and ef the tube corresponding with PO. The
vessels 1U, WX, YZ, the horizontal canals ON, QP,
ML, and the vertical canal FE, all communicate with
each other by means of four valves O, I, K, P opening
upwards, and the vertical pipe is immersed in the water
to be raised. When the piston 11 is raised by means of
the double lever «s /3, a vacuum would be made in the
barrelTU, if the water at R were prevented from rising j
but as this barrel communicates with the vessel of wa¬
ter below EF, on the surface of which the pressure of
the atmosphere is exerted, the water will rise through
EF, force open the valve H, and follow the piston R.
By depressing the piston R, however, the water is
driven down the barrel, closes the valve H, and rushes
Y N A M I C S. Part Hi.
through the valve I into the air vessel YZ. The very 0n Ma-
same operation is going on with the pump WX, which chines for
forces the water into the air vessel through the valve raising
K. By these means the air vessel is constantly filling , Water-
with water, and the included air undergoing continual ' ^
condensation. The air thus compressed, reacts upon
the surface YZ of the water, and forces it through the
tube ef to the stop-cock eg, whence after turning the
cock, the water passes into the tube h, fixed to a ball
and socket, by which it may be discharged in any di¬
rection.
3 24. The fire engine has undergone various alterations Reference
and improvements from Bramah, Dickenson, Simpkin,*0 the im-
Raventree, Philips and Furst, an account of whose en. Provements
gines may he seen in the Repertory of Arts, &c. A
very simple and cheap fire engine has been invented
by Mr B. Dearborn, and is described in the American
Transactions for 1794, and in Gregory’s Mechanics,
vol. ii. p. 177.
Sect. III. On Whitehurst's Machine, and Montgol- %
fier's Hydraulic Ram. " Trims
1775.
325. Mr Whitehurst * was the first who suggested The idea of
the ingenious idea of raising water by means of its mo-raising wa-
mentum. A machine upon the same principle asMrterbyitl
Whitehurst’s, but in an improved form, has lately
made its appearance in France, and excited consider-first sug-
able attention both on the continent and in this coun-gested by
try. Whatever credit, therefore, has been given toMr White-
the inventor of the hydraulic ram, justly belongs tollurst*
our countryman Mr Whitehurst, and Montgolfier is
entitled to nothing more than the merit of an im¬
prover.
326. Mr W hitehurst’s machine, which was actually Descrip-
erected at Oulton in Cheshire, is represented in fig. i.tion of Mr
where AM is the original reservoir having its surface ma
in the same horizontal line with the bottom of the re-^ynj *
servoir BN. The diameter of the main pipe AE is pl ^
one inch and a half, and its length about 200 yards ;
and the branch pipe EF is of such a size that the height tier, 1.
of the surface M of the reservoir is nearly 16 feet above
the cock F. In the valve box D is placed the valve
a, and into the air vessel C are inserted the extremities
m, n of the main pipe, bent downwards to prevent the
air from being driven out, when the water is forced
into it. Now as the cock F is 16 feet below the reser¬
voir AM, the water will issue from F with a velocity
of nearly 30 feet per second. As soon as the cock F
therefore is opened, a column of water 200 yards long
is put in motion, and though the aperture of the cock
F be small, this column must have a very considerable
momentum. Let the cock F be now suddenly stopped,
and the water will rush through the valve a into the
air vessel C, and condense the included air. This con¬
densation must take place every time the cock is shut,
and the imprisoned air being in a state of high compres¬
sion, will react upon the water in the air vessel, and
raise it into the reservoir BN.
327. A section of tlie hydraulic ram of Montgolfier Description
is exhibited in fig. 2. where R is the reservoir, RS theoi iViout-
height of the fall, and ST the horizontal canal which gotfier’*^
conveys the water to the engine ABHTC. E and I)diaulio
are two valves, and FG a pipe reaching within a veryram*
little of the bottom CB. Let us now suppose that wa-^’o*2*
ter
l'3'
|tcri|it
Archil
111 ten
“Sine.
So,
?Nn,
k
Iwp. III. H Y D R O D
in Ma ter is permitted to descend from the reservoir. It will
nines for evidently rush out at the aperture mn till its velocity is
Vatef SUCh aS t0 f°rCe Up the Valve E* Tl,e water being thus
- suddenly checked, and unable to find a passage at mny
vyill rush forwards to H and raise the valve I). por¬
tion of water being thus admitted into the vessel ABC,
the impulse of the column of fluid is spent, the valves
I) and E fall, and the water issues at m n as before j
when its motion is again checked, and the same opera¬
tion repeated, which has now been described. When¬
ever, therefore, the valve E closes, a portion of water
will force its way into the vessel ABC, and condense
the air which it contains, for the included air has no
communication with the atmosphere after the bottom of
the pipe EG is beneath the surface of the injected wa¬
ter. rl his condensed air will consequently react upon
the surface of the water, and raise it in the pipe EG to
an altitude proportioned to the elasticity of the included
air. The external appearance of the engine, drawn
from one in the possession of Professor Leslie, is repre-
]| . 3. seated in fig. 3. where ABC is the air vessel, F the
valve box, G the extremity of the valve, and M, N
screws for fixing the horizontal canal to the machine.
W hen the engine is employed to form a jet of w-ater, a
piece of brass. A, with a small aperture, is screwed upon
the top of the tube EG, which, in that case, rises no
higher than the top of the air vessel. From this descrip¬
tion it will he seen, that the only difference between
the engines of Montgolfier and Whitehurst, is, that the
one requires a person to turn the cock, while the other
has the advantage of acting spontaneously. Montgol¬
fier (g) assures us^ that the honour of this invention
does not belong to England, but that he is the sole in¬
ventor, and did not receive a hint from any person
whatever. We leave the reader to determine the de¬
gree of credit to which these assertions are entitled.— It
would appear from some experiments made by Mont¬
golfier, that the effect of the water ram is equal to be¬
tween a half and three-fourths of the power expended,
which renders it superior to most hydraulic machines.
Appendix to Ferguson's Lectures, p. 19.
Sect. IV. On Archimedes's Screw Engine.
1 cription 32^. The screw engine invented by Archimedes is
l rc'H"K* represented in fig. 4. where AB is a cylinder with a
» tne flexible pipe, CEHOGF, wrapped round its circnmfe-
rence like a screw'. The cylinder is inclined to the ho-
I . 4. rizoo, and supported at one extremity by the bent pil¬
lar IK, while its other extremity, furnished with a pivot,
is immersed in the water. When, by means of the
handle K, the cylinder is made to revolve upon its
axis, the water which enters the lower orifice of the
flexible pipe is raised to the top, and discharged at
I). On some occasions, when the water to be raised
moves with a considerable velocity, the engine is put
in motion by a number of floatboards fixed at L, and
( ration impelled by the current; and if the water is to be
S( ^ raised to a great height, another cylinder is immersed in
(,; the vessel D, which receives the water from the first
Y N A M I C S.
783
cylinder, and is driven by a pinion fixed at I. In this On Ma-,
way> fiy having a succession of screw engines, and a sue- chines for
cession of reservoirs, water may be raised to any alti- raising
tude. An engine of this kind is described in Ferguson’s t ^ ^
Lectures, vol. ii. p. 113. *
329* In order to explain the reason why the water Fig 5.
rises in the spiral tube, let AB be a section of the en¬
gine, BCrfDE the spiral tube, BF a horizontal line
or the surface of the stagnant water which is to be
raised, and ABF the angle which the axis of the cy¬
linder makes with the horizon. Then, the water which
enters the extremity B of the spiral tube will descend
to C, and remain there as long as the cylinder is at
rest. But if a motion of rotation be communicated to
the cylinder, so that the lowest part C of the spiral
BCD move towards B, and the points <7, D, E towards
C, and become successively the lowest parts of the spi¬
ral, the water must occupy successively the points d,
D, E, and therefore rise in the tube j or, which is the
same thing, when the point C moves to c, the point d
will be at C ; and as the water at C cannot rise along
with the point C to c, on account of the inclination
of C c to the horizon, it must occupy the point d of the
spiral, when C has moved to c; that is, the water has
a tendency to occupy the lower parts of the spiral, and
the rotatory motion withdraws this part of the spiral
from the water, and causes it to ascend to the top of
the tube. By wrapping a cord round the cylinder, and
inclining it to the horizon, so that the angle ABC may
be greater than the angle ABF, and then making it
revolve upon its axis, the preceding remarks will be
clearly illustrated.—If the direction of the spiral BC
should be horizontal, that is, if it should coincide with
the line BF, the water will have no tendency to move
towards C, and therefore cannot be raised in the tube.
For a similar reason, it will not rise when the point C
is above the horizontal line BF. Consequent! y, in the
construction of this engine, the angle ABC, which the
spiral forms with the side of the cylinder, must always
be greater than the angle ABF, at which the cylinder
is inclined to the horizon. In practice, the angle of
inclination ABF should generally be abont 50°, and
the angle ABC about C50.
330. The theory of this engine is treated at great
length by Hennert, in his Dissertation sur la vis d'Ar-
chimede, Berlin 1767 j by Pitot, in the Memoirs of the
French Academy, and by Euler in the Nov. Comment.
Petrop. tom. v. An account of Pitot’s investigations
may be seen in Gregory’s Mechanics, vol. ii. p. 348.
Sect. V. On the Pc rsian Wheel.
331. The Persian wheel is an engine which raises Description
water to a height equal to its diameter. It is shewn in of the Per-
fitr. 6. where CDE is the wheel driven by the streams*ari wheel.
AB acting upon floatboards fixed on one side of its rim.
A number of buckets, a, r/, n, a, are disposed on the 6*
opposite side of the rim, and suspended by strong pins,
h, b, b, b, &c. When the wheel is in motion, the de¬
scending buckets immerge into the stream, and ascend
full
^ (G) Cette invention n'est point originaire d'Angleterre, die appartknt toute entiere a la France. Je declare que
fen suit) le seal inventeur, et que l'idee nc nden a ctefour nie par personae. Journal DES Mines, vol. xiii. N° 73.
784
On Ma¬
chines For
raising
Water.
Plate
LXXIY.
fiff. 7*
HYDRODYNAMICS. Part III.
full of water till they reach the top K, where they
strike against the extremity n of the fixed reservoir M,
and being overset, discharge their contents into that
reservoir. As soon as the bucket quits the reservoir,
it resumes its perpendicular position by its own weight,
and descends as before. On each bucket is fixed a
spring r, which moves over the top of the bar m, fas¬
tened to the reservoir. By this means the bottom of
the bucket is raised above the level of its mouth, and
its contents completely discharged.
332. On some occasions the Persian wheel is made
to raise water only to the height of its axle. In this
case, instead of buckets, its spokes c, o', e, g, h, are
made of a spiral form, and hollow within, so that their
inner extremities all terminate in the box N on the
axle, and their outer extremities in the circumference
of the wheel. When the rim CDEF, therefore, is im¬
mersed in the stream, the water runs into the tubes
C, D, E, F, &c. rises in the spiral spokes e, cl, &c. and
is discharged from the orifices at O into the reservoir
Q, from which it may be conveyed in pipes.
Sect. VI. On the Zurich Machine.
333. This machine is a kind of pump invented and
erected by H. Andreas Wirtz, an ingenious tin-plate
worker in Zurich, and operates on a principle different
from all other hydraulic engines. The following de¬
scription of it, written by Dr Robison, is transferred to
this part of the work for the sake of uniformity.
334. Fig. 7. is a sketch of the section of the ma¬
chine, as it was first erected by Wirtz at a dye-house
in Eimmat, in the suburbs or vicinity of Zurich. It
consists of a hollow cylinder, like a very large grind¬
stone, turning on a horizontal axis, and partly plunged
in a cistern of water. The axis is hollow at one end,
and communicates with a perpendicular pipe CBZ, part
of which is hid by the cylinder. This cylinder or
drum is formed into a spiral canal by a plate coiled up
within it like the main spring of a watch in its box}
only the spires are at a distance from each other, so as
to form a conduit for the water of uniform width. This
spiral partition is well joined to the two ends of the cy¬
linder, and no water escapes between them. The
outermost turn of the spiral begins to widen about
three-fourths of a circumference from the end, and
this gradual enlargement continues from Q to S near¬
ly a semicircle : this part may be called the Horn.
It then widens suddenly, forming a Scoop or shovel
SS'. The cylinder is supported so as to dip seve¬
ral inches into the water, whose surface is represented
by VV'.
335* When this cylinder is turned round its axis in
the direction ABEO, as expressed by the two darts, the
scoop SS' dips at V' and takes up a certain quantity of
water before it immerges again at V. This quantity is
sufficient to fill the taper part SQ, which we have call¬
ed the Horn ; and this is nearly equal in capacity to
the outermost uniform spiral round.
336. After the scoop has emerged, the water passes
along the spiral by the motion of it round the axis, and
drives the air before it into the rising-pipe, where it
escapes.—In the mean time, air comes in at the mouth
of the scoop; and when the scoop again dips into the
water, it again takes in some. Thus there is now a
3
part filled with water and a part filled with air. Con- On M
tinuing this motion, we shall receive a second round of chines for
water and another of air. The water in any turn of raising
the spiral will have its two ends on a level; and the air, ^ater'
between the successive columns of water will be in its *
natural state ; for since the passage into the rising pipe
or Main is open, there is nothing to force the water
and air into any other position. But since the spires
gradually diminish in their length, it is plain that the
column of water will gradually occupy more and more
of the circumference of each. At last it will occupy
a complete turn of some spiral that is near the centre ;
and when sent farther in, by the continuance of the mo¬
tion, some of it will run back over the top of the suc¬
ceeding spiral. Thus it will run over at K 4 into the
right-hand side of the third spiral. Therefore it will
push the water of this spire backwards, and raise its
other end, so that it also will run over backwards before
the next turn be completed. And this change of dis¬
position will at last reach the first or outermost spiral,
and some water will run over into the horn and scoop,
and finally into the cistern.
337. But as soon as water gets into the rising pipe,
and rises a little in it, it stops the escape of the air when
the next scoop of water is taken in. Here are now
two columns of water acting against each other by hy¬
drostatic pressure and the intervening column of air.
They must compress the air between them, and the wa¬
ter and air-columns will now he unequal. This will
have a general tendency to keep the whole water back,
and cause it to be higher on the left or rising side of
each spire than on the right descending side. The ex--
cess of height will be just such as produces the com¬
pression of the air between that and the preceding co¬
lumn of water. This will go on increasing as the wa¬
ter mounts in the rising pipe $ foy the air next to the
rising pipe is compressed at its inner end with the weight
of the whole column in the main. It must be as much
compressed at its outer end. This must be done by the
water column without it j and this column exerts this
pressure partly by reason that its outer end is higher
than its inner end, and partly by the transmission of
the pressure on its outer end by air, which is similarly
compressed from without. And thus it will happen
that each column of water, being higher at its outer
than at its inner end, compresses the air on the water
column beyond or within it, which transmits this pres¬
sure to the air beyond it, adding to it the pressure
arising from its own want of levels at the ends. There¬
fore the greatest compression, viz. that of the air next
the main, is produced by the sum of all the transmitted
pressures ; and these are the sum of all the differences
between the elevations of the inner ends of the water
columns above their outer ends: and the height to
which the water will rise in the main will be just equal
to this sum.
338. Draw the horizontal linesK'Ki, K'K 2, K'K 3,
&c. and mn, mn, mn, &c. Suppose the left-hand spaces
to be filled with water, and the right-hand spaces to be
filled with air. There is a certain gradation of com¬
pression which will keep things in this position. The
spaces evidently decrease in arithmetical progression ;
so do the hydrostatic heights and pressures of the wa¬
ter columns. If therefore the air be dense in the same
progression, all will be in bydrostatical equilibrium.
New
ha
)nA
line5
■aisi!
iVati
-v
Plat
;lx
fig.;
Plat
:lx:
%•!
I liap. III.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
?8
•n Ma- Now this is evidently producible by the mere motion
lines for of the machine j for since the density and compression
aisinaj in each air column is supposed inversely as the bulk of
. ^ ^ten , the column, the absolute quantity of air is the same in
Plate > therefore the column first taken in will pass gra-
< LXXIV dually inwards, and the increasing compression will
Sg» 7» cause it to occupy precisely the whole right-hand side
of every spire. The gradual diminution of the water
columns will be produced during the motion by the
water running over backwards at the top, from spire to
spire, and at last coming out by the scoop.
339. It is evident that this disposition of the air and
water will raise the water to the greatest height, be¬
cause the hydrostatic height of each water column is
the greatest possible, viz. the diameter of the spire.
This disposition may be obtained in the following man¬
ner : Take CL to CB as the density of the external
air to its density in the last column next the rising-pipe
or main ; that is, make CL to CB as 33 feet (the
height of the column of water which balances the at¬
mosphere), to the sum of 33 feet and the height of the
rising-pipe. Then divide BL into such a number of
turns, that the sum of their diameters shall be equal to
the height of the main $ then bring a pipe straight
from L to the centre C. The reason of all this is very
evident.
340. But when the main is very high, this construc¬
tion will require a very great diameter of the drum, or
many turns of a very narrow pipe. In such cases it
will be much better to make the spiral in the form of
Plate a cork-screw, as in fig. 1. instead of this fiat form like
flLXXV. a watch spring. The pipe which forms the spiral may
be lapped round the frustum of a cone, whose greatest
diameter is to the least (which is next to the rising
pipe) in the same proportion that we assigned to CB
and CL. By this construction the water will stand
in every round so as to have its upper and lower sur¬
faces tangents to the top and bottom of the spiral, and
the water columns will occupy the whole ascending
side of the machine, while the air occupies the descend¬
ing side.
341. This form is vastly preferable to the flat: it
will allow us to employ many turns of a large pipe,
and therefore produce a great elevation of a large
quantity of water.
The same thing will be still better done by lapping
the pipe on a cylinder, and making it taper to the end,
in such a proportion that the contents of each round
may be the same as when it is lapped round the cone.
It will raise the water to a greater height (but with an
increase of the impelling power) by the same number
of turns, because the vertical or pressing height of each
column is greater.
Nay, the same thing may be done in a more simple
manner, by lapping a pipe of uniform bore round a
cylinder. But this will require more turns, because
the water columns will have less differences between
the heights of their two ends. It requires a very mi¬
nute investigation to show the progress of the columns
of air and water in this construction, and the various
changes of their arrangement, before one is attained
which will continue during the working of the machine.
342. We have chosen for the description of the ma¬
chine that construction which made its principle and
Vol. X. Part II. f
manner of working most evident, namely, which con- On Ma-
tained the same material quantity of air in each turn of chines tor
the spiral, more and more compressed as it approaches ^‘s,n^
to the rising pipe. Wq should otherwise have been ob- ' ,
liged to investigate in great detail the gradual progress
of the water, and the frequent changes of its arrange¬
ment, before we could see that one arrangement would
be produced which would remain constant durin g the
working of the machine. But this is not the best con¬
struction. We see that, in order to raise water to the
height of a column of 34 feet, which balances the at¬
mosphere, the air in the last spire is compressed into
half its bulk j and the quantity of water delivered into
the main at each turn is but half of what was received
into the first spire, the rest flowing back from spire to
spire, and being discharged at the spout.
343. But it may be constructed so as that the quan¬
tity of water in each spire may be the same that was re¬
ceived into the first j by which means a greater quan¬
tity (double in the instance now given) will be deliver¬
ed into the main, and raised to the same height by very
nearly the same force.—This may be done by another
proportion of the capacity of the spires, whether by a
change of their caliber or of their diameters. Suppose
the bore to be the same, the diameter must be made
such that the constant column of water, and the column
of air, compressed to the proper degree, may occupy
the whole circumference. Let A be the column of wa¬
ter which balances the atmosphere, and 7i the height to
which the water is to be raised. Let A be to A-f-4
as I to 7ti.
344. It is plain that m will represent the density of
the air in the last spire, if its natural density be I, be¬
cause it is pressed by the column A~\-h, while the com¬
mon air is pressed by A. Let 1 represent the constant
water column, and therefore nearly equal to the air
column in the first spire. The whole circumference of
the last spire must be 14- —, in order to hold the wa¬
rn
ter I, and the air compressed into the space — or
A
A-\-h‘
345. The circumference of the first spire is i-f-i or
2. Let D and d be the diameters of the first and last
spires : we have 2:14—— =D : d. or 2 m : w-f-izr
m
D : d. Therefore if a pipe of uniform bore be lapped
round a cone, of which D and d are the end diameters,
the spirals will be very nearly such as will answer the
purpose. It will not be quite exact, for the interme¬
diate spirals will be somewhat too large. The conoidal
frustum should be formed by the revolution of a curve
of the logarithmic kind. But the error is very tri¬
fling. _
With such a spiral, the full quantity of water which
was confined in the first spiral will find room in the
last, and will be sent into the main at every turn. This
is a very great advantage, especially when the water is
to be much raised. The saving of power by this change
of construction is always in proportion to the greatest
compression of the air.
The great difficulty in the construction of any
5 G of
786
On Ma- of these forms is in determining the form and position
chines lor 0f the horn and the scoop ; and on this greatly depends
Water ^ Per^ormance machine. The following instruc-
1 v , tions will make it pretty easy.
Plate 34^. Let ABEO (fig. 2.) represent the first or out-
CCLXXV. ermost round of the spiral, of which the axis is C. Sup-
2' pose it immerged up to the axis in the water W, we
have seen that the machine is most efiective when the
surfaces KB and O of the water columns are distant
the whole diameter BO of the spiral. Therefore let
the pipe be first supposed of equal calibre to the very
mouth Ec, which we suppose to be just about to dip
into the water. The surface O w is kept there, in op¬
position to the pressure of the water column BAO, by
the compressed air contained in the quadrant OE, and
in the quadrant which lies behind EB. And this
compression is supported by the columns behind, be¬
tween this spire and the rising pipe. But the air in the
outermost quadrant EB is in its natural state, commu¬
nicating as yet with the external air. When, however,
the mouth Ee has come round to A, it will not have
the water standing in it in the same manner, leaving
the half space BEO filled with compressed air j for it
took in and confined only what filled the quadrant BE.
It is plain, therefore, that the quadrant BE must be
so shaped as to take in and confine a much greater
quantity of air ; so that when it has come to A, the
space BEO may contain air sufficiently dense to support
the column AO. But this is not enough : For when
the wide mouth, now at A ee, rises up to the top, the
surface of the water in it rises also, because the part
AO 0 a is more capacious than the cylindric part OE<?o
which succeeds it, and which cannot contain all the
water that it does. Since, then, the water in the spire
rises above A, it will press the water back from O to
some other position m'n', and the pressing height of the
water-column will be diminished by this rising on the
other side of O. In short, the horn must begin to wi¬
den, not from B, but from A, and must occupy the
whole semicircle ABE $ and its capacity must be to
the capacity of the opposite cylindrical side as the sum
of BO, and the height of a column of water which ba¬
lances the atmosphere to the height of that column.
For then the air which filled it, when of the common
density, will fill the uniform side BEO, when com¬
pressed so as to balance the vertical column BO. But
even this is not enough 5 for it has not taken in enough
of water. When it dipped into the cistern at E, it
carried air down with it, and the pressure of the water
in the cistern caused the water to rise into it a little
way } and some water must have come over at B from
the other side, which was drawing narrower. There¬
fore when the horn is in the position EOA, it is not
full of water. Therefore when it comes into the situa¬
tion OAB, it cannot be full nor balance the air on the
opposite side. Some will therefore come out at O,
and rise up through the water. The horn must there¬
fore, 1st, Extend at least from O to B, or occupy half
the circumference ; and, 2dly, It must contain at least
twice as much water as would fill the side BEO, It will
do little harm though it be much larger 5 because the
surplus of air which it takes in at E will be discharged,
as the end E e of the horn rises from O to B, and it
will leave the precise quantity that is wanted. The
overplus water will be discharged as the horn comes
2
Part III.
round to dip again into the cistern. It is possible, but on
requires a discussion too intricate for this place, to make chines for
it of such a size and shape, that while the mouth moves raising
from E to B, passing through O and A, the surface of, Watei’.
the water in it shall advance from E s to O ??, and be ' J
exactly at O when the beginning or narrow end of the
horn arrives there.
347. We mustalso secure the proper quantity of water.
When the machine is so much immersed as to be up to
the axis in water, the capacity which thus secures the
proper quantity of air will also take in the proper quan¬
tity of water. But it may be erected so as that the spi¬
rals shall not even reach the water. In this case it will
answer our purpose if we join to the end of the horn a
scoop or shovel QRSB (fig. 3.), which is so formed Plate
as to take in at least as much water as will fill the horn. CCLXXy.
This is all that is wanted in the beginning of the mo- ^
tion along the spiral, and more than is necessary when
the water has advanced to the succeeding spire j but the
overplus is discharged in the way we have mentioned.
At the same time, it is needless to load the machine
with more water than is necessary, merely to throw it
out again. We think that if the horn occupies fully
more than one-half of the circumference, and contains
as much as will fill the whole round, and if the scoop
lifts as much as will certainly fill the horn, it will do
very well.
N. B. The scoop must be very open on the side
next the axis, that it may not confine the air as soon as
it enters the water. This would hinder it from recei¬
ving water enough.
348. The following dimensions of a machine erected
at Florence, and whose performance corresponded ex¬
tremely well with the theory, may serve as an ex¬
ample.
The spiral is formed on a cylinder of 10 feet dia¬
meter, and the diameter of the pipe is six inches. The
smaller end of the hern is of the same diameter j it
occupies three-fourths of the circumference, and is
7T8o-ths inches wide at the outer end. Here it joins the
scoop, which lifts as much water as fills the horn, which
contains 4340 Swedish cubic inches, each rzi.377
English. The machine makes six turns in a minute,
and raises 1354 pounds of water, or 22 cubic feet, 10
feet high in a minute.
'349. The above account will, we hope, sufficiently
explain the manner in which this singular hydraulic
machine produces its effect. When everything is exe¬
cuted by the maxims which we have deduced from its
principles, we are confident that its performance will
correspond to the theory •, and we have the Florentine
machine as a proof of this. It raises more than ten-
elevenths of what the theory promises, and it is not per¬
fect. The spiral is of equal caliber, and is formed on
a cylinder. The friction is so inconsiderable in this
machine, that it need not be minded : but the great
excellency is, that whatever imperfection there may be
in the arrangement of the air and water columns, this
only affects the elegance of the execution, causing the
water to make a few more turns in the spiral before it
can mount to the height required $ but wastes no power,
because the power employed is always in proportion to
the sum of the vertical columns of water in the rising
side of the machine ; and the height to which the water
is raised by it is in the very same proportion. It should
be
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Chap. IV. H Y D R O D
On Ma- he made to move very f.lo\v, that the water be not al-
chines for ways dragged up by the pipes, which would cause
raising niore lo run over from each column, and diminish the
■ pressure ot the remainder.
350. If the rising-pipe be made wide, and thus room
he made for the air to escape freely up through the wa¬
ter, it will rise to the height assigned ; but if it he nar¬
row, so that the air cannot get up, it rises almost as
slow as the water, and by this circumstance the water
is raised to a much greater height mixed with air, and
this with hardly anv more power. It is in this way that
we can account for the great performance of the Flo¬
rentine mac hine, which is almost triple of what a man
can do with the finest pump that ever was made : in¬
deed the performance is so great, that one is apt to sus¬
pect some inaccuracy in the accounts. The entry into
the rising-pipe should be no wider than the last part of
the spiral ; and it would be advisable to divide it into
four channels by a thin partition, and then to make the
rising-pipe very wide, and to put into it a number ot
slender rods, which would divide it into slender chan¬
nels that would completely entangle the air among the
water. This will greatly increase the height of the he¬
terogeneous column. It is surprising that a machine
that is so very promising should have attracted so little
notice. We do not know of any being erected out of
Switzerland, except at Florence in 1778. The account
of its performance was in consequence of a very public
trial in 1779, and honourable declaration of its merit,
by Sig. Lorenzo Ginori, who erected another, which
fully equalled it. It is shortly mentioned by Professor
Sulzer of Berlin, in the Sammlungen Vermischlen Schri-
sten for 1754. A description of it is published by the
Philosophical Society at Zurich in 1766, and in the
descriptions published by the Society in London for the
encouragement of Arts in 1776. The celebrated Da¬
niel Bernouilli has published a very accurate theory of
it in the Petersburgh Commentaries for 1772, and the
machines at Florence were erected according to his in¬
structions. Baron Alstromer in Sweden caused a glass
model of it to he made, to exhibit the internal motions
for the instruction of artists, and also ordered an opera¬
tive engine to be erected; but we have not seen any
account of its performance. It is a very intricate ma¬
chine in its principles j and an ignorant engineer, nay
the most intelligent, may erect one which shall hardly
do any thing •, and yet by a very trifling change, may
become very powerful. We presume that failures of
this kind have turned the attention of engineers from
it j but we are persuaded that it may be made very ef-
Plate fective, and we are certain that it must be very durable.
OCLXXV. Fig. 4. is a section of the manner in which the author
fig. 4. ’ has formed the communication between the spiral and
the rising pipe. P is the end of the hollow axis which is
united with the solid iron axis. Adjoining to P, on the
under side, is the entry from the last turn of the spiral.
At Q is the collar which rests on the supports, and
turns round in a hole of bell-metal, ff ^ a broad
flanch cast in one piece with the hollow part. Beyond
this the pipe is turned somewhat smaller, very round
and smooth, so as to fit into the mouth of the rising-
pipe, like the key of a cock. This mouth has a plate
ee attached to it. There is another plate d d, which
is broader than e e, and is not fixed to the cylindrical
part, but moves easily round it. In this plate are four
Y N A M I C S.
screws, such as gg, which go into holes in the plate
ff, and thus draw the two plates f f and dd together,
with the plate e e between them. Pieces of thin lea¬
ther are put on each side of e e ; and thus all escape of
water is effectually prevented, with a very moderate
compression and friction.
Chap. IV. On Machines in which Water is the
chief Agent.
Sect. I. On the Water Blowing Machine.
351. The wafer blowing machine consists of a reser-Description
voir of water AB, into the bottom of which the bent of tha wa-
leaden pipe ECU is inserted ; of a condensing vesseltei Mowing
DE, into whose top the lower extremity H of the pipe
is fixed, and of a pedestal P resting on the bottom of Plate
this vessel. When the water from the reservoir AB is
fiS- 5-
descending through the part CH of the pipe, it is in
contact with the external air by means of the orifices or
tubes m,n,o,p; and by the principle of the lateral
communication of motion in fluids (art. 160.), the air is
dragged along with the water. This combination of
air and water issuing from the aperture FI, and impin¬
ging upon the surface of the stone pedestal P, is disper¬
sed in various directions. The air being thus separated
from the water, ascends into the upper part of the vessel,
and rushes through the opening F, whence it is con¬
veyed by the pipe FG to the fire at G, while the wafer
falls to the lower part of the vessel, and is discharged
by the openings M, N.—That the greatest quantity of
air may be driven into the vessel DE, the water should
begin to fall at C with the least possible velocity; and
the height of the lowest tubes above the extremity H
of the pipe should be three-elevenths of the length of
the vertical tube CH, in order that the air may move
in the pipe FG with sufficient velocity.
352. Fabri and Dietrich imagined that the wind is Way in
produced by the decomposition of the water, or its which the
transformation into gas, in consequence of the agitation wind »s ge
and percussion of its parts. But M. Venturi, to whom neratot*'
we owe the first philosophical account of this machine,
has shewn that this opinion is erroneous, and that the
wind is supplied from the atmosphere, for bo wind was
generated when the lateral openings m, n, 0, p were
shut. The principal object, therefore, in the construc¬
tion of water blowing machines, is to combine as much
air as possible with the descending current. For this
purpose the water is often made to pass through a kind
of cullender placed in the open air, and perforated with
a number of small triangular orifices. Through these
apertures the water descends in many small streams;
and by exposing a greater surface to the atmosphere, it
carries along with it an immense quantity of air. The
water is then conveyed to the pedestal P by a pipe CH
opened and enlarged at C, so as to he considerably
wider than the end of the tube which holds the cullen¬
der.
353. It has been generally supposed that the water¬
fall should be very high ; but Dr Lewis has shewn, by
a variety of experiments, that a fall of four or five feet
is sufficient, and that when the height is greater than
this, two or more blowing machines may he erected, by
conducting the water from which the air is extricated,
into another reservoir, from which it again descends, and
5 G 2 generates
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Cause of
the rain
wind.
Descrip¬
tion of
Bramah’s
machine.
Plate
CCLXXV.
ill:. 6.
generates air as formerly. In order that the air which
is necessarily loaded with moisture, may arrive at the
furnace in as dry a state as possible, the condensing ves¬
sel DE should be made as high as circumstances will
permit j and in order to determine the strength of the
blast, it should be furnished with a gage a b filled with
water.
354. The rain wind is produced in the same way as
the blast of air in water blowing machines. When the
drops of rain impinge upon the surface of the sea, the
air which they drag along with them often produces a
heavy squall, which is sufficiently strong to carry away
the mast of a ship. The same phenomenon happens at
land, when the clouds empty themselves in alternate
showers. In this case, the wind proceeds from that
quarter of the horizon where the shower is falling.
The common method of accounting for the origin of
the winds by local rarefaction of the air appears preg¬
nant with insuperable difficulties ; and there is reason
to think that these agitations in our atmosphere ought
rather to be referred to the principle which we have
now been considering. I or farther information on this
subject, the reader is referred to Lewis’s Commerce of
Arts, Vvolfii Opera Mathematical tom.i.p.830. Journal
dcs Mines, N°xci. or Nicholson’s Journal, vol.xii.p. 48.
Sect. II. Bramah's Hydrostatic Press.
355* The machine invented by Mr Bramah of Pic¬
cadilly, depends upon the principle, that any pressure
exerted upon a fluid mass is propagated equally in eve¬
ry direction, (art. ill.). It is represented in fig. 6.
where A is a strong metallic cylinder, furnished with a
piston B perfectly water-tight. Into the bottom of this
cylinder is inserted the end of the bent tube C, the in¬
terior orifice of which is closed by the valve D. The
other extremity of the tube communicates with the for¬
cing pump E, by which water or other fluids may be
driven into the cylinder A. Then, if any pressure is
exerted on the surface of the water in the cylinder E
by means of the lever H, this pressure will be propa¬
gated to the cylinder A, and exert a certain force upon
the piston B, varying with the respective areas of the
sections of each cylinder. If the diameter of the cylin¬
der E is equal to the diameter of the cylinder A, and
if a force of 10 pounds is exerted at the handle
II, then the piston B will be elevated with a force of
10 pounds; if the diameter of E be one-half that of A,
the piston B will be raised with a force of 40 pounds,
because the area of the one piston is four times the area
of the other. Or, in general, if D be the diameter of
the cylinder A, d that of the cylinder E, and F the
force exerted at the lever H, we shall have r/3 : D*=:F :
—> which is the force exerted upon the piston B.
Thus, if r/= 2 inches, D =: 24 inches, and F =r 10
pounds, then
FXD
10 x 24 X 24
:   = 1440 pounds,
Now,
the force with which the piston B is elevated.  ,
as this force increases as dl diminishes, or as F and Da
increase, there is no limit to the power of the engine j
lor the diameter of the cylinder A may be made of any
size, and that of the cylinder E exceedingly small,
while the power may be still farther augmented by
Fart III,
lengthening the lever H, 1 he same effects may be Clepsydra?,
produced by injecting air into the pipe C by means of ——v—J
a large globe fixed at its extremity. Upon the same
principles the power and motion ol one machine may
be communicated to another £ lor we have only to con¬
nect the two machines by means of a pipe filled with
water, inserted at each extremity into a cylinder fur¬
nished with a piston. By this means the power which
depresses one ol the pistons will be transferred along tbe
connecting pipe, and will elevate the other piston. In
the same way water may be raised out of wells of any
depth, and at any distance from the place where the
power is applied 5 but we must refer the reader, for a
detailed account of these applications, to the specifica¬
tion of the patent obtained by Mr Bramah, or to Gre-
gory’s Mechanics, vol. ii. p. 120.
Sect. III. On Clepsydrce or Water-Clocks.
356. A clepsydra or water-clock, derived from History of
x-hiKTu, “ to steal,” and “ water,” is a machineck-psydi*.
which measures time by the motion of water (art. 1
I he invention of this machine has been ascribed to Sci-
pio Nasica, tbe cousin of Scipio Africanus, who flou¬
rished about 200 years before the Christian era. It was
well known, however, at an earlier period, among the
Egyptians, who employed it to measure the course of
the sun. It is highly probable that Scipio Nasica had
only the merit of introducing it into his native country.
These machines were in use for a very long period, and
continued to be employed as measurers of time till the
invention of the pendulum clock enriched the arts and
sciences,
357. rIhe clepsydra, invented by Ctesibius of Alex-The clep-
andna, was an interesting machine. The water which sydra of
indicated the progress of time by the gradual descent 0fCleSibil3S*
its surface, flowed in the form of tears from the eyes of
a human figure. Its head was bent down with age:
Its look was dejected, while it seemed to pay the last
tribute of regret to the fleeting moments as they passed.
■—1 he water which was thus discharged was collected
in a vertical reservoir, where it raised another figure
holding in its hand a rod, which, by its gradual ascent,
pointed out the hours upon a vertical column. The
same fluid was afterwards employed in the interior of
the pedestal, as the impelling power of a piece of ma¬
chinery which made this column revolve round its axis
in a year, so that the months and the days were always
shewn by this index, whose extremity described a ver¬
tical line divided according to the relative lengths of
the hours of day and night. Among the ancients the
length of the hours varied every day, and even the
hours of the day differed in length from those of the
night: for the length of the day, or the interval be¬
tween sunrise and sunset, was always divided into twelve
equal parts, while the length of the night, or the in¬
terval between sunset and sunrise, was divided into tbe
same number of parts, for hours. A farther description
of this beautiful machine, and others of the same na¬
ture, may be seen in Perrault’s Vitruvius.
358. The method of constructing clepsydrae, when
the vessel from which the fluid issues is cylindrical or
of any other form, has been shewn in Prop. VII.
Part II. Instead of dividing the sides of the vessel, for
a scale to ascertain the descent of the fluid surface, the
following
Bauiil
JtpSJi
ttu.
attr
%
Kii,
i Jhap. IV.
Iejis)d ae. following method may be adopted. In the bottom of the
cylindrical vessel ABCD, which is about 12 inches high,
j£. 3. and four inches in diameter, is inserted a small glass
adjutage E, which discharges the water in the vessel by
successive drops. A hole F, about half an inch in dia¬
meter, is perforated in the cover AB, so as to allow
the glass tube GT, about 16 inches long, and half an
inch in diameter, to move up and down without expe¬
riencing any resistance. To the extremity of this tube
is attached the ball I, which floats on the surface of
the water in the vessel, and is kept steady, either by in¬
troducing a quantity of mercury into its cavity, if it be
hollow, or by suspending a weight if it is a solid which
does not sink in water. When the vessel is filled with
water, the ball I will be at the top AB j then, in order
to graduate the tube C, let the water flow cut at E,
and by means of a watch mark the points on the tube
which descend to F after the lapse of every hour, every
half hour, and every quarter, and the instrument will be
finished. In order to use this bydroscope or water-clock,
pour water into the vessel ABCD till the hour of the
day is about to descend below F; and when this is
done, it will point out any succeeding hour till the
vessel is emptied.
amiltou’s 359’ clepsydra, invented by the honourable Mr
epsydra. Charles Hamilton, is represented in fig. 7. An open ca-
ig-7* nal e e, supplied with a constant and equal stream by
the syphon <7, has at each end ff, open pipes fi,f 2 of
exactly equal bores, which deliver the water that runs
along the canal e, alternately into the vessels g- 1, g-2,
in such a quantity as to raise the water from the mouth
of the tantalus t, exactly in an hour. The canal e e
is equally poised by the two pipesf i,f 2, upon a centre
r ; the ends of the canal e are raised alternately, as the
cups ss 2; are depressed, to which they are connected by
lines running over the pulleys//. The cups z 2; are
fixed at each end of the balance mm, which moves up
and down upon its centre v. n l, n 2, are the edges of
two wheels or pulleys, moving diflerent ways alternate¬
ly, and fitted to the cylinder 0 by oblique teeth both
in the cavity of the wheel and upon the cylinder, which,
when the wheel n moves one way, that is, in the direc¬
tion of the minute-hand, meet the teeth of the cylinder
and carry the cylinder along with it, and slip over those
of the cylinder when n moves the contrary way, the
teeth not meeting, but receding from each other. One
or other of these wheels n n continually moves 0 in the
789
same direction, with an equable and uninterrupted mo* CIopmtrK.
tion. A fine chain goes twice round each wheel, having ^
at one end a weight X, always out of the water, which
equiponderates with y at the other end, when kept
floating on the surface of the fluid in the vessel g-, which
y must always be ; the two cups 25, 2s, one at each end
of the balance, keep it in equilibrio, till one of them
is forced down hy the weight and impulse of the water,
which it receives from the tantalus 11 i. Each of these
cups z, 2, has likewise a tantalus of its own h, h, which
empties it after the water lias run from g, and leaves
the two cups again in equilibrio : 7 is a drain to car¬
ry off the water. The dial-plate, &c. needs no de¬
scription. The motion of the clepsydra is effected thus:
As the end of the canal e e, fixed to the pipe f I, is
the lowest in the figure, all the water supplied by the
syphon runs through the pipe f 1, into the vessel g- I,
till it runs over the top of the tantalus t; when it im¬
mediately runs out at i into the cup Z, at the end of
the balance ?n, and forces it down j the balance mov¬
ing on its centre v. When one side of m is brought
down, the string which connects it to J l, running
over the pulley /, raises the end /" 1, of the canal <?,
which turns upon its centre r, higher than f 2 ; conse¬
quently, all the water which runs through the syphon
<7 passes through f 2 intog- 2, till the same operation is
performed in that vessel, and so on alternately. As the
height to which the water rises in g in an hour, viz.
from S to /, is equal to the circumference of n, the
float y rising through that height along with the wa¬
ter, allows the weight X to act upon the pulley n,
which carries with it the cylinder0; and this, making
a revolution, causes the index k to describe an hour on
the dial-plate. This revolution is performed by the
pulley ra i j the next is performed by n 2, whilst n x
goes back, as the water in g I runs out through the
tantalus ; for y must follow the water, as its weight in¬
creases, out of it. The axis 0 always keeps moving the
same way ; the index p describes the minutes ; each
tantalus must be wider than the syphon, that the ves-
selsg-g- may be emptied as low as ,y, before the water
returns to them.
360. For farther information respecting subjects con¬
nected with hydrodynamics, see the articles Float*
jsg Bodies, Mechanics, Mill, Pump, Resistance
of Fluids, River, Specific Gravity, Siup-Building,
and Water-Works,
H Y D R O D Y N A M 1 C S.
INDEX.
A
DHARD's experiments on capillary
attraction, N° J30
lulteration in metals, how to detect
it, # '87
Archimedes’s method, 88
chimedes resolves the problem of
Hiero, ib*
screw engine, 32^
eometcr, 99
Deparcieux’s, 108
Atmosphere, pressure of, discovered by
Pascal, N* 8
Attraction, CA\>'i\\AYy, 112
attempt to explain it, 113
phenomena of, 114, &c.
B
Balance 318
Barker's mill, 300
Barometer, construction of, 72
Bellows, hydrostatic, 51
Bcrnouilli, Daniel, bis theory of the
motion of fluids, X° r g,'
John, on the motion of
fluids, 16
Blowing machine, 351'
Bossut makes numerous experiments on
the motion of fluids, 19
Ura/raflA’s hydrostatic press, 355
Breast wheels, 268
table for, 269
dimensions of,, 271-
Buat,
79°
Buat, Chevalier, makes accurate ex¬
periments on the motion of
water, N* 22
classes the experiments formerly
made, 21
Buc7ianan',s pump, 317
Canals, velocity of water in, 214
Canton on the compressibility of fluids, 29
Capillary attraction, * n 2
Jurin’s explana¬
tion of, 114
Dr Hamilton’s, 117
Dr Young’s, ib.
Laplace’s, 127
Achard’s experi¬
ments on, 130
Morveau’s expe¬
riments on, 131
Count Rumford’s, 133
Castelli explains several hydraulic
phenomena, 7
Centre of pressure, 47
of percussion, 48
Chain pump, 31^
Clepsydrae, history of, 336
Ctesibius’s, 337
Hamilton’s, 339
theory and construction of, 159
Communicating vessels, the surface of
water in them hori¬
zontal, 37
Conduit pipes, pressure which they
sustain, 168
experiments on the motion of
water in, 203
table of the quantities which
they discharge, 204
Cones, resistance which they sustain
in fluids, 239
Coulomb's experiments on the resist¬
ance of fluids, 221
Couplet's experiments on the motion
of water in conduit pipes, 211
Ctesibius invents the forcing pump, 4
his pump, 309
his clepsydra, 337
Cylinders, resistance which they sus¬
tain in fluids, 236—239
D
T)'Alembert applies his principle of
dynamics to the motion
of fluids, 17
Deparcieux's areometer, 108
experiments on overshot
wheels, 260
Dkas's hydrometer, 105
Dykes, on the construction of, 36
to find the dimensions of, 57 & 66
E
Egyptian wheel, 4
Engines for extinguishing fire, 321
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Euler, Albert, on overshotwheels, N° 267
his machine driven by
the reaction of wa-
ter, 304
on the motion of fluids, 17
Exhaustion of vessels, theory of, 133—137
experiments on, 1Q4
Eytelwein's experiments on the mo¬
tion of fluids, 178
Fahrenheit's hydrometer, 100
Fire-engine, common squirting, 321
improved, 322
Newsham’s, 323
Flaugergues on the oscillation of waves, 20
Floating bodies, equilibrium of, 73—82
apparent attraction and
repulsion of, 132
Fluids, perfect and imperfect, 27
pressure and equilibrium of, 32
experiments for illustrating it, 49
compressibility of, 28
cohesion of, n 2
theory of the motion of, 137
experiments on the motion of, 171
oscillation of, in a vertical sy¬
phon, 230
press equally in every direction, 32
surface of, always horizontal, 34
pressure of, on the bottom and
sides of the vessels, 43—46
immisceable, equilibrium of, 71
quantity of, discharged from
orifices, 131
lateral communication of mo¬
tion in, 130
Forcing pump, 313
Frontinus's work on the Roman aque¬
ducts, and on the mo¬
tion of fluids, - 3
CJ
Galileo lays the foundation of hydrau¬
lics by discovering the uni¬
form acceleration of gravity, 6
Globes, resistance which they sustain
in fluids, 239, 241
Gravimeter, gy
Gravities, specific, 70, in
H
Hair-rope machine, 320
Hamilton's clepsydra, 339
Hemispheres, resistance which they
sustain in fluids, 239, 247
Hiero invents the fountain of compres¬
sion, 4
Hiero's problem, 88
Hire's, De la, pump, 313
Horizontal wheels, 292
with curvilineal float-
boards, 294
conical, 297
103
I05
Index.
Hydraulic machinery, jsjo 2i;I
Hydraulic ram, Montgolfier’s, 327
Hydraulics, j & \ A
Hydrodynamics, ,
Hydrometer invented by Hypathia, 90
Fahrenheit’s lco
Jones’s,
Dicas’s,
Quin’s, I0g
Nicholson’s, 10y
Deparcieux’e, j0g
Wilson’s, I09
theorem for it with
weights, 101
with an engra-
, ved scale, 102
Hydrostatics, 1 & 2?
principles of, discovered
by Archimedes, 3
applied to experiments,
by Ghetaldus, ib,
Hydrostatic paradox,
machine for illustrat¬
ing it> 49
bellows,
press, Bramah’s, 333
Hypathia invents the hydrometer, 99
Jets, theory of vertical,
oblique,
experiments on,
Jones's hydrometer,
Imperfect fluids, what,
161,163
ib.
I96, 202
IO3
27
Lagrange on the oscillation of waves, 21
Lambert on overshot wheels, 267
on breast wheels, 269
Laplace on capillary attraction, 127
Levelling, foundation of, 33
Lifting pump, - ^
320
32S
M
Machine, hair-rope,
Whitehurst’s,
driven by the reaction of
water, 299
Zurich, 333, &c.
Machinery, hydraulic, 233
Maclaurin discusses the motion of fluids, 16
Mariotte's experiments on the motion
of fluids, 9
Afera/ry descends in capillary tubes, 123
cause of this, 124
Michelotti makes experiments on the
motion of water, 18
Mill, Barker’s, 300
Waring’s rules for con¬
structing it, 302
Millwrights tables, 283, 286
method of constructing
them, 284
Montgolfier's hydraulic ram, 327
Morveau's
Hid*
'im
few,
uvcr
fVa
'are
Wei
iPofen
Press
%n
idex.
lorveau's experiments on capillary
attraction, N° 131
N
Tewsham',s fire-engine, 323
rewtony Sir Isaac, his discoveries in
hydraulics, 12
on the oscillation of waves, 13 & 254
'icholsori’s hydrometer, 107
hhle's pump, 316
Toria, 4
O
scillation of waves considered by
Newton, 13 & 254
by Flaugergues, 20 & 254
by Lagrange, 21 & 254
of fluids, 250
Overshot wheels, 237
how to compute the momen¬
tum of the loaded arch, 258
on the diameter of, 259
on the proper velocity of, 260
according to Deparcieux, 261
Smeaton, 263
Bossut, 264
A. Euler’s researches on, 267
Lambert’s researches on, ib.
table for, ib.
'aradox, hydrostatic,
'arent's mill. See Barker's mill.
'ascal discovers the pressure of the
atmosphere,
writes on the equilibrium of
fluids,
his experiment to shew the
gravitation of fluids,
'ercussion, centre of,
'erfect fluids, what,
'ersian wheel,
'ipes, conduit, pressure exerted on them
by the included water,
experiments on this subject,
'oleni) marquis of, his experiments
on the motion of fluids,
'ressure, centre of,
'ump, Ctesibius’s,
sucking,
forcing,
lifting,
De la Hire’s,
Noble’s,
Buchanan’s,
balance,
chain,
Q
Inin's hydrometer,
44
ib.
55
48
27
331
168
213
14
47
309
310
3*3
3M
316
31;
21 8
319
106
R
'■(iin wind, cause of it, 354
'esistance sustained by cylinders, 236, 239
by cones, 239
by globes, 239, 241
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Resistance sustained by hemispheres,N°239
plane surfaces, 243 & 250
of fluids, 220
Coulomb’s experiments ou, 221
Hutton’s, 239
Vince’s, 245
Rivers, motion of, first attended to in
Italy, 10-
Guglielmini’s theory of, 11
Rumford, Count, on the adhesion of
fluids, 133
Screw-engine, Archimedes’s, 328
Segner’s form of Barker’s mill, 303
Smeaton on overshot wheels, 259, 263
Smeaton’s experiments on undershot
wheels, 286
Specific gravity defined, 70
gravities of bodies, how to de¬
termine, 94
gravity of solids, how to find, 95
of powders, 97
of fluids, 98
gravities, extensive table of. Jit
Sucking pump, 310
Syphon, invented by Hiero, 4
description of, 54
Tabic of the altitudes of different fluids
in capillary tubes by Martin, 119
of the quantities of water dis¬
charged by different orifices, 172
of the quantities of water dis¬
charged according to theory
and experiment, 174
of the results of Eytelwein’s ex¬
periments, 178
of the quantities of water dis¬
charged bv cylindrical tubes, 182,
i83
of the quantities discharged by
cylindrical tubes, according
to theory and experiment, 185
of the quantities discharged by
conical tubes, 187
of the quantities discharged by
orifices of various forms, 188
shewing the time in which ves¬
sels are partly exhausted, 194, 195
shewingthe altitudes,&c. ot jets, 196
of the quantities of water dischar¬
ged by conduit pipes, 204—211
shewing the pressure exerted
upon pipes, 213
of the velocity of water in ca¬
nals, _ 214,215
shewing the resistance of hemi¬
spheres, cones, globes, and
cylinders, 239
shewing the resistance of globes, 241
shewing the resistance of plane
surfaces* 243,245
791
Table of the maximum effect of over¬
shot wheels, N° 260, 264
for overshot wheels, 267
for breast wheels, 269
for undershot wheels, 285, 286
for machines driven by the re¬
action of water, 304
Torricelli discovers an important pro¬
position in hydraulics, 7
Torsion, the principle of, employed
by Coulomb to determine
the resistance of fluids, 221
Tubes, cylindrical, discharge more
water than simple orifices, 180
conical, Poleni’s experiments
with, 187
of various forms, Venturi’s ex¬
periments with, 188
capillary, how to measure their
diameters, 120
U
Undershot wheels, 272
number of their float-
boards^ 273—275
form of their floatboards,276
position of their float-
boards, 277
velocity of, 279
mamimum effect of, ac¬
cording to theory, 280
maximum effect of, ac¬
cording to Smeaton, 281
maximum effect of, ac¬
cording to Bossut, 282
tables for, 285, 286
how to construct
them, 284
Smeaton’s experiments
on, 289
Undulation of waves, 253
Velocity of fluids issuing from orifices, 137
Vena contractu, discovered by Newton, 138
quantity of its contrac¬
tion according to
different authors, 171
Venturidiiicavevs the lateral communi¬
cation of motion in fluids, 23
Vessels, time in which they are ex¬
hausted,
Vera's hair-rope machine, 320
W
Waring's rules for Barker’s mill, 302
Water blowing machine, 351
clocks, theory and construc¬
tion of, 159
clocks move faster in summer
than winter, 218
fluidity of, increased by elec¬
tricity and by heat, 121
running, method of measuring
its velocity, 288
instrument for, ib.
Water
792
Water wheels,
Waves, undulation of,
oscillation of,
Wheels, overshot,
breast,
undershot,
Besant’s,
HYDRODYNAMICS.
N° 256 Wheels driven by the reaction of
253 water, N° 299
13, 20, 21 horizontal, 292
257 conical, 298
268 driven by the impulse, weight,
272 and reaction of water, 307
297 Persian, 331
Index.
Whitehurst's machine, N° 326
Wilson's hydrometer,
Wind, rain, cause of it, 3^
z
Zimmerman on the compressibility of
fluids, 33
Zurich machine, 333
END OF THE TENTH VOLUME.
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES, &c. of Vol. X.
Part I.
Grammatical Table, to face page 8
Plate CCXLVIII. CCXLIX. 188
CCL. - - - 300
CCLL—CCLIII. - 364
Part II.
CCLIV.—CCLX.
Historical Chart,
Plate CCLXI.
CCLXIL
CCLXIII.—CCLXXV.
426
546
572
662
792
HYDRODYNAMIC S
hydrodynamics
PLATE rcZXTf:
f
IIY I) R O DYNAMIC S
PLATE CCLXV.
HYDR ODYNAMIC S
PLATE CCLVI /.
A
H
r
c
D
1
hyd r o dynamic s
PLAT]; ( CrXVIIT.
Fig. L.
JIVI) IV ODYNAMIC S .
PLATE CCZMX
&</. 2.
P
-E Mi/r/i d/fculp
‘
Hydrodynamics .
/J/.. / 7/;S Y'S^YX
FlS7 2-
Hydrodynamics .
/JLATJ„' C'CLXXJ.
E.MttcZie/Z^r/rZ// *
/
*
'
Hydr odynamk
Hydrodynamic s .
Pz.vrB cczxxr.
s/Z/cs? tyi f
' . : ' , \ \ \ | V ' • x ,
4-^ N ■5V\'vx \V \ \ # \V x
i* V* li N 3 x i '- -\ \ \ \ \ \ •. v
N \ ^ X XxX \ \ \ -, X \ , HX
' ' ' ' ,4N ^ >• X \ «\ \ \ \ V \ v .
@ ■> ^ '• - \/\ ^ \ X \ ^W\ \ \N ;> \. \ \
' N x N\. \ x. x... \ x \ x \ \ \ s \v vx x,
\ \ - \ '■•. \\N\V \X\X\X\NxX- x X X \
x\\ \ vi\\\\\xx\v ;v ' xNxVx
x v> HXn\ :.x Wx\XxXxV>\"x \ \vxXxXX
j'x "x'-x x'\ x\\ W\\VxVxXXxxX x
\N x x X \ X X \ X \ xXxXx\X Xx\ x
X \XXNxN\Wn\XX X X xWWOO. '
''.XX xxx xX\\\\ x\\ ,\\x x\\X
\ X
X \ \
X X
X \:x X \\ X\\\\\\\V \x \W\
X. x' Nx '\\X ^ N x \ \ W\N\X\\Xx x
x x i\ \\\ \\ \ X. V Xv x\X NX 0 X,' s
X XXX x X
x X X
£< x \ \ \
\ x \ X
\ X X X X
x X X \
\ X X XX
XXX
£ x x \ m x
\ ' \ \ \ \ N. \ V \ sv x ^ \ \ \ \ v
x X x x. \ \ x \x\ \X\Xx xXxXxXx^ \ X X \X x
\XXNNiN\XXXXXXXNXNX\X'
: x X\X X X\\\Xxxxxx\\\vVxXxx x x\X
' ■ X'' . ' X ' . X ' X v \X\ x\XXXxXX V X x x
x \ X x X X \ \ \ \ \ X X SX x X \ \\ \
X x X XXNX \XxXXX X X X \X\ \X\X\Xx XX X \ \ X X
X x x .X X \ X X \ \ \ \ x v x x x X \ \ X X X
\ x X X X X X X \ \ \\ \\\\x X \ \ \ x \
X X X \ 'X X X \ x\\ \\\x x x \ X x X
X x ^ X N \ x \ \ X \Xx\XxXxXx x x X \ x \ x x
X \ X X x x X s
x X XX
x Xx X X x k h X X X
X X X x \ \ X X
x \ \ \ \ \ N x
\ \ v x x X x X \
X X x X \XX\\ \ \ \ X \\Nx \ \XxN
. X X X X X \ X X X x \ \ X \ \X\\Xx> X
v x X XX x. x x xx \ \ x x X X X \ X x X X \ X XXX
X \ X x X XX \ X \ \ \ \ x x x Xx x XX x \ x
■ x X \ X X X X X \\x \ X \\\WX \ Xx Nx '\x x A
. \ X X x X X \ X \ \ \ x \ \ \ \\\ \\x x^x x x \
\ X x X X X \ \ \ X \ \ \ x . x . x > X X
, , X \ Xs x V \ X \ \' x X \\\\\\X \\\ N N X X,
. x x X x. \ \ \ \ \ x X \ X X X\\XxXx \\\\\
\ \ \ XX \ X X X X \ x X X X \X\ \ X X N \
XX X x xs X \ \ \ x \ X X X \ \ X \Xx \ x\\\ \
\ X - X \ \ \ X X X X X X X X \ X X X\\ x X \\x
S \ \ X X X \ \ X \ \ X X x X X X X \ \ x x X \ X \x x
X X X X X \ \ \ \\\W\\\ X \ X \XN\ X x X
\ X '\ X X x X X \ \ X \v\ X N \ \ \ \ X X X X X
\ X x X \ X \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ X X X X
\ X x v X X X X \ \ x \ \ \ \ \ \ \ X X X X \ \ x \ \
X \ X \ X \ \ X X \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ X X x \ X \ '
X X \ \ X \ \ \ \ X \ X X X \ X \ \ \ \ \ \ \ X V \ \ ' \
\X\\\\XXx. \ \ \\\\\X\\\x\\ \ X X X
X X X \ \XX X \ X \ X \ X X \ \ X X \ \ X \ s \ X X X X
\ \, X X \ \ \ X \ \ \ \ \ \ x X X X \ x X x' \ , \ X \ X
\ X X X \ x \ \ \ X x \ X x X X \ X x X X v
X \ \ X \ X X \ X X \ \ , X x X X X X
\ X X X X X X \ X , X X X N x X X X \ X
X X x \ X \ \ \ sv x . \ 'v \ x X X • X \ ■
'' \ X X X \ \ X \ \ X X N X X ' x x \ x \\
X \ X X x \ X X \ X \ X \ x \ X X X \ X X
X' \X x ^s X NXXXXXXXXXXX xx \ X N s X
xv \ x. \_ x XX. X X \ X X \ X X X X \ X x. x "
X'\ ■ N-, V x x
x x. \ x x X X X
x. > x \ X X \ X
x x \ X X X \